This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2004.

Prices for all availableBRE publications can be obtained from:Construction Research Communications Ltd151 Rosebery AvenueLondonEC1R 4QXTel 0171 505 6622Fax 0171 505 6606E-mail crc@construct.emap.co.uk ISBN 0-203-22310-1 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-27735-X (Adobe eReader Format)ISBN 0 419 209905 (Print Edition) © Copyright BRE and DEGW 1998First published 1998

Published byConstruction Research Communications Ltdby permission ofBuilding Research Establishment Ltd Applications to copy allor any part of this publication should bemade to:Construction Research Communications LtdPO Box 202WatfordWD2 7QG

New Environments for WorkingThe re-design of offices and environmental systemsfor new ways of working

Andrew LaingFrancis DuffyDenice JaunzensSteve Willis

BRE DEGWGarston Porters NorthWatford 8 Crinan StreetWD2 7JR London N19SQ

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Contents

Sponsors of the research vList of contributors vAcknowledgements viForeword ixIntroduction 1

1 Objectives 42 Methods of research 52.1 Four phases of research 53 Conclusions 7

4 The research model. Affinities between the work patternsthe building types and the environmental systems 14

4.1 The research agenda 144.2 A model of demand and supply 155 The work pattern model 185.1 Patterns of work and the use of space over time 186 The building type model 266.1 Types of space layout and patterns of use 266.2 Modelling organisations into building types 337 The environmental system model 347.1 Evaluating environmental systems 347.2 Survey of industry opinion on HVAC system performance 357.3 Work pattern demands for lighting 388 The cost model 398.1 Introduction 398.2 Cost study approach 398.3 Objectives of the cost study 398.4 The model structure 398.5 Analysis of results and conclusions 40

9 Affinities between the work patterns: building types 4810 Affinities between the work patterns: environmental systems 5010.1 Summary of major affinities between the work patterns and the environmental systems 5010.2 Other HVAC system affinities 5211 Affinities between the HVAC systems and building types 5511.1 Summary of affinities 5511.2 All air systems 5511.3 Radiative air systems 5511.4 Distributed systems 5511.5 Mixed mode systems 5512 Optimal overall affinities between the work patterns, the building

types and the HVAC systems 5612.1 Optimal affinities12.2 Hive 5812.3 Cell 5912.4 Den 6012.5 Club 6112.6 Integrating cost into performance evaluation 62

Part 1: Overview

Part 2: A new research approach

Part 3:Affinities between work patterns, building types and environmental systems

iv

13 The dynamics of change 6613.1 Accommodating dynamic organisations 6613.2 Impact of these trends upon the models developed in the study 6713.3 Impacts of change on the developments of HVAC systems 68

14 Organisations in Europe and the USA 7414.1 Learning from case studies 7414.2 Automobile Association 7614.3 Andersen Consulting 7814.4 Gasunie 8014.5 Gruner+Jahr 8214.6 Lloyds Bank 8414.7 Rijksgebouwendienst 8614.8 Sun Microsystems 8814.9 Walt Disney Imagineering 9014.10 Summary case study evaluations 9215 Case studies of technologies 9415.1 Elizabeth Fry Building 9415.2 IBM UK 9615.3 Eastern Electricity Group Headquarters 9715.4 Royal Bank of Scotland 9916 Implications of the case studies: learning from occupants’ reactions 10016.1 Introduction 10016.2 Data collection and analysis 100

17 Implications for the design of buildings and BMS 10617.1 Implications for design briefs for buildings and building management systems (BMS) 10617.2 The impact of re-thinking environmental services 10718 Product directions for environmental systems 10918.1 All air systems 11018.2 Radiative air systems 11118.3 Distributed systems 11218.4 System family: tempered air (leading to mixed mode) 11318.5 Product direction conclusions 11419 Implications for lighting 11719.1 Work pattern demands for lighting 11720 Implications for space layout and furniture 12220.1 Directions for change 12221 The impact of software 12621.1 Introduction 12621.2 Business drivers 12621.3 How Information Technology will change the way people work 12821.4 Technology enablers 13021.5 Blocking factors 13221.6 Specific topics 13321.7 Conclusions 134

Bibliography 138Appendix A: HVAC system descriptions and definitions 140Appendix B: Occupant survey questionnaire 143Appendix C: Cost study modelling assumptions 151

Part 4: Case studies

Part 5: Product directions and design implications

Bibliography and appendices

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Sponsors of the researchThe New Environments for Working study was a collaboration between DEGW InternationalConsulting Limited and BRE Ltd. The project team wish to acknowledge the support of theDepartment of the Environment, Transport and the Regions through their funding of thePartners in Technology programme, and the generous support offered by the followingcorporate sponsors:

Arenson/PresidentHammersonInteriorJohnson ControlsLand SecuritiesNational PowerSAS GroupThorn Lighting Group

List of contributorsDr Francis Duffy CBE, Founder and Chairman of the international architectural andconsultancy practice DEGW, is Past President of the RIBA and one of the leading thinkersand practitioners in the science of workplace design.

Dr Andrew Laing is Director of Research at DEGW International Consulting Limited, wherehe specialises in leading multi-client funded research projects focused on the impact of users’changing needs for the office workplace.

Denice Jaunzens is a senior researcher in the Indoor Environment Division at BRE. Herinterests lie in the low energy integrated design of building services and architecture.

Stephen Willis who, whilst at BRE, was responsible for many of the original ideas whichunderpin this project.

Jon Wilkins, formerly of BRE, is now an operational researcher for the Post Office.

Nigel Oseland is a senior researcher in the Indoor Environment Divison at BRE. He is anexpert in the fields of thermal comfort and productivity of office workers.

Anthony Slater is head of the BRE Building Services Centre, specialising in lighting controlissues.

Robert Worden, a former Senior Consultant of Logica UK Limited.

Alan Couzens is a Senior Consultant within the Consulting Business Unit of JohnsonControls specialising in strategic benchmarking and outsourcing strategy reviews.

Stuart Mitchell is a Senior Engineer with the Commercial Business Unit of Johnson Controlsspecialising in maintenance strategy reviews and utilities management.

Professor Tim Morris is an Associate Professor at the London Business School, andresearches and consults to a variety of professional service firms on strategic development andthe management of change

John Berry is a Director of Ove Arup & Partners responsible for a multi-disciplinary designgroup of engineers. He has a particular interest in green issues and in strategic planning.

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AcknowledgementsThe NEW study, or more correctly, the New Environments for Working research project, wasmade possible by financial support from our Sponsors, all of whom also directly contributedto the progress of the study. Their interest was a great stimulus to the research effort. Theirwillingness to explore new ideas, to share their own experience, and to test novel hypothesesadded greatly to the value of the research, in particular to its benefit for others in the designand manufacturing industries associated with the office workplace.

The study was generously supported by the Department of the Environment, Transport andthe Region’s Partners In Technology programme which provided not only 50% of the totalresearch costs, but which also funded a series of seminars to discuss the findings withindustry. These events assisted in the refinement of the conclusions of the study before itspublication.

Particular thanks are due to:Roger Berry Department of the Environment,

Transport and the RegionsJohn Sacks, Colin Watson Arenson/PresidentJonathan Emery HammersonPeter Frackiewicz Land SecuritiesDr Danny Hann, Kevin Nix National PowerHarvey Young Johnson ControlsEdward McElhinney, Stuart Hodgkins SAS GroupDavid King, Peter Atkinson InteriorBob Hargroves, Lou Bedocs Thorn Lighting Group

The DEGW and BRE project team were also supported by several colleagues, and a smallgroup of outside experts who contributed papers or presented at sponsors meetings. Theseincluded:

Anthony Slater and Nigel Oseland of BRE who provided information on lighting andcomfort respectively.

RP Worden, whilst at Logica UK, who provided the paper which forms the basis ofChapter 21—the future impact of software developments on the working environment.

Professor Tim Morris of the London Business School and John Berry of Ove Arup andPartners formed a small independent advisory group. They provided an in-depthunderstanding of organisational processes and behaviour, and a strategic technical approach tothinking on environmental systems for buildings, both of which proved to be highly beneficialin validating some of the methods used within the study.

Invaluable assistance was also provided by a group of organisations who agreed to be thesubjects of case studies. Many individuals within these organisations helped with interviews,observations, and with the provision of plans and data, but special thanks are due to:Richard H Korst Andersen Consulting, Cleveland, Ohio, USADavid Hinton Automobile Association, Thatcham, EnglandMarcia Witte Change 2, EnglandA Katsman Gasunie, Groningen, NetherlandsReimar Unterlohner Gruner & Jahr, Hamburg, GermanyHugh Stebbing Lloyds Bank, Bristol, EnglandMarcel Maassen Rijksgebouwendienst, Haarlem, NetherlandsJohn Tenanes Sun Microsystems, Menlo Park, California, USAArt Kishiyama Walt Disney Imagineering, Los Angeles, California,Mick Dalton Eastern Electricity, IpswichSiavash Mirnezami Johnson Controls for IBMBrian Forder Royal Bank Of ScotlandPeter Yorke University of East Anglia

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Finally thanks are due to the New Environments for Working project team itself. The DEGWinput was directed by Dr Francis Duffy, Chairman of DEGW, with the research effort co-ordinated by Dr Andrew Laing, Director of Research. Denice Jaunzens was responsible forcoordinating the BRE research effort. A special mention must be made of Steve Willis who,when at BRE, initiated the proposal for the research and was involved in all of the earlyprogress of ideas in the study. Also to Jon Wilkins who, when at BRE, was involved in thecase study work and was especially important in contributing to the cost analysis part of thestudy.

Other members of DEGW and BRE who were involved in the three phases of the researchproject over its eighteen month life span, or have subsequently helped in the book productioninclude:From DEGW:

Natalie Codling, Pamela Donleavy, Takumbo Howe,Ronen Journo, Nadia Kyriopoulou, Nicholas Morgan,David Tong

From BRE:Richard Fargus, Peter Grigg, David Warriner, Arron Perry,Ann Gibb, Ursula Garner.

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ix

Foreword

The nature of office work is changing, becoming less defined and predictableand much more fluid and fast changing. As a result office space and theenvironmental systems that serve it are having to become more flexible to copewith the diverse demands placed upon them as organisations move away fromthe regimented 9–5, one desk per staff member type of environment. Thereasons for these changes are many and complex but include:� The increasing pressures for businesses to become more customer focussed

and therefore more dynamic and responsive to change;� the opportunities offered by information and communications technologies

that are reducing the importance of time and location to the modernbusiness;

� social and demographic pressures as workers adapt to the need for flexibilitybut wish to establish an acceptable balance between work and home.

These changes have quite profound implications for our office buildings andworkplaces. Businesses will no longer be tolerant of the need to adapt theiractivities to suit the buildings that are available, and increasingly they willchallenge the high costs of refurbishment and churn. The market will place apremium on building and system designs that offer the maximum flexibility toadapt to the needs of changing business processes and patterns of use.

The New Environments for Working study is a welcome contribution to thegrowing debate on these issues. In particular it offers us:� A language to describe working patterns in terms of their degrees of

interaction and autonomy, and their use of space and time;� a view of the ability of different building forms to adapt to the needs of

differing patterns of work;� a framework that will allow us to judge the ability of differing types of

environmental systems to support differing patterns of work, and;� guidance on the directions that designers and manufacturers should take as

they seek to respond to increasingly dynamic client needs.

This book marks the culmination of a unique study which has brought togethera powerful group of researchers, practitioners and manufacturers to lookobjectively at the implications of modern working practices for thespecification and performance of building form and environmental systems. Webelieve that it offers a valuable framework within which all interested partiescan debate the real issues faced by today’s business organisations and bringforward improved designs for buildings, systems and products.

Martin ShawResearch Director, BRE

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“Most office buildings and their environmentalsystems were designed for typical 9 to 5activities, but how will they perform when thatpattern of use changes?”

This question was the inspiration for the NewEnvironments for Working (NEW) study. Toanswer it, we have defined a number of modernworking patterns, and considered how aknowledge of these might influence thedevelopment of specifications for officeconstruction and fit-out.

The four new metaphors devised to describeorganisational patterns of work, and theirspatial consequences, are hive, den, cell andclub. Throughout this book, we describe howthese concepts can be applied, and theirconsequences for office design and operation.This is examined from the perspective of theneeds of office users, and of those responsiblefor procuring office space. We also considertrends in the application of these workingpatterns and the potential impact on productdevelopment.

This book examines what will be required fromfuture office space, and how these clientdemands can be translated into a meaningfulperformance specification for the design team.

Part 1: OverviewIn Part 1 we place the NEW study in context,describe its objectives, and summarise itsfindings. We begin by describing how changesin patterns of office use now demand a newapproach to environmental services; ie HVAC(heating, ventilation and air-conditioning) andlighting. We then outline our research methods,summarising our main conclusions. These keyfindings are cross-referenced to detaileddiscussions in later chapters.

Part 2: A new research approachIn Part 2 we describe our research approach ingreater detail, in particular how we developedmodels for the work patterns, building types,

and HVAC systems. We also consider the keyinfluences on the life-cycle economics of avariety of office specification scenarios. Part 2provides a common language which can helpclients and their design teams (the demand andsupply side of the procurement chain) tocommunicate more easily and effectively.

Part 3: Affinities between work patterns,building types, and environmental systemsIn Part 3 we examine affinities betweendifferent combinations of building type, workpattern, and environmental system, using ourfindings to develop a number of rating tableswhich are likely to prove beneficial to:� property professionals (by helping them

assess the right client for the right building),� suppliers (by helping them identify the

target users for a product),� designers (by suggesting starting points for

their response to a client’s brief),� clients (by helping them specify and

compare premises).We also consider how changes in workingpatterns are likely to affect the specification ofHVAC systems. (These findings can usefully beapplied to all other fit-out elements).

Part 4: Case studiesIn Part 4 we describe the practical case studywork carried out to verify the usefulness of themodel descriptions and affinity ratings. Thebrief summaries clearly illustrate the realimplications of new ways of working andoccupants’ reactions to their workplace.

Part 5: Product directions and designimplicationsIn Part 5 we consider likely future changes inthe nature of office work. We highlightdemands and opportunities for building andproduct developments, and consider how therole of information technology (IT) in theoperation of the office will continue to increasein importance. This part of the book may be ofparticular interest to developers and suppliersof office products.

Introduction

2

Bibliography and appendicesThe appendices to this book contain a series ofHVAC system definitions, further informationon the questionnaires used in the study, andbackground information for the cost study.

NoteIn this book, it is not our intention torecommend that you should choose a naturallyventilated or an air-conditioned design solution.This is a broader issue that is dealt with in

several of the publications listed in thebibliography.

This book will be of special interest to:� clients and their facilities managers� designers, ie architects, space planners,

engineers� property professionals, ie developers, letting

agents, portfolio managers� suppliers, ie manufacturers of HVAC or

lighting systems, and furniture.

Part 1: Overview

Chapter 1 ObjectivesChapter 2 Methods of researchChapter 3 Conclusions

1

This book contains the findings ofNew Environments for Working: a study ofthe implications of modern working practicesfor the specification and performance ofbuilding form and environmental systems. Ouraim in this book is to present ideas for whatcould be done to improve the functionality ofoffice buildings in the light of changing workerand organisational demands.

During the 1990s there have been manychanges in the design and use of officebuildings. Information Technology isintroducing more irregular and intermittentworking hours, and other practices that havetransformed the daily use of the office. Forsome office workers the distinction betweenhome and the workplace is no longer quite soclear as it used to be. They have become moredemanding and their needs have become lesspredictable.

Most office design, especially of the lightingand ventilation systems, has been based upongrossly oversimplified notions of what goes onin the office. It has only recently becomepossible to measure easily where and whenvarious office activities are actually carried out.These measurements show surprising findingsregarding how often, and for what length oftime, some work stations are left completelyunattended.

No single office task now seems predominant:neither reading, telephone work, writing norcomputer work. More time is typically spentaway from the workplace. This is often in one-to-one meetings, and in activities which arehighly interactive and mobile. As organisationsbegin to use IT to reorganise their use of officespace and their working hours, new workingpatterns will become more common.

Most people regard office buildings and theirenvironmental systems as more permanententities than the organisational structuresthemselves. Despite the volatility of today’sworking patterns, however, office buildingdesign generally remains conservative. This

situation cannot be allowed to last. Officebuildings can inhibit organisational change, andonce clients and users recognise this danger,they will insist on changes in the design oftheir buildings.

Our main objective in the New Environmentsfor Working study was to explore thesescenarios of probable change, and to determinethe kinds of environmental and managementsystems in buildings that would satisfy thesechanging user demands.

In broader terms, we consider howenvironmental systems in office buildingsneed to relate to today’s newer, morecomplex and more flexible working practices,organisational shape and performance. Webelieve that office environments must adapt toincreasingly ‘fluid’ working practices (iepeople whose working methods differ from‘traditional’ practice; for example, operatingto different hours and over a range oflocations within the office building). This isincreasingly matched, at both corporate andindividual level, by an increasing demand forthe reduction of energy waste and pollution—problems now associated with the over-servicing of office buildings.

In this study, we look at how environmentalservices can best respond to these emergingdemands. We have synchronised the new formsof working with the new patterns of space andtime use in the office, and the design of officebuildings and office environmental services, byconsidering the following questions:� What are the most effective and energy

efficient ways of accommodating emergingworking practices?

� What impact will these trends have onproduct development needs for HVACsystems?

� What implications will such trends have forthe design of:– lighting systems?– the ‘scenery’, settings and furnishings of

the office workplace?– the base building itself?

Objectives

2

2.1 Four phases of research

The NEW study followed four phases ofresearch. Phases 1–3 were carried out betweenOctober 1994 and March 1996. Phase 4 tookplace over the spring and summer of 1996.

Phase 1During Phase 1, we created a number ofmodels of office organisations representing therelationships between work patterns, use ofspace and buildings, and demands forenvironmental systems. Organisations weremodelled as occupiers of typical kinds ofbuildings commonly found in the UK. A rangeof environmental systems was then evaluatedagainst sets of performance requirementsassociated with these different patterns of work.A survey of leading services consultants wasundertaken to evaluate the perceivedeffectiveness of a range of HVAC systems.

Phase 2We carried out case studies of actual officeorganisations and contemporary officetechnologies to learn, from real examples, howthe varied patterns of work are related to theuse of space and their demand forenvironmental services. Following a widespreadinternational literature search we identifiedeight organisations from the model oforganisational behaviour developed in Phase 1.These were chosen to represent the full rangeof work patterns, rather than to illustrate anyparticular building type or environmentalservicing technology.

The selection of the case studies was thereforedriven by the priority of understanding thework process and the organisational ‘demand’for space, technology, environmental servicingsystems and buildings. As these organisationsare based in the UK, Germany, Netherlands andthe USA, they provide an interestinginternational cross-section of officeaccommodation and technical solutions.

A further four UK case studies focused on theperformance of a range of innovativeenvironmental systems and evaluated how wellthey could perform against the expectedorganisational demands.

Phase 3Using the case studies and models from thefirst two phases, we developed a series ofproduct directions and design implications forthe re-design of environmental services, officebuildings and interiors.

Johnson Controls (a project sponsor) developeda software-based model of the life-cycle costprofiles of different key combinations oforganisational types and quality of fit-outsolutions.

Finally, a consideration of the dynamics ofthese patterns of change in organisationalstructure led the project to specify strategicproduct directions or design implications foroffice buildings, HVAC and lighting systems,and the layout and furnishings of the workplaceenvironment.

Phase 4This final phase involved the controlleddissemination of the research findings. Over thespring and summer of 1996 a series of seminarswere held with interested parties fromindustry—architects, interior designers,developers, letting agents, building servicesengineers, manufacturers, and facilitiesmanagers—to discuss and review a summary ofthe key findings. This feedback phase wasagain supported by the Department of theEnvironment, Transport and the Regions’sPartners in Technology programme.

Background to the research programmeOur research approach draws on a longtradition of user-focused research at DEGWand BRE by concentrating on how people(collectively rather than as individual users) use

Methods of research

6

space over time. We found that we were bestable to understand users’ demands andrequirements by focusing on the social realityof the groups and organisations of which theyform an active part. Individual office users areregarded in representative groups: as membersof socially interacting institutions which haveidentifiable directions, motivations, andinterests. In this way, we have defined thericher image of the complex, collective entityof the corporate organisation.

Before we could begin to design the officeenvironment for such user groups, our first taskhad to be to understand and evaluate theirneeds. The starting point was the recognitionthat organisations are driven to respond to anincreasingly turbulent business environment.They must respond to the competitive market,often undergoing rapid change and evenconflict, as part of their way of handlingeconomic survival and the support of their mostvital resource: their own human capital.

Designers must somehow take into account thiscomplex and dynamic picture. This can only beachieved successfully through a rigorousunderstanding of how an organisation’sbusiness process can be translated intorequirements for environmental and spatialsolutions that are based clearly on definedpatterns of use over time.

The research problem is therefore how tounderstand and model the relationshipsbetween the social structure and technology ofoffice organisations. From this we can move tolook at how the quality and nature of the spatialenvironment can be maintained throughout anychanges in these relationships.

DEGW has for many years specialised in thesystematic modelling of user requirements andin using these models to evaluate theperformance of buildings. The method hasalways been typological. In the 1980s, DEGWand others undertook the pioneering ORBIT(Organisational Research, Buildings andInformation Technology) studies which plotted

the impact of IT on the nature of the officework process, and on the design of the officebuilding. Following this, building appraisaltechniques were developed for measuring,benchmarking and planning the new wave oflarge offices being built in the City of London.One example of this is the planning of thebuilding types used in the landmark Broadgatedevelopment in the City of London.

In the 1990s this approach was developedthrough two major projects. ‘The ResponsibleWorkplace’ study (coordinated jointly byDEGW and BRE) investigated the newconcerns of office users and highlighteddemands for office buildings that would addvalue to organisational performance, whilstminimising occupancy costs and environmentalimpacts (Duffy, Laing and Crisp, 1993).

Simultaneously DEGW and Teknibankcompleted the ‘Intelligent Building in Europe’study that established a new way ofconceptualising building intelligence focusedon user needs, rather than on the conventionaltechnical evaluation of building performance.This developed a number of building appraisalmethods that contributed to an intelligentbuilding rating system. The appraisal methodshave been further evolved and refined in workfor the ‘Intelligent Building in South East Asia’study completed in 1995. A further IntelligentBuilding study is now being carried out inLatin America.

Underlying all this research into organisationsand buildings has been a simple premise that itis possible to model user requirements andtranslate them into design and performancecriteria for buildings, provided that the patternsof time and space use are fully understood.

In the NEW study this tradition of typologicalunderstanding of user requirements andbuilding design has been deepened andextended. For the first time this theoreticalapproach has included user demands forenvironmental services in relation to differentwork patterns and building types.

3

This chapter summarises the findings of theNEW study, under the following headings:� Work patterns and building types� Environmental systems and user demands� Case studies� Cost implications� Affinities between work patterns, building

types and environmental systems� Dynamics of change� Product directions and design implications.

Work patterns and building typesFrom modelling emerging work patterns andtesting typical office building configurationsagainst them (chapters 5 and 6) we conclude:

� Not all office organisations make the samearrangements regarding office space andworking hours. Any organisation will haveits own expectations of what theenvironmental systems within its premisesshould offer.

� We have created four fundamental group-types (or models) called hive, cell, den, andclub (see page 9). Each group has its ownrequirements for space use andenvironmental services. Most organisations,

and parts of organisations, are composed ofmore than one work pattern.To identifythese groups, we used two ‘key’ variables.These were:

– the ‘degrees of interaction’; ie how muchdid office workers need to work orcommunicate face-to-face with theircolleagues?

– the ‘degrees of individual autonomy’; iehow much control does any employeehave over the hours he or she works, thework location, the nature of the work,and the tools provided to do that work?

Using our four organisational models we canmap the current location of an organisation. Wecan also observe the dynamics of change, iebroader trends in the patterns of work beingexhibited. For example, we expect the largestmovement will be away from the hive and celltowards the den and club models.

� Over the next ten years, many organisationswill become more interactive and moreintermittent in their patterns of occupation ofoffice space. Many will experiment withspace use intensification. These arecharacteristics of the club model.

Conclusions

8

� Practically, within this ten year period, whatwill be more important for office designersthan any ‘ideal’ model of the eventual clubdestination, will be the migration from thetraditional hive office model to moreinteractive and more intermittent patterns ofoccupancy as much hive work will either beautomated or exported to low-wageeconomies.

� The building forms that can bestaccommodate these migrations, as well asthe ultimate club destination, are the atriumand medium depth buildings. Deep centralcore and shallow depth configurations areless adaptive and hence comparativelyvulnerable to change.

Environmental systems and user demandsFrom testing which families of HVAC systemsoffer the most potential for accommodatingemerging patterns of user occupancy associatedwith new ways of working (chapter 7) weconclude that:� The four families of HVAC systems we have

defined in the NEW study meet the currentneeds of users in different ways.

� Existing environmental systems meet therelatively simple requirements of the hiveand the cell office more easily than thoseof the more complex patterns of the denand club.

� To satisfy emerging demands for the denand club, environmental systems will have tobe designed to be considerably moreadaptive to change and responsive to userneeds.

� The three-sided relationship of (1) workpattern to HVAC system; (2) HVAC systemto building type; and (3) work pattern tobuilding type, complicates any generaldiscussion of which HVAC systems arelikely to be most requested in the future.Distributed systems score well under a largeproportion of the den or club scenarios withdifferent building type. A mixed modesystem (that is a strategic combination ofnatural and mechanical ventilation solutions)also appears to offer benefits over a widerange of building forms.

Case studiesFrom a series of case studies chosen toillustrate a range of environmental systems in

use by a cross-section of organisational types(chapters 14–16), we conclude that:� The case study findings support the

existence of work patterns that use space,environmental systems, and building typesin different ways. This lends credence tothe approach of developing models andtheir associated demands adopted by theNEW study.

Some organisations have successfullyintroduced innovations in how they organiseworking practices, working hours, and the useof space, despite having to work withunsuitable buildings and environmentalsystems. Others have relocated, often at greatexpense, to buildings with environmentalsystems which, in some respects, were highlyover-designed.

Before evaluating environmental systems thefollowing factors must be considered:� how well are they integrated in the buildings

that contain them?� how well do they perform over a period

of time?� how cost effective are they on a life-cycle

basis?

Cost implicationsFrom modelling the costs of key combinationsof working patterns, building forms and fit-outelements of different qualities (Chapter 8), weconclude that:� Some building types and some

environmental systems result in inherentlyhigher costs in use.

� The more advanced organisational types(den and club) tend to make heavierdemands on environmental systems than thehive, but demand less than the cell. Thecosts of environmental systems for theseorganisational types are therefore likely toreflect these demands.

� Such higher costs in use can be amelioratedby not attempting to accommodate suchorganisations in the deep central corebuilding type which is inherently expensiveto run. Whilst the atrium building type isalso expensive to run these buildings offerenhanced adaptability to accommodate themigration towards more advancedorganisational types.

9

The hive, cell, den and club models

10

� Occupancy costs per head (rather than persquare metre) can be greatly reduced byusing ‘advanced’ working practices whichintensify the use of space (eg by sharingworkstations and other settings). However,as this can be applied to a number oforganisational types, it should not be thedeciding factor for specifyingenvironmental systems that turn out to becostly to run or use.

Affinities between work patterns, buildingtypes and environmental systemsAs part of our research into the demands forenvironmental services we identified a numberof profiles associated with different patterns ofwork and with different patterns of space use.By using these profiles, we were able to see therelationships between patterns of work,building types, and environmental services as aset of ‘affinities’.

By ‘affinity’ we mean the relationship of thesupplied building type or environmentalsystem to the demands of the specific workpattern. This relationship can be viewed as a‘match’ or as a degree of appropriateness. Weplotted our theoretical degrees of affinitybetween patterns of work, building types, andenvironmental systems and gave them relativevalues (poor, adequate, or good). We thenjustified these values by explanations derivedfrom the research model and from the casestudies.

These values can never be prescriptive. Manyexcellent buildings have been, and will bedesigned, which may contradict theseevaluations. Nevertheless, the concept ofaffinities gives us an opportunity to exploremore precisely the ways in which theemerging demands of new ways of workingare likely to impact on the requirements forsystems and buildings. It also forms a startingpoint for a dialogue between the client andthe design team.

From examining, first separately and then in anintegrated way, the series of relationshipsbetween building types and organisationaltypes, between environmental systems andorganisational types, and between buildingtypes and environmental systems (Chapters 9–11), we conclude that:� The requirements of the most advanced

organisations (the club) are likely to be morereadily satisfied with mixed mode anddistributed HVAC systems. These systemsare relatively easily accommodated in all

four major office building types(shallow plan, medium depth, deep plan, andatrium) as used in ECON19, published byBRECSU (Building Research EnergyConservation Support Unit) at BRE.

� The requirements of the simplest types oforganisation (the hive) are best met either byconventional all air or the more innovativeradiative air systems.

� The cell is the most difficult working patternto accommodate in terms of building form,being only highly compatible with onebuilding type: the medium depth slab office.

� The key issue for the den organisation ishow to enable group consensus baseddecisions. This is best served by all air ordistributed systems in the medium depth oratrium building types.

Dynamics of changeFrom reviewing likely trends in organisationaldevelopment (Chapter 13), and afterconsidering the transition that manyorganisations are likely to make (particularlyfrom hive and cell to den and club), weconclude that:� The main longer term trend in organisations

is towards becoming more interactive andmore intermittent in the use of time andspace by individuals and groups.

� Most larger organisations will continue toconsist of a mix of the four organisationaltypes: it is the proportion of each that willshift over time.

� The office building types that have the mostcapacity for accommodating this shift inorganisational demand are the atrium, andmedium depth slabs.

� The most appropriate environmental systemsto facilitate this shift in organisationaldemand are likely to be more responsive andcontrollable at a local level thanconventional radiative or all air types.

Product directions and design implicationsThe following recommendations on productdevelopment and design are based on themain conclusions of the NEW study(Chapters 17–20).

Recommendations for individual users� Environmental systems should provide a

higher degree of control, both for individualsand groups, than is available at present.

� Environmental systems should be muchmore accessible and simpler for users tooperate than at present.

� Environmental systems and their controlsshould be designed with more sensitivity to

11

users’ needs. This should facilitate thetransition from continuous work patternsthat are low in interaction to patterns ofwork which are certain to be quite theopposite.

� There should be a sharper distinctionbetween the level of environment providedfor ‘people spaces’—which will tend to befor highly mobile and changing groups—and for the zones provided for supportactivities.

� Environmental systems should be able tocope with adapting ratios between peopleand support zones, since the latter will tendto increase in many office organisations.

Recommendations for clients� Clients need guidance on how to avoid

investing in, and commissioning or leasing,buildings which are designed too specificallyfor one work pattern.

Recommendations for developers� Produce simple, straightforward medium

depth and atrium office shells. Avoidshallow and deep plan types unless they arefor specific purposes, or to meet the needsof the client.

� Ensure the simplest possible interfaces byusing high degrees of detachment betweenenvironmental systems and building shells, iethe ability to decouple services from fabric toallow for flexibility and adaptability.

� Allow enough space and volume to permitadaptation to existing services and tofacilitate the provision of additional servicesin zones identified for support activities, ie acontingency or a zoned mixed modeapproach (for definitions of mixed modeapproaches see Chapter 10).

� Anticipate shorter leases and multi-tenancy.Invent ways of providing shared commonservices for building occupants on acommercial basis.

Recommendations for HVAC services manufacturers� Provide controls which can respond quickly

and cost-effectively to changing patterns ofoccupancy, without adversely affecting thequality of the environment.

� Provide intelligent controls for individuals,teams and support spaces that allowmaximum discretion for users and minimiseoperating costs. Greatly simplify the userinterface.

� Develop strategies for effective mixed modeoperations. Focus on distributed systemsbecause user demand for them is more likelyto increase most quickly.

� Consider how radiative and all air systemsmight be improved to operate moreeffectively within a mixed mode strategy.

� Re-think the design of conventionalradiative and all air systems to include thefiner forms of control and responsivenessrequired by den and club organisations.

� Enhance the effectiveness of maintenanceroutines through advanced monitoring andcontrol techniques, and developing systemswhich are inherently easier to maintain.

Recommendations for lighting designersand manufacturers� Consider the demands for lighting products

raised by different work patterns.� Develop lighting to support 24-hour shift

working (hive).� Respond to new forms of video

communication and IT use.� Allow individuals and teams to control

lighting, especially in areas used formeetings, training and other communalactivities.

� Improve the design of lighting controllers sothat they are more intelligent and responsiveto the needs of the individual. Considerstandardisation to enable ease of use.

� Design more multi-task adjustable tasklighting to suit shared settings used bydifferent individuals (club).

� Anticipate more finely tuned occupancysensing for lighting den, cell, and clubenvironments. (These work patterns aretypified by a wide range of tasks, carriedout by a fluctuating number ofoccupants.)

� Improve the integration of lighting strategywith HVAC approaches in base buildingdesign. Consider the implications of atrend towards exposed thermal mass inceilings.

Recommendations for furniture manufacturers� Focus on specifying furniture products that

support interactive, intermittent workprocesses. In this way you will become lessreliant on supplying products for one-to-onedesk occupancy.

� Provide furniture adapted to more zoning ofwork requirements: quiet areas, meetingsspaces, customer interface etc.

� Develop furniture systems which canenhance individual and team control of theworking environment.

� Improve the interface between organisations,buildings, and environmental systems byimproving the design of partitions, ceilingsand access floors.

12

Part 2: A new research approach

Chapter 4 The research model: Affinities between the work patterns, the building typesand the environmental systems

Chapter 5 The work pattern modelChapter 6 The building type modelChapter 7 The environmental system modelChapter 8 The cost model

4

4.1 The research agenda

The ways of working in offices are changingradically, new ways of working across time andspace are emerging. Organisations are eager tore-examine the means by which they can addvalue to their performance by re-engineeringtheir approach to the use of buildings, spaceand facilities. A model of organisations’demands for environmental services isdeveloped from examining how these kinds ofchanging patterns of work affect the buildingand its internal environment.

New ways of working are argued to be bothmore highly interactive and to provideindividuals with greater autonomy over thetiming, content, tools and locations of work.The content of work is more varied andcreative, work is undertaken in ways that aremore mobile and nomadic than conventionaloffice work. The design of office buildings andtheir environmental systems may inhibit thesemore dynamic ways of using space and time.Most office buildings, interiors andenvironmental systems are briefed, designed,built, serviced and occupied without regard tothese emerging organisational demands.

The new ways of working in offices areeroding the idea of nine-to-five office hours.Even today the time of working is erratic andoften extended, sometimes even linked toglobal ‘follow-the-sun’ activities. The impacton space is difficult to predict, often resultingin uneven patterns of high density space use.Density itself, the numbers of people occupyingspace, has to be measured in new ways asinnovative ways of working are oftenaccommodated in ways that intensify the use ofspace over time.

Not only is the pattern of space occupancy overtime extended and intensified, but the verynotion of office space and office design ischallenged and transformed. Taking the place

of the one-person-to-an-office-or-deskstereotype, an assumption that has driven officedesign and planning for a century, is the idea ofthe office as a series of spaces designed tosupport a wide range of different tasks andactivities.

These task-based settings are only used on anas-needed basis. They form part of a spectrumof places where work occurs, other locationsinclude the home, the client’s premises andother ‘third places’ such as airports, stations,cars, and on the street.

Another way of putting this is to recognise theimplicit assumptions of conventional officedesign that fail to match the expectations oforganisations working in new ways. Theconventional office workplace assumeswrongly that:� office work is routine and undertaken largely

by individuals working alone;� staff work regular 9 to 5 days;� everyone has their ‘own’ desk or office at

which they sit all day;� most people are in the building during the

course of the day and week;� the range of space standards and settings for

office is work is simple and hierarchical;� information technology is fixed to desks and

does not move around.

The problem with office design, and with thesuppliers of office products, is that both havelooked to the past. Organisations who areworking in new, unconventional, quite differentways, are ahead of designers and suppliers intheir thinking about the nature of the office.

They are developing different and higherexpectations for:� their control of time and place;� where they work;� the quality of the work environment;� the healthiness of their workplace and their

lifestyles.

The research model

Affinities between the work patterns, the building typesand the environmental systems

15

This is because office organisations havechanged how they work:

From Toroutine processes creative knowledge workindividual tasks groups, teams, and projectsalone interactive.

They have changed where they work:

From Toplaces networkscentral dispersedtransport communicationoffice multiple locations

including the home.

They are changing their use of informationtechnologies:

From Todata knowledgecentral distributedmainframe PC, video, telecomms,

e-mail, Internetone place mobile, personal, nomadic,

virtualbig palmtop, pocket, laptop.

They are using space over time in new ways:

From Toone desk per person shared group and

individual settingshierarchical space diverse task based space

standards9 to 5 at one place anywhere, anytimeunder-occupancy varied patterns of high

density useowned shared.

4.2 A model of demand and supply

The implications of these new ways of workingfor the design of the office and itsenvironmental systems are explored through the

analysis of the relationship between the workprocess and the patterns of space use. Thisresults in the identification of four partorganisational, part spatial, types: hive, cell,den and club.

The logic of development of these types isexplored in the following section, it forms thebasis of the demand side of the modellingexercise. Each organisational/spatial typemodelled represents significant differences interms of:� patterns of work� patterns of occupancy of space over time� patterns of use of information technology� type of space layout and furniture systems� type of demand for environmental services� affinity with different building types.

A variety of types of space designs (and spaceownership and management systems) andexpected demands for environmental servicescan be conceptualised in relation tofundamental differences identified in patternsof work. Characteristic space layouts and worksettings that correspond to these ways ofworking and patterns of use of space over timeare developed and illustrated. These representwhat we have termed the ‘demand’ profiles ofthe organisation.

These ‘demands’ of organisations are thenanalysed against the constraints andopportunities of the ‘supply’ of building types,for which a separate typology is developed.This permits informed judgements to be madeabout how well the ‘demands’ are met by the‘supply’. The result of the modelling exercise isa picture of the directions of expected demandsmade by various types of organisations,particularly those working in new ways; of howthese patterns of demand affect the quality anddegrees of control of environmental systems;and how these demands can be met by differentgeneric building types and environmentalsystems.

16

This pattern of demand of the organisationtherefore cascades through several levels ofimpacts: from the pattern of work, through thepattern of time and space use, to the nature ofthe demand for environmental services. Thedemand is then contained within, and affectedby, the constraints and opportunities offeredby: the hierarchy of building supply elements;the base building shell and its configuration;the limitations of space design and associatedenvironmental servicing affinities; and thescope and performance attributes of theenvironmental systems themselves. The logicof the research model derived fromunderstanding these interactions oforganisational demand and building supply isshown in Figure 1.

This model of organisational demand andbuilding supply, within which environmentalservices are prescribed, must also be related tothe dynamic pattern of the life-cycle of the

elements of the building and its components.The typical life-cycle of elements of genericoffice buildings has been described by DEGWin previous studies (DEGW and others.ORBIT 1.1985), see Figure 2.

These life-cycle elements representcomponents of the ‘supply’ of buildings, ofwhich environmental services are a significantpart. An important feature of the hierarchy oflife-cycle elements is that the shorter life-cycleelements are much more amenable to usercontrol and change. They therefore bear amore immediate relationship to the differentdemands made by the types of organisationsmodelled here.

It is most significant that the environmentalservicing element of this hierarchy is positionedmidway between the most ‘supply’ dominatedfeature of the building (the long-term buildingshell) and the most ‘demand’ oriented featuresof the hierarchy of life-cycle elements (thesettings of the office which may be changeddaily or hourly by the end users).

In this sense, ‘environmental services’ aremediated strongly in relationships at both thedemand and supply levels of the interfacebetween the organisation (the end users) andthe built and designed environment. Thus, inmany respects it is environmental services thatbridge between the building ‘supply’ and theuser ‘demand’. The linkages betweenenvironmental services and all of the levels ofthe supply of the building, from the shell to theeveryday settings of the office, are extensive.

Figure 1 The logic of demand and supply used in the research model

Figure 2 The life-cycle elements of typical office buildings

17

This suggests that the attempts to optimisethe quality of servicing in response tochanging organisational demands and ways ofworking will have impacts at every level ofthe design, management and use of thebuilding supply.

Leaman and Bordass (in The ResponsibleWorkplace; Duffy, Laing and Crisp, 1993)have explored these issues of the hierarchy ofcontrol in buildings in more detail. Leamanand Borden argue that the hierarchy ofbuilding shell, services, settings and tasksshould be better managed and designed so thatthe degree of constraints imposed by one levelupon the others is minimised; and that verticalfeedback and monitoring between and acrossthe levels of the hierarchy should beoptimised: “a science of decision making willdevelop around the total building system” (TheResponsible Workplace; Duffy, Laing andCrisp, 1993, p.32).

The modelling exercise of the NEW study isconcerned to understand the relationshipsbetween three core sets of variables in thishierarchy of building and user relationships: thework patterns, the HVAC systems, and thebuilding types. Within each of these core setsof variables we have identified four generictypes in order to explore the complexrelationships identified.

Environmental systems are normally taken toinclude both HVAC and lighting systems.However in this study the majority of theanalysis has been directed towards HVACsystems as the number of options is large, welldefined, and the selection process morecomplex.

The modelling of each of these sets of generictypes is explored in the following sections.

Figure 3 Modelling three sets of relationships

Figure 4 Four work patterns

Figure 5 Four building types

Figure 6 Four HVAC system types

Figure 7 Relationships between work patterns,HVAC systems and building types

5

5.1 Patterns of work and the use ofspace over time

Changes in the patterns of work are associatedwith an increasing complexity in the variety ofwork settings and spatial layouts. Organisationsworking in new ways are able to instigate newpatterns of space ownership and management:they share space over time in the office andthereby increase the effective density of theoccupancy of the space they use. Some of thekey differences between conventional and newways of working are summarised in Figure 8and highlighted in Figure 9.

In exploring the implications of new ways ofworking for the design of the office, the projectteam concentrated on the relationships betweenthe patterns of the work process and the use ofspace. The central issues are the degrees towhich the mode of working of the organisation(or of the group within the organisation) isinteractive or autonomous. These twovariables are critical to understanding theimpact of patterns of work, especially newways of working, on the use and design of theoffice workplace and on its associatedenvironmental servicing.

By interaction we mean the degree ofpersonal face-to-face interaction, primarilywithin the individual’s working group, asbeing significant in terms of its impacts onenvironmental and spatial demands. The formsof interaction are very varied, ranging formaland informal through meetings and other adhoc encounters. Interactions via the computer,telephone, or other virtual media are not assignificant in this regard, but needconsideration in so far as they supplement orsubstitute for face-to-face interaction both nowand in the future. Other forms of interaction,with other units and with other groups orindividuals outside the organisation, are alsorelevant in so far as they will have an impacton the pattern of occupancy of space. Manyexternal face-to-face interactions imply a moreintermittent pattern of space occupancy.

By autonomy we mean the degree of control,responsibility and discretion the individual hasover the content, method, location, and tools ofthe work process.

The degrees of interaction and autonomy willfurthermore be associated with the degrees towhich the pattern of space use is likely to becontinuous or intermittent. Higher degrees ofinteraction and individual autonomy are oftenassociated with more intermittent patterns ofspace occupancy. Individuals with greaterdiscretion over the timing, content and tools ofwork will be more likely to want or need towork in several different locations both withinand outside the office. They may choose towork at home some of the time or may spendtime at their clients’ premises.

Individuals whose work is highly interactivewill spend more time away from their ‘own’desks because they need to meet or work withothers either inside or outside the officeworkplace. They are thereby also potentiallyassociated with a greater capacity for sharingof space over time or ‘space useintensification’.

The work pattern model

19

20

Thus degrees of interaction and autonomycorrelate strongly with many aspects of thedesign, servicing and control of theenvironment. They affect expectations for:� openness or enclosure of the space;� heights of partitions, screens, walls, or other

space dividing elements;� forms of control over environmental services

and lighting, whether group or individual,whether highly controllable or not;

� zoning, individual ownership.

Characteristic space layouts and work settingsthat correspond with these ways of workingand patterns of use of space over time aredeveloped and illustrated later in this chapter.The detailed design of these variousenvironments will depend on other factors,particularly:� the duration of the pattern of the use of

space over time;� the variety of the content of work tasks.

Depending on the degree to which theorganisation (or part of it) is expected to workin these different ways, then a variety of typesof space layouts, and associated ownership andmanagement systems are modelled. Theexpected demands for environmental servicesand systems associated with these workpatterns and space types are also modelled,

A series of diagrams illustrates these over-lapping characteristics and the affinitiesbetween work pattern, space design andoccupancy, and the demands for

Figure 10 Four work patterns

environmental services. They offer a way ofthinking through the impact of new ways ofworking on the design of the officeenvironment. They are not intended to providein themselves the detailed design solutions forparticular organisations.

Four major organisational types are identifiedwith distinct work patterns and associatedspatial design features using the aboveapproach. They represent a range of bothconventional and new ways of working. Theyare a shorthand description of a set ofaffinities between the work pattern, the use ofspace, and the demands likely to be made bythese organisations or working groups forspace and environmental services. Theorganisational/spatial types are called: hive,cell, den and club.

The following sections describe these workpatterns, how they would be expected to usespace, and show some typical examples oforganisations of these kinds.

21

The hive

The hive office organisation is characterised byindividual routine process work with low levelsof interaction and individual autonomy. Theoffice worker sits at simple workstations forcontinuous periods of time on a regular 9 to 5schedule (variants of this type include 24-hourshift working). The settings are typicallyuniform, open planned, screened andimpersonal. Typical organisations or workgroups include telesales, call centres, data entryor processing, routine banking, financial andadministrative operations, and basicinformation services.

Figure 11 The hive work pattern: low interaction,low autonomy

Figure 13 Interior of BritishGas offices at Barnet,England. Source: DEGW(Architects: DEGW)

Figure 12 Plan of BritishGas offices at Barnet,England. Source: DEGW(Architects: DEGW)

22

The cell

The cell office organisation is for individualconcentrated work with little interaction.Highly autonomous individuals occupy theoffice in an intermittent irregular pattern withextended working days, working elsewheresome of the time (possibly at home, at clients,or on the road).

Each individual is typically provided with theuse of either an enclosed cell or a highlyscreened workstation in an open planned office.Each individual setting must provide for acomplex variety of tasks. The autonomouspattern of work, implying a sporadic andirregular occupancy of the space means that thepotential exists for the settings needed by theindividual to be planned and used on a sharedbasis. Typical organisations include lawyers,some accountancy firms, academic offices,research organisations and managementconsultancies.

Figure 14 The cell work pattern: low interaction,high autonomy

Figure 16 Interior of Freshfields, London,England. Source: DEGW (Space planningand interior design by DEGW)

Figure 15 Plan of FreshfieldsLondon, England. Source:DEGW. (Space planning andinterior design by DEGW)

23

The den

The den office organisation is associated withgroup process work, interactive but notnecessarily highly autonomous. The space isdesigned for group working with a range ofseveral simple settings, typically arranged inthe open plan or group room. While the settingsare normally designed on the assumption thatevery individual occupies their ‘own’ desk, thegroup would also have access to local ancillaryspace for shared equipment or special technicalfacilities that are used as-needed. Tasks aretypically of short duration involving team work.Typical organisations include design, research,some media work and advertising.

Figure 17 The den work pattern, high interaction,low autonomy

Figure 18 Plan of ITN headquarters,Source: DEGW. (Architects: Sir NormanFoster & Partners)

Figure 19 Interior of ITN headquarters,Source: DEGW (Architects: Sir NormanFoster & Partners)

24

The club

The club office organisation is for knowledgework: both highly autonomous and highlyinteractive. The pattern of occupancy isintermittent and over an extended working day.A wide variety of shared task based settingsserve both concentrated individual and groupinteractive work. Individuals and teams occupyspace on an as-needed basis, moving aroundthe space to take advantage of a wide range offacilities.

The ratio of sharing will depend on the precisecontent of the work activity and the mix of in-house versus out-of-office working, possiblycombining tele-working, home-working andworking at client and other locations. Typicalorganisations include some creative firms suchas advertising and media companies,

Figure 20 The club work pattern, high interaction,high autonomy

IT companies, and some managementconsultancies and the general category of highvalue-adding knowledge workers in manysectors.

Figure 21 Plan ofRijksgebouwendienst, Haarlem,Netherlands. Source: DEGW. (Interiordesign by Gispen)

Figure 22 Interior of Rijksgebouwendienst,Haarlem, Netherlands. Source: DEGW

25

The work pattern characteristics of the fourorganisational types are summarised inFigure 23.

The limits of this typology of organisationsshould be recognised. First, the terms hive, cell,den and club may usefully be applied atdifferent scales or to separate parts of theorganisation. Organisations differ very widelyin the degree of internal variety of workprocesses and patterns. Parts of organisationswith different work patterns may be located inseparate buildings or parts of floors. Thespecific correlation between work pattern andspace occupancy will vary widely.

It is recognised that most organisations, or partsof some organisations, will no doubt berepresented by combinations of these workpatterns. For example, many organisations have‘back office’ groups of staff engaged in dataentry or routine administrative functions, whichwe have referred to as hive, which may belocated with other groups operating as a den ora club in an headquarters office building.

A dynamic way of using the model is toidentify the relative proportions of

organisational types within the oneorganisation or location, and then to thinkthrough the implications of futureorganisational change on their relativeimportance. The correlations between thiscombination of ‘types’ and their implicationsfor buildings, space use, environmentalservicing, can all be articulated. The use of themodel in this dynamic way is summarised inChapter 13.

It should also be noted that the abovetypology does not preclude any one sector ortype of work from being included in any oneof the types. We believe the diversity oforganisations is such that even within thesame sector of work or profession sufficientdifferences in work style and organisationalstructure may exist to preclude any inevitableassociation between particular sectors and theindividual types defined here. On the otherhand, we do expect to see affinities betweensome sectors of work and the typologiesoutlined. Such an affinity exists, for example,between many of the large IT firms, othercreative organisations, as well as some of themanagement consultancy firms and the clubtype offices.

Figure 23 Patterns of work: four major types

6

6.1 Types of space layout andpatterns of use

For each of the four patterns of work, theproject team developed hypothetical space planlayouts over the typical floors of each of fourtypical building types (see below). A set ofassumptions was created to define how thespace would be used over time in eachorganisation, including the degrees to whichspace would be shared over time. The coreassumptions used in the modelling exercise aredescribed in Figure 27.

A database was created in which all the typesof spaces, the distribution of informationtechnology equipment, and patterns of use ofspace over time associated with each pattern ofwork were identified. The results permitted aset of profiles of demand for environmentalservices to be developed, specific to eachpattern of work in each type of building. Eachpattern of work was identified as having typicalways of using space. Space layouts were builtup from generic concepts for furniture andspace use likely to support the different patternsof work.

Figure 24 Work pattern characteristics

Figure 25 Types of work settings

Figure 26 Hive, cell, den, and club space plans(source: DEGW)

The characteristic settings to support thedifferent patterns of work are also associatedwith expectations of the pattern of their useover time: the more interactive and more highlyautonomous patterns of work are more likely tosupport the sharing of space over time (spaceuse intensification) because the associatedoccupancy of space over time is likely to beintermittent or irregular. Higher levels ofinteraction and autonomy are also associatedwith the need for greater diversity of worksettings. Moreover, such patterns of use aremore likely to demand more elaborateenvironmental resources.

The building type model

27

28

Figure 28 Patterns of space occupancy and thediversity of work settings

Examples of the assumptions used as part ofthe development of a series of databases onpatterns of use are shown in the followingtables. Several variations of the work patternswere tested to explore alternative scenariosinvolving different patterns of space layout anddegrees of sharing of space over time.

For each scenario the following data weremeasured and compared:� definition of size and types of space

provided� numbers of each type of setting provided

across the typical floor;� the sharing ratio of individual units of space

(numbers of staff allocated to each space) ifappropriate;

� the provision of IT equipment by typeassociated with particular work settings;

� the maximum number of people that thesetting supports given the ratio of sharing;

� the % of gross floor area occupied by eachtype of work setting/activity;

� the hourly occupancy of each type of settingand associated pattern of use of IT at eachsetting across the 24 hour period;

� numbers of printers and other associatedshared equipment such as copiers, coffeemachines, mainframe computers, fileservers, provided on the typical floor;

� the total space density and the totalpopulations served by the typical floor.

The four examples shown in Figures 29–32represent a cross-section of the variantsexamined, they are only one example of manypossible solutions within each type of workpattern. The space densities are measured fromthe test layouts that were space planned ontothe floors of the typical buildings. Thesedensities therefore represent only one typicaldensity as tested in the modelling exercise.

Note also that the term ‘effective density’ is usedas a measure of density of occupancy torecognise where space use is shared over time.(For example, if two people share the same worksetting, then the total effective density of thespace occupancy is doubled). Densities weretherefore calculated using the actual spacelayouts designed for the models, they distinguishbetween the space plan density (persons sqm/NIA*) and a total effective density which takesinto account the degree of sharing of the spaceover time (persons sqm/NIA).

* net internal area

29

Hive

30

Cell

31

Den

32

Club

33

6.2 Modelling organisations intobuilding types

The four buildings modelled in this wayrepresented:� an atrium building� a deep central core building� a medium depth building� a shallow depth building

Figure 33 Four building types

The building types identified as beingappropriate for the initial modelling exercisefor the project have been chosen as types 1–4defined in ECON 19, published by BRECSU(Building Research Energy ConservationSupport Unit at BRE). They were described byBRECSU as:Type 1 Naturally ventilated cellular

(referred to here as shallow depth)Type 2 Naturally ventilated open plan

(referred to here as medium depth)Type 3 Air conditioned standard (referred to

here as: deep central core)Type 4 Air conditioned prestige (referred to

here as atrium).

Figure 34 Four building types (diagrams)

These classifications arose from energy surveywork carried out for the Energy Environmentand Waste Office (now known as the EnergyDirectorate) in the 1980s. They are based uponan analysis of 400 office buildings (over 500sqm)—with these four distinct types beingidentified as representative of the sample.Further survey work of 3000 buildings carriedout by the Open University as part of thedevelopment of a UK non-domestic buildingstock model being undertaken by BRE andothers on behalf of the DOE in the early 1990sconfirmed that these four building typesrepresented a good sample of the UK buildingstock.

It is important to emphasise that for thepurposes of the NEW study the conventionalassociations between the base building shelltype, the types of environmental servicing, andthe assumed levels of specification areseparated. The building types are consideredpurely as building shell types so that issues ofappropriate environmental services and degreeof appropriateness of the building type to thespatial demands of the organisation can beindependently and separately evaluated. This issignificant because the conventionalunderstanding of the building type typicallymerges together issues of specification level,servicing type, and organisational demand intoa hybrid description. For example, the atriumbuilding is conventionally assumed to have a‘prestige’ level of specification appropriate forcertain kinds of users and to be serviced by fullair conditioning. It is precisely suchassociations and assumptions that this studyinsists should be re-considered.

The profiles of the space and time use of eachtype of organisation (work pattern) in the fourbuilding types enabled the study to evaluate thepotential of each building type to respond tothe demands of the organisation. The modellingof each of the organisations involved thedevelopment of hypothetical space plans over atypical floor of each of the four building types.The results of the analysis are provided inChapter 9.

7

7.1 Evaluating environmentalsystems

From the generic description derived for eachof the work patterns it is possible to considerhow these might impact upon the specificationof environmental systems. As previouslyexplained, within this context we have takenthe environmental systems to include HVAC(heating, ventilation, and air conditioning)systems and lighting systems.

Figure 35 summarises the requirements forHVAC systems; lighting is dealt with later inthis chapter. As these requirements are based ongeneric work pattern descriptions they may attimes appear simplified. Inevitably there will beexceptions to the system associations outlinedhere. However the derivation of the workpattern requirements for a specific building isan important step in the design process, and it isintended that the analysis described in thischapter will be adapted to suit individualcircumstances. A more detailed consideration ofaffinities between HVAC system families(which are derived later in this chapter) and thefour working patterns is provided in Chapter 10.

HVAC servicing expectations

HiveThe hive is described as a mechanisticindividual based workplace which will oftenconsist of general functional workstations. Theservicing system is not likely to be called uponto be highly responsive or flexible as hive taskswould be associated with a predictable stableenvironment. Given the relatively fixed day,uniformity of activity, and lack of intermittentoccupation, a complex control strategy isunnecessary.

There would also be little (if any) expectationof individual control as a hive environment isassociated with lack of autonomy, hence theuse of central systems. This is not meant toimply that individual hive workers do not merituser control, it is simply stating that they areless likely to require it, or be given it, than theircell, den, or club counterparts. Reliance onnatural ventilation alone may be insufficient toachieve the ‘equality’ of conditions and accessto control required across the space.

Most hive work patterns would be expected touse an open planned space layout. Desk sharingis only likely if a pattern of shift working hasbeen introduced. This would then extend thetimetable of the building use. Over the standardday the occupancy density is likely to begreater than for the other working patternsunless the latter have initiated hot deskingregimes to increase their effective density.

CellThe cell is again described as an individualisticworkplace, but with a much greater degree ofautonomy and creativity involved. Cell workersare likely to have a more function dedicatedworkstation. They require a workingenvironment which offers a greater opportunityfor concentration, and possibly have arequirement for quiet spaces.

The cell worker will have greater expectationsof a more highly serviced, high ‘quality’

The environmental systemmodel

Figure 35 Summary of environmental servicing demands associated withwork patterns

35

environment (involving natural ventilationwhere possible) over which s/he is able toexercise a higher level of control than his or herhive counterparts. The preferred system musttherefore be responsive, and have user-friendlylocal interfaces. The occupancy patterns will bemore intermittent and variable than the hive asworkers choose their own hours or work atweekends to suit the needs of the job.

The potential for space sharing is in theoryhigh, but this will depend upon the degree ofspace personalisation required, and the specificpatterns of use and occupancy. If it isintroduced then space use intensification couldlead to lower levels of diversity in space useoccupancy as the number of free spaces wouldhave been minimised.

DenThe den is an interactive team based workplaceand is likely to have a variety of multi-functionworkstations. The working day mayoccasionally be extended to suit the needs of aparticular project or team activity. As with thecell, a stimulating but focusing environment isrequired. A team may also require acoustic andvisual privacy. There is the expectation of ahighly serviced team space, with plant andcontrol localised sufficiently to permit theinitial selection and achievement of a teamacceptable environment. It is anticipated thatminimal interaction with the control wouldsubsequently be required during occupancy.The suitability of natural ventilation may beaffected by the variability of occupancy andoccupation time between and within teams.

There is likely to be minimal personalisationbut there could be a desire to register(temporary) team ownership of the space.Space use intensification is unlikely unlessinteraction or other activities increase outsidethe team area.

ClubThe club is the most challenging of the fourwork patterns to service. It can potentially haveany combination of the cell, den and hivefeatures in its layout. Hence there will be anautomatic inheritance of the expectationsassociated with the other constituent workpatterns. Each of these will require theappropriate quality of environment, andpossibly one which will allow the differentwork areas to be demarcated.

The club offers a high likelihood of sharedspace use and is also likely to be characterised

by a high degree of churn. This dynamicpattern of use and lack of space ownershiprequires a ‘universal’ approach to theinterfaces between the user and theenvironmental services to allow ease of useand instant familiarity. The space could have amixture of high density areas and some withhighly intermittent use such as specialisedconference rooms.

7.2 Survey of industry opinion onHVAC system performance

Before continuing with the detailed evaluationof the various defined HVAC system familiesagainst work pattern requirements, a survey ofwider industry perception of individual HVACsystems’ performance strengths and weaknesseswas undertaken. This was achieved throughquestioning representatives of five leadingconsulting engineers on their ratings of 18different HVAC systems under 48 separateevaluation criteria.

The consultancies chosen are responsible fora major share of industry activity in the UK,and are reputed to represent diverse attitudestowards the use of passive and activebuilding services systems. This evaluationtook place without the consultantsapproached being aware of the work patterndefinitions.

The 18 individual HVAC systems are describedin Appendix A. Although this list is by nomeans comprehensive, the chosen systemsdemonstrate the available range of HVACservicing options. Their subsequent groupingon completion of the survey into four HVACsystem families is shown below.

The four families of HVAC systems1 Distributed� Four-pipe fan coil system with a central air

handling unit� Terminal heat pumps with a central air

handling unit� Induction units� VRF cooling system� ATM zonal

2 All air� Variable air volume (VAV) with perimeter

heating� VAV with terminal re-heat� Fan assisted VAV� Dual duct air conditioning (constant

volume—CV)� Low temperature fan assisted VAV

36

3 Radiative air� Mechanical displacement ventilation with

static heating and cooling� Ventilating chill/heat beam� Mechanical displacement ventilation with

perimeter heating� Hollow core ventilation system

4 Tempered air� Natural ventilation with perimeter heating� Facade ventilation with perimeter heating� Mechanical extract ventilation with window

supply and perimeter heating� Mechanical supply and extract with

perimeter heating

The last category of tempered air was usedwithin the confines of the industry survey butwas then broadened to cover mixed modesystems as part of the wider analysis ofaffinities between HVAC systems, workpatterns, and building types. The definitionsand significance of mixed mode systems areexplained in more detail in Chapter 10.

No grouping of HVAC systems can ever beperfect. It is recognised that within each familythere will be systems which have uniquequalities, or systems which are more advancedin certain areas than others. Examples of thisare the ATM zonal system which allowsmaintenance outside of the occupied space, orthe difference in performance at low dutiesbetween fan and non-fan assisted VAV systems.However within the context of this studydefinitions of families of systems greatlyfacilitated the analysis of the types of affinitiesdiscussed within the NEW study.

Each criterion could be scored on a basis of 0–100. Despite the range of organisationalattitudes inherent within the survey responses,there was a high level of agreement betweenthe markings given. To aid with theinterpretation of trends from this mass of data,and so ease understanding of the systems’perceived performances, the 48 criteria weresummarised into eight sets of issues. These areorientated around those features consideredimportant within new working environments.

Ability of systems to provide specifiedenvironmental criteria1 User

Summarises issues associated with usercontrollability, acceptance and the systems’ability to provide an environment perceivedas comfortable.

2 CapacityConcerns issues associated with the systems’ability to meet variations in heating andcooling demands, together withconsideration of the precision with whichthese demands can be met.

3 DesignabilityIncludes considerations associated with therobustness of the design in response tovariations in the design conditions, ease ofcommissioning and the availability of designguidance.

Practical ease with which environmentalcriteria can be achieved4 Integration

Represents the ease with which the systemcan be integrated into various space andbuilding types, together with a considerationof the way in which the HVAC systemimpinges upon the selection and provision ofother services.

5 MaintenanceConcerns issues associated with health andsafety, down-time and ease of replacementor refurbishment of systems and theircomponents.

6 EnvironmentalLooks at energy use and associatedenvironmental impacts due to systemselection and installation.

7 Life cycle costsCosts associated with the selection,installation and operation of the particularHVAC system.

8 InnovationSummarises the originality or leading edgenature of the system (as considered byexperts within the field).

37

Upon creating these groups it became clear thatseven of the eight sets of issues could befurther grouped into two clusters. In essence,systems tended to be marked consistently ingroups 1–3 and groups 4–7. Markings in theInnovation group 8 (not surprisingly) did nottrend with either of the two clusters.

The emergence of this division of groupsenabled the results of the survey to besuccinctly summarised in the following systemmap, Figure 36. This is shown with the ‘Y’ axisrepresenting the markings for groups 1–3(indicating the potential ability of a system toprovide the specified environmental criteria, egtechnical performance issues) and the ‘X’ axisrepresenting markings for groups 4–7(indicating the ease with which this can beachieved eg cost and practicality).

The system map illustrates the industry’srelative perceptions of the surveyed systems.The innovative labelling given to systems suchas displacement ventilation is a reflection of therelative newness of such systems. There is thepossibility that the industry’s perceptions oftheir qualities may have been affected by asignificant lack of first hand experience of theirdesign and operation, thereby creating atendency for cautious ranking of their attributes.

Ideal systems, that is those which permitmaximum functionality in the most costeffective manner (as may be required by theclub type environment), would tend towards thetop right hand corner of the system map. Noneof the existing system families have been ratedas offering this optimal solution. The arrows onthe system map indicate the directions forimprovement of each system family to meet theclub requirements. However positioning on themap is not otherwise directly related tomatching the requirements of other workpatterns.

Based upon the survey findings and the projectteam’s interpretation of the work patternrequirements for HVAC servicing, it is possibleto identify ‘failings’ within each system familythat would need to be rectified in order to meetthese work pattern servicing demands. It is thenalso possible to identify directions for newproducts. This is discussed further in Chapters18 and 19 where identified productdevelopments are focused in several key areas,for example: � ControlsThe ability to respond to changing patterns ofoccupancy, increased levels of local control,and intelligent controls to minimise energy use.

Figure 36 Performance results of families of HVAC systems

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� MaintenanceIncreased ease of maintenance, increasedopportunity for maintenance outside of theoccupied space, conditioned basedmaintenance, and automated fault detection.

� CommissioningSelf balancing systems, improved grille anddiffuser design.

� Modularity and flexibilityEase of upgrading and ease of re-design ofHVAC systems.

7.3 Work pattern demands forlighting

HiveThe hive implies a sedentary and regular dayalthough there could be expectations of shiftwork leading to either extended hours or 24-hour working. Tasks are workstation based anda high level of IT equipment could causeproblems with glare and reflections. If officesare to make reduced use of paper, task lightingmay become less necessary. The futureimplications of video work and emergingscreen technologies needs to be kept in mind.Central shared support areas with highlyfocused special lighting will contrast with theworkstation lighting set-up.

With the move to longer hours of occupationand night working there is the need to createvariability and stimulation through the use ofsuch techniques as sparkle and spot lighting inkey areas, or changing light levels. To allowlight to be reflected back into the space at nightwithout cutting the occupant off from theoutside world it may be necessary to developblind systems or other window/lighting devices.Staff should, if possible, have access todaylight, or at least be able to have a sense ofchanging time or weather.

CellThe cell requires an individual pattern of lightingwith high levels of discretion and controllabilityto allow for highly varied and irregular use,although this will be difficult to address in

situations where space sharing has beenintroduced, or when a cell is operating in anopen plan space. The trend will be to allow anindividual to set up the lighting system for thetask which they are doing, and in their preferredmanner. This requires a base level system oflighting to which equipment can be added.

DenThe den will consist of individuals who workbased within a group of workstationssupplemented by ancillary group/team/ projectfacilities. All areas are likely to make use of ITequipment as well as paper. The space groupancillary areas may allow for the shared use oftechnologies such as video, projection, orspecial IT uses such as scanning which haveparticular lighting needs. Here the lighting canbe used to emphasise and support changingactivities. In the team ancillary areas tasklighting may be appropriate.

Individual control of lighting can be providedby task lights within a team, with an associatedlevel of ambient background lighting associatedwith the group. There may be problems withgroup consensus over the control of thisbackground lighting.

ClubIn the club the lighting is required to supportindividual and group activities with a variedoccupancy pattern over time and sharedownership of settings. The need is forlocalisation and adaptability for changing tasks,preferences, and functions (both with andwithout VDUs) in the same space over time.

Users may not be familiar with the space or itscontrol systems hence the latter must beintuitive and adaptable to their needs. Lightingshould be used to differentiate between openinteractive spaces and private enclosedindividual areas. In the future individuals maycarry with them their lighting preferences andprogramme the space to suit their needs. Thebuilding may provide standardised tools toaccess lighting (and other systems) whichbecome familiar to everyone wherever theychoose to work.

8

8.1 Introduction

The development of a prototype life cyclecosting model by Johnson Controls allowed usto determine the cost implications of a varietyof fit-out elements within seven combinationsof work patterns and building types. Thischapter describes the derivation of the model,the assumptions made, and gives a discussionof the conclusions which the model was able toprovide.

8.2 Cost study approach

The model was derived from the work patterndefinitions used in Chapter 5. Typical costswere produced for a selection of building type/work pattern combinations as indicated inFigure 37. These combinations were chosen tocover the majority of the most well matchedbuilding type/working pattern affinities, ie thosewhich were given the highest affinity rating asdescribed in Chapter 9.

Figure 37 Selected building type and work patterncombinations modelled in the cost study

8.3 Objectives of the cost study

The cost study objectives were to develop aconceptual generic model able to provide

meaningful profiles of the economicrelationships, on a life cycle basis, betweenwork pattern and:� building shell type� installed HVAC family and category of

lighting system� type and quality of scenery and settings. The

cost model could only be developed at abasic illustrative level within this study.

However it could ultimately be refined andextended to provide clients with a sophisticateddecision making tool that could be tailored totheir specific needs.

8.4 The model structure

The model has been developed in a matrixformat using a standard spreadsheetcalculation package. It examines the life cyclecost impact of various pairings of the sevenbuilding type and work pattern combinationspreviously referred to with an item drawnfrom one of the following five componentclasses:� Shell type differentiating between the four

building plan depths� HVAC system type differentiating between

the four system families (all air, radiativeair, distributed, mixed mode)

� Lighting system type based on a selectionfrom four options (passive/fixed grid,passive/variable grid, active/fixed grid,active/variable grid)

� One of three qualities of scenery (high,medium, low)

� One of three qualities of settings (high,medium, low) of furniture styles.

The cost model

40

The results of the cost evaluations have beengenerated on a cost per head and cost persqm basis, using net present valuecalculations based on a 10-year cycle with adiscount rate of 9% (although the modelincludes the flexibility to change this). As iscommon convention the capital installationcosts are represented in year 0, whereasannual and periodic maintenance costscommence in year 1. Costs presented in thisstudy assume that reconfiguration of theHVAC systems, lighting, scenery and settingsoccurs every 10 years. This rate can be variedwithin the model.

Reconfiguration costs have been annualised forthe HVAC and lighting systems. Exemplarycost data has been input from JohnsonControls’ records database of their managedproperties (International PerformanceManagement Database, Johnson Controls) andother published sources which are listed in theReferences. Other key assumptions within thestudy have been listed within Appendix C ofthis book. It is recommended that they arereferred to in order to fully understand the basisof the following results—in particular theassumptions made about the mixed modesystems.

8.5 Analysis of results andconclusions

As much of the data within the model comesfrom published sources or accepted norms,where any inaccuracies exist these are likely tobe consistent across the work patterns, systemtypes, building types, etc. Therefore, althoughthe accuracy of the numbers cannot be assured,any patterns arising from the analysis can beassumed to indicate the generic concepts of therelative costs.

However, the case studies verify that in practicethe costs of a single type of building housing asingle type of work pattern can varysignificantly depending upon the level ofspecification of the various components. Insuch cases the relative cost order could changesignificantly if comparisons of very lowspecification and very high specificationbuildings are made. These caveatsnotwithstanding the following discussion andanalysis of the model results presents aninteresting aspect of the impact of new waysof working.

There are some general points to note:� The combined capital and installation costs

are the dominant factors in all the life cyclecalculations, contributing as much as 96% inthe case of some building components.

� For all building types the combined costs ofthe scenery and settings significantlyoutweigh the costs of the building servicesor building structure.

A further dominant factor in the cost per headcalculations is the effective density of thework pattern (cell 22.2 sqm/person, den 14.7sqm/ person, hive 10.4 sqm/person, club 7.6sqm/person). The high effective density of theclub derives from the assumed space sharing.Therefore overall life cycle costs per head risewith the work patterns from club, to hive, toden to cell. The one exception to this trendoccurs in the comparison of high qualityfurniture where the pattern becomes hive, toclub, to den to cell. This is due to theconsiderably higher cost of the high qualityclub furniture. It is however possible for otherwork patterns to involve a certain amount ofspace sharing resulting in a cost advantage.

Shell costsThe overall cost of the shell appears, from thelimited data of this model, to increase inrelation to the building type from mediumdepth, to deep central core, to atrium becauseof the increasingly complex structuralrequirements of the buildings.

The increased intensity of use of some of thework patterns causes very minor variations inthe costs of fabric maintenance. A greater effectis noticeable for variations in the building typesbut even these are not significant.

HVAC systemsThe mixed mode system offers the lowest lifecycle cost solution in all the work pattern/building type combinations due to the highlevel of passive heating and cooling built intothe system design and resultant reduction inplant costs from the assumption that a zonedmixed mode system is in place.

Of the building type/work pattern/HVACsystem combinations costed, the lowest lifecycle cost solution was a mixed mode systemserving a hive environment in a deep centralcore building. The predominantly passivenature of

41

the mixed mode design in conjunction with thelow level of user control required for a hiveenvironment contribute to low costs in manyareas of the model. However, other factors suchas the ease with which a large volume spacewith a constant load can be controlled also hasan effect on these low life cycle costs.

The radiative air and mixed mode systemsshow lower utilities costs than those of thedistributed systems and all air systems. Withthe mixed mode systems this is due to theincreased dependence upon natural ventilation.In the case of the radiative air systems this ispartly explained by certain members of thisfamily treating (ie cooling, or humidifying)only sufficient fresh air to meet the needs of theoccupants, with the remainder of the coolingload being met more efficiently by a water

based distribution method. The distributedsystem has particularly high utilities costs dueto the assumed reduced efficiency achievablewith small H VAC components.

The mixed mode systems show lowermaintenance costs than the distributed, all airand radiative air systems. These can beattributed to the lower levels of mechanicalcomponents within these systems and reducedwear and tear. The distributed systems have thehighest maintenance costs because of the highernumber of units containing maintainable items.

There appears to be a general trend across themajority of the HVAC system cost componentsincreasing from hive, to club, to den, to cell.The only cost component which does notfollow

Figure 38 Shell costs per sqm

Figure 39 Shell costs per head

42

this pattern is the utilities costs. However, theutilities costs are a significant enoughcomponent to ensure that the general trend in thecapital and installation, maintenance andreconfiguration costs is not replicated in the totalHVAC costs. Instead, the radiative air and allair systems have increasing overall life cyclecosts from the hive, to club, to den to cell; whilstthe distributed systems increase from club, tohive, to den to cell, and the mixed mode systemsincrease from hive, to den to club to cell.

The cell environment is comparativelyexpensive due to higher capital, installation andmaintenance costs resulting partly from thehigher densities of air treatment units or supplyand extract ducting. However, the high qualityenvironment and the high level of user controlexpected within this environment will also be acontributing factor.

LightingThe variable grid lighting systems havesignificantly greater capital and installationcosts than the fixed grid systems. Whilst thecost of reconfiguring a variable grid systemis only 10% of that of a fixed grid system,with a reconfiguration rate of 3 times in 10years these savings do not offset theadditional capital and installation costs.Taking the medium depth building as anexample, savings from the variable gridsystem do not accrue until the reconfigurationrate reaches 8 times in 10 years for an activesystem in a cell, 9 times in 10 years for apassive system in a cell, and 10 times in 10years for a passive system in a hive. The cluband den work patterns do not achieve anysavings during the 10 year life cycle in thisbuilding type.

Figure 40HVAC—cost per sqm

Figure 41HVAC—Cost per head

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The deep central core building has asignificantly greater overall life cycle costacross all four lighting system categories thanthe other building forms. This results fromhigher utilities and maintenance costs due tothe permanent artificial lighting requirementtowards the centre of the building during theoccupancy period.

The medium depth building and the atriumbuilding have very similar costs due to asimilar lighting requirement. The light welleffect of a central atrium enables daylightpenetration from the atrium as well as theexterior facade, resulting in a similar daylight:artificial lighting ratio as that of the mediumdepth building.

The cell work pattern has lower utilities coststhan the other working patterns as occupants ina non-shared cell are more likely to turn off thelights when they are not needed. However, theadditional wiring and switching required toprovide occupancy control of the cellular areascauses the capital, installation and maintenancecosts to be higher for the cell work pattern thanfor other work patterns.

The deep central core building with avariable active grid lighting system andhousing a hive environment offers the highestoverall life cycle cost solution. The scope forabsence detection control within a hiveenvironment is minimal whilst any daylightcontrol around the

Figure 42 Lightingcost per sqm

Figure 43 Lighting costs per head

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perimeter of a deep central core building isonly going to contribute very small savingswhen averaged across the whole building area.Therefore the potential benefits of an activelighting system are not realised within thiswork pattern/building type combination.

SceneryThere appears to be a trend of overall life cyclecosts increasing from medium depth building,to deep central core building, to atriumbuilding. The additional structural requirementsof the deep or atrium buildings increases thelikelihood of having to fit scenery componentsaround columns, etc. This causes an increase inthe capital and installation costs. Higher capitaland installation costs contribute to a high

overall life cycle cost for the cell work pattern.These result from increased partitioning in thecell environment. The opposite effect is foundwith the hive environment where minimalpartitioning leads to lower capital andinstallation costs and hence lower overall lifecycle costs.

SettingsFurniture costs are dependent on work patternand furniture quality but not on building type.

Costs increase from hive to den to cell to clubas the specification of a typical workstationincreases (eg from a bench, to an L-shape, tosystem furniture, to system furniture withadditional social support furniture).

Figure 44 Scenerycost per sqm

Figure 45 Scenerycost per head

45

Figure 46 Setting -cost per sqm

Figure 47 Setting -cost per head

46

The idea of ‘affinity’ has been developed tofirst describe, and then evaluate, how well thedemands of work patterns are met by differentHVAC systems and building types. Thestrengths and weaknesses of the HVAC systemsand building types are highlighted in a simpleway. The definition of sets of affinities betweenwork patterns, building types, and HVACsystems is also used to indicate whereopportunities exist for developers, designers,suppliers and manufacturers to improve theirproducts to better match varied and emerginguser needs. These affinities are explored insequence:� work patterns: building types� work patterns: HVAC systems� HVAC systems: building types.

Finally, a review of the dynamics of changeimplicit in the model of work patterns andorganisations is used to identify which HVACsystems, in which kinds of buildings, are mostlikely to match users’ needs.

Part 3: Affinities between workpatterns, building typesand environmental systems

Chapter 9 Affinities between the work patterns: building typesChapter 10 Affinities between the work patterns: environmental systemsChapter 11 Affinities between the HVAC systems and building typesChapter 12 Optimal overall affinities between the work patterns, the building types and the HVAC systemsChapter 13 The dynamics of change

9

Introduction: the idea of affinities

The term ‘affinity’ is used in the study todescribe and evaluate the significant differencesof how well the work pattern demands are metby both building types and environmentalservices. The measure of affinity in this sense isthe degree to which the complex demands ofthe work patterns (hive, cell, den and club) areachieved (or not), how far they are resolved,and how satisfactorily they can beaccommodated in different building types(atrium, deep central core, medium depth,shallow depth); as well as differences betweenhow well different families of environmentalsystems can support these demands(distributed, all air, radiative air, and mixedmode) in those different building types.

In this sense ‘affinities’ describe the inherentquality and appropriateness of the relationshipsbetween the types of patterns of work, thebuilding types and the families ofenvironmental systems. A good affinity (or setof affinities) suggests a greater likelihood thatneeds will be satisfied between the workpattern, the building, and the HVAC system inquestion.

The examination of these affinities is thereby ameans of defining the inherent match or fitbetween user characteristics, HVAC systemattributes, and simple building typecharacteristics, in order to optimise solutions.The idea of affinity is defined by the currentstatus of knowledge of user requirements andof the technical and spatial features of buildingsand HVAC systems. The notion of affinities istherefore by its nature a broad brush evaluationand one that will inevitably change with time.

Thus, there will be affinities between theorganisational types and the building types.Furthermore there are expected affinities

between the building types and the types ofHVAC servicing systems which are likely to bemost appropriate. The evaluation and definitionof these sets of affinities is a central purposeand basis of the research. The key findings areexplored in the following sections.

The point here is not to use either the modelsof organisations or the building types in adeterministic way, but as a device forelucidating critical differences in therelationships between the organisation, its useof space and buildings over time, and itsassociated demands for HVAC services. Thedefinition of these sets of affinities is also ameans of alerting users, designers andmanufacturers to the potentialities of systems,or buildings, to solve certain kinds of userdemands. It also alerts the same people to therisks of supplying technologies and buildingsthat may fail. It thereby also provides us with ameans of defining ways in which buildings andsystems need to be improved and betterprovided to meet the needs of users.

The end result is an understanding of thestrengths and weaknesses of the performance ofthe existing range of typical HVAC systems inresponding to the demands of a range of typesof organisations in various building types.Directions of change for the future are thenidentified as likely to improve the performanceof these HVAC systems. These can be usedboth to highlight technical changes required inthe servicing systems as well as to indicate theways in which we see building shell design andspecification evolving to support such changesin technology and organisational behaviour.The affinities also suggest ways in which thefindings can be used by those with differentinterests, whether the developer, the user, themanufacturer or designer. The implications forthese particular interest groups are highlightedin Chapters 17, 18, 19, 20.

Affinities between the workpatterns: building types

49

The atrium building typeAt 15m glass to glass, this building type worksvery well for all organisational types except forthe cell work pattern in an enclosed spacelayout. In the conventional building typesavailable in the UK it would normally be thecase that the atrium building would beconsidered over-specified for use by hive typesof organisation. For den organisations thisbuilding type is well suited in providing acombination of team and ancillary spacesacross the floors with high levels ofconnectivity. For the cell organisation with highlevels of enclosure the atrium building typemay be overly deep if all offices are to haveaspect, but works well if some interior space isused for ancillary and support functions; for anopen planned cell layout (where workstations

are highly screened for individual concentratedwork) the depth is not so much of a problem.For the club organisation, the variety of sharedgroup and individual spaces can be very wellaccommodated, deeper spaces are well suitedfor occasional use by individuals or groups forequipment and support spaces.

The deep central core building typeThe uniform open space with greater depth iswell suited to the hive organisation. For theden, the deep internal space of the buildingtype may be difficult to use for workinggroups.

For the cell organisation the depth of space istoo deep for most enclosed offices to haveaspect; it is likely to be overly deep even for anopen planned cell organisation. For the cluborganisation the variety of shared group andindividual spaces can be very wellaccommodated, the deeper spaces are wellsuited for occasional use by individuals orgroups, or for equipment and support spaces.

The medium depth building typeAs with the atrium building type above thiswill work well for all organisational typesexcept that the core locations make thisbuilding shape easier to use for enclosed cellorganisations.

The shallow depth building typeThe shallow depth building type does not workwell for the hive organisation or den given thesize of working groups and degrees ofinteraction likely to be required. For cell andsmaller club organisations the space provideshigh levels of aspect, but the range of settingsrequired in both the larger club and cellorganisations for support and ancillaryfunctions make this plan less effective overallthan the medium depth space.

Figure 48 Summary of affinities between thework patterns: building types

10

10.1 Summary of major affinitiesbetween the work patterns and theenvironmental systemsThis chapter looks at the affinities between thework patterns and both HVAC and lightingsystems. Figure 49 provides a simple andeffective way of understanding the most naturalaffinities between the work pattern, the HVACsystems, and different types of space layout (anopen plan versus a cellular space layout isindicated where relevant for each work pattern).This reference to cellular is not to be confusedwith the cell work pattern. In this context itmeans an environment which is either dividedby full height or very high partitions. Theexplanations for these affinities are given in thenext few pages.

There are several reasons why the lines drawnin Figure 49 are fuzzy rather than absolute.Firstly, as previously stated these are affinitiesand are therefore only indicators of the level ofappropriateness of the system for the workpattern. The affinity ratings are intended toprovide a reasonable match between what isnecessary to operate effectively, what canpractically be provided, and what is likely to beexpected. The work pattern expectationsdiscussed in this chapter are not intended toindicate that a member of staff operating in oneworking pattern is entitled to a better quality ofenvironment than another. It should also be re-iterated here that many buildings will beoperating well with a servicing system shownhere as having a poor affinity, and vice versa.Affinities are given here as a starting point fordebate between the client and design team.

Secondly HVAC systems are constantly underdevelopment; for example if an all air systemcould be designed to have the same generalcapabilities as a distributed system, ie enhanceduser control, then its position within thediagram would change.

Thirdly, individual systems within eachfamily will have unique or enhanced features,eg fan assisted terminal reheat VAV versusthe standard VAV system. However Figure 49is seen as a useful way of depicting thecurrent major affinities between theexpectations of work patterns and the abilityof HVAC systems to deliver suitableenvironments for them. Note that thetempered air system family is now referredto as mixed mode. Mixed mode systems areexplained in more detail later in this chapter.Basically they consist of an HVAC systemwhich combines natural and mechanicalventilation solutions (tempered air), possiblywith some cooling or air conditioning, in themost beneficial way. As a result any memberof the other system families could, in theory,appear as part of a mixed mode solution. Asthe variety of mixed mode solutions isinfinite it was not possible to consider themas a separate category in the industry surveycarried out to generate Figure 36 in Chapter7. However it is possible to consider thegeneral attributes of these systems in thecontext of developing affinities.

The following definitions have been developedas part of other research undertaken by BREto illustrate the variety of mixed modestrategies used:

� Contingency systemsIn its most common form it is a buildingdesigned to be naturally ventilated, but whichalso has a clear plan for adding mechanicalventilation and/or cooling at a later date.Buildings designed in this way are relativelyfew. Either space will be allowed for in thebuilding into which active systems can beinstalled at a later date, or such systems will bedisabled until required, eg if cooling loadsincrease due to additional occupancy orincreased IT loads.

Affinities between the workpatterns: environmentalsystems

51

� Concurrent systemsThese are the most common form of hybridsystem where the mechanical plant operates inconjunction with opening windows. Oftensystems are designed so that the mechanicalsystems are sufficient to provide good indoorair quality, remove heat and control draughts.The opening windows act as an optional extrafor the benefit of the occupants. � Changeover systemsNatural and mechanical systems are availableand used as alternatives according to need, butnot at the same time. An example of this mightbe seasonal changeover where, in the mildweather of spring and autumn, windows areopened. During the winter windows may besealed and the building mechanically ventilated.During the summer comfort cooling may beprovided, again with the windows sealed. Localchangeover systems may incorporate windowdetectors to switch off nearby air conditioningor comfort cooling units when windows areopened. � Zoned systemsDiffering servicing methods are provided indifferent zones of the building. By this we donot include those special areas of the buildingwhere some form of mechanical assistance isgenerally required, eg toilets or meeting rooms.

The mixed mode strategy adopted will havean impact on the choice of suitable HVAC

system. For example, systems which relymore on radiative heat exchange are lessaffected by fluctuations in the air movementthrough open windows than systems based onconvective heat transfer. Hence a Hollowcoresystem can be used in a concurrent mode ofoperation more easily than a VAV system.However, other members of the radiative airsystems which incorporate a low air flowdisplacement ventilation element may findthat this is more affected by openingwindows. With a changeover systeminteraction with opening windows would notbe an issue as the two would never operate inparallel.

Design guidance for mixed mode buildings isstill developing and the reader is referred tothe Bibliography for details of furtherreading.

HiveThe open planned hive has an affinity with theradiative air systems, given the limited needfor localised control required to match theexpectations of staff, and to avoid confrontationarising from the unequal provision of controls,eg people seated away from, as opposed toclose to, windows. These systems are wellsuited to dealing with the consistent loads andlimited diversity requirements of the hive. Theradiative component is regarded as providing ahigh level of comfort, with displacementventilation claimed to provide high air qualityfor lower air volumes. This potential energysaving is beneficial in the hive where there islimited opportunity to make savings throughintermittent occupancy.

It is unlikely that the cellular hive arrangementwill occur as most hives are in large open planspaces. It is, however, possible that small hiveareas could occur. All air systems would appearto offer sufficient control to cope with theminimal diversity expected from the hive, butwith the potentially smaller zone sizes neededto match the degree of enclosure. Dependingupon the number of people occupying eachspace, interaction problems may occur due todiffering requirements for comfort. Thedevelopment of some form of polling oraveraging control via a PC interface could beof benefit to prevent confrontation over issuesof control. This could either be used within aspace or across a number of spaces dependingupon the system zoning.

Figure 49 Affinities between the work patterns andenvironmental systems with different degrees ofenclosure of space layout

52

CellThe open planned cell has an affinity toradiative air systems. Even though the cellworker would have an expectation of localisedindividual control whenever possible, this is notreally viable with any of the four familysystems within an open planned space. Evendistributed systems can find it difficult to offerlocalised control (unless personal deskventilators are proven to work) because of theirzone size and system interaction problems.

Mixed mode may not be as effective in the openplanned space because of preferential seatingconsequences and the impact of controldecisions. High quality radiative air systemsgive a consistent environment and it may bepossible in the future to provide radiativeelements with some individual control (as inlighting). However, unless space sharing hasbeen introduced radiative air systems may notbe able to adapt as beneficially to the savings tobe made from intermittent occupation asdistributed systems. Radiative air systems do,however, avoid the need for complex controlswhich may be unfamiliar to those entering anunfamiliar space.

The enclosed variant of cell has an affinity withmixed mode systems. Within the UK, at least,surveys have indicated that people prefernatural ventilation whenever possible (iesuitable climate, location). Solutions tomaximise the use of natural ventilation will bepreferred by creative individuals in their ownwork spaces where the decision to open awindow will have no impact on theircolleagues.

DenThe open planned variant of the den workpattern has an affinity with distributed systemsin that they offer the best option for satisfyingthe diverse demands of the teams and providinglocal controls. Systems can operate with alower quality and a larger zone solution in thecase of open planned dens than for openplanned clubs. The preferred design of thesystem is dependent upon the degree ofmobility of the team in the work space. Thepurpose of the systems is to support and

reinforce the team or group identity yet also tomaintain a consistent environment to minimiseconflict within the team space.

The cellular variant of den (ie group offices for6+ people) has an affinity with all air systems,as they are able to cope with the inherentdiversity of such an arrangement which is notas great as for a cellular club. System controlshould be linked to levels of occupancy if thereis likely to be significant variation within theteam. For smaller offices, the mixed modeapproach can work well providing there is noconflict over window opening.

ClubThe more open planned variant of the cluboffice has an affinity with distributed systems.These offer the best opportunity to satisfydiverse demands (both occupancy levels anderratic working hours) and offer localisedcontrol. Functional identity can be varied byoffering contrasting servicing levels throughboth the HVAC system and the lighting.

The more cellular version of the club has anaffinity with mixed mode systems. The logic issimilar to that of the cellular cell environmentbut is even more appropriate because of therequirements for flexibility. The slower speedof response and lesser ability to cope withdiverse high loads reduces the appropriatenessof the radiative air systems for the club users.

In an ideal situation every individual wouldhave total control over their environment froma HVAC and lighting perspective. This ishowever impractical for both economic andtechnical reasons. Indeed Figure 49 suggeststhat contrary to received wisdom, the mostcreative workplaces (club) have the highestaffinity with the potentially lower cost HVACsystems (mixed mode). Whereas the simplerhive and den working styles, traditionallyhoused in naturally ventilated buildings, havethe greatest affinity with the nominally moreserviced and sophisticated radiative airsystem. This is a reversal of traditionalthinking which would be to locate the hivework pattern in a cheaper, more simplyserviced environment.

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10.2 Other HVAC system affinities

This analysis of HVAC systems was takenfurther to derive the affinity ratings for theremaining work pattern and HVAC systemcombinations. Those combinations highlightedin Figure 49 as major affinities score three inFigure 50.

Note that it is possible within any one systemfamily to have a high or low quality system inits own right. The reasoning behind the choicesgiven here relates to the inherent quality of thesystem to meet certain demands, not to itsinstalled quality, nor to the care with which it isoperated.

All air systems offer a compromise solutionacross many of the work patterns in that theyprovide some degree of flexibility and can bezoned sufficiently small to suit most situations(open plan or cellular). They do not currentlyoffer the same potential degree of user controlas distributed systems making them slightlyless suited to the club and cell.

Distributed systems by their nature areinherently flexible and able to be controlled tocope with diversity. Hence they score well inopen plan clubs and dens. Unless personal deskventilators (or similar) become more viable,distributed systems will not readily be zonableon an individual basis in an open plan space fora cell environment.

Radiative air systems are not as readily flexibleas the previous systems and therefore scorehighest with the open hive. Their use with the

open den is dependent upon the staticproperties of the occupants of the dens. Theymay be more viable in the closed cell shoulduser control be improved.

The success of mixed mode systems isdependent upon the degree of access toopenable windows and the likelihood ofconflict, hence the lower scores given for thissystem family in open plan environments. Theyscore higher in the more dynamic cell and clubenvironments as the preference for naturalventilation with high levels of user control canbe accompanied by the flexibility of theinstalled mechanical systems which may bedistributed, all air or radiative air dependingupon the strategy used.

Lighting system affinitiesThe hive, cell, den, and club are associated notonly with typical kinds of space layout but alsowith patterns of owned, shared, and temporarilyoccupied patterns of use. The models of thework patterns suggest the potential for thesharing of space over time across all of the fourtypes but with some key differences. In the hivework pattern the sharing of space over time istypically associated with shift work(diachronic). In the cell, den, and club othersimultaneous patterns of sharing or space useintensification are possible (synchronic).

BRE and William Bordass have explored someof the lighting design and control implicationsassociated with differing patterns of spacemanagement. These have been placed into thecontext of the hive, den, cell and club model inFigure 51.

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11

11.1 Summary of affinities

A table of affinities was also derived (Figure53) between HVAC systems and building formsindependent of the work pattern. Of all theaffinity tables this is, of necessity, the fuzziestin that circumstances can vary so muchbetween buildings of a particular form. AlsoHVAC systems have deliberately beendeveloped to suit a large number of buildingtypes, hence differences in suitability ofsystems are more difficult to define and cannotfail to be largely subjective. Again at this pointwe must stress the necessity of adapting thisanalysis method to particular situations.However, a brief explanation of how wederived this table may assist in this.

11.2 All air systems

All air systems are seen as being equally aswell suited on average to deep central core andatrium buildings, but are not the first choicesystem in either the medium depth or shallowplan relative to the other system families.

11.3 Radiative air systems

It is less likely that air conditioning or comfortcooling would be required within a shallowplan building. One reason may be to achieveuniformity against consistent loads across thespace, for which a radiative air solution maywork. Within the medium depth building wheremechanical servicing is likely to be moreappropriate the affinity rating can be increased,similarly for the deep central core and atriumbuildings.

11.4 Distributed systems

If a shallow plan building requires localisedspot cooling this could be achieved most easilythrough the introduction of units from amember of the distributed family which couldbe located on the perimeter wall with a readysource of fresh air to each. The affinity ratingincreases in the medium depth building asabove. However the distributed systems scoreslightly less in the atrium building than theother building types as they could not benefitfrom it as a source of fresh air.

11.5 Mixed mode systems

Mixed mode systems appear to score well forevery building type. This is a reflection of theirability to meet a wide range of demands due tothe variety of design and operation strategieswhich can be used, eg contingency, changeover,zoned as discussed in Chapter 10.

Affinities between the HVACsystems and building types

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12.1 Optimal affinities

Three critical relationships that determine thequality and performance of HVAC systemsrequired by users have been examined:� the work patterns: building types� the work patterns: HVAC systems� the HVAC systems: building types.

For each of these relationships, a series oftables has been prepared that highlight relativeperformance in a simple way. They arepresented in the following pages. They providea means of focusing on areas that requireproduct development, as well as those that arealready successful and do not require attention.They illustrate a range of possible actions thatmay be taken depending on the needs andinterests of the reader. They indicate likelyaffinities between the three factors of workpattern, building type and HVAC system. Theyare not intended to be prescriptive as so manyother factors will come into play in the case ofany one individual building.

The developer or property holderFor example, a developer or a major propertyholder may be interested to consider thepotential flexibility range of building types intheir portfolio or which they may be intendingto develop. The tables assist in highlightingwhich building types appear most appropriateto serve the needs of a range of organisationaltypes and which HVAC systems appear mostable to solve the needs of these organisationaltypes within certain kinds of buildings.

For example, using the tables, we can see that adeveloper or property holder wishing tomaximise the attractiveness of his buildingstock to the market will prefer to develop orhold the medium depth or atrium buildingtypes, as these are most suitable for the widest

range of organisational types investigated; deepcentral core and shallow depth buildings beingless often suitable. Furthermore, given a stockof existing medium depth buildings, andassuming that the developer may wish to ensurethat they are suitable for the burgeoning usersin den and club type organisations, the familiesof HVAC systems which would be mostsuitable are: distributed and mixed mode.

The suppliersFor the supplier of environmental servicessystems, interiors, furniture and settings, thetables suggest how well different building typesand system types will serve the needs ofdifferent kinds of users. They also indicatewhich are the key problem areas to be furtherinvestigated to understand where there areparticular failures: should the product be re-thought, is it inappropriate for certain users orcertain building types?

For example, the suppliers of radiative airsystems may note that although their types ofsystems appear to well suit the deep centralcore building type, and work well for hiveorganisations; they do not work as well forother organisational types such as the den, thisorganisational type in turn is less well suited tothe deep central core building type. Can thesesystems be re-designed to better suit otherkinds of user demands and to better fit withother kinds of buildings?

The usersFor the user, the tables enable selection ofbuilding types and HVAC servicing systems tobe seen in the context of their ownorganisational characteristics: as a den or cluborganisation, which type of buildings andsystems offer the least risk and the greatestcapacity to achieve what is needed? Whichbuildings and systems should be avoided?

Optimal overall affinities betweenthe work patterns, the buildingtypes and the HVAC systems

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For example, an organisation that defines itselfas predominantly den, but has the intention ofmoving towards innovative space sharingarrangements and more interactive knowledgework processes, will wish to select buildingsand environmental systems that will support itstransition towards the club type of office. Thetables suggest they avoid: deep central corebuildings (as a den) and that as a future clubthey may want to select building types such asatrium or medium depth which would suit themixed mode or distributed families of HVACsystems in the longer term. Chapter 13 furtheroutlines what may be some optimum shiftsbetween HVAC system types to suit changingorganisational demands of this kind.

The tables also enabled the project team tofocus their attention on some widerimplications:� the implications for the design of the base

building and its building managementsystems (Chapter 17);

� the general performance requirements andthe product directions for the developmentof HVAC systems to better match theemerging needs of new ways of working(Chapter 18);

� the implications for the future directions ofdevelopment of lighting systems (Chapter19);

� the implications for future directions in thedesign of furniture and the layout of theoffice workplace (Chapter 20);

� the general trend of the development ofinformation technology and its relationshipsto new ways of working (Chapter 21).

The previous evaluations of the separateaffinities between the three major sets ofvariables (work patterns/building types; workpatterns/HVAC systems; and building types/HVAC systems) are integrated into thesummary tables that follow. Each tableseparately summarises the evaluations for eachone of the four models of organisations:� Hive� Cell� Den� Club.

These tables therefore provide a means offocusing on which combinations of work

pattern characteristics, building types andHVAC systems perform best, and which haveparticular problems, some of which may beamenable to improvement through new productdevelopment or design improvements.

Each table addresses the specific considerationsof only one work pattern type, in relation towhich each table identifies in a series ofcolumns:� the building type under consideration

(atrium, deep central core, medium depth,shallow depth);

� the degree of affinity between the buildingtype and the work pattern (good, adequate,or poor);

� the degree of affinity between the workpattern and one of four families of HVACsystems, (distributed, all air, radiative air,and mixed mode), under two differentconditions of space layout: with low levelsof enclosure or with high levels ofenclosure;

� the degree of affinity between the buildingtype and the HVAC family system.

Moreover, using the cost model outlined earlier(Chapter 8), a summary of the expected costsof achieving a selection of the work patternenvironments in some of the building types isalso indicated, so that a basic measure of costin relation to overall ‘performance’ is providedat the end of the section. This indicates theinstances where a particular combination ofwork pattern, building type and HVAC systemmay perform very well but also cost more thanother combinations. Note that the cost rating •••equates to the lowest cost.

The tables are therefore a guide to thinkingabout how best to match work patterns tobuilding types and to HVAC systems. They arenot intended to be detailed guides tospecification, or to prescribe particularsolutions for individual organisations. Manyindividual building types and environmentalsystems can be tailored to suit mostorganisational requirements, the tables suggeston the basis of our research and evaluationswhat are nevertheless likely to be the bestcombinations of these critical elements, andwhich should be used as a starting point for theclient/design team dialogue.

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Figure 54 Optimal affinities: the hive work pattern

12.2 Hive

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12.3 Cell

Figure 55 Optimal affinities: the cell work pattern

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12.4 Den

Figure 56 Optimal affinities: the den work pattern

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12.5 Club

Figure 57 Optimal affinities: the club work pattern

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12.6 Integrating cost into performance evaluation

Hive

Figure 58 Hive work pattern in a deep central core building type, cost ratings of HVAC systems

� Independent of costs, within a deep central core building accommodating a hiveorganisation, the most effective HVAC system is radiative air.

� Independent of system types and their performance, within a deep central corebuilding accommodating a hive organisation, the lowest cost HVAC system ismixed mode.

� Dependent upon all relationships, within a deep central core buildingaccommodating a hive organisation, the radiative air HVAC system offers thehighest ratings.

Figure 59 Hive work pattern in a medium depth building type, cost ratings of HVAC systems

� Independent of costs, within a medium depth building accommodating a hiveorganisation, the most effective HVAC system is radiative air.

� Independent of system types and their performance, within a medium depthbuilding accommodating a hive organisation, the lowest cost HVAC system ismixed mode.

� Dependent upon all relationships, within a medium depth building accommodatinga hive organisation, the radiative air HVAC system offers the highest ratings.

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Den

Figure 60 Den work pattern in medium depth building type, cost ratings of HVAC systems

� Independent of costs, within a medium depth building accommodating a denorganisation, the most effective HVAC system is distributed air.

� Independent of system types and their performance, within a medium depthbuilding accommodating a den organisation, the lowest cost HVAC system ismixed mode.

� Dependent upon all relationships, within a medium depth buildingaccommodating a den organisation, the distributed and mixed mode HVACsystems offer the highest ratings.

Cell

Figure 61 Cell work pattern in medium depth building type, cost ratings of HVAC systems

� Independent of costs, within a medium depth building accommodating a cellorganisation, the most effective HVAC systems are distributed, radiative air andmixed mode.

� Independent of system types and their performance, within a medium depthbuilding accommodating a cell organisation, the lowest cost environmental(HVAC) system is the mixed mode system.

� Dependent upon all relationships, within a medium depth building accommodatinga cell organisation, the mixed mode system offers the highest ratings.

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Club

Figure 62 Club work pattern in an atrium building type, cost ratings of HVAC systems

� Independent of costs, within an atrium building accommodating a club organisation,the most effective HVAC systems are distributed, all air, and mixed mode.

� Independent of system types and their performance, within an atrium buildingaccommodating a club organisation, the lowest cost HVAC system is mixed mode.

� Dependent upon all relationships, within a atrium building accommodating a cluborganisation, the mixed mode system offers the highest ratings.

Club

Figure 63 Club work pattern in a deep central core building type, cost ratings of HVAC systems

� Independent of costs, within a deep central core building accommodating aclub organisation, the most effective HVAC system is distributed.

� Independent of system types and their performance, within a deep central corebuilding accommodating a club organisation, the lowest cost HVAC system ismixed mode.

� Dependent upon all relationships, within a deep central core buildingaccommodating a club organisation, the mixed mode system offers the highestratings.

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� Independent of costs, within a medium depth building accommodating a cluborganisation, the most effective HVAC type is distributed.

� Independent of system types and their performance, within a medium depthbuilding accommodating a club organisation, the lowest cost HVAC system ismixed mode.

� Dependent upon all relationships, within a medium depth building accommodatinga club organisation, the mixed mode system offers the highest ratings.

Figure 64 Club work pattern in a medium depth building type, cost rating of HVAC systems

Club

13

Summary

From reviewing likely trends in organisationaldevelopment (Chapter 13) and considering thetransition that many organisations are likely tomake particularly from hive and cell to den andclub, we conclude that:� the main, longer term trend in organisations

is towards becoming more interactive andmore intermittent in the use of time andspace by individuals and groups;

� most larger organisations will continue toconsist of a mix of the four organisationaltypes: it is the proportion of each that willshift over time;

� the office building types that have the mostcapacity for accommodating this shift inorganisational demand are the medium depthatrium and medium depth slabs;

� the families of HVAC systems that are mostappropriate to facilitate this shift inorganisational demand are likely to be moreresponsive and controllable at a local levelthan conventional radiative air or all airsystems.

13.1 Accommodating dynamicorganisations

The relationships between the organisation andbuilding type, or between the environmentalsystem and the organisation are never static.Neither can any one organisation be completelyidentified as either club, den, hive or cell in itswork patterns and spatial characteristics.Reality, of course, is much more complex.Organisations are not only composed of varyingproportions of types of patterns of workassociated with particular groups, divisions orparts, but such combinations change over time.How are the results of this study likely to beaffected by the fact that organisations aredynamic and change over time?

Our first underlying conclusion is that changeis a constant condition of organisationalexistence. No single relationship between anybuilding type or environmental system and anypattern of organisational requirements is likelyto be sustained for very long. And yet buildingsare likely to continue to be very long termentities and even environmental systems,although shorter in life span than buildingsthemselves, are certain to have to accommodatetwo, three or more generations oforganisational structure.

Our second underlying conclusion is that thegeneral directions of organisational changecan be anticipated, even if the precisetimetable of adoption of new organisationalstructures is very difficult, if not impossible,to determine. Taking a strategic view of theprobable impact of external economicpressures and the internal momentum of theintroduction of information technology intoorganisations, we predict that:� much individual process work (hive) is

likely to be exported to lower wageeconomies or to be automated;

� group process (den) and concentrated study(cell) are increasingly likely to merge or runparallel within increasingly plural workpatterns;

� most office work will eventually tend tobecome transactional and club-like, withhigher interaction and greater autonomy, forboth individuals and groups;

� some work will become ‘virtual’, capable ofbeing carried out in a totally aspatial way.

In other words we believe that the hive, cell,den, club model has an inherent dynamic trendtowards greater interaction and moreautonomy, ie a movement, more or less rapid,to the top right hand quadrant towards theoffice as club.

The dynamics of change

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13.2 Impact of these trends uponthe models developed in the study

The key to optimising the future specificationof new buildings is to understand the dynamicsof organisational change and how this willrelate to specification and building choices.Organisations will change the relativeproportions of hive, cell, den and club typespaces they need. The total spectrum oforganisational types will change itscomposition, with some types becoming moresignificant than others. To add to thecomplexity, the definitions of organisationaltypes and their patterns of work will themselvesevolve. Which building types, space layouts,products and environmental services are mostlikely to serve such organisational diversity andevolving demands?

The directions of movement are supported bythe widespread emergence of new cultures ofwork. The common threads seem to be,compared to older organisational ways:� much greater attention to the fluid and

urgent use of time, ie the competitiveadvantage to be delivered from actingquickly and collectively;

� impatience with conventional organisationalboundaries;

� not much love of hierarchies;� a tendency towards smaller more transient

organisational units, stripping theorganisation back to the core, out-strippingredundant and non-central staff functions;

� the ability to provide the context and focusfor intense, complex open ended teamwork;

� the obsolescence of clerks and clerical ways;

� greater reliance on the intelligent andcreative use of Information Technology (IT);

� a wider range of types of work, settings forwork, support for work, places for work.

Obviously, none of these emerging features ofthe new work cultures would be possiblewithout powerful, integrated, interconnectedand ubiquitous IT. It is, of course, IT with allits direct and indirect effects, which is enablingthis series of managerial revolutions. It is ITwhich is dissolving conventions that havetraditionally limited the use of time and place.

Figure 66 Directions of change for organisationaltypes

We can postulate in more detail how theindividual patterns of work will evolve: notonly will the relationships between the fourwork patterns change, some growing at theexpense of others, others declining or

Figure 65 Directions for the future: accommodating change

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disappearing, there will also be an evolution ofthe individual work patterns themselves. Thetypes of organisations modelled will evolve,some, like the club will tend to increase insignificance, others will decline or be exported,like the hive. The opportunities for remoteworking, telecommuting, and other impacts oftechnology will affect all organisational types.The hive, for example, seems likely to evolveinto new forms, involving shift working andinternational networking for 24 hour worldwideservices such as telesales or banking.

Will building types, differing significantly fromthose available today, be needed toaccommodate these organisationaldevelopments more effectively and efficiently?We believe that it is not the basic building formthat will have to be re-invented. Rather, givenbetter means of servicing and managing officespace more intelligently, a more limited arrayof basic office building forms is likely to besufficient.

Club and den organisations can beaccommodated in a wide range of buildingtypes characterised by basic variations of floorplan and configuration. Some smaller floorplate buildings will become more viable forlarger scale organisations as the use of space isintensified over time. Both very deep plancentral core buildings and very shallow depthbuildings are likely to diminish in long termutility, but even they are capable of adaptive re-use. The implications for the design ofbuildings are further discussed in Chapter 17.

It is more important to ask which kind ofenvironmental services can serve the changingrequirements of workplaces demanded by theemergent organisational types? Whichenvironmental services can most easily beadapted for change, added to and subtractedfrom in terms of capacity, quality of servicing,and subjected to different control strategies?

The key dynamics to consider are:� the shift from hive to den, ie from low

interaction to high interaction, autonomyremaining constant or increasing onlyslightly;

� the shift from den to club, ie from low tohigh autonomy; interaction being at a highlevel;

� the shift from cell to club, ie from low tohigh interaction, autonomy continuing at ahigh level.

Our findings suggest that as moreorganisations begin to work in new ways, thedemands for den and club environments willincrease. We believe this shift is bestaccommodated in the medium depth andatrium types of buildings. Environmentalsystems have not yet been fully developed tomeet what we see as the expanding demandsof the den and especially the club types oforganisation. The mixed mode anddistributed environmental systems seem mostlikely to have the capacity to be developedto match the demands of these morecomplex patterns of work and spatiallayouts. The particular attributes of productdirections needed to meet these demands areexplored in Chapter 18.

13.3 Impacts of change on thedevelopment of HVAC systems

The dynamics of change in demand for HVACsystems are likely to involve several levels ofdevelopment:� the shift from one work pattern to another� changes within work patterns themselves� different combinations of work patterns.

Any of these changes could result in the need to:� add to an HVAC system, for example to

reduce zone sizes or extend the system toserve more rooms;

� reduce a system, for example to increasezone sizes or remove the system from anumber of rooms;

� change spatial layouts that might affect airflow patterns (especially the installation orremoval of partitions);

� change the densities and locations ofoccupancy thereby affecting air flowrequirements;

� increase system capacity through upgradesof central plant, local units, orsupplementary systems;

� increase the quality of servicing to becomemore responsive to new forms and levels ofindividual, or team, control;

� adapt the control strategy to serve extendedoccupancy as well as different kinds ofoccupancy;

� provide for multi-occupancy within a singlebuilding or floor, perhaps through one ormultiple systems or by using the samedelivery systems to offer warmth or coolingin different ways to different areas atdifferent times.

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There are a variety of issues which contributeto the ability of an HVAC system to be changedin these ways; including:� ease of installation;� ease of commissioning;� ability to respond to changes in space

layout;� capacity to be upgraded;� ability to be used in a mixed mode system.

The relative importance of each of these isdependent upon both the level of change beingmade within an organisation, and the buildingform. Changes could range from the addition ofan extra fan coil terminal where the centralplant margin is sufficient to avoid the need forany form of upgrade, to the installation of acomplete comfort cooling or air conditioningsystem when a naturally ventilated buildingcould no longer cope with the internal loadsplaced upon it.

The consultant survey undertaken as part of thisstudy suggests the following simple ratings for‘designability’ and ‘integration’ issues relatingto the ability to cope with change of thedifferent families of HVAC systems consideredin this study. These evaluations are madeindependent of a consideration of the buildingtype or work pattern. They therefore do notnecessarily imply that the particular systemfamily would be able to cope with the demandsof the new work pattern.

The management of change is furtherconsidered here in terms of differences in howthe system families can maximise theusefulness of the HVAC services over the life

time of the building when it is known what thechanges in work patterns are likely to be. It ispossible then to specify those system familieswhich have a particular affinity for a givenwork pattern, and to consider this in relation toan allowance for moves from one work patternto another.

The most important patterns of change are seenas being from hive to cell, from cell to clubfrom hive to den, and from den to club. Withineach of these it is possible to have either anenclosed or an open planned space layout,although the following table (Figure 68)confines itself to the most likely. The preferredHVAC system that would best support the shiftfrom one work pattern to another is provided initalics.

The affinities of each family of HVAC systemsfor each work pattern have been explored inChapter 10. In Figure 68 these assumptions ofbest affinity have been included. Note that it ispossible for some individual HVAC systemtypes to have particular characteristics thatmake them atypical relative to other HVACtypes within the same family, especially undercertain design or operating criteria. Moreoverthe table does not take into consideration therelationship of the HVAC system family to thebuilding type (this has been explored inChapter 11). The purpose of the table is toexplore in a broad way the most likelypossibilities associated with highest levels ofaffinity already developed in this study. Thejudgement of the design team and the clientwill of course remain essential in any realproject.

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[1] The natural choice for an open planned hiveis a radiative air system. If this were to beconverted into an open cell the radiative airsystem family would still be a possible choice.Although additional control is desirable in thecell this is difficult to provide in an openplanned space very successfully. Thedistributed system would come closest with apossible move towards the personal deskventilator (when proven) if user control wascritical. However, a sophisticated distributedsystem is unnecessary for a hive environment.

[2] Moving from an open planned hive to anenclosed cell would infer changing from aradiative air system to a mixed mode system.The latter environment is chosen because ofpeoples’ preference for natural ventilation andin an enclosed cell the high level of usercontrol can be achieved by the provision of anopenable window. Such a system would not beas suitable in an open planned hive due to therequirement for consistency and uniformity. Itmay be possible to install opening windows butto ensure that they remain locked, or haveseveral opening elements so that for examplejust a top hopper can be opened, whilst the hiveis in place. With care this may minimise therisk of draughts and conflict between thoseadjacent to, and far away from, windows. Onmoving to the enclosed cell it is possible tohave the fully controllable windows providedthat additional controls were put in place, forexample high humidity lockouts to enablesystems to act concurrently, as well as asufficiently refined zoning of the radiative airsystem.

[3] The shift from an open planned hive to anopen planned den involves moving from aradiative air to a distributed system. Theradiative air system provides the consistency

required by the hive, although if this were to beconverted to a den some degree of zoningwould need to be introduced to account for thedifferent distribution of staff and to allow for anelement of team control. This is feasibleprovided that the dens remain static. If adistributed system were installed attentionwould need to be paid to the location ofterminal units so as to provide the facility forgenerating consistency of system control and toprevent certain staff from having a higherdegree of system control than their colleagues,whilst the hive work pattern was in place.

[4] The shift from an open planned hive to anenclosed den would involve a move from aradiative air system to an all air system. Thepreferred option here is to begin with the all airsystem. This will provide the diversity requiredfor dealing with the den and assuming thatattention is paid to the flow paths and locationof the terminals it will allow a fair degree ofconsistency for hive users. A variable flowsystem will allow energy savings to be madeand would compensate for any slightdifferences across the space in terms of internalheat gain. If the radiative air system were usedit would need to be extensively zoned.

[5] An open planned cell benefits most from aradiative air solution, whereas a conversion toan open club would ideally require a distributedsystem. Staff in an open club require a highlevel of individual control and loads can varyboth across space and time on a more frequentbasis than for other work patterns. Themembers of the radiative air family most ableto offer a higher level of individual control insuch an environment are the displacementventilation with chilled beam options. Howeverthey do not rate very well against therequirements of the club due to their lesser

Figure 68 Shifts in work patterns over time best supported by HVAC systems

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ability to cope with the rapid variations andnon-uniformity of this changing environment.An alternative would be to begin with amember of the distributed family which offersthe best solution for the open club and whichstill rates highly for the open cell A furtheroption may be to install an all air system whichrates highly in both scenarios. The use of a welldesigned low temperature VAV system mayoffer the flexibility to cope with the diversity ofloads associated with the club environment.

[6] The shift from an open planned cell to anenclosed club would mean a change from aradiative air to a mixed mode system. Howevera better solution may be to begin with an all airor distributed system which would performequally well in both the cell and club situations.If a mixed mode system is chosen it may bepreferable to look for a contingency systemwhere the openable windows are not used untilthe building becomes an enclosed club. Whenthe openable windows are to be used conflictsmay arise with the all air or distributedsystem—a suitable control strategy would needto be implemented.

[7] The shift from an enclosed cell to an openplanned club would appear to benefit mostfrom a distributed system. Although not asdesirable as the mixed mode would be for theenclosed cell initially, the distributed systemstill offers a high degree of user control andflexibility. The transition to an open plannedclub makes the distributed system even moreattractive—as the mixed mode solution couldlead to potential conflict with window opening.

[8] The shift from an enclosed cell to anenclosed club implies the installation of amixed mode system from the outset. This couldbe either using an all air or a distributedsystem to allow for flexibility. Such a system

may operate in a concurrent or changeovermanner. A zoned system may pose problemswith later changes to layout.

[9] The shift from an open planned den to anopen planned club appears to favour the useof a distributed system which is rated veryhighly for both scenarios. A distributedsystem offers the best compromise betweenproviding local control for teams (given that aconsensus can be reached within the team)and satisfying diverse changing demands ascalled for by the club.

[10] The shift from an open planned den to anenclosed club could equally be achieved with adistributed system, with the possibility of a mixedmode scenario if the open den were suitablypartitioned to avoid conflict between teamrequirements and without affecting air flows.

[11] The shift from an enclosed den to an openplanned club offers the option of choosing anall air system which best supports theenclosed den as it provides the requisite abilityto deal with diversity and provide a reasonablelevel of local control for the team. Within theopen club this system is not as versatile as adistributed system. An alternative may be toinstall the latter which would favour the clubbut which may be unnecessary for theexpectations of the den.

[12] The shift from an enclosed den to anenclosed club has a variety of solutions. Onepossibility is the all air system with the samecomments as previously. Another possibility,given the high degree of enclosure of bothworking patterns, is the use of a mixed modesystem in conjunction with an all air system.The windows would add that extra degree offlexibility and user choice provided a suitablecontrol strategy could be planned.

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The case studies of actual organisations inEurope and the USA are used to investigate theeffectiveness of the models of work patterns,building types and environmental systems. Thefirst set of case studies represent the variety ofwork patterns modelled: the hive, cell, den andclub. They include: • Automobile Association, Thatcham, England• Andersen Consulting, Cleveland, USA• Gasunie, Groningen, Netherlands• Gruner+Jahr, Hamburg, Germany• Lloyds Bank, Bristol, England• Rijksgebouwendienst, Haarlem, Netherlands• Sun Microsystems, Menlo Park, USA• Walt Disney Imagineering, Burbank, USA

The particular ways of using space and theneeds for environmental services of theseorganisations are explored. A second set of casestudies investigates the ability of selectedinnovative servicing technologies to better meetthe needs of organisations working in newways. Evaluations of the relative performanceof environmental systems and building types asfound in the case studies provides directions fordesign improvements to building, space, andenvironmental systems and related products.

Part 4: Case studies

Chapter 14 Organisations in Europe and the USAChapter 15 Case studies of technologiesChapter 16 Implications of the case studies: learning from occupants’ reactions

14

Summary of findings

From a series of case studies chosen toillustrate a range of environmental systems inuse by a cross-section of organisational types,we conclude that:� the case study findings support the models

of types of organisations and environmentalsystems developed in the research; however

� some organisations were succeeding inintroducing innovative working practicesand patterns of space and time use, despiteapparently unsuitable buildings andenvironmental systems;

� other organisations were accommodated atgreat expense in buildings andenvironmental systems which in somerespects were grossly over-designed;

� hence environmental systems cannot beproperly evaluated for use by organisationswithout taking into account:i) how well they are integrated into the

buildings that contain them;ii) how they perform over time;iii) how cost effective they are as capital

expenditures and in use.

14.1 Learning from case studies

Two different kinds of case studies wereundertaken. The first kind of case studyfocused on the experience of actualorganisations, their work patterns, space use,and demands for environmental services. Thesecases were used to investigate the effectivenessof the models of work patterns, building types,and environmental system demands in thecontext of the actual experience of a set oforganisations. The constraints and opportunitiesof the organisational demand and buildingsupply model could be tested. Furtherimplications for building and environmentalsystem design to suit a range of organisationaldemands were identified.

The second set of case studies were technical innature, reviewing and evaluating the

performance of a range of innovativeenvironmental systems.

Organisational case studiesThe focus for the selection of organisations wasthat they should represent the range of workpatterns modelled (hive, cell, den, and club).The organisations selected to be studied were:

Hive� Automobile Association, Thatcham, England Cell� Andersen Consulting, Cleveland, Ohio, USA

(shared bull pen settings)� Gruner+Jahr, Hamburg, Germany (owned

enclosed settings) Den� Gasunie, Groningen, Netherlands� Lloyds Bank, Bristol, England� Walt Disney Imagineering, Los Angeles,

California Club� Rijksgebouwendienst, Haarlem, Netherlands� Sun Microsystems, Palo Alto, USA.

A separate investigation was made of a so-called virtual organisation, the managementconsultancy in the UK called Change 2, toexamine some issues of a spatial organisationthat went beyond the scope of the methods ofcase studies used with the other organisationsselected.

Technical case studiesA second set of case studies was selected to testthe ability of a range of supposedly innovativeservicing technologies to better meet thedemands of new ways of working. It wasintended that both of these kinds of case studieswould help to identify issues that could befurther explored for product developmentdirections and design implications in the finalphase of the research.

Organisations in Europe andthe USA

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The other technologies and buildingsstudied were:� Distributed system: Hiross flexible

underfloor space system, at Eastern GroupHeadquarters, Ipswich, England

� Distributed system: ATM Zonal, at IBM UK,Bedfont Lakes, England

� Radiative air: Hollowcore, at Elizabeth FryBuilding, UEA, Norwich, England

� Thorn Sensa overhead luminaires, RoyalBank of Scotland, London, England.

A separate literature based investigation wasundertaken of personal desk ventilatorsystems, there being no suitable sites toexamine in the UK.

Case study methodsA wide range of methods were used in theorganisational case studies, including:� gathering pre-visit information;� a structured interview with a senior

manager;� a structured interview with a building or

technical manager;� a focus group discussion with building

users;� a micro observation study of the pattern of

the use of space over time (whereverfeasible);

� spot measurements of the internalenvironment;

� a survey of occupant satisfaction with theworkplace;

� analysis and observation using plans,drawings and photographs.

The following section highlights some of theconclusions that were derived from the fieldwork. A full report of detailed case studyfindings was provided to sponsors of theresearch. Only the most significant findings arereported here.

It is possible to relatively position in a relativeway the organisational case studies using theframework which defines the organisationalmodel described in Chapter 5, as shown inFigure 69. It should be noted that only thoseparts of the organisation that were studied inthe case studies are positioned in the diagram.The diagram is not intended to represent thewhole of the organisation. The positioning ofthese selected parts of the organisation is basedpartly on responses to interview questions, andby an assessment made by the project team.

The organisations represented a useful spreadof different patterns of work achieved in a widevariety of workplaces and building types. Theymade use of many different kinds ofenvironmental systems. For each of the casestudies the project team evaluated in a simpleway the degree of ‘match’ or appropriatenessbetween the three critical relationships exploredin the study:� the work pattern: building type� the work pattern: the H VAC system� the building type: the HVAC system.

A summary of findings from each individualcase study is provided in the following section,an overview of the findings is provided inSection 14.10.

Figure 69 Positioning of organisational case studies

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AutomobileAssociation

The organisation and its patterns of workThe Call Handling Centre is one of seven such centres distributed throughout the UKand Northern Ireland designed to receive, process and respond to calls from driversseeking assistance. The location is driven by staffing requirements, ease of road accessand parking. The Call Handling Centre receives calls from AA members within theregion, these are taken by the call handlers. The call handlers deal with the public overthe telephone and then process the relevant information on vehicle breakdowns andsend it via the computer network for action by the deployment teams whocommunicate directly with the patrol fleet. The organisation operates 24 hours a dayevery day of the year. Shifts of both call handlers and deployment staff are used. Theshifts are staggered across the day.

14.2 Automobile Association

Call Handling Centre, Thatcham, England

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Environmental systemsMostly sealed open plan space served by aconstant volume variable temperature systemwith ‘dx’ coil and steam humidification. Heatrecovery and free cooling are used whenpossible. Heating from compensated perimeterlow temperature hot water finned convectivestrip and radiator system controlled with TRVs.Design specification is for 22+/-2°C in summerand 21+/-2°C in winter, with designed relativehumidity of 50%. Lighting is provided bydischarge up-lighters in the main working areaswhich are permanently on.

EvaluationSimple and effective base building well suitedto the hive work process. The H VAC systemsoccasionally find it difficult to cope with thedemands of the work process for a consistentenvironment. Sometimes the air conditioningsystem in the open plan area is counteracted byopening doors to the outside air. There is a lackof system control for night shift working. Thesingle zone provides insufficient controlcreating an unpredictable environment giventhe diversity of shift work loads imposed on thesystem. The match between the building typeand the HVAC system is merely adequate. Thelighting while not energy efficient is popularand has reduced glare problems.

Figure 72 Base building plan

Figure 73 Exterior

Figure 74 Layout Figure 75 Interior

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AndersenConsulting

14.3 Andersen Consulting

Cleveland, Ohio, USA

The organisation and its patterns of workAndersen Consulting offer management consulting services to corporate clients, theirwork is mostly based at the client’s premises. Consultants come into the office tocomplete administrative, marketing and proposals work, communicate with secretariesand managers, and to undergo training. The organisation is structured through projectteams within a career hierarchy. Teams are matrix skill based and based largely at theclient’s location, thus supporting the variety of ways in which space is shared over timewithin the office. Technology (Lotus Notes) is used extensively for intra companycommunication and shared tools. Secretarial and support staff are in the office full-time,while consultants are rarely in the office. The use of space is highly tailored to ahierarchy of patterns of occupancy: partners and associates in their own enclosed offices;managers usually share offices booked on a hotel reservation system (‘Just-in-Time’officing) or have dedicated spaces depending on their need for privacy or on-site support(eg human resource personnel); consultants are in shared open plan cubicles used asneeded.

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Environmental systems

The mix of open and cellular spaces is servedby a constant volume fixed temperature airconditioning system supplying and extractingvia the ceiling, with two pipe induction unitslocated beneath the windows. Units maintainextract air temperatures at between 21–23°C.Relative humidity is controlled to 50+/-10%.Air is re-circulated with a minimum of 15%fresh air. No user control is provided within theoffice areas. Lighting is fluorescent downlighters and task lighting switched on byoccupants.

EvaluationAndersen Consulting in Cleveland is lookingfor new premises believing that the building isno longer appropriate to their changing needs.The simple central core building, although old,provides good basic space for the work patternof the organisation. The HVAC system offershigh potential for localisation of control andsystem output but this has not been exploitedor managed to match the demands of theorganisation, the two systems remainseparated. The HVAC system grid clashes withthe space and furniture layout which inthemselves do not well support the complexneeds of the users in this advanced cell type oforganisation.

Figure 78 Base building plan

Figure 79 Exterior

Figure 80 Layout Figure 81 Interior

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Gasunie14.4 Gasunie

Headquarters, Groningen, Netherlands

The organisation and its patterns of work

The gas utility headquarters is composed of many departments, the focus of the newbuilding is to overcome differences within the organisation and improvecommunication. IT has been driving a high level of change. The organisation considersitself to be highly interactive, but this varies by groups. The high variety of work tasksand high rate of churn have been allowed for within a layout of small group rooms andindividual offices all accessed from a central corridor across two wings. The skyscraperbuilding form was intended to unite disparate departments around the vertical atriumserving the whole tower.

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Environmental systemsThis sealed environment of cellular grouprooms with some larger open group areas atthe end of each wing is served by a variablevolume air system with supply and extractvia the ceiling, local control is providedwithin each room or area. Heating isprovided by small perimeter radiators withelectric heating in the open areas. Designtemperatures are 23+/-2°C in summer and21+/-2°C in winter with required relativehumidities between 45–64%. General officelighting is high frequency fluorescent withlocal infrared user control.

EvaluationThe intended use of the building to promotecommunication between and amongdepartments is frustrated by the restrictivelyshallow depth floors arranged on multiplestoreys, as well as by the high levels ofenclosure of the layout. The den style officesfor three people provide neither for easyinteraction across departments, groups orteams, nor for individual concentration. Theattempt to provide for high levels of usercontrol of the VAV system is frustrated by thecontrol being room based rather than personbased. There is potential conflict because therestricted layout of the furniture means staffhave no option over where they sit. The HVACcontrols are poorly understood. The lightingcontrol could have been replaced by wallswitches because it only provides sharedcontrol anyway. An expensive and high imagebuilding that does not meet its true potential.

Figure 84 Base building plan

Figure 85 Exterior

Figure 86 Layout Figure 87 Interior

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Gruner+Jahr14.5 Gruner+Jahr

Druck-und Verlagshaus, Hamburg, Germany

The organisation and its patterns of workHeadquarters for the largest magazine publisher in Germany, composed of many sub-organisations focused around individual magazine titles all served by central advertising,distribution, archive and library services. The focus of work is the individual editorialprocess, creative and highly autonomous tasks. The high value placed on individualresponsibility is balanced by the recognition of the importance also of team work on themagazines. The offices are designed as individual cells to provide for very high levels ofindividual control over the workplace environment. Generous circulation routes and streetsare intended to foster interaction among individuals. Even though individual office space isthe norm, the architect intended the building to be transparent and to supportcommunication.

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Environmental systemsThe cellular offices on the upper floors areserved by both opening windows and a variableair volume (VAV) system which supplies airthrough grilles in the floor and extracts throughhigh level wall grilles. The VAV system can becontrolled by wall switches in each officewhich enables it to be switched on if theexternal conditions rise above 23°C in thesummer or when they fall to 10°C, and if therelative humidity falls outside of acceptablelimits. There are no window switches to preventoccupants using the AC whilst their windowsare open. Heating is by TRV-controlled finnedskirting hot water radiators. Lighting is acombination of overhead and task lighting.

EvaluationThe shallow depth of the typical office floorsand the over reliance on individual enclosedoffice rooms restricts the capacity of the basebuilding to provide for larger scale project,group, or team interaction within and betweendepartments. Nevertheless, the sophisticatedand expensive HVAC systems provide highlyadvanced capacity for individual control andquality in the offices which they makeappropriate use of despite the lack of interlockbetween the windows and the AC system. Thetask lighting is well used and energy efficient.In some respects the systems are over-specified,with areas of over provision of servicing andcontrol elements that tend to conflict with eachother and with the design features of thebuilding, especially its very high levels ofglazing.

Figure 90 Base building plan

Figure 91 Exterior

Figure 92 LayoutFigure 93 Interior

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Lloyds Bank14.6 Lloyds Bank

Headquarters for retail banking, Bristol, England

The organisation and its patterns of workThe head office for retail banking operations in the UK involves many differentdepartmental functions, ranging between a minority of desk bound hive types of worksuch as the telephone help lines, to more common interactive groups and teams workingin the large scale open planned areas. Three basic types of work occur: direct customerinteractions; distribution of information and services to the retail operations; andinfrastructure support for the whole organisation, for example in property services. Thework processes vary between groups, but a predominant pattern is that of the den: highlevels of group interaction with varied levels of individual autonomy. Lower autonomywork is associated with the bank’s need to maintain reliability and consistency in thefinancial processes, yet the organisation is seeking to encourage more individual andgroup empowerment and initiative at all levels. The new building was intended tosupport the change away from a largely enclosed, isolated and hierarchical use of spacein dispersed office buildings towards an open work environment encouraging inter-dependence, change and communication.

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Environmental systemsA constant volume system serves the open planoffices supplying cooled air to a sealed floorplenum with small floor grilles. Air is suppliedat a constant 20°C to maintain internalconditions at 21+/-2°C. Humidity is controlledbetween 40–50% when possible althoughdehumidification is unavailable. Under-floorfour-pipe fan coils provide additional cooling atthe outer perimeter. Local dock water is used ascoolant. Exhaust air is returned through thelight fittings and ducted through to the slab inthe floor, eliminating the need for a ceilingvoid. No task lighting is provided, althoughthere is control over banks of lighting via wallmounted switches.

EvaluationA simple set of space standards has allowed awide variety of groups to establish their needsand work together in different ways, eventhough the open plan layout restricts the degreeof user control that it is possible to provide.Den type layouts are created by using differentheights of screens and selecting furniture as akit of parts to suit group or individualrequirements. The den style of layout supportsa consensus approach to control of systems,supporting the use of the under-floor all airsystems with additional distributed services inkey areas. A more group oriented approach tothe control of systems might be beneficial, aswould a finer resolution to the light switchingcombined with task lighting. Overall theperformance of the building and its HVACsystems work well for the organisation,although the HVAC system is in some waysover-specified for the requirements.

Figure 96 Base building plan

Figure 98 Layout

Figure 97 Exterior

Figure 99 Interior

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Rijksgebouwen-dienst

14.7 Rijksgebouwendienst

Directie Nord East Haarlem, Netherlands

The organisation and its patterns of workThis regional office for property managers who are often out of the office allows forshared space use by the managers. The refurbished club type space is driven by a neworganisational concept to promote more interaction and communication among staff aswell as to minimise environmental impacts by reducing space and services demand perperson. Very small glazed cells (2m×1.7m) are shared, while a group room for supportstaff and two dedicated enclosed offices areas are used by other financial staff. A widevariety of informal meeting areas and enclosed meeting spaces are also provided alongwith grouped central filing systems and mobile pedestals.

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Environmental systemsThe combination of small enclosed perimeteroffices and interior open spaces is served byopening windows and a variable air volumesystem with fan assisted terminals. In winterthe air to the VAV system is heated and insummer it is pre-cooled when the externaltemperature rises above 21°C. At other timescooling is achieved by altering the air supplyrate. Supply and extract are through the ceiling.Supplementary heating is provided at theperimeter by low temperature hot waterconvectors. There is no interlock between thewindows opening and the VAV system. Highlevels of user control for this club type oforganisation are provided, but without tightdesign conditions. Photocell controlled lightingis being tested, all other lights have pull cordsor wall switches.

EvaluationThis advanced club office, optimising a widerange of work settings and their pattern of useto match the work process, works very well.The HVAC systems, however, are unable toperform well within the refurbished building tosuit these complex demands. Conflicts betweenwindow opening and blind operation arereinforced by the mismatch between buildinggrid and the very small new office modules.The air distribution system has not been re-balanced to service varied room sizes and theerratic patterns of use. Preferred areas havearisen due to inconsistency of achievedconditions. Control interface is not intuitive asthe dials relate to air flow rather thantemperature. Furnishing and layout are thecritical elements of success here.

Figure 102 Base building plan

Figure 104 Layout

Figure 103 Exterior

Figure 105 Interior

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14.8 Sun Microsystems

MARCOM group, Menlo Park, Palo Alto, California, USASun Microsystems

The organisation and its patterns of workThe Menlo Park campus at Palo Alto is the headquarters of the Sun MicrosystemsComputer Corporation, the main division responsible for hardware. The work culture ishighly task oriented. Hardware and software specialists need access to excellenttechnology using individual offices, laboratories and a range of team facilities. TheMarketing and Communications group involves multi-skilled teams including artwork andgraphics to produce external communications. Their space provides for focused individualwork in small glazed cubicles (2.4m×3.6m) adjacent to interactive team areas. The teamareas are designed with highly flexible project furniture and systems for use with IT aswell as display facilities.

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Environmental systemsThe deep planned cellular space is served by avariable air volume system linked to heat onlyfan coils at the perimeter zone. Air is suppliedand extracted through the ceiling plenum. EachVAV terminal supplies six cellular offices andno user control is provided. The design is for24+/-1°C with no humidity control. Lighting isprovided by up-lighters to reduce glare,combined with task lighting. The BMScontrols the lighting and small power provisionto occupancy sensing.

EvaluationThe simple deep developer buildings haveallowed Sun to achieve a highly collaborativegroup environment which also permitsconcentrated individual work. Furniture andlighting systems are highly controllable andeffective. The HVAC systems using asophisticated central BMS will be effective solong as staff become familiar with how to useit. We would expect this kind of quasi-clubenvironment to provide a higher degree of usercontrol. The lack of individual control ofHVAC is compensated for by highly functionallighting and small power controls, factors thatwork well with the highly intensive IT focusof the work pattern. Other specialised areas ofthe office are served by separate systems, thismay mitigate against the frequent re-organisation of space and interiors expected ina club type of organisation.

Figure 108 Base building plan

Figure 110 Layout

Figure 109 Exterior

Figure 111 Interior

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The organisation and its patterns of workWalt Disney Imagineering is the organisational brain behind the Disney theme parks,the home of the famous ‘Imagineers’. It is the master planning and brainstorming centrefor the creative development, design, engineering, production and project managementfor the theme parks. The organisation depends on ‘corridor culture’ and the use of so-called ‘skunk teams’ of specialist problem solvers using mixed skills brought togetherto focus on projects. 25 senior managers work with 110 designers and 15 support staff.The circular project process relies on a sequence of individual and group work withconstant review and links to other teams. Display space for project teams is an essentialfeature of the workplace and serves to keep the whole organisation informed. Coreemployees are supported by many out-sourced workers.

14.9 Walt Disney Imagineering

Mapo building, Burbank, California, USAWalt DisneyImagineering

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Environmental systemsThis den organisation is planned in spaceswhere each individual and group is highlyscreened. Servicing is provided by a variableair volume system with each zone having itsown packaged unit. Zoning is inherited anddoes not necessarily match the actualrequirements. Supply and extract in the officeareas is via the ceiling with temperaturescontrolled between 23–25°C, with nohumidity control. Wherever possible pre-emptive actions such as pre-cooling are takenif very diverse loads are anticipated. Lightingis fluorescent down lighting controlled bywall switches.

EvaluationThe large volumes of space in the industrialbuilding allow for the mixture of individualcell spaces and large scale project team anddisplay areas. However, many staff are remotefrom daylight in the very deep spaces.Problems have arisen with the match betweenthe zoning and later office re-configurations.The HVAC system does not work well in thelarge space volumes, radiative systemscombined with airborne conditioning in officespaces would be a better solution. Thesystems were further compromised by thepoor location and explanation of controls.User control of the HVAC systems is possiblevia LAN access to the BMS but this is notencouraged because of potential conflict withneighbouring staff. The aim is to support theteam environment, with only lighting underindividual control.

Figure 114 Base building plan

Figure 115 Layout

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14.10 Summary case studyevaluations

The project team evaluated the case studies inorder to understand their implications forpotential improvements to building, space, andenvironmental services design and relatedproducts. This provided directions for thefurther work on technical case studies that tookplace after the organisational studies werecompleted. The project team evaluations ofeach case study examined:� the base building types and the generic

environmental servicing types� space layout and scenery and the installed

environmental services� an estimate of total quality overall of both

building/layout and generic/installedenvironmental services systems

� an estimate of the normalised effective costof the achieved building/environment and anestimate of the total effectiveness of theachieved building and its environmentalservices.

The evaluations represented the project team’sassessment of the key variables analysed in thecase studies in order to understand theproblems of relative performance andeffectiveness. They alerted the project team tothe need to consider the relative effectivenessof building types and environmental systems ina context of both different levels of expectationand specification associated with organisational

types or patterns of work (hive, cell den andclub) and their associated levels of cost. Thisled directly to instigation of work withJohnson Controls Limited on developing apreliminary cost model linked to theorganisational types. Some of the commentsassociated with the evaluations are reproducedbelow to indicate how the team developed itsthinking in this area.

Base building type: generic environmentalservices systems� Automobile Association has a good simple

base building, but this was not quite as wellmatched by the quality of specification ofthe environmental services.

� Gasunie is accommodated in a high imageand high cost building that is somewhatinflexible and inappropriate for the userrequirements, although the environmentalservicing systems would appear to beappropriate.

� Gruner+Jahr is a very high performanceserviced environment within a building typethat is not completely successful (andachieved at high cost).

The evaluations highlight the problem ofbalancing the performance of the base buildingtype with the generic environmental servicingsystem, as well as the need to evaluate bothagainst the cost of the achievement in relationto organisational requirements and levels ofexpectation.

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Appropriateness of space layout andscenery and the quality of installedenvironmental systems� Rijksgebouwendienst achieved very high

quality of layout, scenery, and interiordesign to support the club office users butwithin an older refurbished building thatcould not provide a corresponding qualityof installed environmental services

� Andersen Consulting represented a relativeunder-performance of the installedenvironmental services system in relation tothe capacity of the generic environmentalservices system

� Gruner+Jahr achieved very high qualityenvironmental servicing but within a spacelayout that is not highly effective for theorganisation given their need to balanceindividual concentration work with teaminteraction

The overall summary achievement scores

highlighted the necessity of evaluations toincorporate cost in relation to performance.This would, for example, have enabled theRijksgebouwendienst to have achieved a higherevaluation to better represent their cost effectiveand high quality workplace.

In addition, the evaluations need to betteraccount for the relative variations ofexpectation and specification associated withhive, cell, den and club types of environments,so that, for example, the cost/performanceevaluation of the Automobile Association’shive office would be targeted differently to thatof a club style environment.

If cost and performance are to be evaluated inrelation to the expectations of the user types,then the two overall ‘top’ achievers in thisevaluation are the club environment atRijksgebouwendienst and the simple hiveenvironment at the Automobile Association.

15

The organisation and its work patternsThe Elizabeth Fry Building is one of a numberof combined office and teaching centres on theUniversity of East Anglia (UEA) campus on thewestern side of Norwich. The building providescellular office accommodation for the academicstaff of the School of Social Work but alsoprovides overspill accommodation for otherUniversity departments.

The lecture theatres and seminar rooms areused intensively as they are available to all theUniversity departments. The officeaccommodation has quite a variable occupancydue to the nomadic nature of the academicstaff. Also, many staff spend much of their non-teaching time working from home, using their

office as a base whilst at the University and asa storage location for the large quantities ofliterature required for their research activities.However, some staff members prefer to workfrom their office and, due to the variable natureof combined research and teaching duties, oftenwork until 10 or 11pm.

Environmental systemsThe building environment is controlled by aTermodeck hollow core ventilation system. Thismaximises the interaction of the 100% fresh airsupply with the building fabric, so as to achievemaximum thermal storage, and hence dampenthe diurnal swings in internal temperature,minimising the need for mechanical heatingand cooling.

The core ends of each ceiling/floor slab areblocked and interconnecting holes cut to createan extended air pathway within the slab. Air isdrawn through the slabs at low speed by a fan soas to maximise the heat transfer between the airand the concrete whilst avoiding excessivelyturbulent flow induced by the rough surface ofthe concrete walls of the cores at high flow rates.

Winter operation of the Termodeck systeminvolves pre-heating the 100% fresh air througha heat recovery unit and re-heating (if required)to about 35°C. This heated air is passedthrough the concrete slabs where 70° of its heatis stored for dissipation during the followingnight. The fresh air and the remaining heat isdelivered to the space below through ceilingdiffusers. During unoccupied periods the fansare normally off unless additional ‘top-up’heating is required, when the system operateson 100% recirculation.

Case studies of technologies

15.1 Elizabeth Fry Building,University of East Anglia, Norwich, England

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Summertime operation involves the passing offiltered but untreated 100% fresh air throughthe slab at night to cool it using the naturalovernight drop in temperature. During thedaytime, fresh air is again passed through theslab, cooled by contact with the pre-cooled slaband hence holding down the temperature of theair entering the space to approaching that of theslab temperature.

Evaluation of environmental systemsThe Termodeck system in highly insulated,thermally heavy buildings operates a passivecooling system for the majority of the year. Thehigh thermal capacity absorbs both intermittentand constant internal heat loads over theoccupied period whilst maintaining stablediurnal Dry Resultant Temperature.Conditioning the whole building with constantair flow rates and low fan powers allows simplecontrols to be used. Variable occupancy rooms(eg lecture theatres) can use either CO

2-

controlled variable speed fans or manuallycontrolled switch flow operation matching both

ventilation and cooling loads to the internalrequirements.

The Elizabeth Fry building includes openablewindows which provide the occupants with theuser control they lack with the Termodecksystem. This mixed mode combination,although inefficient as the air supply throughthe all air Termodeck cannot be turned offwhen the windows are open, appears to workwell in this closed cellular environment. Theradiative air nature of the system means theloss of air through open windows is less energywasteful than would be the case with aconvection based heating/cooling system.

The occupants have been educated to shut thewindows once the temperature outside isgreater than that inside in order to maximisethe benefit of the Termodeck cooling capacity.Despite the inefficiencies within the Termodecksystem, the Elizabeth Fry building is a lowenergy solution to the treatment of a buildingof this nature.

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The organisation and its work patterns2 New Square is one of three buildingsoccupied by IBM UK on the Bedfont Lakesoffice park. The three-storey building housesthe national marketing centre as well as beingthe main UK customer centre, where IBMcustomers visiting the centre are encouraged tomake use of the facilities for their own businessneeds. The majority of the predominantly openplan office space is around the perimeter of thefirst and second floors, with open spaces on theground floor of the large central atriumproviding communal dining facilities anddisplay areas.

The building occupancy is quite variable, beingthe base for approximately 1000 IBM staff ofwhich many are mobile sales staff. Some of thestaff operate a hot-desking scheme whilst otherswork a more standard 9 to 5 non-desk-sharingwork pattern. Although many of the staff workin teams some of these tend to be quite fluidand short lived as is often the case for a clubenvironment.

Environmental systemsThe internal environment of the office spaces is

controlled by a zoned air treatment module(ATM) system whilst the atrium is conditionedwith re-circulated air from the office spaces. Aseparate variable air volume (VAV) system isused to treat the conference areas. The ATMunits are fan coils located outside the occupiedspace in small on-floor plant rooms. Temperedair is distributed to the plant rooms by roof-topcentral plant, where it is heated or cooled asrequired by the ATM units before beingdistributed to the occupied space by means offlexible ducts. The modular nature of the ATMsystem allows each unit to be controlledindividually or as part of a zoned control, aswell as enabling the rapid removal of a unit formaintenance.

Evaluation of environmental systemsThe system is designed to minimise themaintenance which is carried out in theoccupied space. As such it is particularlyapplicable to buildings with long occupiedperiods where out of hours maintenance can bea problem. An additional benefit is that wetservices are not transported through the ceilingvoids of the occupied space, reducing the riskof water damage to IT equipment, etc. Themodularity of the system combined withcentrally programmable local controllersenables rapid reconfiguration of the systemproviding the flexibility to respond to highlevels of churn. Within an open clubenvironment a distributed system is a goodchoice in terms of providing user control.

However, the high level of user control offeredby the ATM system, by allowing occupants tocontrol each of the ATM units individually, wasnot implemented in this building because ofconcerns that the open plan nature of theaccommodation would cause inefficientsimultaneous heating and cooling in adjacentspaces. Instead, the ATMs are controlled on azonal basis by the central BMS. Individualcontrol is provided in a few of the cellularmanagers’ offices. Although maintenance ismade more convenient than for many othersystems, there is a need to consider a suitablemaintenance regime for the very large numbersof ATM units.

15.2 IBM UK,Bedfont Lakes, Heathrow, England

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The organisation and its work patternsThe Eastern Electricity Group headquarters arelocated on the outskirts of Ipswich in theWherstead Park Estate House which wasconverted for this purpose. The area consideredin this study is the first and second floors of anextension built onto the front of the originalmain building. Both floors are predominantlyopen plan with a small number of cellularoffices and meeting rooms on the internalperimeter.

The offices have an external view on theirwestern facade and look into a glazedcourtyard, now forming an atrium, on theireastern side. The design occupancy is oneperson per 10 sqm which corresponds in theoryto about 50 people per floor although inpractice the occupancy is unbalanced with thefirst floor housing about 65 staff. The buildingoperates as an open plan cellular arrangement.Although people tend to be arranged in teamsthey operate mostly as individuals carrying ahigh level of responsibility for what they doand with the expectations of being able tocontrol their working environment accordingly.

Environmental systemsThe two floors studied are served by a HirossFlexible Space System using a modular raisedfloor to deliver air conditioning and forelectrical and communications cabling.Although it is then possible through the use ofup-lighters to eliminate the need for a falseceiling, as this is a refurbishment project theoriginal ceiling and down-lighting has beenkept. The air is treated by a number of CAMunits located in cupboards within the space.Each one can serve an area of approximately300 sqm. The CAM unit receives fresh airtreated by a central air handling unit and re-circulated air from the floor void. It filters,heats/cools and humidifies the air beforedelivering it through the floor void to a numberof fan tile units (FTUs).

These are distributed throughout the space andprovide the facility for local control oftemperature and air flow by the occupantthrough a user adjusted thermostaticallycontrolled damper and electric heater battery.They can be recessed into the floor void orfloor mounted. The air is distributed from theCAM to the FTUs through separate supply andreturn air plena as opposed to ductwork.

Evaluation of environmental systemsThe system is designed to maximiseflexibility as FTUs can be relocated easilyhaving no ductwork connections and integralthermostats, and the plena can be re-routed.However the success of such a strategy isdependent upon the speed of relocation ofFTUs matching the churn rate and subsequentfurniture location. In an open plan space witha large number of FTUs where churn isfrequent it is possible for a user to either besurrounded by them or to be too far awayfrom one for ease of control. In such a caseusers need to be encouraged to use theirFTUs appropriately, eg if the occupants gettoo cold in summer due to excessive airmovement they should either reduce the fanspeed or increase the temperature of the airflow rather than turn the unit off completely.

15.3 Eastern Electricity Group HeadquartersIpswich, England

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If the floor void depth is minimised to takeadvantage of the plena approach the location ofan additional CAM unit is important in case ofupgrade as they need to be served by chilledwater and linked to the main supply and extractsystem.

Within a closed cellular environment adistributed system is a good choice in terms ofproviding user control, although in an openplan environment close integration with the

furniture system is needed. The ability to meetthe diverse demand of the club could bequestioned given the limited variation ofconditioning possible through the userinterface. The ease of maintenance offered bythe system, ie the FTUs can be pulled out andreplaced easily is considered essential to avoiddisruption on the floor. CAM unit maintenancecould be more disruptive. The ability to partoperate the system is dependent upon thelocation of the FTUs relative to the CAM units.

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The organisation and its work patterns

The Waterhouse Square development is amodern extension to the Prudential Insurancecomplex in Holborn. The integration of the newextension with the older Prudential building hasmeant the office space occupied by Royal Bankof Scotland spreads across both building types.It has also meant that some of the utilities aresupplied via Prudential and are often undertheir control rather than the Royal Bank ofScotland’s. The 5 storey building, which retainsthe original Prudential facade, is built aroundtwo partially enclosed atria.

The office houses approximately 1000 staff inlargely open plan accommodation. Thefunctions of these staff fall into three maincategories: the strategic management of thebank, international dealing, or support for thedealers. Small cellular offices are provided forsome of the senior managers. Cellular meetingareas are also provided, ranging from smallcellular rooms for 2 or 3 people around theatrium to boardroom style corporate meetingand entertaining facilities.

Lighting systemThe artificial lighting is predominantly byThorn Sensa overhead luminaires. The aim ofthe Sensa lighting control is to minimise theenergy consumption associated with lightingwhilst maintaining a comfortable light level.The Sensa device may include an occupantdetector and a photocell to provide localisedcontrol of the fittings, allowing the lamps to bedimmed or switched depending on daylightpenetration and occupant activity. The devicecan be integrated into some of the Thornluminaire ranges or can be installed in to thein-fill between the luminaires.

An optional infra red hand held controller canalso be used to provide individual control.Other benefits of the Sensa control includenegating the need to install switch drops in thewiring circuits which not only saves on theinstallation costs of the system but alsoincreases the flexibility to respond to churnwithin the office space.

Evaluation of the lighting systemThe Waterhouse Square development uses avariety of switching methods depending on thelocation of the luminaires. Absence detection isused throughout the building, switching off allnon-emergency lights when no occupants aredetected. Luminaires adjacent to exterior oratria windows also include daylight switching.A dimming facility is built into the luminaireson the dealer floor, but user control has beenwithheld from the occupants.

Managers believe that providing the dealerswith individual control would cause argumentsin this densely populated area, and so dimmingis carried out by the building managers onrequest. Whilst the absence detection anddaylight switching have been accepted by themajority of the staff, the dimming control hasproved to be unpopular amongst some of thedealers who have attempted to override some ofthe controls.

The control at Waterhouse Square has beenconfigured so that the absence detection turnsthe lights off if an occupant has not beendetected for approximately 45 minutes. Thismeans that energy savings from this part of thecontrol are largely through reduced lightingduring out of hours periods, as few areas of anoffice of this size are unoccupied for this lengthof time during the working day.

15.4 Royal Bank of ScotlandLondon, England

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16.1 Introduction

The evaluations of the case studies by theproject team were based on� interviews with key technical and

management personnel,� contextual assessment based on the previous

experience of the project team, and� short term environmental monitoring.

In order to allow for a complete considerationof the appropriateness of the building and itsservices it was desirable to gather reactions tothe buildings from the occupants. A systematicsurvey was not tenable within the restrictions ofthe project, since not all managers would agreeto a survey and there was scope for involvingonly a small number of occupants in thosebuildings where managers did agree to asurvey. Nevertheless, some impressions weregained through a combination of writtenquestionnaires responses and the use of smallfocus group discussions.

The assessment of occupant reactions wasdesigned to discover:� Their awareness or perception of the

importance of:i) environmental servicing (including

lighting);ii) space planning and furniture selection in

supporting an individual ororganisational work pattern.

� If the assessments carried out by the projectteam during their brief visits to the buildingwere in line with the views of the occupants.This is important if the guidance generatedfrom the case studies is to be of generalvalue.

16.2 Data collection and analysis

Between 20 and 30 occupant questionnaireswere distributed in the buildings wheremanagement gave permission. The responserate varied greatly, with only 140questionnaires returned in total from tenbuildings. There can therefore be no claims thatthe information gathered from this exercisecarries any degree of statistical validity.However it is important to realise that theintention of the analysis is to obtain indicativeoccupant reactions rather than precisemeasurements of (dis)satisfaction.

The data gathered here is of necessity fragilegiven that:� causal relationships are difficult to isolate

due to the interdependency of the variablesunder consideration,

� cross building comparisons accentuate theabove as this interdependency will vary frombuilding to building, and

� the number of responses, and the poorresponse rate, leave considerable potentialfor bias in the results (if, for example, thoseoccupants who held extreme views weremore likely to respond).

That said, when regarded with the appropriatelevel of scepticism, this form of informationcan provide a comparison with the other datacollected in this study. Reassuringly, the resultsof these case study surveys proved to besupportive of previous work carried out byBRE and others.

The occupant questionnaire used appears inAppendix B, along with the questionnaires

Implications of the case studies:

learning from occupants’ reactions

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used in discussion with the technical andmanagement representatives. Results from theoccupants have been analysed on the basis of‘normalised dissatisfaction’. Each questionincluded in this analysis has an optimal, orzero dissatisfaction, answer. In someinstances, questions have a mid point optimal,eg Please rate the temperature on a typicalsummer’s day:

and in such questions, an individual’sdissatisfaction can have a maximum absolutevalue of 2 (ie 2 boxes away from the optimal).

No differentiation is made between a responseabove or below the optimal value—frequentlythe direction of dissatisfaction is independent ofthe root cause of the problem. For examplepoor environmental servicing systemperformance can lead to one area of a buildingbeing too hot, whilst another is too cold.Equally, it can be argued that perceptions of hotand cold are adaptive and highly influenced byrecent events. Thus it is more important torecord the occurrence and level ofdissatisfaction as opposed to its direction.

Other questions have an optimal at one end ofthe scale, taking the form:Please rate the amount of distraction youexperience from your work colleagues and theiractivities

and clearly here the optimal response is ‘nodistraction’. Hence there is a maximumdissatisfaction rating of 4 (ie ‘Constantdistraction’ is four boxes away from theoptimal response).

By aggregating individual dissatisfaction levels,and then dividing by the maximum possiblelevel of dissatisfaction that the respondeescould have proffered, a normaliseddissatisfaction response for the building isobtained. There are numerous statisticaltechniques that can be applied to the analysis ofsocial questionnaire data. However the quantity

of data obtained did not lend itself to a rigorousanalytical exercise in view of the potentialmultiplicity of influencing factors.

The chosen normalised dissatisfaction methodwas a pragmatic approach developed for thestudy. The method has two key features:� It is more representative of overall

satisfaction than either the average (ie oneresponse of ‘too hot’ and one response of‘too cold’ have an average of ‘satisfactory’),or the mode (all other responses arediscarded).

� It eases cross comparison of the importanceof individual variables within a building.

The final question of the survey asks theoccupant to give a rating for the building as awhole.

When the case study buildings are ordered interms of overall dissatisfaction as in Figure 121the most noteworthy factors concerning theordering are:� There is no discernible relationship between

defined work pattern and overall rating ofthe building.

� There is no discernible relationship betweeninnovation of work pattern/space layout andthe overall rating of the building.

Note that, as stated earlier, the vertical axisrepresents dissatisfaction so the lowest scorerepresents the best building.

Recalling the four families of HVAC systemsdefined previously, it is interesting to observethe apparent influence that the system selectionhas upon perceived overall buildingperformance (Figure 121).

On the admittedly limited evidence of the casestudy work there appeared to be a trend of‘occupant popularity’ associated with types ofHVAC systems—notably the preference formixed mode systems followed by distributedand lastly all air. The one exception to thistrend is the Gasunie building. As describedearlier, the opulent architectural style of thisbuilding may means that it is atypical in that a‘compensatory effect’ is occurring. Given the

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Figure 121 Overall building dissatisfaction levels

high cost of creating a building of this kind, itis not surprising that occupants respondpositively overall.

Comparison between occupant opinionsand project team assessmentsWhilst the results from the occupantquestionnaires appear to be consistent, it isessential that they are viewed against theassessments of the project team. Looking firstat the overall performance of the building inrelation to the specified HVAC system familythe most popular six buildings evaluated have‘appropriate’ affinities whilst the worst four areconsidered to be ‘inappropriate’ in relation tothis study.

When the installation quality of a particularsystem is considered, that is how it is affectedby the constraints which a particular buildingimposes upon the chosen system, there is alsoan encouraging level of consistency betweenoccupant appraisals and project teamassessments. Where differences occur they maybe explained by the ‘compensatory factors’involved in the specification of the space layoutand interior design. For example the popularityof Gasunie (due to its opulent nature); thelower than expected rating for AndersonConsulting (due to the aged quality of the

furniture and cramped surroundings whichcould not support the hotelling principle); orthe higher than expected rating ofRijksgebouwendienst (attributable to the caretaken with the furnishings, space planning ofthe club concept, and degree of userinvolvement in the development of the designconcept, overcoming the relatively unsuitableHVAC servicing). However, clearly the abilityto explain away any discrepancies betweenproject team and user ratings needs to beregarded with caution. A closer inspectionmight identify discrepancies that explain thosecases where there is consistency between theproject team assessments and the occupantsurveys.

Conclusions

The introduction of the concept of a linked‘environmental servicing and fit out quality’creates excellent consistency between theproject team evaluations and the recordedoccupant perceptions in the case studies. Suchcohesion is consistent with the project team’sview of the importance of the combination ofenvironmental servicing, space planning andfurniture selection in supporting the totalquality of an individual or organisationalworkplace.

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Figure 122 Overall building dissatisfaction level

Figure 123 Comparison of project team assessment of‘appropriateness’ of environmental servicing and occupantdissatisfaction with building

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Part 5: Product directions anddesign implications

Chapter 17 Implications for the design of buildings and BMSChapter 18 Product directions for environmental systemsChapter 19 Implications for lightingChapter 20 Implications for space layout and furnitureChapter 21 The impact of software

Drawing on the evaluations of the performance ofenvironmental systems and building types inaccommodating organisational demands, a series ofdirections for product development and design arehighlighted. These address:� building design and building management systems� information technology� HVAC systems and controls� lighting� space layout and furniture.

17

Summary of findingsFrom the exploration and evaluation describedin previous chapters it is possible tohypothesise about the impact of new workingpatterns on the future of buildings. This chapterconsiders base building design, thespecification of building management systems,and the implications for the building stock.Where relevant each area is discussed withreference to the requirements of the differentprocurement chain members.

It is anticipated that in developing the briefs fornew or refurbished buildings individual clientsor users will increasingly ask for:� environmental systems that provide a higher

degree of personalised individual and groupcontrol than is available at present, with thecontrol interface being simpler and moreaccessible;

� much more consideration in the design ofenvironmental systems to facilitate atransition from work patterns that arecontinuous and low in interaction to patternsof work which are certain to be quite theopposite;

� guidance to help avoid commissioningbuildings which are too specifically designedfor one particular work process;

� a sharper distinction between the level ofenvironment provided for people spaces(which will tend to be for highly mobile,and changing groups), and for those areaswhich house support activities;

� the adaptive potential to shift the ratiobetween people and support zones over time,since the latter will tend to increase in manyoffice organisations.

The onus on developers will be to:� focus on producing simple straightforward

medium depth and atrium office shells,avoiding both shallow and deep plan typesexcept for specific purposes or client needs;

� ensure the simplest possible interfacesbetween environmental systems and buildingshells;

� allow enough space and volume to ensureadaptation to existing services, or tofacilitate the provision of additional servicesin appropriate zones, eg a contingency or azoned mixed mode approach;

� anticipate shorter leases and multi tenancies,and invent ways of providing effectiveshared common services for buildingoccupants on a commercial basis, whilstpermitting flexibility for each.

17.1 Implications for design briefsfor buildings and buildingmanagement systems (BMS)Overall� Space planning exercises demonstrate that

the new working practices can effectively beplaced into smaller units of officeaccommodation. The use of shared spacewill play an important role in this. Theincreased viability of smaller units willallow a much closer integration of officesinto the urban fabric and open up theirpotential for use as other types of space.

� Mixed use buildings will becomeincreasingly common as people seek to fullyexploit their investment in property as aconsequence of downsizing.

� Deep plan central core buildings and veryshallow building types will be less usableexcept for a minority of hive organisations(deep plan) or the smaller clubs(narrow plan).

� Medium depth and atrium buildingconfigurations will best match the likelygrowth of den and club style organisations.

� The greater focus on the potential of mixedmode and distributed servicing systems tosupport club organisations is unlikely toreduce floor to floor ceiling heights becauseof longer term needs for the flexiblelocations of services. However, there may bean opportunity to design ceilings to takegreater advantage of their exposed thermalmass. There are also opportunities affordedby locating distributed systems in the floor,ceilings, or on the walls.

Implications for the design ofbuildings and BMS

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� Building depth and configuration to permitnatural ventilation within a mixed modescenario will be a critical factor (and mayonly be possible in certain kinds of locations).

New office buildingsOffice development has tended to producelarge, homogeneous, isolated buildings. Theimplication of our argument is that exactly theopposite may be required for transactional clubstyle organisations. That is smaller buildings,capable of accepting mixed uses, and linkedtogether by a tissue of space, both internal andexternal, designed to encourage interaction. Themodel is not far to seek: it is the traditional cityof streets, courts and alleyways.

At both the level of the workplace and of theoffice as a whole, the costs of increasedcapacity to accommodate a wider range of usesmust be justified by the benefits of moreeffective programming of space use over time.However, this is only a fragment of the muchmore powerful economic arguments. Avoidingthe penalties of space and layouts whichprevent the new forms of work organisation,and achieving the benefits of new forms oflayout which are in tune with the currentrevolution in organisational design, can bejustified in such terms as the economic leverageprovided by space use intensification.

Information technologyIt is expected that the impact of innovations ininformation technology will make a wider rangeof buildings available for high quality use, giventhe declining physical and spatial impact ofcables and the reduction in heat gain from ITequipment, as well as the growing opportunitiesoffered by wireless communications.Nevertheless these opportunities will only bemost successfully implemented in the mosteffective building types. The demands of centrallocation will be somewhat marginalised by themobile and nomadic nature of new ways ofworking supported by the space-lesstechnologies of communication that are nowbecoming widespread.

17.2 The impact of re-thinkingenvironmental servicesRelation to base building designThe finding that club styles of organisation arebest supported by distributed or mixed modesystems may have implications for basebuilding design. The shift towards the den andultimately the club with correspondingaffinities to distributed and mixed modesystems suggests that architects and designersmay wish to consider the latter as part of thefuture strategy for a building. This suggestsbuilding shells designed with a more integratedapproach to overall building performance andwhich are less exclusive of the externalenvironment.

Servicing technologies can be designed asselective additions rather than as blanketprovision, although this would require thedesign to focus on more easily changedmechanical services that would complementand assist the natural ventilation. Centralbuilding systems will offer less of theseopportunities than local and adaptablecomponents. The use of mechanical options, atleast in part, will allow the building depth to gobeyond the traditional 15m limit previouslyassociated with solely naturally ventilatedbuildings.

The flexibility of location of distributedHVAC systems, potentially in the floor, wallsor ceiling spaces, provides opportunities toquestion floor to floor heights that haveconventionally assumed both floor and ceilingvoids for locations of cables and air or waterdistribution services. However, this iscounterbalanced by the longer term needs ofbuilding occupants to sustain their capacity toalter and re-configure space and servicingwhich suggests that squeezing down floor tofloor heights on the assumption thatdistributed systems can be fitted in moretightly is unwise. The dimensional impacts ofthese systems will vary, some requiringexternal wall locations others having centralair distribution.

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Building management systemsThe implications for BMSs centre on theirability to carry out central supervision whilstallowing greater localisation of control atindividual and group levels. However, in orderfor their powers to operate the building to suitthe precise needs of an organisation to be fullyexploited, the man-machine interface must bemade as intuitive as possible to permitrelatively untrained staff to make alterations ona more frequent basis.

The future BMS will be able to log how abuilding is being used, recognising patterns inoccupancy profiles over a day, week, or year. Itwill predict the loads and react accordingly, forexample to pre-cool an area of the buildingwhich is always occupied heavily at lunch time.

The BMS will be necessary to optimise plantcontrol over the full range of occupancy andoperating conditions experienced by thebuilding eg a single person late night working,a move to flexi-time or seven day working. Itwill be able to control the interaction of variousplant items such as chillers and fans to makethe minimum energy decision, for exampleadjusting the degree of night cooling required ifthe building is to be occupied an hour earlierthe next day.

CeilingsFocusing on the most appropriate HVACsystems to support den and club patterns ofwork also provides opportunities for designersfurther to consider the role of ceilings. Thepotential exists for ceiling designs to:� Exploit the benefits of thermal mass (and

reduce the need for mechanical cooling) byincreasing the exposed surface area withcurves or other devices, also making it moreaesthetically pleasing. This technique hasalready been used in buildings such asPowergen and the new Environmental Officeat BRE.

� Provide shaped ceilings to direct their

cooling effects to better support radiative airsystems, although the impact on futureflexibility must be borne in mind.

� Reduce the void size with certain HVACsystems, such as ATM zonal, or even to haveno ceiling voids with systems such as theHiross Flexible Space system which consistsof under-floor fan coils.

� Re-define the needs for lighting (possiblyuplighting) and structural ceiling finisheswhere suspended ceilings are no longerrequired.

� Make better provision for changes in layoutin fast changing den or club typeorganisations, for example ease ofdemounting and integration of fixtures intoceiling tiles.

� Increased integration of the new radiativeair technologies such as chilled beams andchilled ceilings.

Re-use of building stockA straightforward adaptive approach foraccommodating both environmental systems andinformation technology gives greater scope forthe intelligent adaptive re-use of existingbuildings. The mixed use of such existingstructures is likely to become more possible. Thisrecommendation is reinforced by our predictionsthat many organisations themselves will becomesmaller, more networked, more permeable, andmore capable of using smaller buildings, andsmaller floor plates to greater effect.

Within a larger building the floor space whichis freed up by this may be let to tenants of asimilar nature, or may be let to complementaryorganisations, eg a restaurant or leisure facility.It may also become space which is let tomembers of other organisations who areworking in tandem, on a project which wouldbenefit from team members being in the samelocation. An example of this might be aconstruction project where a team of engineersmay relocate to the architect’s premises for ashort period.

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Summary of findings

The key strategic directions for environmentalsystems manufacturers to consider are to:� Provide controls which are capable of

responding to changing patterns ofoccupancy in a speedy, cost effective andenergy efficient manner.

� Provide intelligent controls for individuals,teams and support spaces which allowmaximum discretion for users and minimiseoperating costs, and which also greatlysimplify the interface between the end userand the system.

� Develop strategies for effective mixed modeoperations and focus on distributed systemsbecause user demand for them is more likelyto increase most quickly.

� Focus on how radiative and all air systemscan be enhanced to be more suitable for thefiner forms of control and responsivenessrequired by den and club organisations, andhow they can be most effectively usedwithin a mixed mode strategy.

� Enhance the effectiveness of maintenanceroutines through the use of advanced controland modelling techniques, and increase theease of maintenance.

The following tables look at each of the HVACsystem families in turn and consider how theymight need to be improved on a generic level tofully meet the needs of each working pattern.

Product directions forenvironmental systems

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18.1 All air systems

Overview on product development directions� An examination ofthe possibilities of low temperature VAV systems and

their ability to accommodate the diversity associated with a clubenvironment, whilst reducing the normal space implications of air basedsystems. However, low temperature systems may accentuate the problem ofdowndraughts from a lack of throw of the difiser at low air speeds.

� An examination of the realised long term performance of air quality controlmethods (eg CO

2, or occupancy based) for all air systems serving the den,

cell and club environments.� A look at automated preventative maintenance to minimise the downtime

associated with all air systems.� The requirements of the cell and club may be achievable through the

application of desk based personal ventilation systems, although theirperformance remains to be explored in any detail. They currently appear tohave a somewhat expensive image, and have not really been adopted yet inthe UK as a main servicing solution.

Figure 124 Work pattern demands on all air HVAC systems

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18.2 Radiative air systems

Overview on product development directions:� A review of the realised performance of radiative air systems (which are

already considered as highly innovative by the UK building servicesindustry) through EC case studies. There are a limited number of suchsystems in this country, although those that exist are receiving a largeamount of press attention. UK designers are in need of independentdefinitive design information.

� An evaluation of the opportunities for improved individual control ofradiative air systems, with infra-red controllers being one possibility.

� An examination of the maintenance implications of radiative air systems,eg cleaning.

Figure 125 Work pattern demands on radiative air HVAC systems

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Overview on product development directions� The poor ranking of certain distributed systems (which, in the modelling

exercise, appeared well suited to the den, club and possibly cellenvironments) justifies examination of the perceived practical barriers totheir successful application.

� An examination of the use of perimeter radiative cooling (ie thesummertime equivalent of a radiator heating system) for cell or denactivity in narrow plan buildings.

18.3 Distributed systems

Figure 126 Work pattern demands on distributed HVAC systems

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18.4 System family: tempered air (leading to mixed mode)

Overview on product development directions� The popularity of natural ventilation with occupants implies that

consideration of mixed mode systems whenever possible is advisable,particularly in the club environment. However strategic guidance isneeded on the design of such systems to ensure that they return inpractice the degree of flexibility, economic benefit, and user satisfactionthat in theory they should offer.

� A consideration of the interaction between active and passive systems(particularly radiative air systems where there is a fear of condensationrisk, and all air or distributed systems to ensure appropriate with windowoperation).

� An examination of ways of overcoming the apparent ‘preferentialtreatment’ for near window occupants.

� An examination of the performance of various forms of automaticwindow control gear, which in the past have not been totally reliable.

Figure 127 Work pattern demands on tempered air HVAC systems

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18.5 Product direction conclusions

The driving forces for change arise from fourmajor sets of interests:� The users: needing a greater degree of

individual or group control, and systems thatare simple to operate.

� The client organisation: needing systemsthat necessitate the least disruption to thebusiness process due to maintenance,whether this is because the specified systemactually requires less maintenance, themaintenance can be carried out more easily,or because it can be carried out externally tothe occupied space.

� The owner: needing the ability to upgrade,re-arrange or refurbish the office space tomeet the requirements of shorter leases,changing tenant and occupier requirements,and responding to the needs of multi-tenanted buildings.

� The designer: needing to ensure that thedesign can operate effectively over the fullrange of the building operating conditionsanticipated now, or in the future.

The directions for product development can beseen as focusing on the following key areas:

� Controls� Maintenance� Modularity and flexibility� Commissioning. ControlsIn terms of developments in available controls,the main requirements generated by the newworking patterns are seen as being:� The ability to respond to changing patterns

of occupancy in a cost effective andeconomic manner without adverselyaffecting the quality of the environment ofthe staff who remain more permanently inthe space, in particular in open plan offices.

� The possibility of providing a greater degreeof control, on an individual or team level,which will not adversely affect the quality ofenvironment for adjacent individuals or staff.

� The ability to understand the operation ofthe controls provided so that full advantagecan be taken of the opportunities offered bya control system to match the change in anorganisation’s operation.

� Intelligent controls that will result in theoptimum use of energy and minimumoperating cost, but which greatly simplifythe interface with the user.

� Improved predictive control algorithms thatwill be able to cope with the uncertainnature of modern working patterns.

Examples of how this is being, or might be,applied include:� Intelligent fan control that will optimise the

choice of air flow rate and supplytemperature to achieve the minimum energyuse, coupled with the availability of goodquality inexpensive variable speed fans.Methods of doing this can be investigatedusing operational research techniques. It isimportant that this is achievable using actualfan and chiller efficiencies, rather thanaverage performance curves, to allow controlto be site specific.

� The use of CO2 sensing or occupancy

control as a way of linking air flow rates tothe actual requirements for fresh air within aspace. Carbon dioxide is supposedly a usefulindicator of general levels of indoor airpollution and ventilation effectiveness, as itis a gas which can be monitored to anappropriate level of accuracy and accounts,in some measure, for the actual occupancywithin a space. It may also be possible tocontrol directly to people numbers if entryinto a room or space could be satisfactorilyregistered. An example of its applicationwould be in a den type environment where ateam meeting may lead to greaterrequirements for fresh air within an area forthat time only. Both these methods wouldneed to be linked to a fast response HVACsystem.

� Methods for enhancing user control couldinvolve the development of simplerinterfaces, eg for a BMS system to allow afacilities manager to interact fully with thesystem and rearrange lighting schedules forout of hours working. Interfaces may also bedeveloped to indicate to a user theconsequences of his or her actions. Forexample with a system dependent upon theuse of exposed thermal mass if the userchooses to increase the air flow rate into thespace the coolth stored within the slab will

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be expended before the end of the workingday, and may necessitate using asupplementary cooling system. The systemcould forewarn the facilities manager of this.

� The development of personal deskventilators is a move towards integratingenvironmental systems and their controlswith the furniture, thereby making controlsmore accessible, and providing the ultimatein individual control. However work stillneeds to be carried out on the interactionbetween the localised and central plant, andcalculating the realised energy savings.

� Echelon chip control can be fitted to avariety of plant items to provide them withlocalised enhanced intelligence. An echelonchip is designed to be a distributed lowpower consumption microprocessor, whichis cheap enough to potentially be installedon a room by room or item by item basis.They are currently fitted in certain lightfittings and fire alarm systems. Howeverthey could, for example, also be fitted tochilled ceiling valves and associated localhumidistats, or window actuators and localtemperature sensors to provide localintelligent control of a radiative air basedmixed mode system. This would avoidunnecessary reference back to the BMS andwould allow less cabling and hence greaterease of installation.

MaintenanceDevelopments in this area to meet the needs ofthe new ways of working are based on:� The ability to maintain equipment more

easily, for example easy clean coils andductwork, or modular equipment whichallows replacement units to be slotted inwhile faulty equipment is taken away andrepaired off site. This may be of particularimportance in an enclosed version of aworking pattern where there is consequentlyno opportunity for the other units tocompensate.

� The ability to predict maintenancerequirements and react to them prior to plantfailure.

� The ability for a controller of a plant item toreact to a degradation in performance of thatitem by compensating for it effectively, forexample changing valve characteristics toaccount for wear and tear.

Examples of how these principles might bedelivered include:� The use of anti-microbial coatings for filters

and ductwork which has been investigatedwithin the military field, and is to beexamined for use within the buildingservices industry.

� Systems such as ATM zonal where the onlyitems which would require access fromwithin the occupied space are flexibleducting and ceiling diffusers. The items ofmechanical plant are located in distributedplant rooms, although this has spaceimplications.

� Condition based maintenance is a strategymost suited for plant items which arecritical to the operation of a particularsystem, and for which the costs in terms oflost business due to failure or the cost ofreplacement is great. It is based uponmonitoring various parameters which areconsidered indicative of the plant itemperformance, eg vibration levels, powerconsumption, or a lubricant analysis, whereany deviation in the pre-set value orperformance characteristics is an indicatorthat attention is needed. It will also bepossible to produce the most cost effectivemaintenance schedule, eg one which takesaccount of the cost of bringing in anengineer and optimises repair timesaccordingly. Techniques such as this can beapplied to club type environments wherethe impact of plant failure may be mostdamaging, or in certain hive typeenvironments which rely heavily uponcentralised IT equipment such as dataprocessing or financial companies where afailure of the computing system due tooverheating could be catastrophic.

� The detection of faults in building servicesis necessary in order to optimise energyconsumption, maintain occupant comfortand minimise operating costs. Problems suchas valve leakage and sensor drift may not beeasily recognisable, and can lead to longterm energy wastage. Fault detection modelsare being developed which allow the correctplant operation to be compared with actualoperation and possible causes for anydifferences to be identified and reported.This development is beneficial across all theworking patterns.

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� The above developments involve the use ofvarious artificial intelligence devices such asneural networks, a novel form of computeralgorithm which is able to draw conclusionsfrom incomplete sets of data throughmimicking certain processes of the humanbrain. These algorithms can also be used tocompensate for any faults which aredetected due to wear and tear of plant, andpoor commissioning. The technology (beingsoftware based) should ultimately beinexpensive and simple to install. Theintelligence of the neural network allows itto determine whether it can improve on theperformance of the basic controller, and itwill only initiate a control modification if itcan do so. Hence this is a low risk advancewhich offers the potential to enhanceoccupant comfort and to produce energysavings.

� If plant is to become more modular with atendency for items to be become smaller it

will become more appropriate for equipmentto become ‘plug in and pull out’, forexample the fan tile units of the Hirosssystem, or the ATM boxes. This approachwill benefit the club type organisation withits more rapidly changing needs.

CommissioningKey areas for improvement in commissioningtechniques include:� Self balancing air and water systems which

minimise the need for recommissioningeffort following a system upgrade or changeto the layout, for example the developmentof a high quality constant volume device.

� Improved grille and diffuser design toensure that the desired air flow paths occurwith minimum pressure drops and noisegeneration regardless of the loading on thesystem.

� Techniques for balancing void basedsystems.

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Summary of findings

Many of the design philosophy issues whichcan be applied to lighting systems to match theneed of the new working patterns paralleldevelopments needed for HVAC systems.Lighting designers and manufacturers should,for example, consider:� The demands raised by different work

patterns for lighting products, such as:– lighting to support 24 hour shift and night

time working (hive);– a much greater opportunity for

intelligent individual and team control oflighting features through the BMS oruniversal personalisable controllers (cell,den, and club);

– more multi-task adjustable task lightingto suit shared settings (club);

– better fine tuning of occupancy sensingwhere occupancy patterns may be erratic,extended and unpredictable (cell, den,and club).

� The lighting needs raised by new forms ofcommunication such as:– video communications whether the

technology is linked to a desktop PC, orsited in a separate room;

– developments in IT screen technologiessuch as new screen coatings or horizontalscreens.

� Better integration of the lighting and HVACdesign strategies with each other, for

example to avoid the lights acting as adetrimental source of heat.

� Integration of the lighting with the basebuilding, for example, designing for anexposed mass ceiling whereas conventionaloffice lighting systems typically assumesuspended false ceilings.

19.1 Work pattern demands forlighting

The work patterns described in this study areassociated not only with typical kinds ofspace layout, but also with patterns of owned,shared, and temporary space use. The workpattern models suggest the potential forsharing of space over time across all of thefour types, but with some key differences. Inthe hive work pattern, the sharing of spaceover time is typically associated with shiftwork (diachronic); in the cell, den, and clubother simultaneous patterns of sharing orspace use intensification are possible(synchronic).

The way in which space is shared and thecorrelation of the work pattern with differentkinds of layout present a range of productimplications and design directions for lighting.William Bordass (1996) has explored some ofthese issues in other work for BRE. Hisconclusions have been examined below in thecontext of the hive, cell, den and club model.

Implications for lighting

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Trends

Lighting is frequently the largest single item ofenergy expenditure in UK offices, accountingfor about 35% of energy costs. Hence theimportance, regardless of the working patternin place, of making improvements in this area,as well as considering the contribution lightingmakes to the provision of a safe, comfortableand productive work environment. Designerscannot ignore:– the balance between local and central, or

manual and automatic, controls as workplace layouts develop,

– the role of task lighting,– the role of occupancy sensing,– the impact of partitioning,– the impact of new technology. Lighting control systems and task lightingRecent case study work by BRE has shown theperformance of lighting control systems togenerally fall short of expectations. It has beensuggested that this is due to the changingnature of offices, in particular deep plan spaceswith extensive VDU use, and a failure to tailorthe control system to match the needs of bothstaff and management. Extended buildingoperating hours will change the economics ofapplying lighting control measures due to theattendant energy implications.

Greater consideration will need to be paid tounowned areas such as corridors and meetingspaces, where no one has the responsibility forthe control of the lights. If the office of thefuture contains less personal space those areas,which are not the personal responsibility ofsomeone, will increase. Corridor lighting tendsto be over-bright for its function and peopleentering the office space from the corridor mayfeel it to be too dim and switch on additionallights.

New ways of working suggest greater relianceon local occupant control as far as possible,given the unpredictability and diversity ofoccupancy patterns. Occupants in the club typeof office (or any other working pattern whichhas introduced hot desking) may be unfamiliarwith the space, layout and control systems,hence the need for devices which can bereadily understood and easily used. Therequirement for greater individual occupantcontrol will be further supported by theincreasing diversity of tasks undertaken bygroups and individuals demanding more

variable lighting conditions. This suggests agreater focus on task lighting which would bedesigned for multi-tasking in the same space bydifferent people with individual preferences.

The development of intelligent fittings (egcontaining echelon chips) that can beprogrammed on an individual basis has openedup unlimited possibilities for flexibility.Straightforward time based systems arebecoming more difficult to use with theincrease in flexitime operation. If buildings areto be occupied by more than one company thelighting system must be easily programmable toaccount for their differing needs. The lightingmanagement systems software should be userfriendly to allow the maximum benefit to begained from the system.

The growth of office shift-working (24 hourtelesales or information services for example)demands more focus on lighting products fornight-time and extended periods of use. Thereis a need to encourage people to close blindsat night both for thermal reasons and toimprove the general internal light level whilstminimising external light pollution. Thedesign of lighting systems should be linked tointernal blind operation or other forms ofwindow covering appropriate for night timework. To provide visual interest throughcontact with the outside world it may beappropriate to compromise through loweringalternate blinds or closing blinds at the top ofeach window only.

Experiences from 24 hour working such assecurity operations leads to a consideration ofways of maintaining arousal, for examplethrough changing light levels. Given the lack ofday lighting the colour rendering of artificiallighting becomes more significant. A furtherconsequence of extended hours working is thereduced time for maintenance to be carried outwithin the occupied space.

Different emphasis on the building versus thetask lighting provision may be associated withindividual work patterns. Greater emphasis ontask lighting is associated with higher levels ofvariability of tasks and with greaterexpectations for individual control. Both ofthese characteristics are more likely in the celland club environments rather than the den andthe hive. On the other hand, in both hive andden the provision of task lighting is one of the

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easiest ways of providing higher levels ofindividual control in environments that areotherwise typically more centralised orconsensus based in their servicing provision.

The use of smaller work corrals for individualworking can lead to more reliance on tasklighting to avoid the shadowing effects causedby partitioning combined with general lighting.If staff are spending time in these smallworking areas they will need to have a point inthe distance to focus on to allow their eyes torelax.

The role of occupancy sensingOccupancy sensing—both presence andabsence detection—has been introduced intooffices in recent years. Presence detectors cancause problems in open plan areas or inmeeting rooms, although they are more suitedto small enclosed spaces. Ultrasonic andpassive infra-red devices can pick up movementand thermal currents from air conditioningvents so their positioning must be thought out.They must be set to take into account thepresence of even one person in an open area/meeting room, especially if meeting rooms willdouble up as spare office space in organisationswhere space sharing has been introduced to ahigh degree.

Rather than presence detection with autoswitch-off it may be better to consider manualswitch-on linked to absence detection. This willminimise the embarrassment of lights switchingoff in meetings, but could pose problems forareas with ad hoc partitioning. Sensors must bepositioned so that someone passing the opendoor of an office or walking past a team workspace does not trigger the lighting.

The impact of partitioningPartitioning affects daylight penetration into thespace and the lighting system must allow forthis and any future changes to the office layout.Furniture which appears above the nominalworking plane of about 0.75m can also affectlighting distribution. Sensor positions should beselected with care to take into account theeffect of partitioning on the adequate provisionof appropriate lighting levels, layout flexibility,and control by occupancy sensing.

The impact of new technologyAppropriate lighting for video conferencing viathe personal computer at the individual worksetting needs to be considered. This will requirethe capacity to be switched on manually orautomatically whenever this service is accessedon the computer (the lighting will be the localequivalent of studio lighting). Lighting shouldbe at the correct angle for the screen image andpresent good colour rendering. Thisrequirement will be needed both for individualand for group ancillary use.

Changes in screen format will support a shift togreater tolerance of screens for reflection. Flatscreen and A4 tablets will reduce the problemof glare and reflection, permitting greaterflexibility in the location and layout of worksettings adjacent to window areas.

Lighting product directions

Controls for club style work patterns� Develop a standard hand held controller for

lighting that could be used everywhere andwhich would be familiar to all office users,similar to a TV remote controller.

� Develop a PC based control system whichthe user can log into. The system wouldknow what it is possible to do, and whatthe individual user likes to do. It would tellthe user what lighting or otherenvironmental systems are available andhow to control them. Another version ofthis facility could be where the room orspace is programmed to recognise theindividual user and responds by activatingthe environment to suit the individual’s

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preferences. Product development is alreadyhappening in this area.

� Develop lighting management systemsoftware to sum the decisions of groupsworking together to optimise theenvironmental conditions that would suit thegroup (appropriate in the den offices).

� Take advantage of Echelon chip technology(or similar) to expand the range ofintelligent fittings and allow more highlytailored programming.

� Consider techniques to provide suitablelighting for both VDU and non-VDU userswithin the same open plan space.

� Consider the integration of lighting andfurniture systems, for example thepositioning of task lighting.

Base lighting systems� A base lighting system infrastructure that

can be upgraded and downgraded to suit therequirements of changing work patterns(from hive, to den, to cell, to club).

� Develop base lighting systems in relation tothe different design strategies associatedwith the families of HVAC system outlinedin this study (all air, radiative air,distributed, mixed mode). Investigatewhether there is potentially one base lightingsystem that can be used with all suchfamilies of systems and which can allowchange between different patterns of useover time.

� Can the base lighting strategy be linked to abase wiring system?

� The proposed base systems should allowfor sensors to be robust and capable of

easy relocation to suit the needs ofchanging layouts and work patterndemands (allow for changes to zoning).Re-positioning of elements withoutdamage to ceilings or other fit outelements will be required.

Lighting design linked to base buildingdesign� The affinity between mixed mode and

distributed HVAC systems with the cluband den work patterns may correlate withlighting design issues. For example thepotential to relocate servicing elementsaway from a ceiling zone may mean moreattention will need to be paid to lightingdesigns for structural ceiling elementsrather than for suspended ceilings.

� There may be links between lighting designapproach chosen and the emergence of newforms of glazing such as electro andphotochromic.

External daylight control� External modulation of daylight and

sunshine (light shelves, louvres, blinds, orother devices) may be linked to mixed modeapproaches as extensive efforts have beenmade to reduce the dependence upon activemeans of servicing.

� The relationship of external lightingcontrol at the building perimeter mayconflict with other forms of local or groupcontrol associated with patterns of use inthe interior of the building. The affinitiesbetween building depth and configurationand work patterns explored in this studywill also therefore have an impact on theexpectations for lighting design andcontrol.

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Summary of findings

Furniture manufacturers should:� Focus on specifying furniture products that

support interactive, collaborative,intermittent work processes alongside, andin conjunction with, spaces for individualconcentrated work (both with and withoutthe use of IT).

� Develop furniture systems which canenhance individual and team control of theworking environment.

� Expand the conventional boundaries ofoffice furniture and interiors components toenhance partitions, ceilings, and accessfloors in order to provide a better and moreflexible interface between organisations,buildings and environmental systems.

� Develop new boundaries for products thatwould serve to support organisations seekingto make the transition from the hive to den,the cell to den, and the den to club styles ofoffice. These products may be tools,accessories, and management systems, asmuch as conventional furniture. They willserve to upgrade and transform both thespatial quality of the environment and theways in which it is used.

20.1 Directions for change

What is striking is how very different the newways of working are to the old. This is bestexplained in an analysis of what theconventional office looks like and what itmeans.

Conventional offices:� only work on the basis of one person per

workstation, and then only from nine to five;� are excellent at expressing boundaries;� are even better at reinforcing hierarchy;� suit big groups rather than small;� do not support teamwork;� offer limited settings;� are ideal for clerical tasks;� accept IT only with the greatest difficulty.

The office for new ways of workingThe old office design conventions seemextraordinarily hard to change. Eachconventional element in the vocabulary ofoffice design:

� workstations� screens� storage� partitions� building services

is presently configured to prevent innovation.Each element insists on its own logic—whichtends to be that of the supplier rather than theuser. How can this logic be broken? The keyelements will be:� Fewer individual workstations; much more

shared accommodation. The workstation willbecome more focused on permitting one-oneinteraction and will be in close proximity toareas for group activity. Focused individualconcentrated work will occur away from thepersonal workstation in shared spacesspecialised for this purpose and usedtemporarily.

� Ways in which the conventional workstationcan be transformed and re-configured tosupport new patterns of work that are moreinteractive, more intermittent, and lesssedentary. The workstation becoming morelike a work bench to which are attachedvarious additional pieces that serve tochange its functionality as the need arises.

� Far wider range of settings ancillary to theindividual space or which indeed replace theindividual space, these will include:– quiet rooms for concentrated work and

thought;– more specialised spaces and facilities for

presentation and display, using both paperand electronic means and which can beintegrated into the normal team workspace (not segregated into separate formalpresentation suites);

– new forms of storage that support easyand efficient access for group tools and

Implications for space layoutand furniture

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files and which do not depend onindividually ‘owned’ positions;

– new ways of using incidental,intermediary, circulation spaces to makethem vital contributors to nomadicinteractive work styles, integratingdisplay functions and communicationtools, (phone, fax, computers). Suchspaces will provide ‘quick stop’ facilitiesfor spontaneous meetings and quick workdiscussions. They will enable people toimmediately ‘pick up’ information oraccess data and news and see what isgoing on. They can also be used forbreaks, informal relaxing and hanging outwith colleagues. These spaces willbecome more important as the workprocess is more nomadic and the office asa whole becomes a place of serendipitousexchange or transaction of ideas, views,and knowledge.

� Greater proportion of support spaces—infact, by the whole office becoming a mixtureof transactional and support spaces.

� Fewer screens, more partitions that divideand define zones of activity, less forindividual ownership, more for a wide rangeof shared individual and group tasks.

� Greater diversity in mood, style and image. The club office may incorporate elements of:

– the domestic environment: the informalinteraction of the kitchen table, therelaxed atmosphere of the family den;

– the workshop or laboratory, where new

technologies are used experimentally,where knowledge is advanced throughtesting and risk taking;

– the airport lounge, where the traveller canquickly re-charge, access tools andinformation, and maintain contact withthe world within a totally shared andsemi-public space;

– the stage or film set and the art galleryinstallation, where a powerful even iftransient image can be created tostimulate a specific culture or reinforce astrong identity;

– the hotel, where the guest room can behighly serviced and tailored to thetemporary needs of the individual;

– the retreat, where the individual goesalone to contemplate.

� new kinds of products outside of the normalpurview of ‘furniture’ that will enhance andtransform the environment:– support for the use of IT in collaborative

and team settings;– portable storage devices;– presentation tools and equipment for

interactive work;– management training and services to

support shared space use and space useintensification;

– ways of enhancing the acoustic privacy ofspaces when used for interaction orconference calls with speaker phones.

We can translate these changes in demand intothe more particular characteristics of the workpatterns identified in this study.

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Figure 131 Trends in furniture and layout associated with work patterns

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Figure 132 Trends in furniture and layout associated with work patterns

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21.1 Introduction

This chapter has been provided by RobertWorden, formerly ofLogica. In it he analyseshow developments in IT, particularly in software,will change the way people work and thus affecttheir working environment Rather than justreach a few headline conclusions, he hassurveyed and evaluated ongoing business andtechnical developments and pointed to likelyoutcomes in several areas; readers are invited toassess and prioritise these for themselves. Thischapter was originally drafted in 1996 and isreproduced here with only slight updating. It isboth interesting and gratifying to note thevalidity of many of the authors originalpredictions.

While developments in raw technology aresometimes easy to predict, the changes in theapplication of technology are much harder toforesee, since they depend on manycommercial, business and social factors—andin particular, often follow from a ‘snowballeffect’ in which some specific applicationcatches the public imagination and spawnsmany imitators. Predicting when a snowballwill start to roll is almost impossible. Partly forthis reason, it is best to start not fromtechnology developments, but from changes inthe business environment.

This chapter is therefore organised in thefollowing sections:Business drivers: key features and changes inthe current business environment which providea market pull for certain applications of IT,more than for others.

How IT will change the way people work:Some generic application areas which are fastbecoming technically feasible (or are alreadyso) and which mesh with the changes in thebusiness environment, to alter work patterns.

Technology enablers: Key developments inhardware and (mainly) in software which willunderpin these applications.

The impact of software

Blocking factors: Factors which are expectedto inhibit progress towards the applications andthe changes.

Each section consists of a list of key changes ordevelopments, with a brief description of each.From this collection of ideas it is possible tosketch a typical work pattern for a knowledgeworker in a leading-edge company in the earlypart of the next Milennium.

21.2 Business drivers

Some key changes are evident in the businessclimate over recent years, for example:

Customer orientationIn the immediate post-war years, the keyobjectives of large businesses were concernedwith scale, cost and control. In recent yearsthere has been a marked change of emphasistowards quality and customer satisfaction(initiated largely by Japanese successes inconsumer goods, themselves inspired by theDeming/Duran quality messages). Today, inorder to succeed, nearly all businessesrecognise their need to maximise quality, to bemore responsive to individual customers, andincreasingly also to their own staff. Thisamounts to a massive change in businesspriorities.

Broadcast to narrowcastIt seems likely that changes in computer andcommunications technology (particularly cableinto the home, the Internet and its successors)will alter the balance of commercial advantageaway from large organisations which canbroadcast their message to many (vianewspaper and television advertising) in favourof much smaller, specialist providers of goodsand services, which customers can pro-activelysearch for and find out about over world-widenetworks. Customers are increasinglyempowered to select what they want to see,hear or read, rather than accept it from thelarge corporations who can buy their attention.

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Quality and specialisationThe change from broadcast to narrowcast, andthe increasing availability of information andevaluation about what is available, places anextra premium on customer-perceived qualityfor business success, and favours high-qualityspecialist suppliers.

Downsizing the corporationAs it becomes increasingly difficult to excel inmany diverse businesses, large conglomeratesare splitting off peripheral businesses to definetheir core businesses; success will go to manyagile small competitors.

Virtual companiesCommunication technologies and applications(such as e-mail and EDI) facilitate the rapidassembly of temporary consortia, of several‘best of breed’ specialists, to competesuccessfully for large contracts against old-stylegroupings of units which happen to be underthe same corporate umbrella.

InternationalismAs more nations become competitive inknowledge industries (eg in the Pacific rim, andex-communist countries), as internationalcommunications networks improve, and aslegislation erodes national barriers to trade (egCEC) most businesses face ever-growingcompetition from overseas.

Constant changeThe factors leading to competitive advantageare becoming progressively less related tocapital and massive resources (eg to buycustomers’ attention) and more related toknowledge—knowledge of customerpreferences and new ways to satisfy them,which is short-lived and resides in the minds ofkey staff. Therefore competitive advantage isbecoming more evanescent, with a shorterlifecycle, which in turn implies that companylifecycles are shorter. They are forced moreoften into the high-risk venture of reinventingthemselves by radical business processreengineering. Some succeed, and others fail,but the result in any case is change. Mergers,acquisitions and restructuring become morefrequent, and there is less job security.

The rate at which these changes will progressover the next five years depends largely on thecommercial success of ‘narrowcast’ informationdissemination over the Internet and whatfollows it (or what the Net evolves into). Weare currently at a watershed with manycompanies, large and small, dipping a toe into

these waters, but still with some scepticismover whether and when ‘doing business overthe Net’ will become a large-scale reality.Issues of information security, paymentmechanisms, available bandwidth andpenetration of the home market are seen aspossible inhibitors. In response to these queriesit is possible to say that:� Technical solutions to the problem of

payment mechanisms exist already, and arebeing trialled by a number of organisationssuch as Barclay Square; it should only take ashort time for one or two of these solutionsto become de facto leaders which are widelyaccepted and used.

� Security is mainly not a technical problem,but a matter of how much organisations areprepared to pay (in setting up and using thenecessary mechanisms) for security. Societywill tolerate less-than-perfect security overthe Internet, as it does for other systems(computer-based or not) in return for thecommercial benefits.

� New applications are proliferating whichhog bandwidth, and degrade Netperformance for all users. The commercialstructures for information transmission willadapt themselves so that these services havesomehow to pay more for the bandwidththey consume; but the rapid increase inavailable bandwidth implies that these costpenalties will not be severe, and will notinhibit the growth of Net use by theseservices.

� In the UK currently relatively few homeshave Internet access, so services aimed at thehome have a small market. It is not yet clearwhether domestic penetration will come viaa set-top box in the living room, or via a PCin the study; but there seems little doubt that,following the United States, the homemarket will have been opened up in somemanner or other within the next five years.

In other words, these inhibitors will all besurmounted, leading to a high level of businessover the Net; in the year 2000 an order of 10%of GDP may involve transactions over theInternet or its successors.

It is hard to guess which business areas willlead this expansion; but current indications arethat serious uses of the Internet occur wherepeople require easy access to large volumes ofhigh-quality information (as, for instance, inacademic research publishing—an area of

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intense Internet activity, where the demise ofprinted journals over the next five years hasbeen predicted). Other leading businessapplications will be driven by a public appetitefor large amounts of high-quality (and probablyvolatile) information.

21.3 How Information Technologywill change the way people work

There are a number of generic applications ofIT, which we are now seeing in their earlyforms, whose use will increase rapidly over thenext five years. While in the seventies andeighties IT was used mainly in the support ofroutine clerical work, today it supports not onlythat but also an increasing range of knowledgeworkers—whose role is becoming more centralto company success because of the changesnoted in the previous section. These genericapplications are:

Group working and workflow(asynchronous team applications)The word ‘asynchronous’ means that an ITsystem supports two or more people in sometask or job without requiring them to both be ata terminal at the same time; the archetypalasynchronous application is e-mail. Two groupsof applications follow from this:1. Lotus Notes is a leading example of a

number of products for group workingsupport which extend e-mail to allowdistributed teams to work together in manydifferent ways—defining their ownworkflows, conferencing and sharingdatabases, mixing and matching these forthe job in hand. Notes excels in supportingcreative, ad hoc working teams ofknowledge workers, in ways they define forthemselves.

2. More formalised, structured Workflowsystems support more routine processingsuch as insurance claims through asuccession of stages—typically in wayswhich are defined for the workers by others.

Videoconferencing and shareddocuments (synchronous teamapplications)Many organisations now have enough networkbandwidth and PC power on the desk tosupport desktop videoconferencing, and this isbecoming more than a conference phone callwhere you can see the other peoples’ faces.Tools are available to enable participants toshare documents (text, spreadsheets, diagrams)and to modify them in real time, and tofacilitate group interactions.

Paper reductionIt is easy to scoff at predictions of the paperlessoffice, and many commentators have done so;up to the present, they seem to have beenjustified. However, a number of straightforwardIT inconvenience factors which have inhibitedthe replacement of paper are now being rapidlyeroded by technology:

� The cost of scanningMost incoming paper gets put through a copierat some stage. If it could be scanned intoelectronic form just as easily (as will soon bethe case) then organisations are able to ‘gopaperless’, if they wish to, in spite of incomingpaper documents from others.

� Document qualityComputer screens currently do not show adocument with as good print quality as a well-printed page—a difference which is steadilydiminishing. Reading and annotating documentsAt present we read electronic documentsthrough a word processor, which is notdesigned for the purpose. A software toolwhich enables us to easily flip through adocument, annotate it by pen or voice, and tosearch for phrases or our own annotations, canbe easily built and will be when the marketdemands it.

Against these rapidly diminishingdisadvantages, the computer has some majoradvantages:(a) the ability to search documents by

keyword;(b) the use of hypertext structures to escape

the one-dimensionality of paper, allowingdifferent readers to read a document todifferent levels of detail, and to followspecific trails or tailor-made trails througha document;

(c) the ability to access over a network, orcarry in a laptop, large amounts ofinformation; today’s laptops can carry ontheir hard disks the equivalent of half a tonof paper;

(d) in the near future, the ability to makeonline translation or précis of documents.

The advantage (c) is likely to prove decisive formobile knowledge workers, to liberate themfrom bulging and inadequate brief-cases.Another factor which will hasten the change isthe availability of increasing amounts of high-quality information over the Internet—knowingthat this information is readily availablediminishes the motivation to carry it around

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yourself in paper form, and helps to wean usaway from paper information. So although thepaperless office is not in evidence now, andmay never occur in its extreme form, we canexpect that in the next five years the proportionof business information which is tied to paperwill rapidly diminish.

Flexible working and telecommutingAlready many organisations are finding that‘hot-desking’ can save them significant costs inbuilding space and travel time; it is largely thecomputer support of mobile workers which ismaking this possible. Only if the bulk of one’sworking information is available over thecorporate network, or is portable in a laptop, ishot-desking a real possibility. This also makespossible an increased amount of working fromhome. Although very few people will want towork completely from home, missing the socialcontact inherent in an office, nevertheless part-time home working will be positive andeffective for many.

The Information HighwayAlthough the public business uses of theInformation Highway have so far made onlyvery limited progress (see previous section)many corporations are making increasing useof Internet-type technologies (eg hypertextrepositories and browsers) for the managementand dissemination of their own internalcorporate information. Since most people spendmore time communicating within their ownorganisation than communicating acrossbusinesses, this may have a larger impact onwork practices than the public uses of theinformation highway.

It would perhaps be foolish to try to predict justwhat mix of Internet technologies, EDI,conferencing and group working applicationswill drive the growth of business-to-businesstraffic over public networks; but surely some ofthese developments will drive it rapidly overthe next five years.

Agent-based systemsAn agent is some more-or-less ‘intelligent’piece of software (possibly using AItechniques) which acts autonomously on behalfof a person or business over public networksand services, to procure a result for them suchas a piece of information or a purchase. It hasbeen said that the success of an agent will begauged not by what it can do, but by how wellit can explain itself; while it is a fairlystraightforward technical problem to build

certain kinds of functionality into a softwareagent, it is much harder to do it so thatoccasional users (with no deep understandingof the underlying technology) come to trust theagent to do just what they want, and are able toinstruct it to do so. For this reason alone thesuccess of agent-based systems over the next5–10 years is by no means guaranteed; we maylook back then and find agents have failed abasic usability test.

Continuous business process re-engineeringAs the pace of business change increases, andas the software tools and building blocks forconstructing new business applicationsimprove, it becomes easier, and morenecessary, and quicker, to build new processessupported by IT which radically change theway organisations work. However, it alsobecomes harder and harder to predict theimpact of these new business processes on theculture and motivation of an organisation.Often companies will not get it right first time,and will have to keep experimenting until theydo get it right, or fail as companies. Employeesmust expect the continual reconfiguration oftheir jobs.

User-defined applicationsThe reconfiguration of jobs will not always beimposed from outside, or from the centre of thebusiness; often it will be decided locally bydepartments or small teams. Tools such asspreadsheets and Lotus Notes, and architecturessuch as OLE2 and OpenDoc, make itincreasingly easy for local departments andgroups of workers to reconfigure computingpower to do the jobs they want it to do, insupport of their own work. Their job successwill then depend on their ability to build suchmini-systems, as well as their ability to do thejob itself. The corporate IT role is then toprovide the IT and communicationsinfrastructure, and the standards, to make thispossible.

Training and help systemsWith the increasing volatility of work, theability to rapidly re-train for new jobsbecomes more important. Computer-basedtools (CBT) will be used not only to provideautomatic training (via the rapidly improvingCBT technology, using multi-mediatechniques) but also to provide on-the-jobhelp when required, to put novices in touchwith experts who can help them, and to shareexperience.

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21.4 Technology enablers

This section briefly describes some of the keytechnologies (hardware and software) whichwill underpin the application developmentspreviously described.

Mobile computingThe laptop computer will continue itsevolutionary improvement and increased take-up, until it becomes an expected entitlementwith most jobs, just like the telephone. Withincreasingly high-quality A4-size colourscreens, inbuilt networking capability, andinbuilt pen and voice interfaces, it will come toreplace not only the briefcase but also thenotebook taken into meetings. Conveniencesoftware (for document browsing,communication and note-taking), not requiringany great advances in software technology, willmake today’s desktop software look archaicand clunky. There will be an interestingconvergence or competition between thispowerful device and the cellular telephone.

High-performance networksWhile computer processing power and storagehave made steady increases with each decade,network bandwidth has until recently laggedbehind—but is now poised to make a dramaticleap of 1000 times bandwidth over this decade,with the advent of asynchronous transfer mode(ATM) networks. Hardware routing of smallpackets enables ATM networks to carryhundreds of megabits bandwidth, with the verysmall latencies needed for simultaneous data,voice and video traffic. This step-functionchange will transform corporate ITarchitectures (for instance, enabling text, dataand video to be centralised in large repositorieswith acceptable performance) and willtransform the way businesses use information.It will avert the choking of the Internet.

Object orientationThis fashionable phrase describes not a cureall,but a grouping together of several techniques(such as modularity, encapsulation, andinheritance) which are now a necessary part ofthe intellectual toolkit needed to build today’scomplex, evolving, user-centred software-basedsystems. Now that users expect to be in controlof the computer (rather than the other wayround, as was the case 15 years ago), theinterface must present users with a set of

objects (eg documents) with consistentbehaviour, so that they can choose what to dowith which object, rather than be directed byprompts from the computer. A high degree ofencapsulation enables designers to understandobjects in terms of what they do, not theinternal mechanisms by which they do it; andso designers can compose objects togetherrapidly to build powerful systems with minimaleffort. Encapsulation also enables theemergence of an open market in softwarecomponents (bought and sold on the basis oftheir visible functions, not their internals),which will drive down the cost of goodsoftware components; for instance there is nowa market for OpenDoc components over theInternet.

However, the take-up of object orientation isnot a smooth process of steady improvement.Often, as in other aspects of software,commercial pressures lead to the establishmentof de facto standards such as C++ and OLE2,and the inertia of the standard retards progressfor several years.

In this respect, two interesting battles for themarket are currently taking place: OLE2 versusDSOM/OpenDoc and Object-oriented databases(ODBMS) versus extended relational databases(RDBMS). ODBMS have attracted a lot ofinterest, but may have failed to reach industrialstrength (in terms of support for largedatabases, recovery, multi-user, etc.; and marketpenetration) in their window of opportunity.There are signs that ODBMS will bepermanently confined to a niche aroundapplications such as CAD/CAM.

New interfacesTo rapidly survey the status of several newinterface technologies:

(a) SpeechWe are fast approaching the point where theraw technology of speech recognition—extracting phonemes and words from a soundsignal—is at its technological limit, close tohuman performance (computer recognition ofisolated words is highly error-prone). However,the great challenge is to link speech recognitionwith natural language understanding andknowledge of the meaning and context, to givehuman-like levels of speech understanding. Themarket has recently seen the launch of a

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number of software products that claim to offeraccurate recognition of continuous speech.

Meanwhile, the use of speech interfaces willgrow modestly in a number of nicheapplications—dictation, command interfaces in‘hands-free’ work situations and over thetelephone, and recording meetings for archiveand later search by keyword. A fundamentalinhibitor is that people do not like to be seentalking to a machine.

(b) Handwriting recognitionSome early handwriting recognisers were afalse start with very poor usability, and mayhave set back user acceptance of thetechnology by several years. This is a shame,because the underlying technical problems arenot insoluble; the real challenge is in the userinterface, to ensure first that handwriting offersa real benefit to the user for his/her task (so he/she is prepared to persevere, to train themachine and so on) and second that recognitionfailures are handled gracefully and easily. Allthis can be done without rocket science, andwill be done, as soon as the appropriateplatforms (eg tomorrow’s laptops) andapplications are identified.

(c) Virtual realityToday, VR interfaces still have un-commercial,researchy, games-machine associations, andlittle work has been done to explore their realbenefits and uses for commercial applications.However, this is changing rapidly for tworeasons: first, cable and telephone companiessee the potential of VR interfaces over thetelevision for video-on-demand, shopping malland other interactive TV applications; andsecond, VR browsers and definition languages(such as VRML) will soon be widely andcheaply available on the Internet. These willproduce an explosion of experimentation in VRinterfaces, which should rapidly establish whatthey are really good for.

For many people, a spatial/navigationalmetaphor is a very effective way to indexmemory (“what did I do when I was lasthere?”), so VR interfaces have great potential tohelp people cope with possible informationoverload. However, VR landscapes which arepopulated just with simple geometric shapes(cones, rectangles, etc.) soon seem artificial andfatiguing; the costs of designing truly congenialVR interfaces are probably much greater thanmost software developers realise. If VRbecomes a 3-D version of Powerpoint clip art

(the cliché of many business presentations)little will have been achieved.

(d) Optical character recognitionThis is something of a Cinderella amongstcomputer interfaces—it has been around formany years, is potentially very useful doing amundane task (to convert paper-basedinformation into easily accessible, indexed,portable computer form) and yet is littleappreciated or used. Why is this? Partlybecause document scanning is still tedious(much slower than copying a document,although it need not be) and partly becauseOCR software is error-prone and requireshand-steering to pick out the required text.These, as for handwriting recognition, arelow-tech usability issues rather than rocketscience; they will probably be solved withinthe next few years, as the demand for paperreduction and information portabilityincreases.

To summarise on all these new interfacetechnologies: the issues holding them back aremore ones of usability, usefulness for specifictasks, engineering and cost-effectiveness,rather than any fundamental technologybarriers.

Rapid development toolkitsThe history of computing has in one sense beena history of ever higher and higher-levellanguages, to express problems in more user-oriented, application-specific terms, as opposedto machine-oriented terms. Over the years, thischange—from machine code to assembler codeto high-level languages to fourth generationlanguages—has given dramatic increases inproductivity and in the quality of systemsdeveloped; and there is no sign of an end tothis trend. Its latest incarnation—effectively itsfifth generation—is in the so-called rapiddevelopment toolkits, which themselves can bearranged into three ‘mini-generations’:

� 1st mini-generationTools such as early versions of Visual Basicand Powerbuilder, which give very highproductivity, and often a fairly good userinterface, on restricted applications; but whichmay prove difficult to manage on largerendeavours.

� 2nd mini-generationTools such as Uniface, Informix New Era, andBorland’s Delphi, which typically incorporaterather more ‘true’ object orientation, or are

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based on a better formalised 3-layer client-server model, to give better separation ofconcerns, evolvability and manageability forlarge projects.

� 3rd mini-generationToolkits which embody full distributed objecttechnology, and create a wide market incheaply available objects for all sorts ofspecialist applications. This generation is nowbecoming available through developments suchas Taligent, Next Step OpenDoc, and integratedWeb-aware toolkits typified by MicrosoftVisual Studio.

All of these are to be welcomed, and theyundoubtedly point to the future shape ofsoftware development. However, they alsohighlight new problems of managing thedevelopment process, because they encourageconstant interaction between developers andusers, and make prototyping and iteration anessential part of the process. This interactive,iterative development process is a necessity forthe rapid, evolutionary style of business processchange which is mandated by commercialpressures on user organisations (section 21.2);but it is harder to manage than the traditionalwaterfall development model, and it may takeus longer to master these software managementproblems than to master the new technologiesthemselves. The public-domain DynamicSystems Development Method (DSDM)provides probably the best available frameworkfor managing these issues.

21.5 Blocking factors

Advances in technology do not alter someunderlying business realities which impedeprogress. Some of these are:

Standards WarsProgress in the application of IT depends onthe widespread acceptance of certain standardsfor interworking of hardware, software andinformation. Simple, successful standards suchas the EDI standards are of great businessbenefit. However, the progress ofstandardisation is often not sostraightforward—either because the topics forstandardisation are so complex that standardscommittees are incapable of solving all theproblems and interactions which they raise (as,for instance in the Open Systems

standardisation efforts) or because two or morecandidate standards both have heavycommercial backing. The industry may besubject to years of uncertainty and extra costs,and the eventual winner may well not be thecandidate of greatest merit.

The past few years have seen de facto standardsbattles around desktop operating systems(DOS/Windows vs. OS/2) and integrated officeapplication suites (Microsoft Office versusseveral others). There are signs that these areasare no longer the main battlefield, but that theimportant struggles will be in: (a) Client-server application systems

Standards for application distribution,transaction management, recovery, security,etc—the application end of the OpenSystems standardisation issues.

(b) Distributed middlewareTo support both the extension of desktopoffice applications into group workingsupport (Lotus Notes versus MicrosoftExchange; DSOM/OpenDoc versus OLE2).

The two areas are, of course, closely related;and the outcome will determine howtomorrow’s object-oriented, group workingdistributed applications are built.

Past standards battles have been slow titanicstruggles, as major industry players labouredover years to develop large products whichembodied their candidates—announcing andreleasing products prematurely to secure aposition, then failing to deliver them. Userswere frequently disappointed with the results,but resigned to accepting the dominant player’soffering.

Two developments are helping to free up thisunsatisfactory situation. First, object orientationmeans that applications—including standarddesktop applications such as word processingand spreadsheets—are increasingly composedof middle-sized objects rather than monolithicblocks of software, opening up a freer marketfor these objects. Second, the Internet servesboth as a public forum for standardsdiscussions (no longer restricted to standardscommittees behind closed doors) and as a rapidvehicle to propagate, and evaluate, cheapcandidate standards.

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Companies such as Netscape can sell theirproducts cheaply, distributing free evaluationcopies over the Net to reach large marketsquickly, and succeed or fail rapidly. Thisfreeing up of markets must benefit users.

The difficulty of large integration projectsWhile better development tools and the marketfor objects will continue to make systemdevelopment easier, companies still demandnew applications which stretch the technologyof the day to its limits, requiring over-sizedproject teams and unrealistic timescales. Suchlarge projects often fail, and an analysis of thecauses of failure reveals three key factors of atimeless, technology-independent nature:(1) fluctuating and conflicting requirements;(2) the thin spread of application domain

knowledge;(3) communication and co-ordination

difficulties.

Advances in technology will do little to solvethese problems; so we can expect thatbusinesses will continue to initiate large, bet-the-business, system development projects inorder to remain competitive, and that many ofthem will fail, for these reasons. Increasingly,project failure will lead to company failure.

EarthquakesThe progress of IT and its applications shouldnot be expected to be an unalloyed, smoothprogression into an ever-improving future.Sometimes apparent progress may in fact bebuilding up ‘sub-terranean’ pressures andtensions, which from time to time releasethemselves with catastrophic consequences,leading to a setback for both the IT industryand its users. This can happen if, in some areaof public concern, such as system security orsafety, the standards applied in building ITsystems are insidiously relaxed, until a largesystem fails, causing headlines, lawsuits, andthen over-restrictive, ill-considered legislation.A possible model for this kind of ‘earthquake’and the resulting setbacks is the history of thenuclear industry following the Chernobyl andThree Mile Island incidents.

In a safety context, this might involve a disasterclaiming many lives, in which poor standardsof IT were implicated, leading to lawsrestricting the use of IT for safety-relatedsystems; laws which also outlaw applicationswhere IT can clearly improve system safety.

For security instead of safety, substituteheadline financial losses or abuses of personalprivacy.

In all these areas, IT systems are steadilybecoming more complex, and our dependenceon those systems is increasing; commercialpressures on the sponsors and developers ofthose systems lead to compressed timescalesand budgets in which proper attention to safetyand security issues can easily be bypassed. Thepossibility of a resulting earthquake andretrenchment should not be neglected.

System and network managementMany organisations are coming to realise thelarge hidden costs of managing their networksand distributed applications across thousands ofdesktop computers. Market penetration oflaptops makes this management problem yetharder, by increasing user autonomy. It seemsthat from today’s partial solutions (eg theOpenView platform; SMS) we have severalyears of commercial evolution to go throughbefore standard and effective solutions arecommonplace; in the meantime, the resultingcosts and difficulties will act as an inhibitor.

21.6 Specific topics

Three specific technology topics wereidentified by BRE as being of particularinterest. I shall here summarise a view on eachof these topics, cross-referring to other topicscovered elsewhere in this chapter, asappropriate.

� Ease of access to dataData generally takes the form of structureddata, for which relational database systems(RDBMS) will continue to dominate for theforeseeable future, but increasingly will alsotake the form of less-structured text andmultimedia (eg video, sound) information. Forthe latter, Internet technologies for browsingand storage are rapidly becoming dominant,and the Internet itself is establishing a publicmarket for many sources of this information.Mobile computing technologies (laptop and pencomputers; PCMCIA access cards; cellularradio) are increasing the ease of practicalaccess to both public and corporate informationof structured and unstructured kinds; while newuser interfaces (speech/language, pen, VR) havefew technology hurdles to overcome, but needto solve many practical usability problems.

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User agent technology has some promise toenhance access to information, but may wellfail a usability test over the next few years. Formore structured access in the course of definedbusiness processes, Rapid ApplicationDevelopment tools are bringing about majorimprovements.

In summary, providing easy access toinformation is a key aim of informationtechnology; over the next few years it willsteadily enhance its ability to do so.

� Security of dataSecurity of data is largely not a technicalproblem—the technical means to defeat hackersand intruders are available—but an economicproblem of how much organisations and thepublic are prepared to pay (particularly in thecost of more complex security operatingprocedures) to avoid the breaches. This dependson a largely informal estimation of the costs ofbreaches—an estimate which may well changefollowing some well publicised disaster. Use offormal methods to define and prove securitypolicies will become a mature technique, for afew high-security niches. Smart cards andbiometrics will also find increasing use. Thesecurity risks of the information highway havebeen initially over-estimated; the technologiesof firewalls, passwords, payment, and the useof public-key encryption will rapidly settledown to a more-or-less satisfactory consensus,with occasional scare stories still disturbing thissituation.

In summary, the uneasy balance between thecontinual costs of providing proper security ofdata, and the sporadic costs of not having it,will continue over the next few years much asit has in the recent past.

� Storage space and data compressionRecent years have seen a steady decline in thecost, and bulk, of information storage at alllevels of the storage hierarchy (random accessmemory with microsecond access time, bulkstorage with millisecond access time, andarchive storage). There is no sign of this trendstopping, with disc storage continuing toimprove and new storage media continuing toappear, populating new regions of a descendingprice/latency curve. For instance, writeable CDsof 10 gigabyte capacity will soon be available,while tape stores with terabyte capacity are alsoavailable.

How is this matched by increases in demand?Although one might expect a Parkinsonianincrease of demand to fill the availablecapacity, there are signs that demand maysaturate before supply does, so that informationstorage will become a diminishing proportionof the costs of IT. One of these signs is theadvent of ATM networks, which make it morepractical to store large amounts of informationcentrally without heavy duplication, as networklatency and capacity are no longer a serious barto retrieving the information rapidly. The otheris the maturation of compression technologyand standards such as MPEG and fractalcompression, (mainly because processingpower is now adequate to de-compress on thefly in most PCs), so that video, for instance, isno longer prohibitive.

Therefore it seems likely that the supply ofinformation storage will steadily outpace thedemand; we shall be easily able to store all theinformation we can generate.

21.7 Conclusions

We can draw some of these considerationstogether by sketching a picture of a knowledgeworker in some advanced sector of theeconomy in the early part of the newMilennium.

He/she will have a slim laptop computer, thesize of an A4 pad and 1-inch thick, which ishis/her principal working tool. It can be usedwith a pen interface to unobtrusively take notesin a meeting, deciphering the handwriting,formatting and indexing the information forlater use; it connects automatically to corporateand public networks by cellular radio or infra-red link in most places—office, home or airportlounge. It actively sifts a mass of incoming andavailable information, such as Internet sources,to present information of current interest to itsuser. It has simple but effective documentbrowsing and presentation tools, makingelectronic documents more congenial thanpaper. It may even have a built-in camera andmicrophone for on-the-fly conferencing, usingwidely available meeting support and documentsharing tools.

This knowledge worker will be part of a shiftingmatrix of transient teams formed for specifictasks out of his/her own company and othersmall, agile collaborators. Standards and Net-

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available building blocks enable these teams topull together common group working tools, andto configure them rapidly to support theprocesses designed by each team for itself. He/she spends 30% of his/her time in a base office,where he/she has no permanent desk but uses arange of purpose-designed meeting, groupworking and social facilities; the quality of thisoffice is one of the reasons he/she stays with this

company (although the company does not ownthe office; along with several others, it rentsspace and facilities on a short-term basis and will‘trade up’ when better ones become available).He/she works 40% at home, and 30% on thepremises of his/her clients and collaborators;although increasing uptake of advanced highquality videoconferencing facilities is by nowdiminishing the need for travel.

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Bibliography and appendices

BibliographyAppendix A HVAC system descriptions and definitionsAppendix B Occupant survey questionnaireAppendix C Cost study modelling assumptions

Franklin Becker. The Ecology of New Ways ofWorking: Non-Territorial Offices. IndustrialDevelopment January/February 1993, vol.162,no.1, pp.1–6.

BRE. People and lighting controls. InformationPaper IP6/96. Garston, CRC, 1996.

BRECSU. A series of office case studies,energy consumption guides, and informationreports. BRE, Garston.

BRECSU. Avoiding or minimising the use of air-conditioning. GIR 31. BRE, Garston, 1995.

W T Bordass, A K R Bromley and A JLeamon. Comfort, control and energy efficiencyin offices. Information Paper IP3/95. Garston,CRC, 1995.

Michael Brill. Now offices, No offices, Newoffices… Teknion, 1994.

Kate Button. ‘New Wave’ rolls over corporateAmerica. Management Consultancy, June 1993.

CIBSE. Natural ventilation in non-domesticbuildings. Applications Manual AM 10:1997.

Paul Cornell, Robert Luchetti, Lisbeth AMack and Gary M Olson. CSCW: Evolutionand Status of Computer Supported CooperativeWork. Symposium of the Human FactorsSociety, Denver, Colorado, August 1989.

Peter F Drucker. The New Society ofOrganizations. Harvard Business Review, Sept-October, 1992.

John J Dues. Andersen Consulting’s OfficeProgram for Managers Employs Just-in-Timeconcepts, Industrial Development, September/October 1992, no.2, pp.6–9.

Francis Duffy. The New Office. ConranOctopus, 1997.

Francis Duffy and J Tanis. A vision of the newworkplace. In Industrial Development section,April 1993.

Francis Duffy, Andrew Laing and Vic Crisp.The Responsible Workplace. ButterworthArchitecture, London 1993.

Francis Duffy. The Changing Workplace.Phaidon, 1992.

Martin P Dugan. Workstation Options toEncourage Innovation and Productivity.Industrial Development, March/April 1992,vol.161, no.2 pp.1–5.

Richard Florida. The New Industrial Revolution.Futures, July August, 1991

R Grenier and G Metes. Enterprise networking,working together apart. Digital Press, 1992.

Charles Handy. The future of work. Oxford andNew York, 1985.

Robert J Miller. The Future Workplace:Flexible, Adaptable, and Individual. IndustrialDevelopment, March/April 1992, vol.161, no.2pp 6–7.

R Johansen at al. Leading business teams,how teams can use technology and groupprocess tools to enhance performance. AddisonWesley Publishing company, 1991.

P J Littlefair. Designing with innovativedaylighting. BR305. Garston, CRC, 1996.

M H Lyons, P Cochrane and K Fisher.Telecommuting in the 21 st Century. ComputingControl Engineering Journal, August 1993.

W Miller and L Bloomquist. Trends thataffect the design of furniture. Paper fromconference on Productivity in knowledgeintensive organisations, Grand Rapids,Michigan, 1992.

G J Raw (ed). A questionnaire for studies ofsick building syndrome. BRE, 1995.

Robert Reich. The Work of Nations: Preparingourselves for 21 st century capitalism. Alfred A.Knopf, New York, 1991.

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Philip J Stone and Robert Luchetti. YourOffice is Where You Are. Harvard BusinessReview, March-April, 1985.

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Productivity. Industrial Development, March/April, 1992, vol.161, no.2, pp.8–10.

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1 Window ventilation and radiatorperimeter heatingAir enters and leaves the building via acombination of opening windows and trickleventilators to provide ventilation throughout theyear, and to dispel excess heat when required.The radiator system provides heating during thewinter. The indoor temperature is always higherthan the outside temperature. In winterventilation with cold outdoor air can causediscomforting draughts. At any time of the yearair entering through windows is unfiltered andcarries with it any fumes and contaminantspresent in the outdoor air. Similarly, openwindows provide a direct route for outdoornoise intrusion to the office space. Theeffectiveness of natural ventilation is limited indeep plan spaces. 2 Window facade ventilation andradiator perimeter heatingThis is similar to 1 but has an extra facadelocated 600 mm to 1m outside the windowwall. The void between the inner and outerfacades is sectionalised with one devoted tobringing air into each room at low level and theother to collecting and dispelling ‘spent’ airfrom high level in each room. The arrangementimproves the effectiveness of the ventilationand reduces the adverse effects of wind andoutdoor noise. As with window ventilation, thesystem affords no means of filtering the airsupply.

3 Mechanical extract ventilation,window supply and radiator heatingThis is similar to systems 1 and 2, but someventilation is assured as the ‘spent’ room air ispositively removed by means of fans whichinduce some outside air to enter via thewindows regardless of the prevailing weather. 4 Mechanical supply and extractventilation with radiator heatingThis is a development of system 3. Outdoor airis now also positively brought into the roomfrom a central air handling unit which isnormally equipped with a supply and extract

fan, air filters and heater to temper the supplyair in cold weather. The air supply is nothowever cooled. 5 Mechanical displacement ventilationwith radiator heatingDisplacement ventilation involves theintroduction of a low velocity air stream at lowlevel within the space, its temperature beingonly slightly below the desired roomtemperature. The supply air forms a pool ofcool air in the lower part of the occupiedspace. Internal heat sources such as people orequipment warm the air surrounding them tocreate convective plumes which entrain airfrom this cool pool and cause an upwardmovement. This warm air rises and forms alayer at the ceiling where it is removed by ahigh level mechanical extract system. Theeffect of the convective plumes is not only tocool but also to remove contaminants from thebreathing zone as the air is drawn over theoccupants. Dehumidification of the supply airmay be required in summer to maintain asuitable humidity within the space. 6 Mechanical displacement ventilationwith static heating and coolingThis is a development of system 5 withadditional static cooling provided actively bychilled ceiling panels or beams to meet localcooling requirements. The static cooling panelsare fed with lightly cooled water provided by acentral chiller. Warming is also by staticmeans, usually in the form of perimeterradiators. 7 Ventilating chill/heat beamsThis system involves providing a supply oflightly cooled outdoor air from a central airhandling unit to long ‘beam like’ metal boxeshung from the ceiling. These can be exposed orconcealed. The air supply out of theseventilating beams is arranged in order to induceair from the room through finned beamsconcealed within the boxes. Hot or cold wateris circulated through the finned beams to heator cool the air as required.

Appendix A

HVAC system descriptions and definitions

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8 Four-pipe fan coil units with centralventilationThis is a conventional form of air conditioning.Fans coils are boxes containing a fan, airheating and cooling coils, and an air filter. Thecoils are served with hot and cold water fromcentral boilers and chiller plant. Room air iscontinually circulated through them, beingheated or cooled as required. The units areusually concealed in ceiling voids but can befloor mounted. Fresh air is normally deliveredseparately to the room from a central airhandling unit where it is filtered and tempered,although it is possible for it to be supplieddirectly through units standing adjacent to anexternal wall. 9 ATM zonal air conditioningAir treatment modules (ATMs) are large floorstanding boxes (usually housed in purposebuilt cupboards in the office) which contain anumber of fan coils. They can also be smallerindividual units which are housed indistributed plant rooms. In both cases air isconveyed between the ATM and the rooms itserves through flexible ducting concealed inthe ceiling void. Changes in roompartitioning can be accommodated bychanging this flexible duct configuration. TheATM can be accessed for maintenancewithout entering the office space. Outdoor airis supplied through the ATM to roomsusually from a central air handling unit, aswith conventional fan coils. 10 Terminal heat pump with centralventilationTerminal heat pump units are arranged in amanner very similar to the fan coil units ofsystem 8. In this case however heating andcooling of the air supply is achieved by a smallreversible heat pump built into each unit. Theheat pump is actually a refrigerant circuit thateither presents its evaporator to the airstream tocool it, or its condenser to heat it. Surplusheating or cooling produced by the heat pumpis dispelled to a tepid water ring maincirculating through all the units. This canbalance energy use between rooms that are onopposing heating and cooling cycles as canoccur for some periods of the year. When thecirculating water system becomes too cold it iswarmed by a central boiler system. When it is

too hot central chiller plant is brought intooperation.

11 VAV air conditioning with radiatorperimeter heatingThis is a conventional central air conditioningsystem having a mixture of outdoor andrecirculating air which is filtered and cooled ata central air handling unit, from whence it isducted to the rooms. The flow of cold airdelivered into each room is varied by a localvariable air volume (VAV) terminal box—essentially a modulating air damper—to matchthe cooling needs of the room. The main fansare controlled to adjust the overall air flow tothe building based on the consensus of all theterminal boxes’ demands for air. The VAVboxes and their ductwork are concealed inceiling voids. 12 VAV air conditioning with terminalre-heatThis is similar to system 11 but with a localheater in each VAV terminal providing thewarming instead of a radiator system. 13 Fan assisted terminal VAVIn this case a fan is added into each VAVterminal to mix circulating room air with thecentral ducted variable flow air supply. The fanassists in maintaining a constant air flowvolume and avoids some of the problems thatcan arise with basic VAV systems when aminimal cooling requirement can lead toproblems in maintaining a good air distributionpattern. 14 Low temperature air fan assistedterminal VAVThis is a development of system 13 where airfrom the central plant VAV system is deliveredat 8–10°C or less as opposed to 12–14°C fortraditional VAV systems. As less air is neededto convey a given quantity of cooling this canpermit smaller ducts and hence requires lessservice space. The low temperature air is oftencooled by an ice store in conjunction with achiller which is operated night and day to eithermake ice for the following day, or tosupplement the cooling available from the ice.In this way the size of the refrigeration plantcan be made far smaller than for alternativeforms of air conditioning system.

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15 Induction unit air conditioningInduction unit air conditioning comprises aseries of boxes sited in ceiling voids or onwalls, connected to a high pressure supply airsystem from a central air handling unit. Thismain air supply is delivered through nozzles inthe induction unit which has the effect ofinducing air from the room into the unit. Hereit combines with the main supply and the twoair streams are heated or cooled by a coilserved with hot or cold water produced bycentral plant. 16 Dual duct air conditioning (constantvolume)Dual duct is a conventional central airconditioning system. Separate cold and warmair ducts carry a mixture of filtered outdoor andrecirculated air to each room where the two airstreams are blended by modulating dampers inpurpose made enclosures and delivered into theroom. 17 VRF cooling systemThis is a relatively new system which operateson the principle of the heat pump. Several roomunits are connected directly to a single outdoor

refrigeration unit. The refrigerant flow rate toeach unit can be varied using a variable speedcompressor in response to coolingrequirements. The units can be switched toheating or cooling mode as required and it ispossible with some systems to have a numberof units operating in heating mode whilst othersare cooling, so that there is the potential tobalance heating and cooling as in system 10. 18 Hollow core ventilation systemThis system makes use of the building fabric asa means of transporting ventilation supply air.A low powered fan is used to drive air throughan ‘S’ shaped pathway formed using three ofthe cores of a modified hollow core concretefloor module. A hole drilled in the lowersurface of the floor module allows air to beexpelled into the room below through ceilinggrilles. ‘Spent’ air may be removed from theroom through an exhaust air duct served byanother fan or by means of natural ventilation.There is a minimal need for mechanical coolingin this system (although it can be assisted bysupplementary cooling). Air supply rates aretypical of ventilation requirements rather thancooling requirements.

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1 Environmental comfort in winter

In this section of the questionnaire please tick one box on each scale to judgehow comfortable you find your typical working conditions in winter.

1.1 Temperature in winter1.1.1 Please rate the temperature on a typical winter’s day:

1.1.2 Does the temperature vary at all during the day?

1.1.3 If it varies significantly please give details:

1.2 Indoor air quality in winter1.2.1 Please rate the humidity of the air on a typical winter’s day:

1.2.2 Please rate the quality of the air movement on a typical winter’s day:

1.2.3 Please rate the odour of your office on a typical winter’s day:

Appendix B

Occupant survey questionnaire

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1.3 Lighting1.3.1 Please rate the quality of the lighting at your desk on a typical

winter’s day:

1.3.2 Please rate the lighting in the general office areas on a typicalwinter’s day:

1.3.3 Please rate the amount of unavoidable glare on computer screens

that occurs on a typical winter’s day:

1.3.4 Please indicate the source of the glare if it is a problem for you.

1.4 Daylighting1.4.1 Please indicate how often it is necessary to supplement the level of daylight you

get at your workplace with artificial lighting in the winter:

2 Environmental comfort in summer

In this section of the questionnaire please tick one box on each scale to judgehow comfortable you find your typical working conditions in summer.

2.1 Temperature in summer2.1.1 Please rate the temperature on a typical summer’s day:

2.1.2 Does the temperature vary at all during the day?

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2.1.3 If it varies significantly please give details:

2.2 Indoor air quality in summer2.2.1 Please rate the quality of the air on a typical summer’s day:

2.2.2 Please rate the quality of the air flow on a typical summer’s day:

2.2.3 Please rate the odour of your office on a typical summer’s day:

2.3 Lighting2.3.1 Please rate the quality of the lighting at your desk on a typical summer’s day:

2.3.2 Please rate the lighting in the general office areas on a typical summer’s day:

2.3.3 Please rate the amount of unavoidable glare on computer screens that occurs ona typical summer’s day:

2.3.4 Please indicate the source of the glare if it is a problem for you.

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2.4 Daylighting2.4.1 Please indicate how often it is necessary to supplement the level of daylight you

get at your workplace with artificial lighting in the summer:

3 Noise3.1 Please rate the amount of distraction you experience from your work colleagues

and their activities:

3.2 Please rate the amount of distraction you experience from office equipment:

3.3 Please rate the amount of noise distraction you experience from the heating,

ventilating/air conditioning equipment:

4 Control over environmental systemsThis section asks you to describe the degree of control you consider that youpersonally have over the environmental systems (HVAC), lighting (daylight andelectric), and how this relates to your requirements.

4.1 Degree of control (eg switches, thermostats, windows,blinds)4.1.1 Please rate the amount of control you have over the temperature in your work

space:

4.1.2 Please rate the amount of control you have over the ventilation in yourworkspace:

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4.1.3 Please rate the amount of control you have over the artificial lighting in yourwork space:

4.1.4 Please rate the amount of control you have over the shading devices in your work

space:

4.2 Frequency of control4.2.1 Please rate how often you exercise your control over the temperature in your

work space:

4.2.2 Please rate how often you exercise your control over the ventilation in your workspace:

4.2.3 Please rate how often you exercise your control over the lighting in your

workspace:

4.3 Understanding of controls4.3.1 Please rate the amount of understanding you have of the controls of the

environmental systems in general:

4.3.2 Who explained the control operation to you? ColleagueTechnical staffOther

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4.4 Control improvements4.4.1 Please rate how satisfied you are with the controls provided:

4.4.2 Please give any details of the improvements you would make if you are not fullysatisfied:

5 Furniture5.1 Please rate how suited you feel the furniture is for the needs of the workers in

this office:

5.2 Please rate how satisfied you are with your position within the office space:

5.3 Please rate the extent to which you were consulted in the setting up of your

workstation:

5.4 Please rate how adjustable your workstation is to specific tasks:

5.5 Please give details if relevant:

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5.6 Please give any details of the improvements that could be made to yourworkstation to aid your performance:

5.7 Please describe the location of your work space in terms of its positioning (ie

perimeter office very close to window, or central area with no natural light). Ifyour work entails moving from one location to another please indicate the mostused location as your work space.

The Building and its management6.1 Please provide details of how the building could be improved in any way to assist

you in your work:

6.2 Have you ever made any complaints about the heating, ventilation or airconditioning in your office?

6.3 If the answer to the above is yes, please provide brief details in the box below,

including to whom the complaint was made:

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6.4 If there has been a complaint made have you been satisfied with the speed atwhich your complaint has been dealt with?

7 Environmental issues7.1 Do you feel that this is an environmentally friendly office?

7.2 Are you concerned about this?

7.3 Have you ever been made aware of any environmentally friendly features this

building has?

8 In conclusion8.1 Which three items of the list below do you feel could be most improved upon in

the current building?

Summertime temperatures Wintertime temperaturesHumidity levels Level of daylightingNoise OdourGlare Level of electrical lightingOpening windows Level of user control

8.2 Taking all the environmental conditions into consideration how would you rateyour office as a place to work?

Thank you for taking the time to answer our questions.

Very satisfied Not at all satisfied

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Key assumptions

Capital costsSub structure costs have been excluded fromthis model as these vary significantly withlocation.

Capital costs for the building shell and HVACsystems have been estimated using Spon’s pricebooks (Davis Langdon and Everest, Spon’sArchitects’ and Builders and Spon’sMechanical and Electrical Price Books. E &FN Spon, 1995).

The building shell costs range from £400—450/sqm NIA (net internal area), while theHVAC costs range from £90–210/sqm NIA. Inthe context of this model Mixed Mode isassumed to mean a zoned system, hence thereis an implicit reduction in the amount of HVACplant installed compared with a fully airconditioned or comfort cooled building.

Capital costs for lighting have been estimatedusing Thermie Programme lighting case studies(Slater AI and Davidson PJ. Energy EfficientLighting in Buildings. BRECSU, OPET). Costshave been converted from ECUs at a rate of£1.21/ECU. Lighting costs within the modelrange from £28–63/sqm. The four lightingsystems are:� passive/fixed grid: incorporates user

switching and is not easy to relocate;� passive/variable grid: incorporates user

switching but is easy to relocate by means ofa track system, or has limited flexibilitywithin a slot-in suspended ceiling;

� active/fixed grid: incorporates intelligentcontrol such as absence detection, daylightsensing, or timed control; and is not easy torelocate;

� active/variable grid: incorporates intelligentcontrol and is easy to relocate.

For reasons of simplicity the model assumesthat suspended ceilings and raised floors areinstalled in all the building/HVAC system

combinations. In practice a suspended ceilingwill not be installed where a radiative ceilingsuch as Termodeck is used, whilst a raised floormay not be installed where cabling isdistributed around the perimeter of thebuilding.

Furniture specifications tend to vary within anorganisation depending upon the grade oractivity of the workstation occupier. Capitalcosts within the model are based on anoperative level, being the median level of thefurniture within that organisational type.

Capital and installation costs for the settings donot include the fitting of furniture aroundcolumns or other structural features which mayhave an adverse effect on the costs.

MaintenanceThere are a number of maintenance factorswhich could be included in a model of thistype. A typical breakdown of maintenance costsfor a modern air conditioned office building(Bernard Williams Associates, FacilitiesEconomics. Building Economics Bureau Ltd,1994) would be:� Building envelope—25%� Boilers and pipework—22%� Air conditioning plant and distribution—22%� Electric power supplies and

distribution—16%� Lifts—6%� Scenery and settings—5%� Grounds—4%.

However the maintenance of the electric powersupplies, lifts and grounds do not varysignificantly with the type of HVAC systemselected or the work pattern being employed.Hence these fall outside the scope of thisstudy. Maintenance costs are thereforeincluded only for the HVAC and lightingsystems (incorporating power distributionequipment but not power supply) and thescenery and settings.

Appendix C

Cost study modelling assumptions

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Annual shell maintenance costs, periodic shellreplacement costs, and internal and externaldecoration of the building fabric vary accordingto the intensity of the building use, and with thestructural form of the building. The costs persqm NIA have been multiplied by the factors inFigure 133 to indicate this variability.

Annual shell maintenance costs increase withthe age of the building. Therefore costs rangefrom £1.50 per sqm NIA in year 1 to £3.20 persqm NIA in year 10. Periodic shell replacementis costed at £20 per sqm NIA in year 5 andyear 10. External decoration is costed at £10per sqm NIA in year 5 and year 10. Internaldecoration is costed at £5 per sqm NIA in years3 and 9, and at £8.50 per sqm NIA in year 6.

Figure 134 shows the maintenance costs for theHVAC systems included in the model. Theseare based on data from Johnson Controls’sdatabase of managed properties.

Maintenance of the building services (includingthe electric power supplies and liftmaintenance) within modern air conditionedoffices typically costs £10–20 per sqm of grossfloor area, but may range from £4—24/sqm forless typical installations (Energy EfficiencyOffice, ‘Energy Efficiency in Buildings—Offices’, 1991). By the time the costs forelectric power supplies and lift maintenance areextracted, the costs included in the model are

quite comparable. Capital replacement costs of10% at year 5 and 20% at year 10 respectivelyhave been included in the model for HVACequipment.

Maintenance costs for the lighting systems arebased upon operational costs. This leads tomaintenance costs ranging from £0.8–1.3/sqm.No capital replacement costs have beenincluded as the lighting systems are expected tohave a 10 year life.

The following refurbishment costs have beenincluded in the model for the scenery.

Maintenance costs for the scenery varyaccording to the quality of the componentsinstalled and escalate as they age. This leads tomaintenance costs ranging from £6—per sqmin year 1, and from £24–26 per sqm in year 10.No capital replacement costs have beenincluded for the scenery components as theyare expected to have a life of more than 10years.

The following refurbishment costs have beenincluded in the model for the settings.

With the exception of the refurbishment costsevery 5 years, the settings are assumed torequire no regular maintenance. Equally nocapital replacement costs have been includedfor the setting components as they are expectedto have a life of more than 10 years.

Reconfiguration costsThe costs of people churn have been excludedfrom this model, although an allowance for re-arrangement of HVAC systems, scenery

153

and settings components has been made.Reconfiguration costs for HVAC systems areassumed to be approximately one third of theircapital cost. During a full reconfiguration itmay be necessary to move 10% of the items,but the cost of moving these items will begreater than their first installation cost. A fullreconfiguration is therefore costed as:

Full installation cost×1/3×0.1×1.05

(ie full installation cost plus 5%).

The passive lighting systems have their fullcapital costs distributed round the buildinginvested in the lamps, luminaires, switches andwiring. However, in an active system,approximately 20% of the cost can be assumedto be invested in the intelligent lighting controlswhich are unlikely to need relocating during areconfiguration, giving rise to a reconfigurationcost of only 80% of that of the passive systems.The model assumes a reconfiguration cost of10% of the capital cost for a fixed grid passivesystem. A variable grid system is going to besignificantly cheaper to reconfigure than this, afigure of 10% of the fixed grid system costs hasbeen assumed.

These considerations give rise to themultipliers of the capital and installation costfor each type of lighting system shown inFigure 137.

Reconfiguration costs for scenery are basedupon industry standard cost per head values.They include labour and small reconstructioncosts associated with the movement ofdemountable partitions. The costs shown inFigure 138 are incorporated into the model.

Settings reconfiguration costs of £5.50 per sqmin year 3, £6 per sqm in year 6 and £6.25 persqm in year 9 have been included in the model.

Utilities costsUtilities costs are based on Energy EfficiencyOffice performance yardsticks for officebuildings (Energy Efficiency Office, EnergyEfficiency in Buildings—Offices, 1991). Theyare charged at the rates in existence during the3rd quarter of 1995 (gas at 1.5p per kWh andelectricity at 5p per kWh).

Figure 139 shows the HVAC utilities costsincluded in the model.

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Assuming a cost for electricity of 5p per kWh,the utilities costs attributable to lighting areshown in Figure 140. This compares withBRECSU/Energy Efficiency Office figures(Energy Efficiency Office, Energy Efficiency inOffices, Best Practice Programme EnergyConsumption Guide 19; Building ResearchEnergy Conservation Support Unit, 1991)ranging from £0.60 per sqm for a naturallyventilated cellular office to £3.75 per sqm for aprestige air conditioned office.

Life cycle calculationsNet Present Value calculations are based on a10 year cycle. A discount rate of 9% has beenchosen for the costs presented in this study as it

represents an accepted norm at the current time,although the model includes the flexibility tochange this. Capital installation costs arerepresented in year 0 of the calculation whereasannual and periodic maintenance costscommence in year 1.

The costs presented in this study assume thatreconfiguration of the HVAC systems, lightingsystems, scenery and settings occurs threetimes every 10 years. This rate can be variedwithin the model. Reconfiguration costs of theHVAC and lighting systems have beenannualised across the 10 year life cycle period.Reconfiguration costs of the scenery andsettings have not been annualised.

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156

INDEX Affinities 10, 25, 47–65, 102All air 10, 11, 36, 41, 48, 51, 53, 55, 56–57, 66, 71,

102, 109, 110, 121, 152, 153Andersen Consulting 73, 74, 78–79, 92, 93, 102–103ATM zonal 36, 75, 96, 108, 115, 141Atrium 8, 10, 11, 33, 40, 43, 48–49, 55, 56–65, 66,

106, 152Automobile Association 73, 74, 76–77, 92, 93,

102–103Autonomy 18, 67BMS 106, 106, 108, 114, 115Bordass, William 53BRE 5, 33, 50, 69, 100, 108, 117, 119, 133BRECSU 10, 33, 151British Council for Offices (BCO) 7British Gas Offices 21Broadgate Development 6Building types 7, 10, 15, 17, 26–33, 48–49, 56–65,

67, 68, 75Carbon Dioxide 114Case studies 5, 8, 73–103Ceilings 11, 108Cell 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 22, 25, 26–27, 30, 34, 35, 38,

39–45, 48–49, 51–54, 59, 63, 66–71, 73, 74,110–113, 117– 119, 121, 152–154

Changeover systems 51Clients/Owners 11, 114Club 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 24, 25, 26–27, 32, 34, 35, 38,

39– 45, 48–49, 51–54, 55, 56, 57, 61, 64–65, 66–71,73, 74, 110–113, 117–119, 121, 123, 152–154

Concurrent systems 51Contingency systems 50Controls 11, 37–38, 54, 68, 77, 79, 81, 83, 85, 87,

89, 91, 97, 99, 114–115, 119–121, 146–148, 150Cost study 8, 39, 151–154DEGW 5, 6, 16, 21, 22, 23, 24, 39Den 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 23, 25, 26–27, 31, 34, 35, 38,

39–45, 48–49, 51–54, 56, 60, 63, 66–71, 73, 74,110–113, 117–119, 121, 152–154

Deep central core 8, 10, 11, 33, 40, 43, 48–49, 55,56– 65, 106, 152

Designers 6, 114Developers 11, 56, 106Distributed systems 8, 10, 11, 35, 41–42, 48, 50–54,

55– 57, 70, 71, 75, 102, 106, 107, 109, 121, 152,153

Dynamics 66–71Eastern Electricity Group HQ 75, 97–98, 102–103Effective density 28, 40Elizabeth Fry Building, University of East Anglia 75,

94–95, 102–103Energy and Environmental Management Directorate 33Environment, Transport and Regions, Department of

5, 33Environmental services/systems 10, 11, 14–15, 16,

17, 20, 34–38, 48, 50–54, 56–57, 67, 75, 92, 103,106, 107, 109

Freshfields, London 22Furniture 11, 15, 44, 102, 110, 120, 121, 122–125,

148– 149

Gasunie 73, 74, 80–81, 92, 93, 102–103Gruner+Jahr 73, 74, 82–83, 92, 93, 102–103Hive 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 21, 25, 26–27, 29, 34, 35, 38,

39– 45, 48–49, 51–54, 56, 58, 62, 62, 66–70, 73,74, 110– 113, 117–119, 121, 152–154

HVAC systems 8, 1, 17, 35–38, 39, 40, 47–49, 50,55, 56– 65, 68, 69, 75, 102, 107, 108, 109,110–113, 114, 117, 140, 151–154

IBM, Bedfont Lakes, UK 75, 96, 102–103Information Technology (IT) 4, 11, 15, 19, 27, 28,

29–32, 67, 107, 115, 117, 122, 123, 126–134‘Intelligent Buildings in Europe’ study 6Intelligent Buildings in South East Asia’ study 6Interaction 18ITN HQ 23Johnson Controls 5, 39, 92, 152Lighting 11, 38, 42–44, 52, 53–54, 75, 99, 108, 117,

144–146, 151Lloyd’s Bank 73, 74, 84–85, 92, 93, 102–103Medium depth 8, 10, 11, 33, 40, 43, 48–49, 55,

56–65, 66, 106, 152Mixed mode systems 8, 11, 40–42, 48, 50–53, 55,

56–57, 69, 70, 71, 102, 106, 107, 109, 113, 115,121, 152, 153

Occupancy costs 10Occupancy patterns 15, 18, 20, 29–32Occupancy sensing 120Office design 14–17Open University 33ORBIT 6, 16Organisational types 10, 22–25, 29–32, 67Organisations 5, 8, 9, 14–17, 18, 20, 25, 57, 67, 73,

74– 103, 114Partners in Technology 5Radiative air 10, 11, 36, 41, 48, 51, 53, 55, 56, 66,

70, 75, 108, 109, 121, 152, 153Rijksgebouwendienst, 24, 73, 74, 86–87, 92, 93,

102– 103, 115Royal Bank of Scotland 75, 99Questionnaires 100–101, 143–150‘Responsible Workplace, The’ study 6Seminars 5Shallow depth/plan 8, 10, 11, 33, 48–49, 55, 56–65,

106Shell costs 40Space layout 19–20, 26, 27, 67, 92, 117, 118,

122–125Space occupancy 27, 122–125Sun Microsystems 73, 74, 88–89, 92, 93Teknibank 5Tempered air 36, 50Users 56, 114VAV 50, 51, 96, 110, 141Video 11, 117, 120, 128, 135Walt Disney Imagineering 73, 74, 90–91, 92, 93,

102–103Worden, Robert 126Work patterns 7, 8, 10, 15, 17, 18–20, 27, 29–32, 47,

50– 54, 56–65, 67 69, 70, 75, 92, 94, 96, 97, 99,117, 118, 122–125