NONVIOI..ENCB IN VIOI..ENCB: APPJlOACHE.S TO

IN'I'ERNA110NAL CONPUCT JtESOLU'l10N IN COSTA RICA

submitted 10 tbe

FICUity ot tbe School ot Inlemationll Service

of The Alllcric:a Uai'M'Iity

ill Putial Pui6Dment of

the~ b tbe Dear­

of

lloc:tlor ol PlliJolaply

iD

1991 The A..maic:a.ft Udivenity Wasbinplo, D.C. 20016 7.R /q

tU ji~DICJJ' UlllDSITY LI!lUIT

o COPYRIOIIT

by

PAUL HUBERS

1991

ALL RIGHI'S RESERVED

NONVIOLENCE IN VIOLENCE: APPROACHES TO INTERNATIONAL CONFLICT RESOLUTION IN COSTA RICA

BY

Paul Hubers

ABSTRACT

Costa Rica claims to be one of the few neutral and nonaligned states to have

abolished its military power. It furnishes an historical context for exploring two

hypotheses: first, that nonviolent, coopetative intemalional conflict n:solution bas

promoted peace, teeurlty, and developmmt., and second, that violent intemationa1

conflict resolution bas promoced war, iftsecurity, and underdevelopment.

Discussion of the theory, method, and outcome for such conflict resolution

will include a oew indic:alOr on xmJ violence u well as data on housing, health,

education, and employment. This indica10r of conflict intensity measures the percen·

tage of people killed in periodic war aver twenty-year time spans. and contributes to

the United Nations' General Assembly security and international conflict resolution

debate which links peace, disarmament, and development.

The thesis will focus on Costa Rica's border with Nicaraeua aJong the San

Juan River, a conflictive border which continues to be a focus of attention as a

possible site for an isthmian border canal, and for use u a possible comentooe in

ii

various isthmian peace plans. The United States bas witbdnwn twice from a world

cowt in the Twentieth Century over oonftict concerning tbis border (wocWed with

intervention by Japan and Israel. United Nations peacebepin& ovenures, and

Ew-opean &ooomic Community trade).

A world order rather than an anti-dependency or a nonviolent appn:liiCb 10

resolve contllct dominates international conflict resolution, concentrated especially in

four majoc gtobaJ zones of conflict including the Western Caribbean. Re!ortin& 10

violent conflict resolution has fostered an insurgent international arms and druc

(cocaine) busine.u similar 10 that operating in pre-1959 Cuba and a powin;

international debt. This dissertation will address ooc only problematic international

Iran..Contra issues, but aho why an intq:ratcd approach 10 c:oopentive development in

the resolution of conflict will be necessary in the future.

ACKNQWI.EDGEMENIS

rlt'SI of all, 1 would lib 10 thank my three faculty advisors very much: Abdul

Aziz Said, Steven Arnold, and Theodore Rosch6. In addition, I am profoundly ~

fu1 10 DarrdJ and Mildred Randall for their special help - and to Mary Uepold for

ber editin& - alon& with Philip Brenner, Coralie Bryant, Fantu Cheru, Jack Child,

James eouer, John Fi.nan, Louis Goodman, Ann He!d, William LeoGrande, Faith

Leonard, Micke Meurs, and Nicholas Onuf. I am thus also gratefu110 tbe many Cen­

tral American refugees wbo, night alter night, worked as "UII3em" ja.<Uton 10 clean

up after me and my fellow students. Given the diffi<:ulty of writing something cohe-­

rent about international relations and nonvioknc:e, I would lib to dlank Alice Paul

deeply also for her dissertation written over siAty yean aco • .,.owatds Equality, A

Study of the Legal Position of Women in the Uruted StaleS, • (The American Univer­

sity, 1928). Perhaps, through more people liU her, there will be one law whele no

law exists now, for men and women as well u for pacifists and non-pacifists.

For help in understanding isthmian questions, I would lik.e to tban.k Adolf

Jonk.ers as well as Roy and Janet May in Costa Rica, Robert Gante.r in N".caragua,

and Andn:as Maislinger in Austria. In this sense, I am also grateful to Alvaro

ArguelJo Hurtado, Myron Rios, and Oscar Garc!a Cubas, the respective deans of Uteir

international relations procrams in Managua, San Jos6, and Havana, as well as to

iv

Noam Chomsky, for their patient respoma to l'!Wly questions. Rick Emrich, Rob

RJtclUe, and Moira Kenny were helpful also at The OuisOc Institute. In addition, I

am gmeful co Carlos AJ.zupny Tteto (Cuba), Mercedes An::e Rodrlaucz (C\&N),

Mubarak Awad (Palestine), Damian FenWlde:z, Miriam Gras Med~ja (C\&N),

LaDonna Harris, James Holger (Chile), Warren Hoover, Rodrigo Jaubenh Rojas

(Mwco), Jan Lowther (Costa Rica), Pedro LecSn (CoS(a Rica), Joe Macintyre

(Nica.raaua), David MacMichael, Carlos Melendez Chaverri (Costa Rica), 1~ N~

Mourelo Aguilar (Costa Rica), Julio Le Riverend Brusone (Cuba), Alison Oldham,

Xnut Royce, Gregorio Seiser (Mwco), Luis Guillermo SoUs Rivera (Costa Rica),

Edward Snyder, Dorolhea Woods (Switzerland), Raymond Wilson, and Louis Wolf

for their suggestions alq the way.

I am also indebted for insight through corrcspoodence witb academic writers:

Sidney Bailey (EncWwf). Judit BaJW (Hunpry), Alfred BOOiscll (Germany), Elise

Boulding, Robin Burns (Austtal.ia), Adam Curle (England), Roxanne Dunbar Ortiz,

Richard Du Boff, Jean Bethke El.sbtain, Richard Falk, Andrt Gonder Frank (the

Netherhnds), Conrad On:bel (Canada), Rent Lemarcband, Alfred McCoy, Glenn

Paige, Egbert Pfieffer, Jorge Rodrfquez Scruff (Puerto Rico), Bert ROling (the

Netherlands), Peter Dale Scott, Tam<U Szentes (Hungary), Helena Tuomi (Finland),

Jo Vallentine (Australia -· a politician also), Raimo Vayrynen (Finland), Salvador

Vilaseca (Cuba), Sidney Waldman, and Lawrence Weiss.

1 would also like to thank Adrian Bishop and Rosalee Dance, Jean Brown,

M~ Lloyd and Thomas Wadden, and Winifred Walker-Jones. Likewise, I would

like to thank my pareocs, William and Henrietta Hubers for their love and support

along the way. For otber debCs due l'!WlY and varied information specialists, please

see • APPENDIX B. •

Fmally, I would lib to thank Maheodza Kumar, editor of Gandhi Maa (New

Delhi, India), for permission co draw on an article previously published in .G.aosUli

MJa, (• A Global Methodoloay of Nonviolence, • April 1987). Likewise, for kind

permission co use stati.uical data, I would liJa:: co thank both Carol Schreiber at Hazpcr

&. Row, Publishers, Inc., New York City, concerning: Gtrard Chaliand and Jean

Pierre Rageau, translation by Tony Bemtt, maps by Catherine Petit, Stratc&ic A(las

A Comparative Geopolitics of the World's Powm (New Yorlc Harper &. Row,

1985), 48-50; u well as Kate Buchanan and Matpret Chapman at Sage Publications

of Pergamon Press in Oxford, Eotland, coooeming: Istvan Kende, •wars of Ten

Years, • Journal of Peace Reyaus;b 1.5 (1978): 239-41. These people, and many more

than I have mentioned here- ro wbom dUs work is dedicated- have coopera-tively

offered time and advice for creating this small contribution toward nonviolent and

ecologically·a'stainable potential for international conflict resolution.

vi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AFSC Amerla.n Friends Servia: Committee

AID Uniced States Agency for International Development

AfSR Ams:ric;w Political Science Review

lli Bulletin of Peace PIQposa!s

CAm Coyen Action lnfonnatioo Bulletin

CAS Cuadernm Am¢ricaoos

CS.M Cbrisrian Science Monitor

COHUCA Central American Commission of Human Ri&hts; (Spanish: Comisi6n para Ja Oefensa de los Derecbos Humanos en Cc:nt:roammca, Costa Rica)

CDLD Costa Rican DctnOCratiC Defense Network (Spanish: Coordinadora para Ia Defensa de las Ubenades Democraticas en Costa Rica, Mexico City)

CRY Current Hjstoa

CIA United States Central lnteUi&eno: Agency

ODE CounciJ of Economic Research; (Spanish: Consejo de Investigaci6n y Docencia Econ6mic:a, Mexico City)

CODEHU Costa Rican Commission of Huma.'l Rights; (Spanish: Comisi6n para 1a Oefensa de las Oerechos Humanos, Costa Ric:a)

Conscientious Qbjcction tp War &: MWtat,y Seryjcc: Newsletter (Switzerland)

vii

CRlES

CSPPCR

CSUCA

DCF

ECLA

ECOSOC

EDUCA

Regional Network of Economic and Social Rt:sean:h; (Spanish: Coordi­nadora Rqioaal de lnvcstipciones EcoocSnricas y Sociala, Costa Rica and N"ac:anpa)

Committee in Solidarity with Costa Rican Political Pri$0Dt:n; (Spanish: Comi~ de SoHdaridad con los Presos Politicos en Com Rica. Nalional University of Mexico, Council of Economic Research [CIDE), Mexico City)

Caribbean Studies

Executive Confederation of the Central American Universities; (SI*\ish: Confederaci6n Superior Universitaria Centroammcana, Costa Rica)

Data Center Fi1es, Clippin& Service, NACLA

Oevel()l)ment and Peace (Hungary)

European EcononUc: Community (BelJium)

United Nations &onomic Commission of Latin Ameri~ (Spanish: Comisi6n EcoruSmica pata Ambic:a l..atina y el Caribe or CEPAL)

United Nations Economic and Social CounciJ

Central Americ:an University Press; (Spanish: Editorial Univcrsitaria CentroaJnbicana, Costa Rica)

f.Il Earth Island Journal

~ Environmental Cpnseryatjon

Environmental Policy on Central Amedg UQdate

FAO United Nations Food and Aanculture Or&anization

fAS Forei&n Affairs

Friends Committee on National l&&islation NeWsle!tcr

Friends Peace Center Newsletter (Costa Rica)

viii

FSLN

Fomgn Policy

Sandinista National Libetation Front (Spanish; Frentc Sandinista de Uberaci6n Nacional, Nicaraaua)

GPO United States Government Printing Office

!fa Imeli Forejgn Affairs

lJHS. International Journal of HcaJ!h Seryiccs

n..o United Nations International labor Office

IMEMO Mirovaia Ekonomika i Mezhdunarodnye Otnosltniia, Institute of World Economy and International Relations, University of Moscow Academy of Sciences, the Soviet Union

IMF lntcmational Monetary Fund

1QH Iotematjonal Ouanization

IER Imematjonal Policy Report

lU,A International Peace Research Ayociarjgn Newsletter

fUCN International Union for Conservation of Nablte (Switzerland)

1S.Q Intm!ational Stu<!iAA Quancrly

ISRI Graduate Institute of International Relatioos (Spanish: InstiMO S\I})Cflot de Relaciones Internacionales, Cuba)

n:r In These Ijmes

ICR Journal of ConOicJ Resolution

Journal of Ioteramerign Studies & World Affairs

JER Journal of Peace Research

l.fQ Japan Ouaoerly

L.atin American Research Reyjew

Mjdd!e Ea5t Journal

Mlddle:Eau MERIP Report

Mlm Mjamj Herald

MIM Mideast Monitor

~ Montbly Reyjew

NACl.A NACLA Rcpoa on the Americas

HAR Nonb American Reyjcw

La Naci6n (Costa Rica)

NIDA Natiooal Institute on Drua Abuse

MIN New Internationalist (England)

NSA Unired SlateS National Security Aaenc:y

trCI New York Times

OAS Orpniwioo of American StaleS

~AHO Pan-American Health ~anization, linked to the United Nations World Health Organization (WHO)

W Peace Brigades IntcmationaJ New~leucr

fmY People' s Daily World

PNS Pxifu:a News Service

lSQ Political Scimce Ouaaerly

BAQ Rcpongrio Amtdc;ano (Costa Rica)

RlS Rclaciones lnternacjonajes (Costa Rica)

X

UA LA Rcp@lica (Costa Rica)

SIPRI Stockholm lntemational Peace Research lnstii:U~ (Sweden)

m Tico Times (Costa Rica)

nYQ Third World Ouancrly

UCR National University of Costa RK:a. oear San Jos6

UNIDIR

UPAZ

USN'NR

United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research {Switzerland)

University of Peace, linked lO the United Nations, a few miles west of San Jos6, C05ta Rica

U.S. News & World Reoort

WBK World Bank, United Nations

World Deve!ooment

WHO United Nations World Health Orpn.i.zation

World Polir:jg

Ylzr Wa!hinctoo Post

Em World Rainforest Report

ABSTRACT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT'S •

UST OF ABBREVIATIONS

UST OF TABLES

UST OF lLLUSTRA TIONS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART I . THEORY

1. POWER IN VIOLENT AND NONVIOLENT CONTEXTS

2. CONCEPTS OF VIOLENCE AND NONVIOLENCE

3. PRINCIPAL APPROACHES TO CONFUCT RESOLUTION

PART n. METHOD

4. DlSARMAMENT A.."'D DEVELOPMENT

S. POWER, NEEDS, AND RIGHTS CRITERIA

6. VIOLENCE AND NONVIOLENCE - WAR OR PEACE

xii

ii

iv

xiv

ltV

2

38

75

12S

172

211

PART m. OUJ'CC>ME

7. BAR.RJERS TO SECURITY: DRUGS AND MILITARIZATION

I . DEBT AND CREDIT • • • f I • I •

9. RESOLVING FUruRE CONFUCI'

A

B

c

D

SOURCES

AN BTYMOLOOY OF THE THREE APPROACHES

RESEARCH SOURCES

SERIAL VIOLENCE DATA

MAPS . , . . . . . . . . . . . .

SELECT BIBUOORAPHY

387

391

m

411

LIST OF TABLES

Table

1. Three Ncnvioleat Criteria and Their Cbarlc:leristic In lallernldol .. ConfUct Raolution

2. A COilciJe Dltel.lfte In the Western Caribbean: A Foundadoa for Traaarmament?

121

3. Milllll'y and DeYdopment Aid to Costa Rica (1~1988) 330

4. Security and DeYeJopmeat Aid to Com Rica (1~1988) 332

s. Mllilll'y. Security. and Dewioprw!f Aid lo Colla Rica ( ~~ 1911) • • • • • 334

xiv

UST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Ficure

1. Bar Graph on Serial Violence Percentages, By State

XV

Pa&e 187

PART l.

THEORY