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Occupational stress, and teachers inNorthern IrelandAnne McGrath a , David Houghton b & Norma Reid aa Centre for Applied Health Studies ,b Faculty of Education, University of Ulster at Coleraine,Coleraine, Co. , Londonderry, BT52 1SA, Northern IrelandPublished online: 27 Sep 2007.

To cite this article: Anne McGrath , David Houghton & Norma Reid (1989) Occupational stress,and teachers in Northern Ireland, Work & Stress: An International Journal of Work, Health &Organisations, 3:4, 359-368, DOI: 10.1080/02678378908256955

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WORK & STRESS, 1989, VOL. 3, NO. 4, 359-368

Study Report

Occupational stress, and teachers in Northern Ireland

ANNE McGRATH?, DAVID HOUGHTONS and NORMA REID? 7 Centre for Applied Health Studies and 2 Faculty of Education, University of Ulster at Coleraine, Coleraine, Co. Londonderry BT52 1 SA, Northern Ireland

This article reports the results of a study of occupational stress undertaken with a large sample of Northern Ireland teachers, including qualified staff up to headteacher level. This study formed part of a wider interprofessional study of teachers, nurses and social workers.

The design and methods are described and demographic characteristics of the teaching sample are provided, with their views about teaching. Stressors are identified in both professional and private lives. The effects of stress as manifested through the General Health Questionnaire and the Maslach Burnout Inventory are examined and the teachers’ views on various stress coping strategies are discussed.

Keywords: Teachers; General Health Questionnaire; Burnout; Coping.

1. Introduction Since the seminal writings of Hans Selye (1956), which presaged the current focus upon the physically damaging effects of distress (that is, disruptive harmful stress), stress within the teaching profession has been widely recognized. A variety of research studies have focused on aspects of the nature of stressors, the relationships betwcen personal characteristics and suscep- tibility to stress and intervention techniques by which tcachcrs might stave off the effects of stress (see, for example, Cox et al. 1988, Kinnunen 1988). While recognizing the potential damage of stress, teachers themselves have mixed views about its effect with some believing that adversity in some way enhances character whilst others recognize that the individual response to hurdles may vary dramatically and to the considerable detriment of some teachers.

The description of the ‘burnout’ effects of chronic occupational stress by Maslach and Jackson (1981) has been followed by endeavours to identify aspects of school work and personal qualities of teachers which sponsor or alleviate such stress. It appears that stressors may be grouped into those arising out ofthe nature ofthe work and those associated with the individual tcachcr (see, for example, Cox et a / . 1988).

Stresses generated by the work of teaching have been found to include role conflict and ambiguity (Dunham 1976, Schwab and Jackson

1986). unsatisfactory working relationships, lack of colleague and institutional support (Burke 1978, Coates and Thoresen 1976, Cox et al. 1988, Lortie 1975, Rudd and Wiseman 1962, Schwab and Jackson 1986, Tellenback et a / . 1983), non- participation in decision-making (Schwab and Jackson 1986, Spanoil and Caputo 1979), contingent punishment, inadequate autonomy and control in their work (Schwab and Jackson 1986), institutional and professional reorganization and reforms (Dunham 1976, Wahlund and Nerell 1976), poor working conditions and resources (Cox et a/. 1978, 1988, Dunham 1976, Kyriacou and Sutcliffe 1978), including large classes (Rudd and Wiseman 1962, Wahlund and Nerell 1976), wide ability groupings of pupils (Taylor and Dale 1971), salaries (Rudd and Wiseman 1962) and coping with pupil and sometimes parent problems (Cox et al. 1978, 1988, Halpert 1966, Kyriacou and Sutcliffe 1977, 1978, Parsons and Fuller 1972, Pratt 1978, Tellenback et al. 1983).

Empirical investigations to discover the personal attributes which are positively or negatively associated with symptoms of stress in teachers are much less common but do exist (see, for example, Kinnunen 1988). Holt et al. (1987) havc confirmed the claim made by Mikhail (1981), that a person’s capacity to cope will determine the extent to which stressors are experienced as negatively distressful or positively

0267-8373/89 63.00 0 1989 Taylor & Francis Ltd

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motivating. Using Kobasa’s notion of ‘personality hardiness’ (1979, 1982 a, 1982 b, 1984, Kobasa et 02. 1982) Holt et al. (1987) found that among elementary female teachers, those who are coping effectively with high levels of occupational stress chose active rather than passive ways of counteracting stress. For example, they pursued a hobby or other activity. Those who burnout under high stress were found to withdraw from activities, to get angry and to dwell on an issue. Teachers who reported themselves to be in a low stress work environment also tended to be involved in more activities than those who perceived their work to be highly stressful. An internal locus of control reduced the negative effects of stress.

Another attribute associated with stress resistance by Holt et al. (1987) was the teachers’ involvements in different aspects of their lives: family, work, relationships, social institutions and self. In other words, the more alienated from different aspects of their life a teacher was found to be, the less likely he or she was coping effectively with high levels of stress.

Although Fimian (1984) reports that previous researches have found the variables of sex, age and experience in teaching to be poor predictors of burnout, Holt et al. (1987) found that teachers with over 21 years or less than five years experience showed less burnout under stress. Married teachers were considered to be more stress resistant than the unmarried.

Schwab and Jackson (1986) discovered that the expectations a teacher first brings to the work can be a source ofburnout, when expectation and reality are experienced as too discrepant.

Despite these studies, the relationships between organizations, personal variables and teachers’ capabilities to combat stress still need to be kept on the research agenda. The present research considers the issues in the context of Northern Ireland and is perhaps the first study to do so. The study formed one part of an interprofessional comparison of groups working in the Province.

A. McGrath et al.

Samples of teachers were obtained from the Education and Library Boards and from the Heads of the Catholic Diocesan Schools to represent the maintained sector in the Province.

To take account of the greater population density in the east of the Province, it was decided to sample 200 teachers there and 100 teachers in the west. The total sample of 300 represented some 3% of teachers serving in these areas. The study included qualified staff up to head teacher level.

For each Board, appointments were made to see the ChiefEducation O&er or his nominee to seek access to sampling frames, and arrangements were then made to carry out sampling from the list of names provided from each Board. For the teaching sample, permission was also obtained from the Head of the Catholic Diocesan Schools in the Belfast Board, so in addition a list of names was provided from the Belfast Diocesan (Maintained) schools.

Samples were drawn using stratified random sampling, and the strata were grade, sex and age. The age bands used were: under 30, 3145, 4G55, 56-60 and over 60.

The questionnaire and a pre-paid return envelope addressed to the researchers were sent out to work addresses. Of the 300 subjects in the sample, four were ineffective in that the subject had left teaching or transferred to another Board or authority. Of the effective sample of 296, 112 (37.8%) were returned within three weeks. At this point a copy of the questionnaire with a covering letter and pre-paid return envelope were dispatched to the non-responders. This resulted in a further 56 returns giving a total of 168 returns or a response rate of 56.7%.

2.1. Quertionnaire Two standard schedules were incorporated into the questionnaire, the General Health Questionnaire (Goldberg 1978) and the Maslach Burnout Inventory (Maslach and Jackson 1981). The former is widely used to assess mental health status, mild psychiatric morbidity, and has been validated for use in Northern Ireland. Furthermore comparative data were available from several community studies in Northern Ireland (Cairns and Wilson 1984, 1985). The 28 item scale was used. The Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) had the advantage of being specifically designed to investigate occupational stress, although its use has mostly been in the USA. However it was decided to use the MBI, making minor modifications to the instructions to overcome linguistic differences.

A number of further questions were designed to elicit professional and personal sources of stress, niodcs of alleviation of stress and concrete

2. Design and methods In surveying the literature on occupational stress, the similarities in findings across a number of caring professions were noted. It was therefore decided to carry out an interprofessional study of social workers, nurses and teachers. In Northern Ireland the statutory education services are provided through five Education and Library Boards. Taking account of the resources available to the project, it was decided to sample clusters of staff from these three profcssions and to provide urban and rural perspectives within the study.

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Occupational stress and teachers

outcomes associated with stress such as absenteeism, avoidance behaviour and contact with health and personal social services.

361 decisions at least sometimes and almost one-third said this was the case often or always. Eighty per cent said they felt powerless to change unsatisfactory situations.

Twenty-two per cent of respondents said they felt inadequately trained or equipped for the job and 41% felt that the job did not always utilize their training and experience.

In general, these findings show high levels of concern about specific aspects ofteaching, despite the reasonably positive responses to the general question about job satisfaction.

A stepwise multiple regression was carried out to identify the key explanatory variables relating to views about teaching which determined stress levels as measured by the General Health questionnaire (GHQ) and the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI). Measures based on the following explanatory variables were used in this analysis: effectiveness of communication with colleagues; effectiveness of communication with superiors; job satisfaction; consideration given to leaving teaching; consideration given to leaving particular place of work; relative distress caused by colleagues and pupils; ability to influence decisions; avoidance behaviour; feelings of powerlessness to change unsatisfactory situations, and endeavours frustrated by colleagues.

From these tcn factors, two emerged as significant explanatory variables of the GHQ: feelings of being unable to influence decisions and low perceptions ofjob satisfaction. For thc 28 item GHQ the variable ‘feelings of being unable to influence decisions’ was significant with a p value of 0.006 (b= -0.266), with ‘job satisfaction’ significant with a p value of 0.006 (fi = 0.261).

Similar results emerged for the Maslach Burnout Inventory with ‘feeling of being unable to influence decisions’ ( p = O~OOO1, = -0.363) and ‘job satisfaction’ ( p = 0.004, b = 0.268) emerging as significant predictors of the Emotional Exhaustion frequency subscale of the MBI, and the intensity measure of this subscale being significantly related to job satisfaction ( p = 0,001, p = 0.303) and effectiveness of communication with superiors ( p =0.004, p=O.268). It was found that the significant predictors of the Depersonalization subscale (frequency) were job satisfaction ( p = 0.0003, p = 0.365) and considcration of leaving teaching (p=0.0335, p= -0.208). The subscale measuring intensity of Depersonalization was predicted by one significant variable, job satisfaction (p=0.005, fi=0.276).

In summary, this multivariate analysis suggests that stress levels as reflected in the GHQ and MBI can be predicted from the degree to

3. Results 3.1. Demographic profile Of the 168 teachers who responded, 37% were male and 63% were female. Four per cent were younger than 25 years old, 42% were aged between 26 and 35,33% were 36 to 45,l6% were 46 to 55 and 5% were 50 or over. The grades of staff responding were scale post 1 teachers (%YO), scale post 2 4 teachers (53%), head of departments (18%), vice principal (2%) and headteachers (3 Yo).

Sixty-nine per cent of respondents were married, 27% were single, 2% were separated or divorced and 2% were widowed. On average, respondents had 15 years of service in teaching, 8 years in their present grade and 12 years in their present place of work.

3.2. Views about teaching In general, respondents were positive about teaching with 77% finding it ‘very satisfying’ or ‘satisfying’. Only 3% of respondents found teaching ‘dissatisfying’ or ‘very dissatisfying’. In contrast, however, 63% had thought of leaving teaching at some point, with 36% having considered leaving in the past year. Sixty-three per cent of respondents had also thought of leaving their place of work.

Four per cent felt that colleagues caused them more stress than pupils with a further 31% feeling this was true of some colleagues but not of others. Sixty-three per cent felt that their colleagues did not cause as much distress as their pupils, whilst a further 2% were undecided. Sixty-two per cent felt that communication with collcagues was effective or very effective, with only 4% describing these communications as poor or very poor. Fifty-eight per cent of staff thought that communication with immediate superiors was effective or very effective, with only 1 1 ”/o describing some communications as poor.

Eight per cent felt that colleagues frustrated their endeavours and a further 51% felt this was truc of at least some colleagues. In relation to the teaching profession it was teachers at the lower end of the scale, that is, scale posts 1 4 who demonstrated more ncgative views of colleagues with 75% of them reporting that at least some colleagues frustrated their endeavours.

Many research studies have shown that a key factor in high levels of occupational stress is a lack of autonomy. Eighty-five per cent of respondents said they felt unable to influence

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which teachers feel unable to influence decisions, their level of job satisfaction, the effectiveness of their communication with superiors and whether they have considered leaving teaching.

3.3. Stressors in teaching Respondents were asked to indicate how much stress, if any, a variety of factors caused them. Results are summarized in table 1 .

By far the most commonly cited stressors were experiencing too little time to perform duties to the person’s satisfaction and rationing of scarce services or resources. Just under half of the respondents mentioned both direct contact with pupils and the emotional demands of pupils as a cause of moderate or high stress levels. The least stressful factors were working with ancillary staff, contact with other professionals and supervision ofsubordinates’ work. It is noted that 34% suffered’ stress from imposing controls which restricted pupils’ personal autonomy. It is also interesting that 39% suffered stress from counteracting unhelpful views held about their jobs by other people.

A stepwise multiple regression was carried out to identify the key explanatory variables relating to the impact of work stressors which determined stress levels as measured by the GHQ and MBI. Measures based on the explanatory variables shown in table 1 were used in this analysis.

It was found that ‘direct contact with pupils’ ( p = 0408, j = 0.270) and ‘emotional demands of

A. McGrath et al.

pupils’ (p=0.05, fl=0.200) were the only significant determinants of the 28 item GHQ.

The MBI Emotional Exhaustion (frequency) subscale was also significantly explained by ‘direct pupil contact’ ( p = 0401, b= 0.290) and ‘emotional demands of pupils’ ( p = 0.04, j= 0.215) with ‘imposing controls’ ( p = 0.02, f i = 0.231) and ‘experiencing too little time to carry out work’ (p=0.03, fi=0.179) also significant. The Emotional Exhaustion (intensity) subscale was predicted by ‘imposing controls’ ( p = 0.006, j= 0.284) and ‘direct pupil contact’ (p=0,02, 8=0.235), and the same variables predicted the Depersonalization (Frequency) subscale with the additional effect of ‘contact with other professionals’ ( p = 0.03, a= -0.216). Finally, the Depersonalization (intensity) subscale was predicted by ‘imposing controls’ (p=0.003, /?=0.297).

In summary, the work stressors which best predicted stress levels as measured by the GHQ and MBI were direct pupil contact, emotional demands of pupils, imposing controls which curtail pupils, and lack of contact with other professionals.

3.4. L$e stressors Respondents were asked about stressors in their lives other than those directly relating to their working lives. Table 2 shows such stressors and the percentage of respondents reporting moderate or high stress from this source.

Table 1 . Stressors in teaching.

Source of stress

% of respondents experiencing moderate or high levels of

stress from this source

Experiencing too little time to perform duties to your satisfaction

Rationing of scarce services or resources Emotional demands of pupils Direct contact with pupils Meeting deadlines imposed by others Counteracting unhelpful views others

Administrative responsibilities Imposing controls which curtail or restrict

Physically uncongenial or

Contact with significant others

Supervision of subordinates’ work Contact with other professions Working with support/ancillary staff

hold of your job

the personal autonomy of pupils

uncomfortable work environments

such as relatives

63 48 47 46 44

39 36

34

25

21 15 10 5

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Occupational stress and teachers 363

Table 2. Stressors in personal lives.

% of respondents experiencing moderate or high stress Source of stress

Financial difficulties Adult relatives in immediate family Children Other personal adult relationships Fear of redundancy Housing difficulties Unemployed close relative Other relatives

27 26 20 17 16 9 6 5

The greatest sources of stress in personal lives were financial difficulties (27%) (compared to 13% of nurses and 11% of social workers) and difficulties with adult relatives within the immediate family (26%). I t should be noted, however, that the levels of stress reported by the sample in personal lives, shown in table 2, are less than those reported in professional lives shown in table 1.

A stepwise multiple regression was carried out to identify the key explanatory variables relating to domestic stressors which determined stress levels as measured by the GHQ and the MBI. Measures based on the explanatory variables shown in table 2 were used in this analysis.

The 28 item GHQ was predicted significantly by ‘financial difficulties’ ( p =0.03, f l = 0.247), ‘fear of redundancy’ ( p = 0.005, f l = 0.289) and ‘housing difficulties’ ( p = 0.04, 8=0.227). The 12 item GHQ was predicted by ‘financial difficulties’ ( p =0.03, f l =0.246), ‘other personal adult relationships’ ( p =0.01,8=0.261) and ‘fear of redundancy’ (p=O.O2, fl=O.247).

‘Financial difficulties’ ( p = 0405, fl = 0.304) and ‘fear of redundancy’ ( p =0.01, f l= 0.264) significantly predicted the MBI Emotional Exhaustion (frequency) subscale with the intensity subscale being predicted by ‘fear of redundancy’ ( p = 0.03, f l = 0.243) and ‘housing difficulties’ ( p =0.05, p=0.217). The sole significant predictors of the Depersonalization (frequency) and Depersonalization (Intensity) subscales were respectively ‘Financial difficulties’ ( p = 0.01, 0 = 0.284) and ‘fear of redundancy’

In summary, the domestic stressors which most determined stress levels as measured by the GHQ and MBI were financial difficulties, fear of redundancy, housing difficulties and personal adult relationships.

( p = -0.034, fl=O.277).

3.5. ‘The troubles’: a stressor for teachers? A final source ofexternal stress was investigated - that due to ‘the troubles’. Almost 65% of teachers said that ‘the troubles’, an Ulster euphemism for political violence, affected their working lives, 15% of them being affected directly and 50% affected indirectly. Some 30% of respondents said that ‘the troubles’ increased stress in their jobs. This level of stress was reported as being experienced to a greater extent than personal or domestic stressors described in table 2, but to a lesser extent than the most stressful aspects of professional life described in table 1 .

A stepwise multiple regression was carried out with ‘extent to which “troubles” affect work’ and ‘extent to which “troubles” increase stress’ as possible predictive variables for GHQ and MBI scores.

It was found that the ‘extent to which the “troubles” affect work’ was a significant predictor of the 28 item GHQ (p=0.004, f l= -0.283). and the 12 item GHQ (p=0.02, f l= -0.229).

The other variable, ‘extent to which “troubles” increase stress’ was a significant predictor of the frequency and intensity MBI Emotional Exhaustion subscales (respectively

It can be concluded, therefore, that the ‘troubles’ add significantly to the stress expcrienced by Northern Ireland teachers.

p = 0.003, fi = 0.293, p = 0.006, /? = 0.268).

3.6. The effects of stress The effects of stress were investigated in a number of ways; through the use of the two standard instruments, the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) and the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI). Further questions about health and absenteeism were also asked.

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364 A . McGrath et al.

The normal way of analysing the GHQ is to present the percentage of cases. In this study, using the 28 item scale, some 31 % of respondents were at risk, i.e., describing symptoms consistent with mild psychiatric morbidity. This is a very high percentage. Cairns and Wilson (1984) found that 32% of people living in a community experiencing high levels of political violence and conflict (hi-town) suffered from such symptoms. Howcver, they also found that 21% of people living in a community experiencing low levels of political violence and conflict (lo-town) suffered such symptoms. There is no doubt that the level of stress within teachers included in this study is high and attention is drawn to the earlier finding that the main source of this stress is occupational rather than personal, domestic or political.

The Maslach Burnout Invcntory (MBI) provides scores on three subscales which represent aspects of the burnout syndrome. The Emotional Exhaustion subscale assesses feelings of being emotionally overextended and exhausted by one’s work. The Depersonalization subscale measures an unfeeling and impersonal response towards recipients of one’s service, care or treatment. The Personal Accomplishment subscale assesses feelings of competence and successful achievement in one’s work with people. Each subscale is measured on both frequency (how often people have these feelings) and intensity (the strength of these feelings).

In calibrating these subscales, Maslach and Jackson (1981) used samples of members of professions including teachers. For each subscale

the subjects were divided into the top, middle and lower thirds to give cut-off points. Tables 3, 4 and 5 compare the findings from this main study with these norms.

It seems that much smaller perccntages of Northern Ireland teachers fell into the high burnout category in terms of intensity of emotional exhaustion. However, the frequency of emotional exhaustion in Northern Ireland teachers was more or less similar to that found by Maslach.

Northern Ireland teachers seem to experiencc lcss burnout as evidenced by frequency on the depersonalization subscale, but considerably more intensity is recorded with 42% falling in the high burnout category. Although fewer Northcrn Ireland teachers experience depersonalization, those who do experience it at very high intensity.

O n the subscale which measures burnout due to feelings of lack of personal accomplishment tcachers exhibit high stress levels. All of the respondents fell into the high burnout category for frequency and almost all for intensity. This finding is strengthened by the findings in table 1 which showed that the most commonly cited stressor experienced by 63% of teachers was experiencing too little time to perform duties to the teacher’s satisfaction, and 47% reporting stress emanating from the rationing of scarce services or resources, a factor unlikely to be ameliorated in the foreseeable future.

Respondents were asked about their health and about contact with general practitioncrs,

Table 3. The Maslach Burnout Inventory: emotional exhaustion subscale.

Range of experienced burnout

Frequency Low Moderate High

Norm < 17 18-29 > 30

% in each group 33 33 33 (Maslach)

(N.I. teachers) % in each group 45 25 31

In tensity Low Moderate High

Norm < 25 2G39 > 40

% in each group 33 33 33

% in each group 29 50 22 (Maslach)

(N.I. teachers)

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Occupational stress and teachers 365

Table 4 . The Maslach Burnout Inventory: depersonalization subscale.

Range of experienced burnout

Frequency Low Moderate High

Norm <5 6-1 1 > 12

% in each group

% in each group (Maslach) 33 33 33

(N.I. teachers) 54 29 17

Intensity Low Moderate High

Norm <6 7-1 4 > 15

Yn in each group

% in each group (Maslach) 33 33 33

(N.I. teachers) 28 29 42

Table 5. The Maslach Burnout Inventory: personal accomplishment.

Range of experienced burnout

Frequency Low Moderate High

Norm > 40 39-34 < 33

% in each group

% in each group (Maslach) 33 33 33

(N.I. teachers) 0 0 100

Intensity Low Moderate High

Norm >44 4s37 < 36

% in each group

‘X in each group (Maslach) 33 33 33

(N.I. teachers) 0 3 96

hospitals and other services. Forty-two per cent had consulted a doctor within the past six months, most of them between one and three timcs. Thirteen per cent had been admitted to hospital in the past year.

3.7. Coping with stress Some 48% of respondents reported that they tried to alleviate stress by avoiding stressful tasks and doing other less important, less stressful tasks.

Avoidance behaviour is well recognized as a coping mechanism for dealing with stress. Some 31% of teachers also felt unable to influence decisions always or often.

Sixty-three per cent of respondents said they felt their immediate superiors understood the strcssors in their jobs. However, 81 76 said that their employers provided no means of helping staff who suffer from work related stress. O f respondents who identified sources of support,

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3% mentioned reduced workload, 3% sympathy and less than 1 % cited individual support, change of group, time-in-lieu, a discussion group and early retirement. Nearly 10% of teachers did not know if their employers provided means for helping staff suffering from work-related stress. Scvcnty-eight per ccnt said their primary source of support was the immediate work group, with only 6% mentioning an employers’ organization and 5% a professional organization. About 8 % of teachers mentioned their partners as a primary source of support, with only 3% mentioning family or friends.

Respondents were askcd to indicate factors which would alleviate their stress. Table 6 summarizes the results.

The main grievance for teachers was financial.’ It is interesting that over half the respondents (54%) felt that more pay would alleviate stress, whilst 47% felt more financial resources and 37% that increased non-financial resources would alleviate stress. Tensions with senior staff were evident in that 36% or well over a third thought that more support and appreciation from seniors would help. There was also considerable support for a reduction in workload (37%) and for further training (24%), an interesting finding when taken together with the finding of22% who felt inadequately trained or equipped for the job. Only 18% thought a change of profession would currently alleviate stress although 63% had thought of leaving teaching at some point, with 26% favouring a change of location as a current solution to stress.

4. Discussion and conclusions There is no reason to suppose that the 168 teachers who participated in this study differ greatly from other teachers employed in

A . McGrath et al.

statutory education services in other parts of the UK, except for the additional burdens attributed to the seemingly endless endemic politically motivated violence. Although the teaching staff in this study feel generally positively towards teaching, they report themselves as experiencing considerable work related stress. Many teachers felt they had too little time in which to undertake their work, and that they were at the mercy of meeting other peoples’ deadlines. Equally stressing for teachers were the emotional demands ofpupils and the direct contact they had with their pupils. The Rodgers Report (N.I.) (1987) found that school indiscipline was causing serious stress on teachers, a stress heightened by the thrcat and pursuit of legal action by parents, and accounting in no small measure for the increasing number of premature retirements from the profession. The results of the present study would seem to support this view. Shortage ofresources was acutely felt, and teachers also felt unable to influence decisions and powerless to alter unsatisfactory situations.

Results from the GHQ 28 showed that nearly one third of these teachers reported symptoms of mild psychiatric morbidity.’ The results of the Maslach Burnout Inventory indicated that fewer than the norm were experiencing emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, but for those who did experience depersonalization, the stress was very acute. I t was striking that nearly all of the sample were in the high burnout category on lack of personal accomplishment, a finding supported by 63% finding too little time to perform their duties.

Stress in their personal lives was rcported less frequently than was stress related to work. Practically everyone lacked a sense of personal accomplishment in their professional lives. I t

Table 6. Factors which would alleviate stress.

% who thought this Factor would alleviate stress

More pay More financial resources A reduced workload More support/appreciation from senioi Promotion More resources (other than financial) A change of location (same work) A course of further training A change of profession A change in senior personnel More social contact with colleagues A change in peer group colleagues

S

54 47 37 36 30 27 26 24 18 17 14 4

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Occupational stress and teachers

would appear that many of the teachers in this study were coming to terms with the disappointment and disillusionments in their jobs, not by experiencing acute stress, but by avoiding the stressful task and thereby giving up caring. Very few perceived their agencies as providing any assistance of any significant importance. It would appear that peer group support was all that was available. Burdens were not shared with close family or friends.

The main grievance for teachers is financial, with well over half of the teachers stating that more pay would alleviate stress, as would more financial resources. This grievance has been borne out by the teachers’ strike over the last few years. Tensions with senior staff are evident, with more than a third of teachers feeling that support and appreciation from seniors would help. This point is also brought to our attention in the Rodgers Report (1987) where there is a generally held view among teachers that they are entitled to more support from employers and parents than they are at times given in relation to discipline. When the two standard question- naires, thc General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) and the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) were entcred as dependent variables in multiple regression analyses, with the other questions on professional sources of stress, personal sources of stress, and questions related to ‘the troubles’, thcre were a number of interesting correlations. In relation to questions about the teachers’ jobs, ‘being unable to influence decisions’ and ‘job satisfaction’ are most often correlated with the two versions of the GHQ, and the MBI. The results suggest that teachers who indicate being unable to influence decisions have higher GHQ and MBI scores. Similarly, the more dissatisfied teachers are the higher their scores on the GHQ and MBI.

Looking at the relationship between the MBI, GHQ, and questions related to stressors in teaching, the questions most often correlated with the MB1 and GHQ are the ‘emotional demand of pupils’ and ‘direct contact with pupils’. The higher the stress from these two questions the higher the teachers GHQ and MBI scores.

In rclarion to the stressors in the teachers’ pcrsonal lives, ‘financial difficulties’ and ‘fear of redundancy’ seem to be most often correlated. The correlations for these two questions indicate that the teachers who report stress from ‘financial difficulties’ and ‘fear of redundancy’ are more likely to report mild psychiatric morbidity (GHQ) and burnout (MBI).

The questions related to ’the troubles’ are also related to the dependent variables (GHQ and MBI). In relation to the General Health

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Questionnaire (GHQ 28 and GHQ 12) those teachers who are directly affected by ‘the troubles’ (lower scores) have higher scores on the GHQ. In relation to the MBI (Emotional Exhaustion, both frequency and intensity), the more ‘the troubles’ increase stress in the teachers’ job, the more they are likely to report being emotionally exhausted.

Therefore, the GHQ (detecting mild psychiatric morbidity) and the MBI (representing aspects of the burnout syndrome) appear to reflect those aspects of the teachers’ professional lives, personal lives, and ‘the troubles’, which are causing stress.

Therefore, there is a clear message for employing authorities. It is indeed time to care for staff if caring for others is to be a continuing possibility.

Acknowledgements In addition to the authors, the people listed hereunder have been members of a multi- professional research team which collaborated on this project. Their contribution to the work reported is gratefully acknowledged: P. Ashworth, J. Boore, F. Gibson, P. Nellis and R. Wilson, all from the University of Ulster.

1 .

2.

Notes It should be noted that this study was carried out prior to the more recent pay awards for teachers. One of the highest percentages yet found for any group in Northern Ireland.

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Manuscript received 24 May 1988 Manuscript accepted 9 June 1989

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