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ISSN 01458752, Moscow University Geology Bulletin, 2011, Vol. 66, No. 1, pp. 1–5. © Allerton Press, Inc., 2011. Original Russian Text © V.A. Zaitsev, L.V. Panina, 2011, published in Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta. Geologiya, 2011, No. 1, pp. 3–7. 1 INTRODUCTION The epiPaleozoic Scythian Plate is bounded by the Greater Caucasus Mountains to the north and the central part of the Azov Sea to the west and the north western coastline of the Caspian Sea to the east. The northern boundary of the plate runs the entire length of the upper reaches of the Kalitva River and Chir River valley onto the northern termination of the Tsimlyansk Reservoir and extends to the lower reaches of the Volga River in the northeast. The southern boundary of the plate is located along the northern slope of the Greater Caucasus orogen (see figure). Several issues related to structural evolution and neotectonics of the Scythian Plate since the Late Miocene were fully discussed in previous works (Pan ina, Kostenko, 2005; Panina, 2009). This study is con cerned with questions related to the presentday geo dynamics of the Scythian Plate and attempts a corre lation between basementinvolved deformation and the presentday plate structure. STUDY TECHNIQUES The available geological and geophysical data on Paleozoic to Recent basement structures in the Scyth ian Plate, as well as their current evolutionary trends, provide the means to understand the most recent geo dynamic processes operating in the study area. Neo tectonic deformations were identified using structural and morphological analysis of the landforms coupled with the integrated computerassisted interpretation of multiscale topographic maps (ranging from 1 : 1 000 000 to 1 : 200000) and satellite imagery. The amplitudes of neotectonic movements were calculated using the backstripping technique, combined with other data, such as estimates of recent and presentday tectonic movements, earthquake catalogues, and heat flow maps. A comparison of these data allowed the identi fication of the most intensely deformed and geody namically active areas. Tectonophysical (analogue) modeling provides some of the most effective tools for studying tectonic processes acting on a heterogeneous geological medium as a hierarchical system of stress and strain fields. Such an approach is based on the structural geological model, which is subjected to deformation in accordance with existing geodynamic settings under different loading conditions. In our case we used a model of the Paleozoic basement of the Scythian Plate, which currently is undergoing nearly N–S com pression from the rising Greater Caucasus orogen. Such zones of highest strain, called structural (tec tonic) concentrators, represent settings of recent geo dynamic activity that localize the most recent active geological structures of the Scythian Plate. The devel opment of these zones is typically accompanied by seismicity, high heat flow, faulting, and fracturing; they also could localize hydrocarbon accumulations. This study was performed using ArcMap GIS soft ware. Neotectonics and Geodynamics of the Scythian Plate V. A. Zaitsev a and L. V. Panina b a Department of Dynamic Geology, Faculty of Geology, Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia email: [email protected] b Faculty of Geology, Department of Dynamic Geology, Moscow State University email: [email protected] Received May 11, 2010 Abstract—Based on the results of structural–geomorphological analysis and tectonophysical modeling we identified an active geodynamic area in the basement of the Scythian Plate, which includes the Rostov salient, the northern part of the Stavropol uplift, Kuma–Tyulenev swell, and the eastern part of the Karpinskii swell and Astrakhan salient. This area is also characterized by maximal lineament densities, high heat flow, seis micity and the occurrence of hydrocarbon accumulations. It has been shown that the orientation of deforma tions within the Scythian Plate and Greater Caucasus orogen exhibits good correlation with those docu mented in the modern structural geometry of the Schythian Plate. Keywords: geodynamics, neotectonics, structural and geomorphological analysis, tectonophysical modeling, deformation, lineament, fault. DOI: 10.3103/S0145875211010108

Neotectonics and geodynamics of the Scythian Plate

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Page 1: Neotectonics and geodynamics of the Scythian Plate

ISSN 0145�8752, Moscow University Geology Bulletin, 2011, Vol. 66, No. 1, pp. 1–5. © Allerton Press, Inc., 2011.Original Russian Text © V.A. Zaitsev, L.V. Panina, 2011, published in Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta. Geologiya, 2011, No. 1, pp. 3–7.

1

INTRODUCTION

The epi�Paleozoic Scythian Plate is bounded bythe Greater Caucasus Mountains to the north and thecentral part of the Azov Sea to the west and the north�western coastline of the Caspian Sea to the east. Thenorthern boundary of the plate runs the entire lengthof the upper reaches of the Kalitva River and ChirRiver valley onto the northern termination of theTsimlyansk Reservoir and extends to the lower reachesof the Volga River in the northeast. The southernboundary of the plate is located along the northernslope of the Greater Caucasus orogen (see figure).

Several issues related to structural evolution andneotectonics of the Scythian Plate since the LateMiocene were fully discussed in previous works (Pan�ina, Kostenko, 2005; Panina, 2009). This study is con�cerned with questions related to the present�day geo�dynamics of the Scythian Plate and attempts a corre�lation between basement�involved deformation andthe present�day plate structure.

STUDY TECHNIQUES

The available geological and geophysical data onPaleozoic to Recent basement structures in the Scyth�ian Plate, as well as their current evolutionary trends,provide the means to understand the most recent geo�dynamic processes operating in the study area. Neo�tectonic deformations were identified using structuraland morphological analysis of the landforms coupledwith the integrated computer�assisted interpretation of

multi�scale topographic maps (ranging from 1 : 1000000to 1 : 200000) and satellite imagery. The amplitudes ofneotectonic movements were calculated using thebackstripping technique, combined with other data,such as estimates of recent and present�day tectonicmovements, earthquake catalogues, and heat flowmaps. A comparison of these data allowed the identi�fication of the most intensely deformed and geody�namically active areas.

Tectonophysical (analogue) modeling providessome of the most effective tools for studying tectonicprocesses acting on a heterogeneous geologicalmedium as a hierarchical system of stress and strainfields. Such an approach is based on the structural�geological model, which is subjected to deformation inaccordance with existing geodynamic settings underdifferent loading conditions. In our case we used amodel of the Paleozoic basement of the ScythianPlate, which currently is undergoing nearly N–S com�pression from the rising Greater Caucasus orogen.

Such zones of highest strain, called structural (tec�tonic) concentrators, represent settings of recent geo�dynamic activity that localize the most recent activegeological structures of the Scythian Plate. The devel�opment of these zones is typically accompanied byseismicity, high heat flow, faulting, and fracturing;they also could localize hydrocarbon accumulations.This study was performed using ArcMap GIS soft�ware.

Neotectonics and Geodynamics of the Scythian PlateV. A. Zaitseva and L. V. Paninab

aDepartment of Dynamic Geology, Faculty of Geology, Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia e�mail: [email protected]

bFaculty of Geology, Department of Dynamic Geology, Moscow State Universitye�mail: [email protected]

Received May 11, 2010

Abstract—Based on the results of structural–geomorphological analysis and tectonophysical modeling weidentified an active geodynamic area in the basement of the Scythian Plate, which includes the Rostov salient,the northern part of the Stavropol uplift, Kuma–Tyulenev swell, and the eastern part of the Karpinskii swelland Astrakhan salient. This area is also characterized by maximal lineament densities, high heat flow, seis�micity and the occurrence of hydrocarbon accumulations. It has been shown that the orientation of deforma�tions within the Scythian Plate and Greater Caucasus orogen exhibits good correlation with those docu�mented in the modern structural geometry of the Schythian Plate.

Keywords: geodynamics, neotectonics, structural and geomorphological analysis, tectonophysical modeling,deformation, lineament, fault.

DOI: 10.3103/S0145875211010108

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STRUCTURAL GEOMETRYOF THE PALEOZOIC BASEMENT

OF THE SCYTHIAN PLATE

A number of first�order structures, such as troughs,depressions, swells, and highs bounded by nearlyN–S� and E–W�striking deep faults are delineatedfrom seismic and drilling data. These faults have cre�ated the nearly N–S�trending structural zonationindicative of the present�day plate geometry. Threedifferent segments can be recognized from west to eastwithin the plate basement.

Western segment. The West Kuban trough, border�ing the Greater Caucasus Mountains along theAkhtyrka deep fault, was identified to the south withinthe basement structure (Shempelev et al., 2003). TheEast Kuban depression is located to the east. Thetrough is bounded on the north by the Timashev stepalong the Novotitarov fault. An extensive fault zone,called the Beysug fault, separates the Timashev stepfrom the more northerly Kanev–Berezan swell,extending into the Azov swell offshore to the Azov Sea.The Kopan depression located to the north is sepa�rated from the Rostov salient by the Eysk fault. TheWest Manych depression, which is bounded on thesouth and north by a set of deep faults, borders theRostov salient on the north. These deep fault zones,which separate the major structural blocks of the base�ment, cut deep into the crust and mantle (Volozh,

1999; Shempelev et al., 2003). Farther to the north,the Karpinskii swell terminates in the west with theDonbass salient (see figure). Seismic data indicate thatall of the above fault zones separating major basementstructures can be traced deep into the crust and mantle(Volozh, 1999; Shempelev et al., 2003.

Central segment. From south to north, this com�prises the Mineralnye Vody salient, Stavropol uplift,Manych–Gudilo trough, and Karpinskii swell thatborders the Caspian depression to the northeast, all ofwhich are separated by deep faults.

Eastern segment. The Terek–Caspian trough, thesouthernmost of all structural elements within theScythian Plate, borders the Greater Caucasus Moun�tains along the Vladikavraz fault zone. Farther to thenorth, the Kuma–Tyulenev swell is separated by afault zone in the south, which extends eastwards off�shore to the Caspian Sea. The northern part of thissegment comprises the Manych–Gudilo trough,Karpinskii swell, and Caspian depression, which iscomplicated by the Astrakhan salient in the east. All ofthese structures are bounded by a number of deepfaults, one of which is the South Manych fault thatcuts the basement to the Moho (Volozh, 1999).

Two fault sets that strike approximately E–W andN–S dissected the basement of the Scythian Plate. Inthe western part of the study area, one of the nearlyN–S�striking faults can be traced parallel to thePshekha River in the south and farther to the north, to

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Map showing basement deformations within the Scythian Plate. 1, deformation axes; 2, amount of deformation; 3, faults; 4, epi�centers of earthquakes. Basement structures: troughs: WKT, West Kuban trough; WMT, West Manych trough; MGT, Manych–Gudilov trough; TKT, Terek–Caspian trough; depressions: EKD, East Kuban depression; CD, Caspian depression; KD, Kopandepression; salients: RS, Rostov salient; AS, Astrakhan salient; MVS, Mineralnye Vody salient; swells: KS, Karpinskii swell; KBS,Kanev�Berezan swell; KTS, Kuma�Tyulenev swell; SU, Stavropol uplift; TS, Timashev step; IS, Ukrainian shield; DS, Donbasssalient; GCO, Greater Caucasus orogen.

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NEOTECTONICS AND GEODYNAMICS OF THE SCYTHIAN PLATE 3

the latitudinal course of the Eya River. Running paral�lel to the above fault is a series of faults that stretchapproximately along the N–S course of the EgorlykRiver. One of the most extensive faults of the studyarea is the fault that originates south of the Stavropoluplift and strikes farther north, parallel to the KalausRiver valley, and NNE up to the Sarpa Lakes. Parallelto this fault is a series of N–E�trending faults that orig�inate in the upper course of the Urukh River andextend northeastward parallel to the coastline of theCaspian Sea. One additional fault was identified in thearea between the Arguna and Sunzhi Rivers within theTerek–Caspian tough (see Figure). Finally, a combi�nation of nearly N–S and E–W trends creates thebasement fault block pattern over the Scythian Plate.

TECTONOPHYSICAL ANALOGUE MODELING

This pattern of basement fault blocks, formed overthe Scythian Plate, provided the basis for tectono�physical analogue model experiments. Tectonophysi�cal analogue modeling deals with simulations usinganalogue materials with structures that are very similarto their counterparts in nature. At the same time, theschemes of loading should be comparable with theirnatural analogues. This modeling was an attempt togain only qualitative information because not all simi�larity conditions can be satisfied to simulate rheologi�cal properties, as well as the rates and timing of defor�mation. However, the results of the analogue experi�ments provide a better knowledge of the shearkinematics in models with initial fault structures undergiven loading conditions. This technique allows us tostudy the effects of pre�existing heterogeneities (faultand fracture zones) on the rock volume and densityduring compression–decompression in the new defor�mational zones and the character of fault movementsas compared to their natural prototypes.

In our analogue experiments, we used clay as themodel material for the basement rocks. The model wassplit into blocks whose geometry, size, and structuralrelationships correspond to those of the Scythian Platebasement. The size of the clay cake model was 20 ×32 × 4 cm and it was subjected to symmetrical com�pression from both sides, with the NNE and SSWdirection (perpendicular to the strike of the Caucasus)with 15% bulk shortening.

In the experiments, we used circle markers (1 cm indiameter) which were fixed at the boundary betweeneach fault block and fault intersections or uniformlyover the entire surface of the clay cake. Based on achange in fault shape and displacement, we evaluatedthe kinematics of displacement, the amount of defor�mation and the orientation of the principal deforma�tion axes in different parts of the clay�cake model.Each stage of deformation was observed and docu�mented with digital images and then processed usinggraphical editing tools and ArcMap GIS software.

COMPARISON OF MODEL RESULTSAND PRESENT�DAY STRUCTURAL

GEOMETRY

In our model, the reactivation of the faultsoccurred along shear displacements of differentamplitudes and signs. The total displacement was afew millimeters, ranging from 0.5 to 4 mm. In additionto zones with active faults, there were zones of com�pression where faults remained inactive and zoneswhere circular markers remained almost undeformed.Where a change in orientation of the strain ellipsoidaxes occurred, the fault blocks rotated either clockwiseor counter�clockwise depending on their shape, theiroverall structural position, and the outer limits undervarious loading conditions. This may indicate differ�ential movements between parts of the model andnon�uniform activation of the medium when externalloading is applied. Furthermore, there were areas inthe fault blocks that remained dynamically active oralmost unfaulted, as well as areas of compression,extension, or decompression.

Therefore, the results of the analogue model exper�iments suggest that the basement fault blocks are char�acterized by an important strike–slip component ofmovement. The sense and amount of displacementalong the faults are observed to vary, diminishing insome areas. In general, the NNW�striking faults dis�play a dextral component, whereas the NNE�strikingfaults have a sinistral component, and the sub�Cauca�sian fault zones have a minor strike–slip component.Measurements of strain axes demonstrated that theprincipal axis of compression is nearly N–S and theprincipal axis of extension is nearly E–W. At the sametime, the axes change orientation, especially in thewest and east, following the overall geometry of theCaucasus orogen. Therefore, a common stress fieldcan be assumed for the Scythian Plate and the GreaterCaucasus orogen.

Comparison of the present�day structural geometryand the basement demonstrates that the large positivebasement features, such as uplifts, swells, and highs,which appear to have a larger extent in the modernrelief, can be interpreted as remnants inherited by thepresent�day fault pattern. This is clearly seen on theneotectonic map (Panina, 2009). At the same time,the depressions in the basement became increasinglyshortened and complicated by small uplifts. A series oflarge basement faults (Akhtyrka, Vladikavkaz,Manych), most of which can be locally traced inpresent�day structural features, are also interpreted asinherited.

Note that the direction and amount of deformationin the basement varies significantly in different faultblocks. The central segment of the Scythian Plate,with a sub�Caucasian orientation, appears to be mostintensely deformed. This area includes the Rostovsalient in the west, northern Stavropol uplift in thecentral segment of the Scythian Plate, Kuma–Tyule�

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ZAITSEV, PANINA

nev swell, Manych–Gudilov trough, eastern Karpin�skii swell, and the Astrakhan salient in the southeast ofthe Caspian depression (see figure).

In the modern structure, this area coincides withthe Krylov and Bataisk uplifts in the west, the northernpart of the Stavropol uplift, the Manych depression,which had a small former extent compared to theirmodern geometry, the southeastern part of the Salsk–Ergenin uplift, and the southeastern segment of theCaspian depression (Panina, 2009). The modernstructural geometry clearly reflects ongoing uplift ofthe above structures and a distinct decrease in the areaof the depressions. This is particularly true for theStavropol uplift, since its geometry changed as com�pared to the identically named basement feature dueto its propagation in the north, northwest, and eastdirections. As a result, the Manych–Gudilov troughdegenerated into a narrow valley in the modern topo�graphic relief.

The areas with maximal densities of lineaments ofdifferent orientations that were extracted from satelliteimagery may also provide indirect evidence for theongoing uplift in a geodynamically active zone. Quan�titative analysis was used to evaluate the spatial patternof lineaments by means of lineament densities calcu�lation (m/km2). The areas with the highest lineamentdensities are found to be associated with the modernKrylov, Bataisk, and Vyselkov uplifts. The moderatedensity areas spatially coincide with the northern partof the Stavropol uplift, eastern part of the Kuma(Kuma–Tyulenev swell) uplift, and southern slope ofthe Salsk–Ergenin modern uplift (eastern part of theKarpinskii swell).

Therefore, there is a good match between the high�est lineament densities and the areas of ongoing uplift,which are concentrated in a geodynamically activezone of the basement that was identified using tec�tonophysical modeling.

Re�leveling observations over the last 70–100 yearsalso confirmed that the Stavropol and Salsk–Ergeninuplifts are actively growing at a rate of 2–4 mm/yr.Concurrently, the eastern portion of the Terek–Cas�pian, Terek–Kuma, and the western part of WestKuban depressions are subsiding at a rate of 2 mm/yr.Note that detailed field observations during the lastquarter of the 20th century indicate that the spatialdistribution of uplift and subsidence across the Scyth�ian Plate shows a tendency to an increase in the upliftrate and extent with a concurrent decrease in theextent of depressions (Lilienberg et al., 1997).

COMPARISON OF MODEL RESULTSWITH SEISMICITY, TEMPERATURE FIELD AND HYDROCARBON ACCUMULATIONS

Further support for geodynamic activity in anintense deformation zone of the basement is given bythe confinement of earthquake epicenters to majorfault zones within the Scythian Plate, one of which is

the Armavir fault zone. The zone trends approxi�mately N–S from the Greater Caucasus Mountainsacross the structures of the Scythian Plate to the Tsim�lyansk Reservoir. In the northern part of the Stavrolopuplift, this zone was the epicenter of the magnitude9.9 seismic event of 1969. Farther to the east, the par�allel Kalaus zone was the epicenter of 1999 and 2006events with magnitudes of 4.1 and 4.4, respectively.The other three fault zones that trend WNW (Arma�vir–Nevinnyi Mys, South Manych, are Akshibay–Ergenin) are also seismically active areas where mag�nitudes vary from 3.9 in the Terek–Caspian, through4.6 in the northwestern plunge of the Stavropol upliftto 9.9 at the eastern periphery of the Salsk–Ergenin(see figure).

In general, the elevated heat flow is an indicator ofthe intense geodynamic activity in the region. Accord�ing to Pollack et al. (1991), in the most intenselydeformed central part of the basement, the directionof the heat flow lines is roughly north–south. Thehighest values of heat flow coincide with zones of theStavropol uplift, the central part of the Manychdepression, and the southern part of the Salsk–Erge�nin uplift. The seismic evidence suggests the presenceof a broad positive mantle anomaly, whose trend isroughly N–S and which separates the western andeastern parts of the Scythian Plate (Egorova, Staros�tenko, 2006).

The proposed techniques can be used to investigaterelationship between the areas of active tectonics andhydrocarbon potential. Most gas fields are confined tothe most intensely deformed parts of the basement,whereas oil fields tend to concentrate in weaklydeformed, geodynamically stable zones of theSchythian Plate. This may provide additional evidencethat reactivation of these structures at present may cre�ate additional faults and fractures that act as conduitsfor gas migration.

CONCLUSIONS

From the Late Miocene to the present�day theSchythian Plate is thought to have been experiencingsustained uplift. This resulted in the increase in theuplift rate and extent with a concurrent decrease in theextent of depressions (West and East Kuban, Terek–Caspian, Manych, and others). The results of tectono�physical modeling suggest that such processes aremost active in the central W–E�trending part of theScythian Plate where this uplifting is accompanied bymajor faulting and fracturing, high values of positivevertical displacement, seismicity, elevated heat flow,and gas accumulation.

Large basement structures (swells, salients, etc.)separated by fault zones are found to be inherited bymost present�day structural features. The first�orderstructures, namely the Stavropol and Salsk–Manychuplifts, Kuma–Tyulenev, Kanev–Berezan and Azovswells, and Rostov salient, are all inherited by the

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basement of the Scythian Plate from earlier tectonicevents. At the same time, several rootless fold�thruststructures of the Terek–Caspian trough have no topo�graphic expression in the modern, weakly deformedbasement.

Some extensive faults and especially their orienta�tion (the nearly E–W�trending Beysug, Akhtyrka,Vladikavkaz, and South Manych faults) are inter�preted to have been inherited by the present�daytopography. Reactivation of old N–S�trending faultsoccurs in response to alternating movements of theScythian plate since the Middle Miocene along somefault segments (Kostenko, Panina, 2001). For exam�ple, the roughly N–S�trending Armavir fault zonereflects only partial inheritance of the identicallynamed basement fault zone (along a section of theEgorlyk River valley). Most faults can be traced intothe Caucasus Mountains.

Based on the geodynamic context of the study area,the sub�Caucasian orientations generally correspond tocontractional thrusts, and the N–S trends largely domi�nate the extensional normal faults. The NNW�strikingfaults have a substantial dextral strike–slip compo�nent, whereas a significant component of sinistral slipis documented in all NNE�striking faults. The sub�Caucasian fault zones are characterized by a minorcomponent of strike–slip motion. Such a combinationof faulting styles in the Scythian Plate was also docu�mented in the Greater Caucasus orogen, whichunderwent N–S contraction with a significant changein the contraction direction from east to west. Theresults of tectonophysical modeling suggest that theaxes change orientation, especially in the west andeast, following the overall geometry of the Caucasusorogen. Therefore, a common stress field can beassumed for the Scythian Plate and the Greater Cau�casus orogen.

Direct links between the locations of gas accumu�lations and active geodynamic settings within theScythian Plate may provide new opportunities forhydrocarbon exploration in the area.

REFERENCES

1. Volozh, Yu.A., Stroenie kryazha Karpinskogo, Geotek�tonika, 1999, no. 1.28–44 [Geotectonics (The Structureof the Karpinskii range), no. 1.28–44].

2. Egorova, T.P. and Starostenko, V.I., Neodnorodnost’verkhnei mantii Evropy po kompleksu geofizicheskikhdannykh, in: Stroenie i dinamika litosfery VostochnoiEvropy (Upper Mantle Heterogeneities beneathEurope Inferred by a Set of Geophyscial Methods, in:Structure and Dynamics of the Lithosphere beneathEastern Europe), Moscow: GEOKART, GEOS, 2006.

3. Regional Catalogue of Earthquakes. 1964–2008. Inter�national Seismological Center. URL: http://zeus.wdsb.ru/ser/hr/seismologu.ru/hurosenter data ru.shtm/ (lastaccesses August 10, 2009).

4. Panina, L.V., Modern Structural Pattern of the Scyth�ian Plate, Moscow University Geology Bulletin, 2005,Ser. 4, no.1, pp.23–31.

5. Panina, L.V. and Kostenko, N.P., Modern Deforma�tions in the Eastern Schythian Plate, Moscow UniversityGeology Bulletin, 2005, no. 3, pp. 5–12.

6. Shempelev, A.G., Shvets, A.I., Zolotov, E.E., andFel’dman, I.S., Geologo�geofizicheskii razrez vdol'Kubanskogo profilya, in Tektonika i geodinamika konti�nental’noi litosfery: Mat�ly XXXVI Tektonicheskogosoveshchaniya. T. 2 (Geological�Geophysical CrossSection along the Kuban Line, in: Tectonics and Geody�namics of the Continental Lithosphere), Moscow:GEOS, 2003, pp. 301–305.

7. Pollack, H.N., Hurter, S.J., and Johnson, J.R., Thenew global heat flow compilation. Department of Geo�logical Sciences. Michigan: University of Michigan,1991. March. URL: http://www.wdcb.ru/sep/heat_flow/hf_cat_gl.ru.html (last accessed August 10, 2009).