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Nonlinear Elasticity. Outline. Some basics of nonlinear elasticity Nonlinear elasticity of biopolymer networks Nematic elastomers. What is Elasticity. Description of distortions of rigid bodies and the energy, forces, and fluctuations arising from these distortions. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Outline
• Some basics of nonlinear elasticity• Nonlinear elasticity of biopolymer
networks• Nematic elastomers
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
What is Elasticity
• Description of distortions of rigid bodies and the energy, forces, and fluctuations arising from these distortions.
• Describes mechanics of extended bodies from the macroscopic to the microscopic, from bridges to the cytoskeleton.
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Classical Lagrangian Description
Reference material in D dimensions described by a continuum of mass points x. Neighbors of points do not change under distortion
Material distorted to new positions R(x)
( ) ( )= +R x x ux
ii i i
Rxa a a
a
d h¶
L = = +¶
i iua ah = ¶Cauchy deformation tensor
x
x
( )R x
( )R x
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Linear and Nonlinear ElasticityLinear: Small deformations – near 1
Nonlinear: Large deformations – >>1
Why nonlinear?• Systems can undergo large deformations – rubbers, polymer networks , …• Non-linear theory needed to understand properties of statically strained materials• Non-linearities can renormalize nature of elasticity• Elegant an complex theory of interest in its own right
Why now:• New interest in biological materials under large strain• Liquid crystal elastomers – exotic nonlinear behavior• Old subject but difficult to penetrate – worth a fresh look
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Deformations and StrainComplete information about shape of body in R(x)= x +u(x);u= const. – translation no energy. No energy cost unless u(x) varies in space. For slow variations, use the Cauchy deformation tensor
i i i i iua a a a ad d hL = +¶ = +3 3det
det 1:
d R d x= L
L =%
%No volume change
1/ 2
1/ 2
0 0
0 0
0 0
-
-
æ öL ÷ç ÷ç ÷ç ÷ç ÷L = Lç ÷ç ÷ç ÷÷ç L÷÷ççè ø%
Volume preserving stretch along z-axis
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Simple shear strain
1
0 1
æ öL÷ç ÷çL = ÷ç ÷÷çè ø%
1 0
1
æ ö÷ç ÷çL = ÷ç ÷L ÷çè ø%
Constant Volume, but note stretching of sides originally along x or y.
Rotate
Not equivalent to
Note: is not symmetric
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Pure Shear
2
2
1
1
æ ö+L L ÷ç ÷ç ÷L =ç ÷ç ÷ç ÷L +L ÷çè ø%
Pure shear: symmetric deformation tensor with unit determinant – equivalent to stretch along 45 deg.
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Pure shear as stretch1 111 12
x x xUy yy
ji ii
j
Tij j
xRR R
x R x x
U U
2
2
1 0
0 1
TU U
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Pure to simple shear
2tan
1
2 2
2 1
2
/
2
2
1 2 2 1 2
0 (1
1cos sin
sin
2
1
)
cos
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Cauchy Saint-Venant Strain
( )
1 12 2
12
( ) ( )T T
k k
u
u u u u ua a a aab b b
d h h= L L - » +
= ¶ +¶ +¶ ¶% % % % % %
2 2 2dR dx u dx dxaab b- =
ii i i
Rxa a a
a
d h¶
L = = +¶uis invariant under rotations
in the target space but transforms as a tensor under rotations in the reference space. It contains no information about orientation of object.
R=Reference space
T=Target space
Symmetric!
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Elastic energyThe elastic energy should be invariant under rigid rotations in the target space: if is a function of u
12
12
( )
[ ]
D
D
F d xf u
d x K u u u
This energy is automatically invariant under rotations in target space. It must also be invariant under the point-group operations of the reference space. These place constraints on the form of the elastic constants.
Note there can be a linear “stress”-like term. This can be removed (except for transverse random components) by redefinition of the reference space
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Elastic modulus tensorKis the elastic constant or elastic modulus tensor. It has inherent symmetry and symmetries of the reference space.
K K K K
( )K Isotropic system
1 2
123 4
14 5
( )
( )
( )
T T
T T T T T T
T T T T
K C n n n n C n n n n
C C
C n n n n n n n n
Uniaxial (n = unit vector along uniaxial direction)
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Isotropic and Uniaxial Solid
( )
1
1
2 212
23 2
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Tr Tr Tr
ff f U V
ff u f V uV
C u DBu u uaa m
-
-
= L = L
= =
= ++ - % %%
Invariant under
( ) U (V )®R x R x
Isotropic: free energy density f has two harmonic elastic constants
Uniaxial: five harmonic elastic constants Invariant under
uni( ) U (V )®R x R x2 21 1
2 21 2 3
2 24 5 ;
( , )
zz zz
z
z
f C u C u u C u
C u C u
x
nn nn
nt n
a n
= + +
+ +
=x x
= shear modulus;B = bulk modulus
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Force and stress Iext D D
i i i iF d x fu d x u
external force density – vector in target space. The stress tensor i is mixed. This is the engineering or 1st Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor = force per area of reference space. It is not necessarily symmetric!
i if
( )
( ) ( ) ( )D
i ii i
uF fd x f
u u u
x
x x xab
a aab
dds
d d
¢¶¢- = = = - ¶¢¶ò
12
( )( ) ( )
( ) i ii
u
u
xx x
xab
aa b b
dd
d
¢¢ ¢ ¢= L ¶ +L ¶ -
I Ii i i
fua b b ba
ba
s s¶
= L º L¶
II is the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor - symmetric
Note: In a linearized theory, i = iII
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Cauchy stressThe Cauchy stress is the familiar force per unit area in the target space. It is a symmetric tensor in the target space.
d I d Ci i ij j i
d x u d R uaas s¶ = Ñò ò i
iR¶
Ñ º¶
detd dd R d x= L% i
i ii
R
x x Ra aa a
¶¶ ¶¶ = = = L Ñ
¶ ¶ ¶
1 1det det
C I T II Tij i j i ja a a aab
s s s= L = L LL L% %
1det
C II Ts s= L LL% %% %%
Symmetric as required
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Coupling to other fieldsWe are often interested in the coupling of target-space vectors like an electric field or the nematic director to elastic strain. How is this done? The strain tensor u is a scalar in the target space, and it can only couple to target-space scalars, not vectors.
Answer lies in the polar decomposition theorem
1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2( ) ( )T T M-L = L L L L L º Q% %% % % % %% 1/ 2( 2 );TM u Md -= L L = + Q = L
% % % % % % %%1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 1( ) ( )T T T T TOO M M M M d- - - - -= L L = L L = L L L L =
%% %% %% %% % % %% % % %M u
O% %
%
is symmetric and depends on only.
is an orthogonal, unimodular rotation matrix
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Target-reference conversion
i
O
E Ea
%%
The rotation matrix converts target-space
vectors to reference-space vectors and vice-versa
; Ti i i i
E O E E O Ea aa a= =% %
.i ia a
dL O =%
If is symmetric, 12( )i i i i
i i k k
O u ua a a a
a a
d
d e
» + ¶ - ¶
» - W
To linear order in u, Oi has a term proportional to the antisymmetric part of the strain matrix.
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Strain and Rotation
Simple ShearSymmetric shear
Rotation
n
L
% is a reference space vector; it is equal to the
target space vector that is obtained when is
symmetric
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Sample couplings
1/ 2 1/ 212
12
( ) ( )( )
( )
Ti i j ij i jj
T T T T T
T
u E E E O u O E v E E
OuO
v
a aab b ab b
d
d
- -
= º
= L L L L L - L L L
= LL - =
% %
%%% %% % % % % % % %
%% % %
Coupling of electric field to strain
( )Ti j ij
ff u gE E v
Free energy no longer depends on the strain u only. The electric field defines a direction in the target space as it should
0i i
i i
xR R
x x xb
a b baa ab
¢¶¶ ¶¢L = = = L L
¢¶ ¶ ¶
i i i Energy depends on both symmetric and anti-symmetric parts of ’
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Characteristics of Networks
• Off Lattice• Complex links, semi-flexible rather
than random-walk polymers• Locally randomly inhomogeneous
and anisotropic but globally homogeneous and isotropic
• Complex frequency-dependent rheology
• Striking non-linear elasticity
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Goals
• Strain Hardening (more resistance to deformation with increasing strain) – physiological importance
• Formalisms for treating nonlinear elasticity of random lattices– Affine approximation– Non-affine
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Different Networks
10
100
1000
0.01 0.1 1
Strain stiffening of semiflexible biopolymer networksG
or
G' p
lat(P
a)
Strain
NF
Vimentin
Collagen
Actin
Fibrin
polyacrylamide
Max strain ~.25 except for vimentin and NF
Max stretch:L()/L~1.13 at 45 deg to normal
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Semi-microscopic models
Random or periodic crosslinked network: Elastic energy resides in bonds (links or strands) connecting nodes
Rb = separation of nodes in bond bVb(| Rb |) = free energy of bond b
0
0
( ) ( )
( )
b bb
b
F V N V
Ff n V
V
R
R
R R
R=f
= =
=
å nb = Number of bonds per unit volume of reference lattice
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Affine Transformations
Reference network:Positions R0
Strained target network:Ri=ijR0j
00
( )b
Ff n V
V RR= = L
%
1/ 2 1/ 2
1/ 2
0 1/ 2 0
( ) (1 2 )
( ) :
| | |(1 2 ) |
T
T
b b
O O u
O
uR R
-
L = L L = +
= L L L
L = +
% %% % % %
% %% %
% %
Orthogonal
Depends only on uij
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Example: Rubber
2 20
R Nb=
2
2
3( )
2R
V R TNb
=
02 0 0
3 1( ) Tr
2 2T T
b bR R
TF n V Tn
NbR R R= L = L L = L L
% % % % %
20 0
13i j ij
R R Nbd=
Purely entropic force
Average is over the end-to-end separation in a random walk: random direction, Gaussian magnitude
2
2 2
3 3( ) exp
2 2R
P RNb Nbp
é ùê ú= -ê úë û
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Rubber : Incompressible Stretch
1 1Tr Tr(1 2 )
2 2T
b bf Tn Tn uf = L L = +
% % %Unstable: nonentropic forces between atoms needed to stabilize; Simply impose incompressibility constraint.
1/ 2
1/ 2
0 0
0 0
0 0
-
-
æ öL ÷ç ÷ç ÷ç ÷ç ÷= Lç ÷ç ÷ç ÷÷ç L÷çè ø
L
21 22 b
f nT=fæ ö÷ç= L + ÷÷çè øL
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Rubber: stress -strain
( )( )
R Rz R
R
A L f ff V f A
L L
ff
¶¶ ¶= = =
¶ ¶L ¶L
2
1e z
R
ffnT
Af
sæ ö¶ ÷ç= = = L - ÷÷çè ø¶L L
2 1zff nTA
sæ ö¶ ÷ç= = L = L - ÷÷çè ø¶L L
Engineering stress
Physical Stress
AR= area in reference space
A = AR/ = Area in target space
2 1(1 ) ~3
1nT
Y nTs
gg g g
æ ö÷ç= = + - ÷ç ÷ç +è øY=Young’s modulus
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
General Case
e ref
1 refdet
ij j ij j
i ji j
dS dS
dS dS
s s-
=
= LL
( )( )
dV RR
dRt =
Engineering stress: not symmetric
Physical Cauchy Stress: Symmetric
Central force
0
e 00 0
0
00 0 0 0
0
( )'( )
| |
( )( ) ( )
| |
iij j
ij
ii j j
fn V R
n R n R
R
RR
R
RR R
R
s
t t
L¶= = L
¶L L
L= L = L
L
%%
%
%% %
%
0
00 0
0
( )
det | |ij ik k jl l
nR R
R
R
R
ts
L= L L
L L%
% %
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Semi-flexible Stretchable Link
22 21
| | ( 1)2
dH ds v K v
dsk t^
^
é ùæ öê ú÷ç= + + -÷ç ÷çê úè øë ûò
tt
( ) ( )d
v s sds
=R
t
2| ( ) | 1; ( ) ( ( ), 1 | ( ) | )s s s s^ ^
= = -t t t t
dv
ds=
R
[ ]0
0
0
212
0
,
1 | |
Lz
L
dRR v L ds
ds
dsv^
º =
é ù» -ë û
ò
ò
t
t
t = unit tangentv = stretch
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Length-force expressions
0
2 012 2 2
1
02
202
( , ) 1 [1 ( ( , ))];
1 1( ) | | ;
coth( ) 1
( , ) 1 ;
np
p
p
B
L K L g KK
Lg
L n
L
L
LK L
K k T
tt j t
jp j
p j p jp j
t kj t t
kp
¥
^=
æ ö÷ç= + -÷çè ø
= =+
-=
æ ö÷ç= + =÷çè ø
åt
L(,K) = equilibrium length at given and K
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Scaling at “Small” StrainG
'/G
' (0
)
Strain/strain8
zero parameter fit to everything
Theoretical curve: calculated from K-1=0
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
What are Nematic Gels?
• Homogeneous Elastic media with broken rotational symmetry (uniaxial, biaxial)
• Most interesting - systems with broken symmetry that develops spontaneously from a homogeneous, isotropic elastic state
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Examples of LC Gels1. Liquid Crystal Elastomers - Weakly crosslinked liquid crystal polymers
4. Glasses with orientational order
2. Tanaka gels with hard-rod dispersion
3. Anisotropic membranes
Nematic Smectic-C
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Properties I
• Large thermoelastic effects - Large thermally induced strains - artificial muscles
Courtesy of Eugene Terentjev
300% strain
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Properties II
Large strain in smalltemperature range
Terentjev
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Properties III
• Soft or “Semi-soft” elasticity
Vanishing xz shear modulus
Soft stress-strain for stressperpendicular to order
Warner Finkelmann
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Model for Isotropic-Nematic trans.
( )2 2 23 212 Tr TrTrf Bu u C u D uaa m - += + %% %
13u u uab ab ab ggd= -%
approaches zero signals a transition to a nematic state with a nonvanishing
( )13u S n naab b abd= -%
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking
Phase transition to anisotropicstate as goes to zero
Direction of n0 isarbitrary
0
0 0 13( )
u u
n n
ab ab
a b abd
=
= Y -
% %
2~uaa Y
( )120 0 0
Tu d= L L -
0 02udL = +
Symmetric-Tracelesspart
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Strain of New Phase
u is the deviation ofthe strain relative to the original reference frame R from u0
u’ is the strain relative to the new state at points x’
u is linearly proportionalto u’( )1 1
2 2' ( )T Tu d h h¢ ¢ ¢ ¢= L L - » +
% %
0( ) ( )
( )
i ij j i
i i
R x u
x u
d= L +
¢ ¢ ¢= +
x x
x
( )0
12 0 0
0 0'
T T
T
u u u
u
d = -
= L L - L L
= L L
% % %
% % % %
%%%
0i i k
ij ik kjj jk
xR R
x x x
¢¶¶ ¶¢L = = = L L
¢¶ ¶ ¶
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Elasticity of New Phase
Rotation of anisotropy direction costs no energy
C5=0 because ofrotational invariance
This 2nd order expansionis invariant under all U but only infinitesimal V
( )
( )
11 10 0 0 0
1
14 1 1
' ( )
1 cos2 sin2( 1)
sin2 1 cos2
T
r
rr
u V u V u
rq q
q q
-- -= L - L
æ ö- ÷ç ÷ç= - ÷ç ÷- -ç ÷çè ø
( 1)' ~
4xz
ru
rq
-
2
0||20
r^
L=
L
21 12 21 2 3el
54
zz zz
z z
f C u C u u C u u
C u u C u u
nn nn nn
nt nt n n
¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢= + +
¢ ¢ ¢ ¢+ +
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Soft Extensional Elasticity
Strain uxx can be converted to a zero energy rotation by developing strains uzz and uxz until uxx =(r-1)/2
( )
1
14 1 1
1 cos2 sin2( 1)
sin2 1 cos2
r
rr
u rq q
q q
æ ö- ÷ç ÷ç= - ÷ç ÷- -ç ÷çè ø
1
1( 1 2 )
2
zz xx
xz xx xx
u ur
u u r ur
= -
= - -
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Frozen anisotropy: Semi-soft
( ) ( )hzzf u f u hu= -
( ) ( ) ( 2 )hzz xzf u f u h u uq¢ = - +
System is now uniaxial – why not simply use uniaxial elastic energy? This predicts linear stress-stain curve and misses lowering of energy by reorientation:
2 2 2 21 12 2 51 2 3 4zz zz zf C u C u u C u C u C unn nn nt n= + + + +
Model Uniaxial system:Produces harmonic uniaxial energy for small strain but has nonlinear terms – reduces to isotropic when h=0
f (u) : isotropic
2
2xz xx zz
xx zz xz
u u uu u u
u u uqæ ö- - ÷ç ÷¢® = + ç ÷ç ÷- ÷çè ø
Rotation
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Semi-soft stress-strain
2 2 ( ) 2( )
( )0 or
h
xz xz xx zz zz xx xz
xx xzxz xz
xx zzxx
dfhu u u u
dh u
u uu h
s s
ss s
sq
=
= - = - -
-= Þ
-=
+
hfuab
ab
s¶
=¶
Ward Identity
Second Piola-Kirchoff stress tensor.
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Semi-soft Extensions
Not perfectly soft because of residual anisotropy arising from crosslinking in the the nematic phase - semi-soft. length of plateau depends on magnitude of spontaneous anisotropy r.
Warner-Terentjev
Stripes form in real systems: semi-soft, BC
Break rotational symmetry
Finkelmann, et al., J. Phys. II 7, 1059 (1997);Warner, J. Mech. Phys. Solids 47, 1355 (1999)
Note: Semi-softness only visible in nonlinear properties
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Softness with Director
2 2 21 12 21 2 3 4
2 2125 2 1
2 2 21 12 21 2 3 4
2
21
4 214 2
2 21 12 251 2 1 2 1
[ ( / ) ] [ ( / )]
zz zz
z z z
zz zz
zz
z z
n u
gn
f C u C u u C u C u
C u D n n u D n
C u C u u C u C u
D n D D u C D u
u
D
n
n
n n tt
nn nn nt
n n n n
nn nn nt
n n n
l
l
+
+ +
= + + +
+ + +
= + + +
+ + + -
+
%
% %
%
L%% %
22
5 51
10
2R D
C CD
Soft= - = ÞDirector relaxes to zero
( , )zn n n
Nunit vector along uniaxial direction in reference space; layer normal in a locked SmA phase
2 2 21 ( ) ; , etc.zzn N n c u N u N
Red: SmA-SmC transition