Native AmericanNative AmericanOral TraditionOral Tradition

The Origins of LiteratureThe Origins of Literature

The origin of what we call American The origin of what we call American literature predates the arrival of Europeans in literature predates the arrival of Europeans in the Americas.the Americas.

Oral traditionOral tradition is the foundation of literature is the foundation of literature Early rock carvings and petroglyphs are Early rock carvings and petroglyphs are

perhaps the first examples of perhaps the first examples of writtenwritten languagelanguage

Newspaper Rock (UT)Newspaper Rock (UT)

Newspaper Rock (UT)Newspaper Rock (UT)

petroglyphspetroglyphs

The Oral TraditionThe Oral Tradition

Words are powerfulWords are powerful Words are sacredWords are sacred Words are magical: they can bring about Words are magical: they can bring about

physical change in the worldphysical change in the world

Words must be spoken with great careWords must be spoken with great care The speaker must be careful, clear & The speaker must be careful, clear &

deliberate, for he will be deliberate, for he will be taken at his taken at his wordword

There is a connection between the There is a connection between the sacred sacred & the verbal& the verbal; to be careless in the ; to be careless in the presence of words is to violate a presence of words is to violate a fundamental moralityfundamental morality

The Oral TraditionThe Oral Tradition

Three StoriesThree Stories

The ArrowmakerThe Arrowmaker

The Kiowa BrothersThe Kiowa Brothers

The Death of Chief Sitting BearThe Death of Chief Sitting Bear

The ArrowmakerThe Arrowmaker

   IIf an arrow is well made, it will have tooth marks upon it. That is how you know. f an arrow is well made, it will have tooth marks upon it. That is how you know. The Kiowas made fine arrows and straightened them in their teeth. Then they The Kiowas made fine arrows and straightened them in their teeth. Then they drew them to the bow to see if they were straight. Once there was a man and his drew them to the bow to see if they were straight. Once there was a man and his wife. They were alone at night in their tipi. By the light of the fire the man was wife. They were alone at night in their tipi. By the light of the fire the man was making arrows. After a while he caught sight of something. There was a small making arrows. After a while he caught sight of something. There was a small opening in the tipi where two hides were sewn together. Someone was there on opening in the tipi where two hides were sewn together. Someone was there on the outside, looking in. The man went on with his work, but he said to his wife: the outside, looking in. The man went on with his work, but he said to his wife: ““Someone is standing outside. Do not be afraid. Let us talk easily, as of ordinary Someone is standing outside. Do not be afraid. Let us talk easily, as of ordinary things.things.”” He took up an arrow and straightened it in his teeth; then, as it was right He took up an arrow and straightened it in his teeth; then, as it was right for him to do, he drew it to the bow and took aim, first in this direction and then for him to do, he drew it to the bow and took aim, first in this direction and then in that. And all the while he was talking, as if to his wife. But this is how he in that. And all the while he was talking, as if to his wife. But this is how he spoke: spoke: ““I know that you are there on the outside, for I can feel your eyes upon I know that you are there on the outside, for I can feel your eyes upon me. If you are a Kiowa, you will understand what I am saying, and you will me. If you are a Kiowa, you will understand what I am saying, and you will speak your name.speak your name.”” But there was no answer, and the man went on in the same But there was no answer, and the man went on in the same way, pointing the arrow all around. At last his aim fell upon the place where his way, pointing the arrow all around. At last his aim fell upon the place where his enemy stood, and he let go of the string. The arrow went straight to the enemyenemy stood, and he let go of the string. The arrow went straight to the enemy’’s s heart. heart. From From The Way to Rainy MountainThe Way to Rainy Mountain by N. Scott Momaday. University of New Mexico Press, 1969. by N. Scott Momaday. University of New Mexico Press, 1969.

  

The ArrowmakerThe Arrowmaker

The Arrowmaker and his wife survive not because The Arrowmaker and his wife survive not because of the arrow but rather because of of the arrow but rather because of language and language and wordswords..

He is He is ““a man made of wordsa man made of words”” –– his survival is his survival is contingent on his knowledge of language and his contingent on his knowledge of language and his enemyenemy’’s lack of knowledge.s lack of knowledge.

The story illustrates the importance and power of The story illustrates the importance and power of language in the oral tradition.language in the oral tradition.

The Kiowa BrothersThe Kiowa Brothers  

On a raid against the Utes, one of two brothers was On a raid against the Utes, one of two brothers was captured. The other, alone and of his own will, stole captured. The other, alone and of his own will, stole into the Ute camp and tried to set his brother free, but into the Ute camp and tried to set his brother free, but he too was captured. The chief of the Utes had respect he too was captured. The chief of the Utes had respect for the manfor the man’’s bravery, and he made a bargain with him. s bravery, and he made a bargain with him. If he could carry his brother on his back and walk upon If he could carry his brother on his back and walk upon a row of greased buffalo heads without falling to the a row of greased buffalo heads without falling to the ground, both brothers would be given horses and ground, both brothers would be given horses and allowed to return in safety to their home. The man bore allowed to return in safety to their home. The man bore his brother on his back and walked upon the heads of his brother on his back and walked upon the heads of the buffalo and kept his footing. The Ute chief was true the buffalo and kept his footing. The Ute chief was true to his word, and the brothers returned to their own to his word, and the brothers returned to their own people on horseback.people on horseback.

  From From The Way to Rainy MountainThe Way to Rainy Mountain by N. Scott Momaday. University of by N. Scott Momaday. University of New Mexico Press, 1969. New Mexico Press, 1969.

Kiowa BrothersKiowa Brothers

The chief is true to his word even though he The chief is true to his word even though he has nothing to gain and everything to lose by has nothing to gain and everything to lose by doing so.doing so.

The chief fulfills his promise of freeing the The chief fulfills his promise of freeing the brothers brothers andand giving the valuable commodity of giving the valuable commodity of horses to the brothers.horses to the brothers.

The chief never for a moment considers or The chief never for a moment considers or would consider going back on his word.would consider going back on his word.

The Death of Sitting BearThe Death of Sitting Bear

Set-angya, or Sitting Bear, was chief of the Set-angya, or Sitting Bear, was chief of the Kaitsenko Society, the Crazy Dog or dog soldier Kaitsenko Society, the Crazy Dog or dog soldier organization of the Kiowa tribe. It was composed organization of the Kiowa tribe. It was composed of ten men only, the ten most brave. They were of ten men only, the ten most brave. They were the first and last security of the people. If they the first and last security of the people. If they should die, everyone should die. Each one of should die, everyone should die. Each one of them wore a long sash, so long it trailed the them wore a long sash, so long it trailed the ground, and carried a sacred arrow. In the time of ground, and carried a sacred arrow. In the time of battle, each of these Kaitsenko warriors must, by battle, each of these Kaitsenko warriors must, by means of his sacred arrow, fix his sash to the means of his sacred arrow, fix his sash to the ground, and he must stand his ground to the death.ground, and he must stand his ground to the death.

  

  

Set-angyaSet-angya’’s son was killed on a raid in Texas, s son was killed on a raid in Texas, and Set-angya went there and gathered up the and Set-angya went there and gathered up the bones of his son, and from then on he led a bones of his son, and from then on he led a hunting horse that bore the bones of his son on hunting horse that bore the bones of his son on its back. At night he placed the bones in a its back. At night he placed the bones in a ceremonial tipi and invited all the people, ceremonial tipi and invited all the people, saying, saying, ““Come, come. My son is at home Come, come. My son is at home tonight. Come and visit him. Come and pay tonight. Come and visit him. Come and pay your respects.your respects.””

  Set-angya was imprisoned at Fort Sill. Along with two other Set-angya was imprisoned at Fort Sill. Along with two other chiefs, White Bear and Big Tree, he was placed in the bed of a chiefs, White Bear and Big Tree, he was placed in the bed of a wagon, to be taken to the railroad, then sent to Fort wagon, to be taken to the railroad, then sent to Fort Richardson to be tried for the raid on the Warren wagon train. Richardson to be tried for the raid on the Warren wagon train. As they were going along in the wagon on the grounds of the As they were going along in the wagon on the grounds of the fort, Set-angya began to sing the song of the Kaitsenko. At fort, Set-angya began to sing the song of the Kaitsenko. At this, the others became very upset, because that song was this, the others became very upset, because that song was sacred. It could only be sung in the face of death. And when sacred. It could only be sung in the face of death. And when he had sung the song, he said to Set-tainte and Big Tree, he had sung the song, he said to Set-tainte and Big Tree, ““You You see that cottonwood on the side of the road ahead? By the see that cottonwood on the side of the road ahead? By the time we reach that tree, I will be dead.time we reach that tree, I will be dead.”” He then pulled a He then pulled a knife, which he had somehow hidden about him, and he knife, which he had somehow hidden about him, and he attacked the teamster, stabbed him in the leg. The guards, attacked the teamster, stabbed him in the leg. The guards, riding close beside the wagon, shot him dead. But he was true riding close beside the wagon, shot him dead. But he was true to his word. to his word.

  Adapation of a story from Adapation of a story from The Ancient ChildThe Ancient Child by N. Scott Momaday. New by N. Scott Momaday. New York: Harper Perennial, 1999. York: Harper Perennial, 1999.

The Death of Sitting Bear The Death of Sitting Bear ““By the time we reach By the time we reach

that tree, I will be dead.that tree, I will be dead.”” ““But he was true to his But he was true to his

word.word.”” The story illustrates the The story illustrates the

sacredsacred nature of nature of language.language.

The Kaitsenko Society The Kaitsenko Society (Crazy Dogs or Dog (Crazy Dogs or Dog Soldiers)Soldiers)

Chief Sitting BearChief Sitting Bear

MythsMyths

MythsMyths The heart of the oral tradition is the story.The heart of the oral tradition is the story.

Myths: traditional stories passed down from Myths: traditional stories passed down from generation to generation, which explain why generation to generation, which explain why the world is the way it is.the world is the way it is.

They characteristically involve immortal They characteristically involve immortal beings and contain magic or the supernaturalbeings and contain magic or the supernatural

MythsMyths

Myths attempt to explain things such asMyths attempt to explain things such as

Natural phenomenonNatural phenomenon The origin of humansThe origin of humans The customs & religious rights of a The customs & religious rights of a

peoplepeople Events beyond peopleEvents beyond people’’s controls control

MythsMyths

Myths teach the values and ideals of a Myths teach the values and ideals of a culture -what that culture holds as culture -what that culture holds as important.important.

Myths are the stories that a culture uses to Myths are the stories that a culture uses to create coherence in its life, values, and create coherence in its life, values, and symbols.symbols.

MythsMyths

In myths a culture tells its story of origin In myths a culture tells its story of origin and its understanding of the major issues and its understanding of the major issues of life and death.of life and death.

Myths are not stories in isolation: they Myths are not stories in isolation: they express a cultureexpress a culture’’s whole life—all that it s whole life—all that it is and all that it values.is and all that it values.

MythsMyths

Myths and legends are not told merely for Myths and legends are not told merely for enjoyment, education or amusementenjoyment, education or amusement: : they are they are believed.believed.

They give concrete form to a set of beliefs They give concrete form to a set of beliefs and traditionsand traditions that link people today to that link people today to ancestors from centuries and millennia past.ancestors from centuries and millennia past.

Creation MythsCreation Myths

Myths and legends of human creation and Myths and legends of human creation and origin reflect in myriad ways origin reflect in myriad ways a common belief a common belief that people are a living part of the natural that people are a living part of the natural worldworld, brother and sister to the grain and the , brother and sister to the grain and the trees, the buffalo and the bear.trees, the buffalo and the bear.

Genesis: The Christian Genesis: The Christian Creation MythCreation Myth

God is the creator of mankind; mankind God is the creator of mankind; mankind is granted dominion/power over all other is granted dominion/power over all other creatures on earthcreatures on earth

God created Adam (man) out of God created Adam (man) out of clay/earthclay/earth

Genesis: The Christian Genesis: The Christian Creation MythCreation Myth

God created Eve (woman) from AdamGod created Eve (woman) from Adam Adam & Eve can have everything they want Adam & Eve can have everything they want

except fruit from the tree of knowledge except fruit from the tree of knowledge (eating from this tree represents a desire to (eating from this tree represents a desire to be God-like)be God-like)

It is EveIt is Eve’’s (womans (woman’’s) weakness that causes s) weakness that causes their expulsion from the Garden of Edentheir expulsion from the Garden of Eden

Kiowa Origin MythKiowa Origin Myth

““You know, everything had to begin, and this is how it You know, everything had to begin, and this is how it was: the Kiowas came one by one into the world was: the Kiowas came one by one into the world through a hollow log. There were many more than now, through a hollow log. There were many more than now, but not all of them got out. There was a woman whose but not all of them got out. There was a woman whose body was swollen up with child, and she got stuck in body was swollen up with child, and she got stuck in the log. After that, no one could get through, and that is the log. After that, no one could get through, and that is why the Kiowas are a small tribe in number. They why the Kiowas are a small tribe in number. They looked around and saw the world. It made them glad to looked around and saw the world. It made them glad to see so many things. They called themselves see so many things. They called themselves KwudaKwuda, , ““coming out.coming out.””

From From The Way to Rainy MountainThe Way to Rainy Mountain– – N. Scott MomadayN. Scott Momaday

fromfrom The World on the Turtle The World on the Turtle’’s Backs Back– Iroquois creation myth– Iroquois creation myth

““In the middle of the Sky-World there grew a In the middle of the Sky-World there grew a Great Tree which was not like any of the trees Great Tree which was not like any of the trees that we know. It was tremendous; it had grown that we know. It was tremendous; it had grown there forever. It had enormous roots that there forever. It had enormous roots that spread out from the floor of the Sky-World. spread out from the floor of the Sky-World. And on its branches there were many different And on its branches there were many different kinds of leaves and different kinds of fruits kinds of leaves and different kinds of fruits and flowers. The tree was not supposed to be and flowers. The tree was not supposed to be marked or mutilated by any of the beings who marked or mutilated by any of the beings who dwelt in the Sky-World. It was a sacred tree dwelt in the Sky-World. It was a sacred tree that stood at the center of the universe.that stood at the center of the universe.””(text, p 23)(text, p 23)

““The woman decided that she wanted some The woman decided that she wanted some bark from one of the roots of the Great Tree—bark from one of the roots of the Great Tree—perhaps as a food or as a medicine, we donperhaps as a food or as a medicine, we don’’t t know. She told her husband this. He didnknow. She told her husband this. He didn’’t like t like the idea. He knew it was wrong. But she the idea. He knew it was wrong. But she insisted, and he gave in. So he dug a hole insisted, and he gave in. So he dug a hole among the roots of this great sky tree, and he among the roots of this great sky tree, and he bared some of its roots. But the floor of the bared some of its roots. But the floor of the Sky-World wasnSky-World wasn’’t very thick, and he broke a t very thick, and he broke a hole through it. He was terrified, for he had hole through it. He was terrified, for he had never expected to find empty space underneath never expected to find empty space underneath the worldthe world””

““But his wife was filled with curiosity. He But his wife was filled with curiosity. He wouldnwouldn’’t get any of the roots for her, so she set t get any of the roots for her, so she set out to do it herself. She bent over and she out to do it herself. She bent over and she looked down, and she saw the ocean far looked down, and she saw the ocean far below…She fell through the hole…And so she below…She fell through the hole…And so she began to fall toward the great ocean far began to fall toward the great ocean far below…below…

fromfrom The World on the Turtle The World on the Turtle’’s Backs Back– Iroquois creation myth– Iroquois creation myth

““They [the twins] buried their mother. And from They [the twins] buried their mother. And from her grave grew the plant which the people still her grave grew the plant which the people still use. From her head grew the corn, the beans, and use. From her head grew the corn, the beans, and the squash— the squash— ‘‘our supporters, the three sisters.our supporters, the three sisters.’’ And from her heart grew the sacred tobacco, And from her heart grew the sacred tobacco, which the people still use in the ceremonies and which the people still use in the ceremonies and by whose upward-floating smoke they send by whose upward-floating smoke they send thanks. The women call her thanks. The women call her ‘‘our mother,our mother,’’ and and they dance and sing in rituals so that the corn, they dance and sing in rituals so that the corn, the beans, and the squash may grow to feed the the beans, and the squash may grow to feed the people.people.””

(text, p 26)(text, p 26)

Verbal EquationsVerbal Equations

Songs, Spells, PrayersSongs, Spells, Prayers

Verbal Verbal EquationsEquations

Spells, prayers and songs that are Spells, prayers and songs that are characteristically characteristically briefbrief, and contain , and contain patternspatterns, , repetitionrepetition and and formulasformulas, all of which make them , all of which make them easier to remembereasier to remember..

Verbal equations are recited at specific, significant Verbal equations are recited at specific, significant times for an intended purposetimes for an intended purpose (birth, marriage, (birth, marriage, travel, sickness, hunting, harvest time).travel, sickness, hunting, harvest time).

Spell: a set of directionsSpell: a set of directions Prayer: a requestPrayer: a request Song: a descriptionSong: a description

Love Songs & Love Love Songs & Love MagicMagic

The DreamThe DreamLast night I dreamed of you.Last night I dreamed of you.I dreamed you were walking on the shore I dreamed you were walking on the shore

pebblespebblesand I was walking with you.and I was walking with you.last night I dreamed of you.last night I dreamed of you.and as though I were awake,and as though I were awake,I dreamed that I followed you,I dreamed that I followed you,that I wanted you like a young seal,that I wanted you like a young seal,that you were wanted by methat you were wanted by methe way a hunter the way a hunter wants a young sealwants a young sealthat dives when it feels it is being followed.that dives when it feels it is being followed.thatthat’’s how you were wanteds how you were wantedby me,by me,who dreamed of you.who dreamed of you.

- Ammassalik Eskimo- Ammassalik Eskimo

WomanWoman’’s Songs Song

A loonA loonI thought it wasI thought it wasBut it wasBut it wasMy loveMy love’’ssSplashing oarSplashing oar

To Sault Ste. MarieTo Sault Ste. MarieHe has departedHe has departedMy loveMy loveHas gone on before meHas gone on before meNever againNever againCan I see himCan I see him

- Chippewa- Chippewa

SongSong

Early morning dawning green,Early morning dawning green,

Ah…is the willow so green?Ah…is the willow so green?

In the green fields,In the green fields,

You gave me your love.You gave me your love.

- Quechua- Quechua

Against Sickness & EvilAgainst Sickness & Evil

Medicine ManMedicine Man’’s Prayers Prayer

Listen, my dream!Listen, my dream!This you told me should be done.This you told me should be done.This you said should be the way.This you said should be the way.You said it would cure the sick.You said it would cure the sick.Help me now.Help me now.Do not lie to me.Do not lie to me.Help me, Sun person.Help me, Sun person.Help me to cure this sick man.Help me to cure this sick man.

- Blackfeet- Blackfeet

For the HunterFor the Hunter

A Song of the Buffalo DanceA Song of the Buffalo Dance

One I have wounded, yonder he moves,One I have wounded, yonder he moves,Yonder he moves, bleeding at the Yonder he moves, bleeding at the

mouth.mouth.

One I have wounded, yonder he moves,One I have wounded, yonder he moves,Yonder he moves, with staggering steps.Yonder he moves, with staggering steps.

One I have wounded, yonder he moves,One I have wounded, yonder he moves,Yonder he falls, yonder he falls.Yonder he falls, yonder he falls.

- Omaha- Omaha

War and DeathWar and Death

Prayer to the DeceasedPrayer to the Deceased

Naked you came from Earth the Naked you came from Earth the Mother. Naked you return to her. May Mother. Naked you return to her. May a good wind be your road.a good wind be your road.

- Omaha- Omaha

War SongWar Song

clear the wayclear the way

in a sacred in a sacred mannermanner

I comeI come

the earththe earth

is mineis mine

- Sioux- Sioux

The Moon and the YearThe Moon and the Year

The moon and the yearThe moon and the year

Travel and pass away:Travel and pass away:

Also the day, also the wind.Also the day, also the wind.

Also the flesh passes awayAlso the flesh passes away

To the place of its quietness.To the place of its quietness.

- Maya- Maya