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Technology in Society 29 (2007) 2342

Emerging wireless technologies for

developing countries

Vinoth Gunasekaran, Fotios C. Harmantzis

School of Technology Management, Stevens Institute of Technology, Castle Point on Hudson, Hoboken,

NJ 07030, USA

Abstract

The network readiness of a country indicates the ability of its principal stakeholdersgovernment,

citizens, businessesto leverage the potential of information and communication technology (ICT).

As broadband becomes more widely diffused in developing countries, there is great potential to

increase the number of people who are connected. Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi) and Worldwide

interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) are not only revolutionizing broadbandcommunications in the developed world but they also offer to developing countries the opportunity

to bridge the digital divide that may exist in their communities. As emerging markets look for

opportunities to leap-frog, they can quickly adapt to next-generation wireless technologies like Wi-

Fi and WiMAX, thereby gaining advantages over other traditional wired infrastructures.

Policymakers should seek suitable strategies to promote vital broadband technologies that offer

beneficial alternatives to traditional cable and DSL. We propose a strategic wireless framework to

address challenges in three different economic sectors of a developing country: Tier I or metro

economy, which is well-urbanized and integrated with the global economy; Tier II or sub-urban

economy, which has niche economic or development activities compared to Tier I; and Tier III or the

rural economy, characterized by informal economic activity and poverty.

r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: ICT; Connectivity; Broadband; Wi-Fi; WiMAX; Digital divide; Developing countries; India; Wireless

networks

ARTICLE IN PRESS

www.elsevier.com/locate/techsoc

0160-791X/$ - see front matterr 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2006.10.001

Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 201 216 8279; fax: +1 201 216 5385.E-mail address: [email protected] (F.C. Harmantzis).
http://www.elsevier.com/locate/techsochttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2006.10.001mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2006.10.001http://www.elsevier.com/locate/techsoc


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1. The wireless broadband revolution

The Industrial Revolution during the past two centuries produced the most development

in the history of mankind [1,2]. But that period of unparalleled growth will be

overshadowed by the current technological revolution, namely, the Information andCommunication Technology (ICT) revolution. This revolution will not only benefit

individual citizens but will have a tremendous impact on national economies and the

global economy as a whole. As a result of ever-increasing global connectivity, the amount

of information that can be transmitted electronically has grown exponentially, resulting in

unprecedented ease of communication in most of the countries (see Fig. 1).

To realize the true success of the ICT revolution, broadband connectivity is needed, as it

is not only information that is shared but also voice, images, video, etc. There is no agreed

definition of broadband, but it is usually recognized by its higher transmission speed and

always-on connectivity. Broadband is at the heart of the convergence of telecommu-

nication, information technology, and broadcasting [3]. Therefore, there is a great need for

modern high-tech communication infrastructure since the focus of applications is on

interactivity rather than just information sharing.

Wired versus wireless networks: Compared to wireless technologies, wired networks give

the same level of connectivity in selected places but they lack ubiquity and affordability.

Wireless networks can be deployed much faster with less initial investment; they also offer

more flexibility in terms of adapting to changing bandwidth requirements. Although some

of the equipment and electronics cost have declined, the cost of civil engineering, site

acquisition, and laying fiber or copper cables remains high. It is essential, therefore, to

undertake cost versus benefit analyses when considering the deployment of wireless versuswired networks [4,5]. Wireless networks are easy to deploy and the service can be provided

within days. As proposed by Pentland [6], wireless technology will be the first viable

infrastructure to serve rural and underdeveloped areas. The rationale behind this assertion

is that after the invention of the telephone, it took nearly 100 years for wired telephones to

reach a population of one billion people around the world. With the invention of cellular

communications, it took about 20 years to reach the same one billion people.

Wireless broadband boasts some big benefits over wired broadband networks. In the

United States, some cities have started the initial phase of deploying city-wide wireless

networks with the goal of making ubiquitous broadband a reality. In some cases, a citys

goals are merely to improve overall efficiency of government services and to deliver low-cost fixed broadband wireless Internet services to low-income communities and small

businesses. Affordable wireless broadband access has the power to transform an emerging

economy by inducing investment and innovation in e-commerce, e-education, telecommut-

ing, e-health, agriculture, e-entertainment, e-government, and almost every other economic

activity [7]. More important, however, is the fact that the Internet is on its way to become a

day-to-day utility, where affordable and ubiquitous broadband wireless access will be seen

as an extension of everyday life.

1.1. Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi)

Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi) permits connectivity to the Internet from virtually anywhere at

speeds of up to 54 Mbps. Wi-Fi-enabled devices use radio technologies based on the IEEE

802.11 standard to communicate data anywhere within the range of an access point.

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Three main issues must be considered in order to bridge the digital divide: accessibility,

availability, and affordability of services and applications. Many technologies have been

successful, but fail to address these key challenges; Wi-Fi has the potential to address all of them.

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Fig. 1. The evolution of Internet access.

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1.1.1. Accessibility

For most developing countries, lack of access to advanced voice and data services is a

barrier to network readiness. Within the next few years those who do not have access to the

next generation of broadband-driven communication technologies, such as Voice-over

Internet Protocol (VoIP), video telephony, and Internet protocol television (IPTV), will beat a great disadvantage [8]. The developing countries need to build a broadband

communication infrastructure that is accessible to all, in order to encourage social service

and e-government applications. Wi-Fi wireless access technology is undoubtedly an

attractive option for data, voice (e.g., VoWi-Fi), and video, compared to other traditional

communication infrastructures in the developing world.

1.1.2. Availability

In most countries, 2.4 GHz bandwidth is license-exempt, although some may require

registration of use. Wi-Fi has become the most common use of unlicensed bandwidth for

so-called hotspot or hotzone or hotcity type of coverage. This is because of the

widespread availability of Wi-Fi radios that comply with IEEE 802.11b and the upcoming

802.11g/a standards. Wi-Fi has 100% global recognition and has become the single

networking standard for all developers, equipment manufacturers, service providers, and

end users. The main advantage with Wi-Fi is that large-scale, service-level roaming

between different Wi-Fi providers is possible, as Wi-Fi certification has become a de facto

standard for IEEE 802.11-based products.

1.1.3. Affordability

The benefit of using Wi-Fi in the last mile is that the client device is extremelyinexpensive due to the large volume of production. Capital investment is also cost-

effective, providing greater flexibility than traditional wired communications, which in

turn results in lower prices for Wi-Fi broadband services [5]. Standardization and

interoperability between different vendor products have lowered Wi-Fi prices and

facilitated its rapid penetration from a niche to a mass market worldwide. For the next

few years at least, Wi-Fi will proliferate rapidly as a last-mile option and deliver wireless

broadband access at prices dramatically lower than WiMAX.

1.2. WiMAX

At some stage, it is expected that WiMAX will reach price and performance levels

similar to Wi-Fi. The vendors and service providers who founded the WiMAX Forum [9]

believe that it will be widely deployed in a manner similar to that of Wi-Fi. Standardization

will not only reduce equipment and component costs, which will enable mass production,

but it will also allow interoperability between the equipment of different vendors. The most

suitable frequency band for WiMAX is 3.5 GHz band, followed by 5.25.8 GHz band. It is

also expected that a 2.52.7 GHz band could be used for WiMAX in some countries.

There are several ways in which WiMAX can be deployed. The most popular provides

backhaul for Wi-Fi access points, and it also serves as a backhaul between conventional

cellular towers. The second type of deployment is last mile, which serves residential andenterprise users as an alternative to cable and DSL [10,11]. The third is similar to metro

Ethernet provided on point-to-multipoint sources that compete directly with fiber. The

fourth type is the mobile version of WiMAX based on the 802.16e standard. It should be



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noted that while it was ratified recently, it is not expected to be quickly adopted by

operators.

1.3. VSAT satellite Internet

Very Small Aperture Terminals (VSAT) are capable of providing commercially viable

connectivity even in the most remote parts of a country. VSAT utilizes a very small satellite

transmitting and receiving station that transfers data, video, and voice via satellite. VSAT

technology is a wireless communication network set up through a series of receiver/

transceiver terminals ranging in size from 0.6 to 3.8 m in diameter, connected by a central

hub through a satellite. VSAT is capable of supporting backhaul systems for any last-mile

technology. This technology is useful in geographically dispersed areas and in places where

there is no established infrastructure. Recent technological advances in VSATs have

reduced antenna size, simplified installation, lowered space requirements, and reduced

hardware costs.

2. Infrastructure for an emerging economy: the case of India

India is the second most populous country in the world, with an annual GDP per capita

of around $1000. In comparison, the United States, Japan, and Western Europe have

GDPs of nearly $36,000 per year [12]. Although Indias GDP per capita is very low, the

average growth rate of its economy makes it attractive to investors, especially as the

government takes a market-oriented approach to liberalizing the countrys economy. Over

the past decade, Indias development has followed a process of soft industrializationfocused primarily on the services sector. Unlike other countries, Indias development relies

primarily on software and information technology services, which is by far the fastest-

growing sector in its economy. One major factor contributing to Indias growth is its large

pool of skilled manpower. As Prahalad noted, India has great potential and many

opportunities yet to be explored [13]. Focusing mainly on IT services, India is now entering

an important new phase in its economic evolution.

2.1. Developing infrastructure for a knowledge-based economy

Having already achieved success in IT services and business process outsourcing, Indiasgoal is to become the engineering and knowledge process outsourcing hub of the world. As

future economies become more and more knowledge-driven, it is essential to make every

citizens access to computers and the Internetand to thus the worldeasier. Therefore,

community telecenter projects are at the top of the developmental hierarchy in India. But

this strategy has to be taken further owing to the fact that strong ICT capability is the

primary tool for facilitating Indias emergence as a leading knowledge society. In order to

build a strong civil society with a knowledge-based economy, however, a free flow of

information to all tiers of the economy is needed. Armed with a ubiquitous and affordable

broadband infrastructure, India can lay the groundwork for achieving its goal of meeting

the challenges of an emerging, knowledge-oriented economy.As described by Moss et al. [14], telecommunication is a critical component of the

infrastructure for the 21st century, just as highways were central to the 20th century.

Although India began to focus on infrastructure development in the late 20th century, it is

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now in a good position to adapt an ICT-centric infrastructure faster than other developing

countries (see Table 1). The Indian government recognizes that ICT projects are the onlyenablers of social and economic development for underserved regions. Consequently, India

has more ICT projects than the rest of the developing world combined. It also holds a

record for the most innovative ICT projects for its own growth and development [15].

There are many ICT related projects going on in India where the primary goal is to test,

explore, and define the vision so that ICT can be more helpful to the local community,

especially to financially underprivileged communities. In this market, ICT infrastructure,

backed by broadband connectivity, can be a social and economic enabler.

3. Wireless infrastructures for urban, sub-urban and rural communities

Modern communication infrastructures vary not just from country to country but also

within different parts of the same country. However, a uniform infrastructure is not

necessary, since the needs and requirements of cities versus villages are different. It is

important, however, to understand each wireless technologys capabilities and limitations,

and it is essential to determine appropriate architectures for each tier of the economy (see

Fig. 2). It is also critical to identify wireless applications that can be offered in the near

future, as well as new applications that can be expected to evolve in the long term.

Therefore, when building a wireless broadband communication infrastructure, countries

and states need to have both tactical and strategic vision. City-wide Wi-Fi/WiMAX

deployment is emerging as a modern, high-tech economic development tool. It is currentlyused in developed countries, and can also be used in developing nations. It is indispensable

that wireless access should be viewed as a fundamental good to public communication in

the near future.

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table 1

Indias suitability for ICT-related projects

Strength Weakness

No. 1 in the world in software services Shortage of physical infrastructure (roads, bridges,

dams, etc.)

Enormous skilled manpower Inadequate power supply

Service sector booming Nearly 200 million people live in poverty

Cheap labor for all classes of work Lack of proper technology management principles

and best practices

Excellent reputation in global IT market Lack of manufacturing sector for sustainable growth

Vast pool of English-language speakers.

One of the fastest-growing economies in the world

(between 78%).

Opportunity Threat

IT far less explored in India for its own growth; mostIT services done are for Western countries.

Technology is sometimes easy to implement whilemost of the time bureaucracy, policy issues, and

government support are lacking

Second most populous country in the world, but

many people not yet connected.

Can leverage Chinas hardware manufacturing

capability (mixing Chinas hardware with Indias

software)

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In addition, the social and economic value of a network should be identified. These

values are governed by three assumptions [16]:

Sarnoffs law: The value of the network is proportionate to the number of customers it

reaches.

Metcalfes Law: The value of a network is proportionate to the square of the number of

users.

Reeds Law: The value of the network is proportionate to the number of groups.

In the discussions below, we will show how these laws apply to the networks of a

developing country, and India more specifically.

3.1. Urban areas: wireless model (metro zones)

This model incorporates WiMAX mesh infrastructure with Wi-Fi systems, where both

technologies work together to offer cost-effective solutions. WiMAX mesh architecture

can cover whole urban areas by forming a number of metro zones. Each metro zone has a

WiMAX base station, which serves as a first-, second-, or third-tier backhaul for all Wi-Fi

mesh nodes within its coverage zone. Within each WiMAX cell coverage area, mesh Wi-Fi

nodes can be deployed to give blanket coverage. The technology of wireless mesh routing

simply chains together separate nodes, which is a low-cost method for providing instant

access to thousands of users. Roughly 2040 Wi-Fi access points can be placed inside eachWiMAX cell. Leasing costs are much lower as this infrastructure uses a light pole or

rooftop of a campus building, which significantly reduces operating costs. As mobile

WiMAX (based on IEEE 802.16e) becomes a reality, it can be substituted for last-mile

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Metro Zones(Urban Area)

Hot Zones(Sub-Urban Area)

Hot Spots(Rural Area and Villages)

Rural area

Villages

Sub-Urban area

Small towns and Municipalities

Urban area

Metros and Big cities

VSAT + WiFiBackhaul-Satellite

Access-Wi-Fi long distance

WiMAX + Mesh WiFiBackhaul-Infrastructure Mesh WiMAX

Access-Mesh Wi-Fi

WiMAX + Wi-Fi

Backhaul-WiMAXAccess- Long distance Wi-Fi

Tier I Economy

Tier II Economy

Tier III Economy

Fig. 2. Proposed communication infrastructure model for a developing country.



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access instead of Wi-Fi nodes. It can use the same backhaul infrastructure, and migration

to last-mile WiMAX will be simple.

3.1.1. WiMAX mesh

This is a type of mesh where subscriber nodes do not forward packets, in contrast to adhoc or client mesh. Options in IEEE 802.16 are the point-to-multipoint mode (PMP)

MAC (Media Access Control) option and the mesh MAC option. The PMP MAC option

is the default architecture supported by the WiMAX Forum.

Mesh MAC option is a type of client mesh. This option is not actively discussed or

supported as it is still in the research stage [17]. Additional research and standardization

work is needed to bring the full benefits of mesh architecture or mesh infrastructure to

802.16/WiMAX. Mesh infrastructure has many advantages over client mesh as it is more

secure, more predictable, easier to manage, and does not suffer from initial seeding issues.

3.1.2. Wi-Fi mesh

IEEE is currently establishing a new standard called 802.11s [18] to extend mobility to

Wi-Fi access points within very large Wi-Fi networks. It is also working on wireless LAN

MAC and physical layer (PHY) for extended service set (ESS) mesh networking [19].

IEEEs mission is to develop new protocols for auto-configuring paths between access

points over self-configuring, multihop topologies in a wireless distribution system that

supports both broadcast/multicast and unicast traffic in an ESS mesh. Although this

standard is targeted for approval by 2008, many vendors are also developing Wi-Fi mesh

systems using their own proprietary technologies.

3.1.3. Advantages of WiMAX mesh infrastructure

Operating expenditures can be significantly reduced by using WiMAX infrastructure for

backhauling [4]. WiMAX main base stations that have wired backhaul are placed at the

center of a cluster, and Wi-Fi mesh access points are embedded in both WiMAX main and

mesh cells. This is done to reduce the operating cost, because rental of wired backhaul

networks accounts for a major cash outflow [20]. Therefore, to reduce backhaul cost and

have efficient use of the wired backhaul, all wireless backhaul links can be aggregated into

higher capacity lines. As shown in Fig. 3, a cluster of seven cells (the basic mesh

architecture with one hop) has one WiMAX main base station surrounded by six mesh

base stations. Each WiMAX mesh and main base station in a mile radius can contain asmany Wi-Fi cells as the traffic requires. In this architecture, each WiMAX mesh base

station aggregates all the traffic from the Wi-Fi access points and wirelessly backhauls via

the WiMAX mesh base station to the WiMAX main base station. From there, it is taken to

wired backhaul (fiber) and finally to the point-of-presence (POP). For example, using this

architecture to cover an area of 65 square miles (a big metro city like Chennai), with a

radius of 1 mile for each WiMAX cell, there will be a total of four WiMAX clusters, four

main base stations, and 20 WiMAX mesh base stations. Thus, just four wired backhaul

facilities from each main base station will serve all the Wi-Fi access points distributed

across 65 square miles (see Fig. 4).

The economic and the social value of an urban Wi-Fi network can be understood on thebasis of Sarnoffs Law which says the value of the network is proportionate to the number

of customers it reaches. People who have a Wi-Fi device in the city can access the network

from any location by previewing pages at no charge before logging in to the network.



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3.2. Sub-urban areas: fixed wireless model (hotzones)

Wireless infrastructure ranges from configurations that offer less coverage in rural areas

to ubiquitous coverage for metropolitan areas. There are also semi-populated areas, other

than metro and rural areas; hence, it is necessary to explore an optimal coverage for such

sub-urban towns and cities. There capital expenditure is very low, with WiMAX used as

backhaul and Wi-Fi for access in a specific geographic zone. Coverage can be provided by

Wi-Fi access points with high-gain antennae, to extend neighborhood or campus-area

coverage, as shown in Fig. 5. By taking advantage of wireless technologies ranging from

Wi-Fi long-range access points to wide-area WiMAX, residents and businesses in sub-

urban regions are able to obtain wireless access. In sub-urban India, broadbandpenetration is very low. Many small businesses and low-income households simply cannot

afford leased lines. In some situations, the connection speeds are also slow and/or

insufficient to support many applications.

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Fig. 4. Urban infrastructure with metro zones creating a Wi-Fi hot city.



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The economic and social values of sub-urban Wi-Fi networks illustrate Metcalfes Law:

neighborhood or campus-area networks will become more valuable as more people are

connected to them.

3.2.1. Neighborhood area network

This kind of network is centered at physical communities and neighborhoods like those

discussed by Rao [22]. A neighborhood Wi-Fi distribution point that is locally owned can

facilitate infrastructure sharing by subscribing members in their own neighborhood.

Sometimes a resident who owns the Wi-Fi access point, opens up the network and shares

bandwidth with everyone around the neighborhood. In this type of network individualbuildings and houses may be packed close together. It may also be possible to use outdoor

access points with high-gain antennae to extend coverage but still keep the Effective

Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) within the legal limit. The normal Wi-Fi access point

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Fig. 5. Sub-urban infrastructureWi-Fi hotzones.



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(802.11b or 802.11g) covers only 300 ft, or roughly 0.0102 square mile; however, outdoor

coverage can be increased by using higher-gain antennae [23]. It is also possible to extend

coverage up to a kilometer by bearing the additional cost of smart antennae.

The value of a neighborhood network is proportional to the number of users in the

neighborhood area. By sharing the last-mile infrastructure with multiple users inside theneighborhood coverage area, the network can maximize the return on investment, thereby

leveraging the infrastructure investment and fixed costs across the total number of

neighborhood users.

3.2.2. Campus-area network

Campus networks are comprised of infrastructure that supports a university, a school,

organizational campuses, shopping complexes, etc. (campus in the broader meaning not

restricted to educational facilities). In this type of network, most of the buildings are

multidwelling units or apartment complexes. As Fig. 5 shows, WiMAX can coexist with

Wi-Fi to deliver megabits of data to the campus area. Thereafter, Wi-Fi can distribute

service to individual shops, halls, offices, lobbies, conference rooms, etc., within the

building. Although the WiMAX standard does not describe how much capacity an

operator can feed each access point, a single WiMAX base station can handle hundreds of

megabits per second of data and can feed one or more Wi-Fi access points mounted on tall

buildings inside the campus-area. The value of a particular campus-area Wi-Fi network

depends on the number of users inside the buildings.

3.2.3. Mini-high-tech parks for Tier-II cities

High-tech habitats can be built not only in major cities but also in rural and expandingsub-urban locations if proper connectivity can be provided. Indias IT-export activities

depend mainly on the infrastructure erected in urban cities. As a result, those cities are

expected to face congestion in sectors ranging from power to housing. Since metro cities

are often at the saturation point, future growth in IT off-shore industries will have to come

from entirely new towns outside of Tier I metro cities [24]. In order to promote the growth

of IT all over the state, it is imperative that high-tech parks be built in and around all

major towns. Such mini-IT parks would be extremely useful for promoting the growth of

IT-enabled services, and could provide jobs to millions of Indians.

The broadband infrastructure in Tier-II cities required to meet the needs of small IT

parks and BPO centers will provide larger locations and enable geographical expansion forIT industries. Every small town can have multiple small high-tech parks, one for each IT

and BPO services. Such small high-tech parks would have the same kind of infrastructure

as that of the campus-area network discussed above.

3.2.4. Village area network

The cost of a village network would be determined by the choice of backhaul since fiber-

based and VSAT-based networks have different cost structures. The main goal is to tap

Indias relatively well-laid fiber infrastructure, which penetrates most towns and brings

low-cost connectivity to surrounding villages, some of which border sub-urban areas.

A terrestrial fiber backbone costs less compared to a VSAT network. Therefore, villagesnear a larger town can take advantage of the fiber backbone; a remote village can be

connected via VSAT link. From the fiber backbone, a point-to-point or point-to-

multipoint WiMAX link can be used to connect one or more villages near the town, thus



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enabling WiMAX to distribute locally among all rural community groups in a given village

using long distance Wi-Fi technology (see Fig. 6).

3.3. Rural areas: wireless model (Wi-Fi hotspots)

The economic and social value of a rural Wi-Fi network is governed by Reeds Law: the

value of the village network is proportionate to the number of groups in the given rural

community.

A typical village in India has about 1000 people, most of whom live in straw huts made

somewhat sturdier by wood and mud. Many villages are remote, some hundreds of

kilometers from a fiber backbone. The typical villager cannot afford any kind of personal

communication device or the subscription fee to access the communication infrastructure.

Despite their poverty, however, they still need connectivity, and shared devices and access

points are fundamental to village connectivity. VSATs are capable of providing

commercially viable connectivity even in the most hard-to-reach regions. VSAT and Wi-

Fi are complementary; when combined they have the potential to become a medium through

which data and voice solutions for remote areas can be provided seamlessly. As Fig. 6 shows,

the VSAT hub provides backhaul to Wi-Fi access points; then the school, clinic, community

center, etc. within a kilometer from the hub can be linked using Wi-Fi radios.

This kind of infrastructure is used to incorporate VSAT with Wi-Fi systems where both

technologies coexist to offer a cost-effective solution. Outdoor Wi-Fi units can be used to

serve end-user groups while also taking advantage of a satellite connection as a backhaul

system to reduce the time for service provisioning and to reach remote parts of the country

where there is no connectivity. Each village needs a kiosk to house the VSAT system; fromthere it can be distributed to other groups within a 1 km radius using Wi-Fi. In each

location, a Wi-Fi outdoor access point can be fed by a dedicated satellite channel of

512 kbps2 Mbps for downlink and between 516256 kbps for uplink. The hub-to-remote

outroute service should have a minimum of 512 kbps and remote-to-hub inroute service

can have 256 kbps in the initial stage of deployment, so that it supports shared access for at

least two to three groups, in a village. In the initial stage, each location can start with two

or three groups with only one Wi-Fi client device-enabled PC in each location. By

increasing the transmission rate for VSAT systems, more groups can be added to the

network so that more users can share the same network. Each remote village can be

separately fed by the VSAT systems; the systems can act independently of each other.

3.3.1. Village bandwidth consortia

VSAT satellite networks cost more than fiber-based backbone networks. VSAT

networks are easier to cost out because the service is delivered directly and can be priced

according to the services provided for a particular link. The amount of bandwidth has a

significant impact on pricing, and there will be considerable savings if all the remote

villages join together to purchase their bandwidth in larger volume. The central or state

government should offer support to form consortia at the regional or national level. The

consortia can be groups of villages or a single sub-continental VSAT organization that

would aggregate all the demand and provide connectivity to all villages at very low cost orfor non-profit. This is necessary due to the limited availability of national backbone in

remote areas. The consortia can focus primarily on the purchase of satellite bandwidth for

underserved or backward areas. The VSAT connection in a particular village can be



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Fig. 6. Wireless infrastructure for rural Wi-Fi hotspots in India. Source: Google images.



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charged based on uplink and downlink speeds and the number of groups sharing the

network. The village system can split the cost between different groups, and extra revenue

can be collected from each kiosk or hub.

4. Deployment of Wi-Fi country-wide

A network infrastructure with pure connectivity alone is not enough to enhance the

socio-economic class of a community. Therefore, simultaneous development of innovative

applications and new service models are needed. As ubiquitous wireless technologies and

services continue to expand, it is necessary to design new and appropriate applications.

The social goal of ubiquitous connectivity is to provide increased access to information for

all members of the community; its economic goal is to develop information as a

commodity along with knowledge products and services. The confluence of these two goals

brings together people, information infrastructure, content, and applications.

4.1. Applications driving ubiquitous connectivity in metropolitan areas

The quality of Indias urban infrastructure, even in the metropolitan cities, is not

sophisticated enough to compete with global economic activity. Although the metropolitan

cities of India contribute a great deal to the countrys emerging economy, in order to

accelerate growth an advanced ICT infrastructure backed by ubiquitous broadband

connectivity is critical. Metro-zone wireless access is a crucial part of the strategy to grow

the countrys tourism industry. This infrastructure brings low-cost Internet services not

only to local residents but also to temporary visitors. Indian cities such as Bangalore,Chennai, Hyderabad, Mumbai, and Delhi have received worldwide attention because of

their global IT services and businesses. Yet, the transportation infrastructure is so poor in

these metro areas that affordable city-wide wireless broadband access would be an

incentive to encourage telecommuters. It would offer them the convenience of conducting

business from their homes and provide broadband as a necessary tool. Customers could

also choose from various access speed options, ranging from a guaranteed 128 kbps to

several Mbps. This infrastructure would be especially helpful in urban settings, as it would

be more productive for some employees to work from their home, enabling them to save

time and commuting costs. This also aids the local economy by providing easy Internet

access to businesses, especially to a mobile workforce.The metro-zone broadband wireless network has more potential for small businesses

than cable or DSL. The last-mile Wi-Fi network in urban settings allows local businesses

to more effectively manage and sell their products and services. Broadband helps

businesses save on telephone costs by using broadband phone service (VoIP) and video-

conferencing to save travel expenses [8]. With a modern communication infrastructure,

business operations could move away from the main cities to less dense sub-urban areas,

allowing their employees to work from any location virtually and eliminating the need for

face-to-face contact [14].

4.2. Applications and service model innovations for sub-urban economies

The IT service economy and most of the high-tech parks are focused on the urban

segment of the population, frequently at the expense of growth in the sub-urban, or Tier II,



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cities. To achieve unified growth and to bring small towns and cities into the growing

knowledge economy, there needs to be some form of ICT infrastructure that can address

all the developmental issues. A small town can have a mini-IT park that would not need

gigabytes of broadband connectivity; megabytes would sufficeand it could be easily

accomplished with the support of WiMAX technology.Another application is neighborhood-based networks. Since many small businesses and

activities are neighborhood-based, one needs to tailor the network and content so that they

appeal to the local community. There can also be unique services and content for each

neighborhood; this kind of network can serve as a forum for idea exchange, education, and

community enrichment [22]. Each neighborhood with access to the network can form an

association using its own infrastructure to develop its community.

4.3. Applications and eradication for rural wireless deployment

The ability of satellites to provide ready access to any remote part of the country and the

speed with which a hybrid solution (e.g., satellite with Wi-Fi) can be deployed means that

more and more villages can be online-enabled in a short period of time. The infrastructure

for rural environments should have multi-functional communication capabilities while

also being robust and sustainable. Generally, multi-purpose community Internet kiosks

are preferred instead of individual household connections. Kiosks could be used to send

bill payments to government departments, file complaints, and follow up on elec-

tronic applications. Shared hotspots are best when people gather in particular places in

the village for various activities. ICT provides effective tools and techniques for a variety

of applications such as e-education, e-health, e-learning, e-governance, e-entertainment,etc.

4.3.1. e-Education

Affordable broadband technologies may enable new ways of teaching and learning

among the rural population. Wireless technologies can connect rural schools and colleges

to urban institutes, thereby spreading education in a more pervasive manner. This also

facilitates improvement of the education system by reducing the paucity of teachers in

remote areas.

4.3.2. e-HealthConnectivity for health facilities has been identified as a priority in order to enhance the

quality of healthcare in many ICT projects around the world. An interesting health

application of wireless technologies is linking a rural clinic to a larger hospital, thus

enabling data, voice, and video transmissions between a rural patient and the city-based

doctor.

4.3.3. Connecting farmers to commodity markets

Farmers in India are perennially affected by fluctuations in the commodities market [25].

However, the information needed to manage risk and track price updates and trends in

commodity trading in the volatile global market were not available to them. Connectivitywill help them check weather forecasts and register the prices of their agro-products at the

nearest government market or futures exchange [26]. Farmers can also purchase fertilizers,

herbicides, and other raw materials for their agricultural work.



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4.3.4. e-Tourism

Every village has some small place devoted to religion, and this place could be one of

many locations where Wi-Fi infrastructure could be deployed. Connectivity in the temple

becomes a strategic investment in the villages hospitality. The main goal is to attract

people from neighboring cities and towns to enjoy a religious experience while stillremaining connected to their business world.

4.3.5. e-Village

A village website portal helps to sell local handicrafts, agriculture, horticulture, and

other local products via the website. This portal can also provide comprehensive

information about a particular village.

5. Discussion

5.1. ICT not a panacea

ICT infrastructure, along with necessary improvements in other key physical

infrastructural areas like roads, airports, dams, electricity, bridges, etc., is necessary for

emerging markets to become competitive in the global economy. Although ICT is not a

panacea for every problem, nor is it an end in itself, it is a huge step toward reaching out to

equalize the huge disparities between different communities in the same country. The

digital divide is another challenge that can be addressed by building an ICT infrastructure

for rural areas so that they can address the needs of the poor (e-eradication). By erecting

ICT infrastructure in all tiers of the economy, it is possible to make every individual aglobal citizen by providing connectivity to everyone.

5.2. Policy issues

The success of capacity building depends not only on technical analysis but also on its

integration within the broader social, economic, and political environments. The

communication services industry has enjoyed major growth since India put itself on the

path of economic reform. Indias communication services industry is one of the fastest

expanding in the world, offering unique opportunities for domestic and international

investors. The Indian telecommunications network is already the fifth largest in the worldand the second largest among the emerging economies in Asia [27]. Growth in recent years

has been mainly in the cellular arena, while broadband Internet is still in its nascent stage,

with lesser penetration rate and still overpriced. Although the Internet is available in

cybercafes in the cities and sub-urban areas, there is still a huge divide between

communities in terms of connectivity. Recently, railway reservations, weather information,

online investing, banking, bill payments, and other e-commerce services have been

increasingly accessed online.

Broadband availability in India just reached 1.3 million by the end of 2005. However,

this represents only 0.1% of the total population, and roughly one-tenth of total Internet

subscribers [28]. This is due to the focus of various service providers on wired broadbandaccess, by trying to make use of the existing copper loops [28]. There is also no support for

alternative broadband technologies and the prices remain high for broadband access. In

some situations, for every extra megabyte downloaded, the customer is charged extra to



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their existing monthly bill. Since we believe ubiquitous broadband is a daily necessity for

every citizen and business, it is essential for policymakers to explore options such as publicly

owned or publicprivate partnerships to build a Wi-Fi/WiMAX infrastructure throughout

the country, thereby promoting competition in the broadband market. In some situations the

politics of alternative broadband access will be of special interest if incumbents want toprotect their licensed monopolies or duopolies. Although policymakers in India are aiming

for liberalization in the telecom sector, they should seek suitable strategies to promote

economically vital broadband technologies such as Wi-Fi and WiMAX.

5.3. Best practices and sustainability

Although the ultimate goal is to bring ubiquitous broadband connectivity, many ICT

initiatives have failed due to the lack of well-adapted, step-by-step approaches. If the rural

infrastructure is built using non-private investment, then it is necessary to provide urban-

quality services at rural prices to the villages.

After deploying the ICT infrastructure, focus should shift to the use of technology.

Giving connectivity alone does not solve all the problems; to be sustainable it should

facilitate the needs and resolve the communication challenges of each stakeholder in every

tier of the economy. The true potential is realized only when people participate in a

meaningful way with others, beyond their boundaries.

On the other hand, small businesses should explore additional options with connectivity,

finding ways to perform their businesses more efficiently than before. Last, but not least,

the government should provide e-governance and all critical services to their citizens.

6. Conclusion

In the coming years, the growth of emerging countries such as India will be increasingly

driven by the knowledge and service-based sectors, where the ease of the information flow

will be a key determinant for success. Therefore, deployment and implementation of an

alternative, affordable communication infrastructure that utilizes emerging wireless

technologies could be the first step toward narrowing the digital divide.

To provide the best connectivity in a short period of time, the emerging wireless

technologies should be positioned to reach every village, town, and city in India, thereby

enabling a modern high-tech network infrastructure across the country. This kind of fullyintegrated, modern broadband wireless infrastructure throughout all tiers of the economy

will foster equal and sustainable socio-economic development.

We strongly believe that ICT, backed by modern wireless technologies, will take any

developing country to a new level of information economy and wealth creation. Finally, we

believe that the core objective of national policymakers should be to develop suitable

strategies that promote Wi-Fi and WiMAX technologies, thereby maximizing the social

and economic benefits to the country and its citizens.

Acknowledgments

Our thanks go to Dr. A. Curtis, Director for Telecommunications and Project

Management, Dr. K. Ryan, Professor of Telecommunications Management, and Dr. E.A.

Friedman, Director of the Center for Technology Management for Global Development,



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all at Stevens Institute of Technology, for their valuable input regarding wireless

technologies and their specific applications in developing countries. We also thank Dr.

N.K. Shankaranarayan and Dr. Byoung Jo J. Kim, both with AT&T Labs, for their

invaluable comments that helped us to understand the technical aspects of infrastructure

mesh topologies.

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Vinoth Gunasekaran is a PhD candidate in Telecommunication Management, at the School of Technology

Management, Stevens Institute of Technology. His current research focuses on emerging wireless networks,

including technologies, strategies, businesses, and socio-economics. In 2004, he interned in the Mobile

Networking Research Group at AT&T Labs. While in India, he worked on various startups in information

technology and e-commerce businesses.

Fotios C. Harmantzis is assistant professor at the School of Technology Management, Stevens Institute of

Technology. His research interests are in the areas of quantitative investments under uncertainty, valuation of real

options, risk management, and the economic and financial aspects of high-tech and telecom. He teaches courses in

the financial engineering and telecommunication management programs.

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