MV Neg GSU Round5

7/26/2019 MV Neg GSU Round5

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Security is a psychological constructthe affs scenarios for conflict

are products of paranoia that project our violent impulses onto theotherMack 91 Doctor of Psychiatry and a professor at Harvard University (John, The Enemy System http:!!!"#ohnemac$instit%te"or&eJo%rna'artic'e"aspid)*+-ender modified.

The threat of nuclear annihilation has stim%'ated %s totry to understand what it is aout!hu"mankind that has led to s%ch self#destroying ehavior" /entra' to thisin0%iry is ane1p'oration of the adversaria' re'ationships 2et!een ethnic or nationa' &ro%ps" 3t is o%t of s%chenmities that !ar, inc'%din& n%c'ear !ar sho%'d it occ%r, has a'!ays arisen" Enmity2et!een &ro%ps of peop'e stemsfrom the interaction of psycho'o&ica', economic, and c%'t%ra'e'ements" These inc'%de fear and hosti'ity(!hichare often c'ose'y re'ated., competition over perceived scarce reso%rces,4+5 the need for individ%a's toidentify !ith a 'ar&e &ro%p or ca%se,465 a tendency to disc'aimand assi&n e'se!here responsi2i'ity for%n!e'come imp%'sesand intentions, and a pec%'iar s%scepti2i'ity to emotiona' manip%'ation2y 'eaders !ho p'ay%pon o%r more sava&e inc'inations in the name of nationa' sec%rity or the nationa' interest"7 f%'' %nderstandin& of the 8enemy system84+5re0%ires insi&hts frommany specia'ities, inc'%din& psycho'o&y, anthropo'o&y, history, po'itica' science, and the h%manities" 3n their statement on

vio'ence495 t!enty socia' and 2ehaviora' scientists, !ho met in Sevi''e, Spain, to e1amine the roots of !ar, dec'ared that there !asno scientific asis for regarding !hu"man!s" as an innately aggressiveanima', inevita2'ycommitted to !ar" The Sevi''e statement imp'ies thatwe have real choices " 3t a'so points to a hopef%' parado1 of the n%c'ear a&e:threat of n%c'ear !ar may have provo$ed o%r capacity for feardriven po'ari;ation 2%t at thesame time it has inspired %nprecedented efforts to!ards cooperation and sett'ement ofdifferences !itho%t vio'ence"The enever see o%r enemy ?s motives and !e never 'a2or to assess his !i'',!ith anything approaching ojectivity8"4@5 3ndivid%a's may have 'itt'e to do !ith the choice of nationa' enemies" Aost 7mericans, for e1amp'e, $no! on'y !hat has 2een reported in the mass media a2o%t the Soviet

Union">e are 'ar&e'y %na!are of the forces that operate !ithin o%r instit%tions, affectin& thethin$in& of o%r 'eaders and o%rse'ves, and !hich determine ho! the Soviet Union !i'' 2erepresented to %s" 3''!i'' and a desire for reven&e are transmitted from one &eneration to another, andwe are not taught to think

critically aout how our assigned enemies are selected for us( 3n the re'ations 2et!een potentia'adversaria' nations there !i'' have 2een, inevita2'y, rea' &rievances that are &ro%nds for enmity" B%t the attit%de of one peop'e to!ards another is %s%a''y determined 2y 'eaders

!ho manip%'ate the minds of citi;ens for domestic po'itica' reasons !hich are &enera''y %n$no!n to the p%2'ic" 7s 3srae'i socio'o&ist 7'o%ph Haveran has said, in timesof conf'ict 2et!een nations historical accuracy is the first victim"4C5 The 3ma&e of the Enemy and Ho! >eS%stain 3t ietnam veteran >i''iam Broy'es !rote: 8)ar egins in the mind & with the idea of the enemy"845 B%t tos%stain that ideain !ar and peacetime a nation?s 'eaders m%st maintain p%2'ic s%pport for the massivee1pendit%res that are re0%ired" St%dies of enmity have revea'ed s%scepti2i'ities, tho%&h not necessari'yrecoed as s%ch 2y the &overnin& e'ites that provide ra! materia' %pon !hich the 'eaders may dra! to s%stain the ima&e ofan enemy"4F,G5 =re%d4GG5 in his e1amination of mass psycho'o&y identified the proc'ivity ofindivid%a's to surrender personal responsiility to the leaders of large groups " This


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s%rrender ta$es p'ace in 2oth tota'itarian and democratic societies, and !itho%t coercion" Ieaders can therefore desi&nate o%tside enemies and ta$e actions a&ainst them !ith

'itt'e opposition" A%ch f%rther research is needed to %nderstand the psycho'o&ica' mechanismsthat impel individuals to killor allow killing in their name, often!ith 'itt'e 0%estionin& of the morality or conse*uences of s%chactions" Phi'osopher and psycho'o&ist Sam een as$s !hy it is that in virt%a''y every !ar 8The enemy is seen as 'ess than h%man He?s face'ess" He?s an anima'8"8 eentries to ans!er his 0 %estion: 8The ima&e of the enemyis not on'y the so'dier?s most po!erf%' !eaponK it is society?s most po!erf%'

!eapon" %t enales people en masse to participate in acts ofviolence they !o%'d never consider doin&as individ%a's8"4G*5 Lationa' 'eaders 2ecome s$i''ed in presentin& the adversary in deh%mani;ed ima&es" The mass media, ta$in& their c%es from the 'eadership, contri2%te

po!erf%''y to the process"

Security threats are political constructions y e$perts to justifyconstant militarism

7;i; +ana 1,, 7ssistant Professor of Ia!, /orne'' University Ia! Schoo'K 7"B", Harvard/o''e&eK J"D", Ma'e Ia! Schoo'K PhD", Harvard University, J%'y *G*, L7T3NL7I SE/U


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G6s, s%pporters of the modern sec%rity concept haveat times %n!ittin&'yreaffirmed the po'itica' rather than p%re'y o2#ective nat%re of interpretin&e1terna' threats" 3n partic%'ar, commentators have repeated'y noted the 'in$ 2et!een the idea of insec%rity and 7merica?s post >or'd >ar 33 positionof &'o2a' primacy, one !hich today has on'y e1panded fo''o!in& the /o'd >ar" n+G+ 3n G@G, none other than Senator James >i''iam =%'2ri&htdec'ared, in terms reminiscent of Herrin& and =ran$f%rter, that sec%rity imperatives meant that 8o%r 2asic constit%tiona' machinery, admira2'y s%itedto the needs of a remote a&rarian rep%2'ic in the GCth cent%ry,8 !as no 'on&er 8ade0%ate8 for the 8*thcent%ry nation"8 n+G6 =or =%'2ri&ht, the drivin&impet%s 2ehind the need to #ettison anti0%ated constit%tiona' practices !as the importance of s%stainin& the co%ntry?s 8preeminen4ce5 in po'itica' andmi'itary po!er"8 n+G9 =%'2ri&ht 2e'ieved that &reater e1ec%tive action and !ar ma$in& capacities !ere essentia' precise'y 2eca%se the United Statesfo%nd itse'f 82%rdened !ith a'' the enormo%s responsi2i'ities that accompany s%ch po!er"8 n+G@ 7ccordin& to =%'2ri&ht, the United States had 4G6CC5

2oth a ri&ht and a d%ty to s%ppress those forms of chaos and disorder that e1isted at the ed&es of 7merican a%thority" n+GF Th%s, rather than 2ein&

p%re'y o2#ective, the 7merican condition of permanent dan&er !as itse'f deep'y tied to po'itica'ca'c%'ations a2o%t the importance of &'o2a' primacy " >hat &enerated the condition of contin%a'crisis !as not on'y techno'o&ica' chan&e, 2%t a'so the 2e'ief that the United States? o!n nationa'sec%rity rested on the s%ccessf%' pro#ection of po!er into the interna' affairs of forei&n states"OThe $ey point is thatregardless of whether one agrees with such an underlying project, the va'%e of thispro#ect is %'timate'y an open po'itica' 0%estion" This s%&&ests that!hether distant crises sho%'d

2e vie!ed as &eneratin& insec%rity at home is simi'ar'y as m%ch an interpretativejudgmentas an empiricallyverifiale conc'%sion" n+GC To appreciate the open nat%re of sec%rity determinations, one need on'y 'oo$at the presentation of terrorism as a princip'e and overridin& dan&er facin& the co%ntry" 7ccordin& to Lationa' /o%nterterrorism /enter?s *


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conceive of paranoia as an inherent contradiction !ith respect to po!er: a do%2'esided phantasm that osci''atesprecario%s'y 2et!een de'iri%ms of &rande%r and ni&htmares of perpet%a' threat, a deep anddan&ero%s do%2'eness !ith respect to po!er that is he'd in %nsta2'e tension, 2%t!hich, ifs%dden'y desta2i'i;ed (as after GG., can prod%ce pyrotechnic displays ofviolence" The pertinence of %nderstandin&paranoia, 3 ar&%e, 'ies in its pec%'iar'y intimate and pec%'iar'y dan&ero%s re'ation to vio'ence" CIet me 2e c'ear: 3 do not see paranoia as a primary, str%ct%ra' ca%se of US imperia'ism nor as its str%ct%rin& identity" Lor do 3 see the US !ar on terror as animated 2y some co''ective, psychic a&ency, s%2mer&edmind, or He&e'ian c%nnin& of reason, nor 2y !hat S%san =a'%di ca''s a nationa' terror dream" Lor am 3 interested in evo$in& paranoia as a $ind of psycho'o&ica' dia&nosis of the imperia' nationstate"Lations do not have psyches or an %nconscio%sK on'y peop'e do" aitin& for the Bar2arians in G*F, 2%t the poem ha%nts the aftermath of GG !ith the force of an %ncanny and prescient d# v%" To !hat di'emma are the 2ar2arians a $ind of so'%tion

Every modern empire faces a n a2idin& crisis of legitimacyin that it f'in&s its po!er overterritories and peop'es !ho have not consented to that po!er"/avafyQs insi&ht is thatan imperial stateclaims legitimacy only y evoking the threat of theararians " %t is only the threatof the ararians that constitutes the silhouette of the empires orders in the firstplace(Nn the other hand, the ha''%cination of the 2ar2arians dist%r2 s the empire !ith perpetualnightmares of impending attack(The enemy is the aject of empirethe rejected

from which we cannot part " 7ndwithout the ararians the legitimacy of empire

vanishes like a disappearing phantom(Those people were a kind of solution( >ith the co''apse of the Soviet Unionin Decem2er GG, the &rand anta&onism of the United States and the USS< evaporated 'i$e a 0%ic$'y fadin& ni&htmare"Theco'd !ar rhetoric of tota'itarianism, =in'andi;ation, present dan&er, fifth co'%mnist, and infi'tration vanished"

)here were the enemies now to justify the continuing escalation of the military

colossus 57nd no!what shall ecome of us without any ararians54 By ri&hts, the thawing ofthe cold war should have prompted a n immediate downsi-ing of the militaryK anyp'a%si2'e e1terna' threat had simp'y ceased to e1ist" Prior to GG, -enera' Peter Schooma$er, head of theUS 7rmy, 2emoaned the enemy deficit: 3tQs no %se havin& an army that did nothin& 2%t train, he said" ThereQs &ot to 2e a certain appetite for !hat the he'' !e e1istfor" Dic$ /heney'i$e!ise comp'ained: The threats have ecome so remote( So remote that theyare difficult to ascertain" /o'in Po!e'' a&reed: Tho%&h !e can sti'' p'a%si2'y identify specific threatsLorth orea, 3ran, 3ra0, somethin& 'i$e thatthe rea' threat is the %n$no!n, the %ncertain"Before 2ecomin& president, -eor&e >"B%sh'i$e!ise fretted over the postco'd !ar dearth of a visi2'e enemy: >e do not $no! !ho the enemy is, 2%t !e $no! they areo%t there" 3t is no! !e'' esta2'ished that the invasion of 3ra0 had 2een a 'on&standin& &oa' of the US administration, 2%t there !as no c'ear rationa'e !ith !hich to se'' s%ch an invasion" 3n GF a&ro%p of neocons at the Pro#ect for the Le! 7merican /ent%ry prod%ced a remar$a2'e report in !hich they stated that to ma$e s%ch an invasion pa'ata2'e !o%'d re0%ire a catastrophic and cata'y;in& event'i$ea ne! Pear' Har2or" G*

The GG attac$s came as a da;;'in& so'%tion , 2oth to the enemy deficit and the pro2'em of'e&itimacy, offerin& the B%sh administration !hat they !o%'d c'aim as a political casus elli

and the military unimaginale license to e$pand its reach " -enera' Peter Schooma$er !o%'d p%2'ic'y admit that theattac$s !ere an immense 2oon: There is a h%&e si'ver 'inin& in this c'o%d" " " " >ar is a tremendo%s foc%s" " " " Lo! !e have this foc%sin& opport%nity, and !e have the fact that (terrorists. have act%a''y attac$edo%r home'and, !hich &ives it some oomph" 3n his 2oo$ 7&ainst 7'' Enemies, e no 'on&er have to search for a name for the post/o'd

>ar era, hedec'ared" 3t !i'' henceforth 2e $no!n as the a&e of terrorism"G+


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Their paranoid projections guarantee unending wars/ollander 6 professor of Iatin 7merican history and !omen?s st%dies at /a'ifornia State University (Lancy, 87 Psychoana'ytic Perspective on the Po'itics ofTerror:3n the 7ftermath of GG8 !!!"estados&erais"or&m%ndia'r#do!n'oad=IeitorLHo''anderin&'"pdf.

3n this sense, then, GG hassym2o'ica''y constit%ted a re'ief in the sense of a decrease in the persec%tory an1ietyprovo$ed 2y 'ivin& in a c%'t%re %nder&oin& a deterioration from !ithin" The imp'osion ref'ects theeconomic and socia' trends 3 descri2ed 2rief'y a2ove and has 2een manifest in manyre'ated symptoms, inc'%din&the erosion offami'yand comm%nity, the corr%ption of &overnmentin 'ea&%e !ith the !ea'thy and po!erf%', the a2andonment of !or$in&peop'e2y profitdriven corporations&oin& internationa', %r2an p'i&ht, a dr%&addicted yo%th, a vio'ence addicted mediaref'ectin& and motivatin& an esca'atin& rea'!or'd vio'ence, the corrosion of civic participation 2y a decadentdemocracy, a spirit%a''y 2ereft c%'t%re he'd prisoner to the a'mi&hty cons%mer ethic, racia' discrimination , miso&yny, &ay2ashin&,&ro!in& n%m2ers of fami'ies #oinin& the home'ess, and environmenta' devastation " >as this not 'ived as a $ind ofsocieta' s%icidean on&oin& assa%'t, an a&&ressive attac$a&ainst 'ife and emotiona' !e''2ein&

!a&ed from !ithina&ainst the societa' se'f 3n this sense, GG permitted a respite from the sense of interna' decay2y inadvertent'y stim%'atin& a rene!ed vita'ity via a reconfiguration of political andpsychological forces: tensions!ithin this co%ntry2et!een the havesmores and have'esses, as !e'' as 2et!een the defenders and critics ofthe stat%s 0%o,yie'ded to a !ave of nationa'ism in !hich a %nited peop'e7mericans a''stoodas one a&ainste1terna' a&&ression" 7t the same time, the &enerosity, so'idarity and se'fsacrifice e1pressed 2y 7mericans to!ard one another reaffirmed o%r sense of o%rse'vesas capa2'e of achievin& the positive depressive position sentiments of 'ove and empathy" =ract%red socia' re'ations !ere sym2o'ica''y repaired" The enemy the

threat to o%r inte&rity as a nation and , in D" >" >innicottQs terms, to o%r sense of &oin& on 2ein&was nolonger the we of comple$ internal forces so diffic%'t to %nderstand and chan&e,2%t a simp'eand identifiale enemy from outside of us, c'ear'y mar$ed 2y their difference, their forei&nness and their%ncanny and %nfathoma2'e %ncivi'i;ed premodern character" The societa' re'ief came !ith the projection of aggressiveimpulses onto an easi'y deh%mani;ed e$ternal enemy & where they could e justifialyattac$ed and destroyed" Thisco%ntryQs response to GG, then, in part demonstrates ho! persec%tory an1iety ismore easi'y dea't !ithin individ%a's and in &ro%ps!hen it is e1perienced as 2ein& provo$ed from the o%tsiderather than from interna' so%rces " 7s Hanna Se&a' has ar&%ed (3JP, GCF., &ro%psoften tend to 2e narcissistic , se'fidea'i;in&, and paranoidin re'ation to other &r o%ps and to shield themselves from knowledge aoutthe reality of their own aggression, !hichof necessity is projected into an enemy rea' orimagined so that it can 2e demeaned, he'd in contempt and then attac$ed" 3n this re&ard, GG permitted a ne!disco%rse to arise a2o%t !hat is f%ndamenta''y !ron& in the !or'd: indeed, the antiterrorism

rhetoric and po'icies of the U"S" &overnment f%nctionedfor a period to overshado! the anti&'o2a'i;ation movementthat has identified the f%ndamenta' &'o2a' conf'ict to 2e 2et!een on theone hand the U"S" and other &overnments in the =irst >or'd, transnationa' corporations, and po!erf%' internationa' financia' instit%tions,and on the other, !or$ersQ str%&&'es, h%man ri&hts or&ani;ations and environmenta' movements thro%&ho%t the !or'd" The ne! disco%rse presentsthe f%ndamenta' conf'ict in the !or'd as one 2et!een civi'i;ation and f%ndamenta'ist terrorism"B%t this 3civili-ation4 is a wolf in sheeps clothing , and those !ho c'aim to represent it revea'the $ind of sp'ittin& Se&a' descri2es: a hyper2o'ic idea'i;ation of themse'vesand their c%'t%re and apro#ection of a'' that is 2ad, inc'%din& the conse0%ences of the terrorist %nder2e''y of decades'on& U"S" forei&n po'icy in the Aidd'e East and 7sia, onto the denigrated other& who must

e annihilated " The U"S" &overnment, tainted for years 2y its ties to po!erf%' transnationa' corporate interests, has recreateditse'f as the nationa'istic defender of the 7merican peop'e " 3n the process, patriotism has $idnapped citi;ensQ &rief and mo%rnin&and mi'itarismhas hi&hjacked peoples fears and an$ieties, convertin& them into a passive

consens%s for an increasin&'y a%thoritarian &overnmentQs domestic and forei&n po'icies" The defensive si&nificance ofthis ne! disco%rse has to do !ith another theme re'ated to death an1iety as !e'': the threat of species annihilation that peop'e have'ived !ithsince the U"S" dropped atomic 2om2s on Hiroshima and La&asa$i" Se&a' ar&%es that the 'eaders of the U"S" as !e'' as other co%ntries !ith n%c'earcapa2i'ities, have disavowed their o!n aggressive motivations as they deve'opedG !eapons of massdestr%ction" The distortion of 'an&%a&e thro%&ho%t the /o'd >ar, s%ch as deterrence, f'e1i2'e response,A%t%a' 7ss%red Destr%ction, rationa' n%c'ear !ar, Strate&ic Defense 3nitiative has served to deny thea&&ressive nat%re of the arms race (p" C. and to dis&%ise from o%rse'ves and others the horror of a nuclear

war and our o!n part in making it possi2'e or more likely (pp" C." 7'tho%&h the po'icy ma$ersQ destr%ctiveness can 2e hidden


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from their respective pop%'ations and #%stified for nationa' sec%rity reasons, Se&a' 2e'ieves that s%ch denia' on'y increases re'iance onpro#ective mechanisms and stim%'ates paranoia"

The aff places their faith in the ig other of 0ongress to legitimi-etheir conception of the symolic ### masks the nothingness underlying

all their claimsStavrakakis 993deo'o&y and Disco%rse, U Esse1" (Mannis, Encirc'in& the Po'itica', from Iacan and the Po'itica', *F@C, 7Ai'es.

The fie'd of socia' constr%ction and po'itica' rea'ity is the fie'd in !hich the sym2o'isation of this rea' isattempted" /haitin is correct !hen assertin& that sym2o'isation ?has thecreative po!er to prod%ce c%'t%ra'identities,2%t at a price, the cost of covering over the fundamental nothingness thatforms it s foundation """ it is c%'t%re, not nat%re, that a2hors a vac%%m, a2ove a'' that of its o!n contin&ency? (/haitin,G@: 69., of its %'timate ina2i'ity to master and sym2o'ise theimpossi2'e rea': ?there is a str%ct%ra''ac$ in the sym2o'ic,!hich means that certain points of the rea' can?t 2esym2o'ised in a definitemanner"""" The unmitigated real provokes an$iety & andthis in t%rn gives rise to never#ending & defensive& imaginaryconstructs' (erhae&he, G6: @." =o''o!in& from this, ?a'' h%manprod%ctions 4Society itse'f, c%'t%re, re'i&ion, science5""" can 2e %nderstood in the 'i&ht of that str%ct%ra' fai'%re of the sym2o'ic in

re'ationship to the rea'? (i2id": @G." 3t is the moment of this fai'%re, the moment of o%r enco%nter !ith the rea', that is revea'ed as themoment of the po'itica' par e1ce''ence in o%r readin& of Iacan" 3t is the constit%tivity of this moment in Iacanian psychoana'ysis thatproves o%r fantasmatic conception of the sociopo'itica' instit%tion of society as a harmonio%s tota'ity to 2e no more than a mira&e"

3t is this tra%matic moment of the po'itica' 0%a enco%nter !ith the rea' that initiates a&ain and a&ain aprocess of sym2o'isation, and initiates the everpresent he&emonic p'ay 2et!een differentsym2o'isations of this rea'" This p'ay 'eads to the emer&ence of po'itics, to the po'itica'instit%tion of a ne! socia' fantasy (or of many anta&onistic fantasies en&a&ed in a str%&&'e forhe&emony. in the p'ace of the dis'ocated one, and so on and so forth" 3n this 'i&ht, Iacan?s insistence on thecentra'ity of the rea', especia''y in the 'atter part of his teachin&, ac0%ires ma#or po'itica' importance" Iacan himse'f, in his seminaron The =o%r =%ndamenta' /oncepts of Psychoana'ysis %ses noise and accident as metaphors or e1amp'es of o%r enco%nter !ith the

rea'" 3t mi&ht 2e possi2'e to add the po'itica' to this chain of e0%iva'ences" Iacan?s schema of sociopo'itica' 'ife isthat of a p'ay,an %nendin& circ%'arp'ay 2et!eenpossi2i'ity and impossi2i'ity, 2et!een constr%ction anddestr%ction, representation and fai'%re, artic%'ation and dis'ocation, rea'ity and the rea', po'itics and thepo'itica'" 3t is this constit%tive p'ay !hich can he'p i''%minate a series of po'itica' 0%estions and 'ead to a nove' approach topo'itica' ana'ysis" 7s an i''%stration 'et %s e1amine a concrete pro2'em of po'itica' ana'ysis" Ho! are !e, for e1amp'e, to acco%nt forthe emer&ence and the he&emonic force of apartheid disco%rse in So%th 7frica 3s this emer&ence d%e to a positive'y defined ca%se(c'ass str%&&'e, etc". >hat 2ecomes apparent no!, in 'i&ht of the str%ct%ra' ca%sa'ity of the po'itica', is that the reasons for theres%r&ence of 7fri$aner nationa'ism in the G+s and G6s are not to 2e fo%nd in some sort of ?o2#ective? conditions (Lorva', G@:9G." 7partheid can 2e traced 2ac$ to the dis'ocations that conditioned the emer&ence of this 7fri$aner nationa'ist disco%rse(associated, amon& others, !ith the increasin& capita'isation of a&ric%'t%re, the rate of %r2anisation and events s%ch as the -reat

>ar." The artic%'ation of a ne! po'itica' disco%rse can on'y ma$e sense a&ainst the 2ac$&ro%nd ofthe dis'ocation of the precedin& sociopo'itica' order or ideo'o&ica' space" 3t is the 'ac$ created 2ydis'ocation that ca%ses the desire for a ne! disc%rsive artic%'ation" 3t is this 'ac$ created 2y adis'ocation of the socia' !hich forms the $erne' of the po'itica' as an enco%nter !ith theIacanian rea'" Every dis'ocatory event 'eads to the anta&onistic artic%'ation of differentdisco%rses that attempt to symolise its traumatic nature& to suture the lack it creates"3n that sense the po'itica' stands at the root of po'itics, dis'ocation at the root of the artic%'ationof a ne! sociopo'itica' order, an enco%nter !ith the rea' moment of the po'itica' at the root ofo%r sym2o'isation of po'itica' rea'ity" Under'yin& Iacan?s importance for po'itica' theory and po'itica'ana'ysis is his insistence onthe sp'it, 'ac$in& nat%re of the sym2o'ic, of the sociopo'itica' !or'd per se" N%rsocieties are never harmonio%sensem2'es" This is on'y the fantasy thro%&h !hich they attempt toconstit%te and reconstit%te themse'ves" E1perience sho!s that this fantasy can never 2e f%''y rea'ised "Lo socia' fantasy can fi'' the 'ac$ aro%nd !hich society is a'!ays str%ct%red"This 'ac$ is reemer&in& !ith every res%rfacin& of the po'itica',!ith every enco%nter !ith the rea'" >e can spea$a2o%t the po'itica' e1act'y 2eca%se there is s%2version and dis'ocation of the socia'" The 'eve' of socia' constr%ction, ofh%man creativity, of the emer&ence and deve'opment of sociopo'itica'instit%tions, is the 'eve' in !hich the


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possi2i'ity of masterin& the rea' ma$es itse'f visi2'e 2%t only to e revealed as a chimeraunale to foreclose a moment of impossiility that always returns to its place " -iventhis conte1t, the moment of the po'itica' sho%'d 2e %nderstood as emer&in& at the intersection of o%r sym2o'ic rea'ity !ith this rea',the rea' 2ein& the onto'o&ica' hori;on of every p'ay 2et!een po'itica' artic%'ation and dis'ocation, order and disorder, po'itics and thepo'itica'"*

The plan identifies the non#)estern world as a space devoid of therule of law###that sets the stage for aggressive intervention andcolonial plunder& which locks in neolieral structural violenceU&o Mattei 9, Professor at Hastin&s /o''e&e of the Ia! V University of T%rinK and Aarco deAorp%r&o, A"Sc" /andidate, 3nternationa' University /o''e&e of T%rin, II"A" /andidate,Harvard Ia! Schoo', *, -INB7I I7> V PIULDEestern 'a! has constant'y en#oyed a dominant position d%rin&the past cent%ries and today, th%s2ein& in the position to shape and 2end the evo'%tion ofother 'e&a' systems !or'd!ide" D%rin& the co'onia' era, continenta'E%ropean po!ers have

systematica''y e1ported their o!n 'e&a' systems to the co'oni;ed 'ands" D%rin& the pastdecades and today, the United States have 2een dominatin& the internationa' arena as themost po!erf%' economic po!er, e$porting their own legal system to the7periphery, 2oth 2y itse'f and thro%&h a set of internationa' instit%tions,ehaving as aneo#colonialist!ithin the ideology known as neolieralism"

>estern co%ntries identify themse'ves as 'a!a2idin& and civi'i;ed no matter !hat theiract%a' history revea's" S%ch identification is ac0%ired 2y fa'se $no!'ed&e and falsecomparison with other peoples, those !ho !ere said to 7lack the rule of law,

s%ch as /hina, Japan, 3ndia, and the %slamic worldmore &enera''y" 3n a simi'ar fashiontoday, accordin& to some 'eadin& economists, Third )orld developing countries7lack the minimal institutional systemsnecessary for the %nfo'din& of a mar$eteconomy"

The theory of 7lackand the rhetoric of the rule of lawhavejustified aggressiveinterventionsfrom >estern co%ntries into non>estern ones" The po'icy ofcorporati;ation and open mar$ets, s%pported today &'o2a''y 2y the soca''ed >ashin&tonconsens%s+,!as %sed 2y >estern 2an$ers and the 2%siness comm%nity in Iatin 7mericaas the main vehic'e to Wopen the veinsQ of the continentto 2orro! Ed%ardo -a'eanoQsmetaphor6!ith no so'%tion of contin%ity 2et!een co'onia' and postco'onia' times"Simi'ar po'icy !as %sed in8fricato faci'itate the forced transfer of s'aves to 7merica, andtoday to faci'itate the e1traction of a&ric%'t%ra' prod%cts , oi', minera's, ideas and c%'t%ra'artefacts in the same co%ntries" The po'icy of openin& mar$ets for free trade, %sed today in

7f&hanistan and 3ra0, !as %sed in /hina d%rin& the nineteenth cent%ry Npi%m >ar, in!hich free trade !as interpreted as an o2'i&ation to 2%y dr%&s from British dea'ers" Thepo'icy of forcin& 'oca' ind%stries to compete on open mar$ets !as %sed 2y the British

empire in Ben&a', as it is today 2y the >TN in 7sia, 7frica, and Iatin 7merica"oreign#imposed privati-ation lawsthat faci'itate %nconsciona2'e 2ar&ains at thee$pense of the peoplehave 2eenvehicles of plunder& not of legality" 3n a'' these

settin&s the tragic human sufferingprod%ced 2y s%ch p'%nder is simply ignored" 3nthis conte1t 'a! p'ayed a ma#or ro'e in 'e&a'i;in& s%ch practices of po!erf%' actors a&ainstthe po!er'ess"9 Met, this use of power is scarcely e$plored in the study of

)estern law"The e$portation of )estern legal institutionsfrom the >est to the WrestQ hassystematica''y2een #%stified thro%&h the ideological useof the e1treme'y po'itica''y
http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1014&context=bocconi_legal_papershttp://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1014&context=bocconi_legal_papershttp://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1014&context=bocconi_legal_papershttp://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1014&context=bocconi_legal_papershttp://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1014&context=bocconi_legal_papers


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stron& and technically weakconcept of Wr%'e of 'a!Q" The notion of Wr%'e of 'a!Q is ane1treme'y am2i&%o%s one" Lot!ithstandin&, !ithin any p%2'ic disc%ssion its positiveconnotations have a'!ays 2een ta$en for &ranted" The dominant imageof the r%'e of'a! is false2oth historica''y and in the present,2eca%se it does not f%''y ac$no!'ed&e itsdar$ side" The false representationstarts from the idea that &ood 'a! (which others7lack. is a%tonomo%s , separate from society and its instit%tions, technica', nonpo'itica',

nondistri2%tive and reactive rather than proactive: more s%ccinct'y, a technologicalframework for an 7efficient market(The r%'e of 'a! has a 2ri&ht and a dark side&!ith the 'atter pro&ressive'y con*ueringnew ground!henever the former is not empo!ered 2y a po'itica' so%'" 3n the a2sence ofs%ch po'itica' 'ife, the rule of law ecomes a cold technology" Aoreover, !hen 'ar&ecorporate actors dominate states (affected 2y a dec'inin& re&%'atory ro'e., 'a! 2ecomes aprod%ct of the economy, and economy &overns the 'a! rather than 2ein& &overned 2y it"

:otions of 2S legal prestige and modeling solidify gloal ine*uality yreplacing political violence with legal violence###turns the case

ecause it suordinates effective domestic systems to predatory ruleof law modelsU&o Mattei 6, 7'fred and Hanna =romm Professor of 3nternationa' and /omparative Ia!, OU"/" Hastin&sK Professore Nrdinario di Diritto /ivi'e, Universit di Torino 7 Theory of 3mperia'Ia!: 7 St%dy on U"S" He&emony and the Iatin ar" 7 st%dy of imperia' 'a! re0%ires a caref%' disc%ssion of the factors ofpenetration of U"S" 'e&a' conscio%sness !or'd!ide, as !e'' as a caref%' distinction 2et!een the conte1t of prod%ction and the conte1t of reception+ of the variety of instit%tiona'arran&ements that ma$e imperia' 'a!" =actors of resistance need to 2e f%''y appreciated as !e''"3" 7AE: =


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3n this essay 3 s%&&est that a f%ndamenta' c%'t%ra' constr%ct of pres%med consent is the rhetoric ofdemocracy and the r%'e of 'a! %ti'i;ed 2y the imperia' mode' of &overnance , G tri%mphant !or'd!ideto&ether !ith the neo7merican mode' of capita'ism deve'oped 2y the estern Nntario, chairs the /ommission onthe =%t%re of =ood set %p 2y the ho >i'' Pay =or >hich 7d#%stments, on'ine:http:!!!"ethica'mar$ets"com*G*+Gimposeda%sterityvschosensimp'icity!ho

!i''payfor!hichad#%stmentsThedominant economic model2ased on 'imit'ess &ro!th on a 'imited p'anet is 'eadin& to an

overshoot

of the h%man %se of the earthQs reso%rces "

This is 'eadin& to an

ecologicalcatastrophe" 3t is a'so 'eadin& to intense andviolent resource&ra2 of the remainin&reso%rces of the earth 2y the rich from the poor" The reso%rce &ra2 is an ad#%stment 2y the rich and po!erf%' to ashrin$in& reso%rce 2ase 'and, 2iodiversity, !ater !itho%t ad#%stin& the o'd reso%rce intensive, 'imit'ess&ro!th paradi&m to the ne! rea'ity" 3ts on'y o%tcome can 2e eco'o&ica' scarcity for the poor in the short term, !ithdeepenin& poverty and deprivation" 3n the 'on& r%n it means the e$tinction of our species , as climatecatastrophe ande$tinction of other species makes the planet un#inhaitale forh%man societies" =ai'%re to ma$e an eco'o&ica' ad#%stment to p'anetary 'imits and eco'o&ica'

#%stice is athreat to human survival " The -reen Economy 2ein& p%shed at


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democracy can 2e done a!ay !ith" This antidemocratic ad#%stment inc'%des 'a!s 'i$e home'and sec%rity in U"S", and m%'tip'e sec%rity 'a!s in3ndia"

The ca''s for a democratic ad#%stment from elow are !itnessed !or'd!ide in the rise ofnonvio'ent protests, from the 8ra spring to the 7merican a%t%mn of Ncc%py and theor'd Ban$ and financia' instit%tions !hich created the financia' crisis"The Third >or'd had its str%ct%ra' 7d#%stment and =orced 7%sterity, thro%&h the GCs and Gs, 'eadin& to 3A= riots" 3ndiaQs str%ct%ra'ad#%stment of GG has &iven %s the a&rarian crisis !ith 0%arter mi''ion farmer s%icides and food crisis p%shin& every 6th 3ndian to h%n&erand every *nd 3ndian chi'd to severe ma'n%tritionK peop'e are payin& !ith their very 'ives for ad#%stment imposed 2y the >or'd Ban$3A="The trade 'i2era'i;ation reforms dismant'ed o%r food sec%rity system, 2ased on %niversa' PDS" 3t opened %p the seed sector to seed AL/s"

7nd no! an attempt is 2ein& made thro%&h the =ood Sec%rity 7ct to ma$e o%r p%2'ic feedin& pro&rammes a mar$et for food AL/s" Theforced a%sterity contin%es thro%&h imposition of so ca''ed reforms, s%ch as =orei&n Direct 3nvestment (=D3. in retai', !hich !o%'d ro2 9mi''ion of their 'ive'ihoods in retai' and mi''ions more 2y chan&in& the prod%ction system" E%rope started havin& its forced a%sterity in *G"

7nd every!here there are antia%sterity protests from U"", to 3ta'y, -reece, Spain, 3re'and, 3ce'and, and Port%&a'" The 2an$s !hich havecreated the crisis !ant society to ad#%st 2y destroyin& #o2s and 'ive'ihoods, pensions and socia' sec%rity, p%2'ic services and the commons"

The peop'e !ant financia' systems to ad#%st to the 'imits set 2y nat%re, socia' #%stice anddemocracy" 7nd the precario%sness of the 'ivin& conditions of the [ has created a ne! c'ass !hich -%y Standin& ca''s thePrecariate" 3f the 3nd%stria' estern co%ntries" The rea'ity is that !hi'e a sma'' + to 6[ of 3ndia is #oinin&the mad race for cons%min& the earth !ith more and more a%tomo2i'es and air conditioners, the 'ar&e ma#ority of 3ndia is 2ein& p%shed intodecons%mption 'osin& their entit'ements to 2asic needs of food and !ater 2eca%se of reso%rce and 'and &ra2, mar$et &ra2, anddestr%ction of 'ive'ihoods" The h%n&er and ma'n%trition crisis in 3ndia is an e1amp'e of the decons%mption forced on the poor 2y the rich,thro%&h the imposed a%sterity 2%i't into the trade 'i2era'i;ation and economic reform po'icies"

There is another paradigm emerging !hich is shared 2y -andhi and the ne! movements of the [, theparadi&m ofvo'%ntary simp'icity of red%cin&one eco'o&ica' foot print !hi'eincreasin& h%man !e''

2ein& for a''" %nstead of forced austeritythat he'ps the rich 2ecome s%per rich, thepowerful ecome totalitarian&chosen simp'icity ena2'es %s a'' to ad#%st eco'o&ica''y,to red%ce over cons%mption of the p'anets reso%rces, it a''o!s %s toad#%st socia''y toenhancedemocracyand it creates a path for economic ad#%stment 2ased on #%stice and e0%ity"orced austerityma$es the poorand !or$in& fami'ies pay for the e1cesses of 'imit'ess &reedand acc%m%'ation 2y the s%per rich " 0hosen simplicity stops these e$cesses and a''o! %sto f'o!er into an Earth Democracy !here the ri&hts and freedoms of a'' species and a'' peop'e are protected and respected"

The international human rights regime olsters the violence oflieralism y demarcating half the world as inhuman

>i''iamRasch, Henry H" H"


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individ%a'istic 'e&a' order, are compati2'e !ith the transmission of one?s o!n c%'t%re" hat, ho!ever, are those 82ar2arians8 !ho disa&ree !ith thene! !or'd order s%pposed to do >ith 7&am2en, they co%'d !ait for a 8comp'ete'y ne!po'itics8 to come, 2%t the conto%rs of s%ch a po'itics are %n$no!n and !i'' remain%n$no!n %nti' the time of its arriva'" 7nd that time, m%ch 'i$e the second comin& of/hrist, seems infinite'y deferra2'e" >hi'e they !ait for the Ben#aminian 8divine vio'ence8to s!eep a!ay the resid%a' effects of the demonic r%'e of 'a! (Ben#amin G@, *6C9*., the

2ar2arians mi&ht 2e tempted to entertain Schmitt?s rather for'orn fantasy of an e&a'itarian2a'ance of po!er" Met if the o'd, innerE%ropean 2a'ance of po!er rested on anasymmetrica' e1c'%sion of the nonE%ropean !or'd, it m%st 2e as$ed:!hat ne! e1c'%sion

!i'' 2e necessary for a ne! 2a'ance, and is that ne! e1c'%sion to'era2'e 7t the moment,

there is no ans!er to this 0%estion, on'y a precondition to an ans!er" 3f one !ishes toentertain Todorov?s cha''en&e of thin$in& 2oth e0%a'ity and difference, %niversa'commerce of peop'e and ideas as !e'' as se'fdetermination and nonintervention, then theconcept of h%manity m%st once a&ain 2ecome the invisi2'e and %ns%rpassa2'e hori;on ofdisco%rse , not its positive po'e" The !ord 8h%man,8 to evo$e one fina' distinction, m%stonce a&ain 2ecome descriptive of a 8fact8 and not a 8va'%e"8 Nther!ise, !hatever e'se itmay 2e, the search for 8h%man8 ri&hts !i'' a'!ays a'so 2e the ne&ative ima&e of there'ent'ess search for the 8inh%man8 other"

Our alternative is to refuse the affirmatives technical fi$ for war

powers in favor of sujecting the 1acs discourse to rigorousdemocratic scrutiny

7;i; +ana 1,, 7ssistant Professor of Ia!, /orne'' University Ia! Schoo'K 7"B", Harvard/o''e&eK J"D", Ma'e Ia! Schoo'K PhD", Harvard University, J%'y *G*, L7T3NL7I SE/U


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withthe procedural solutions offered 2y constit%tiona' scho'arsemphasi;in& newstatutory frameworks or &reater#%dicia' assertivenessis that they mistake a *uestion ofpolitics for one of law" 3n other !ords, s%ch scho'ars i&nore the e1tent to !hich &overnin&practices are the product of ackground political judgments a2o%t threat, democraticknowledge, professiona' e1pertise, and the necessity for ins%'ated decisionma$in& " To thee$tent that 8mericans are convinced that they face continuous danger from hidden

and potentially limitless assailantsdan&er too comp'e1 for the avera&e citi;en tocomprehend independent'yit is inevitale that instit%tions (regardless of legal reforminitiatives.!i'' operate to centra'i;e po!er in those hands pres%med to en#oy mi'itary andsec%rity e1pertis e" Th%s, any systematic effort to cha''en&e the c%rrent framin& of there'ationship 2et!een sec%rity and 'i2erty m%stegin y challenging the underlyingassumptions aout knowledge and security upon which legal and politicalarrangements rest(>itho%t a s%stained and p%2'ic de2ate a2o%t the validity of securitye$pertise, its s%pportin& instit%tions, and the 2roader 'e&itimacy of secret information, therecan e no sustantive shift in o%r constit%tiona' po'itics " The pro2'em at present, ho!ever,is that it remains %nc'ear !hich pop%'ar 2ase e1ists in society to raise these 0%estions" Un'esss%ch a 2ase f%''y emer&es, !e can e1pect o%r prevai'in& sec%rity arran&ements to 2ecome evermore entrenched"

0ritical intellectualism key to solve e$tinction###voting negativeoutweighs hypothetical plan conse*uencesi''iams GC." They i''%strate that ideas are important or, more correct'y, that chan&e is the prod%ct

of the dia'ectica' interaction of ideas and materia' rea'ity " Nne c'ear sec%rityre'ated e1amp'e of the ro'e of critica' thin$in& and critica'thin$ers in aidin& and a2ettin& pro&ressive socia' chan&e is the e1perience of the peace movement of the GCs " 7t that time the ideas of dissidentdefenseinte''ect%a's(the a'ternative defense schoo'. enco%ra&edand dre! stren&th from peace activism"To&ether they had an effect notonly on short=term policy ut on the dominant discourses of strate&y andsecurity & a farmore important result in the long run( The syner&y 2et!een critica' sec%rityinte''ect%a's and critica'socia' movements and the potentia' inf'%ence of 2oth !or$in& in tandem can 2e !itnessed partic%'ar'y c'ear'yin the fate of commonsec%rity" 7s Thomas


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Ho!ever , notions of common sec%rity !ere ta$en %p 2y a n%m2er of different inte''ect%a' comm%nities,inc'%din& the 'i2era' arms contro' comm%nity in the United States, >estern E%ropean peace researchers, sec%rity specia'ists in the center'eft po'itica' parties of >estern E%rope, and Soviet instit%tchi$smem2ers of the inf'%entia' po'icy instit%tes in the Soviet Union s%ch as the United States of 7merica and /anada 3nstit%te (Ianda% G@: 9*96K tat the prism through which prolemsare viewed(Here the pro#ect stands f%''s0%are !ithin the critica' theory tradition" 3f a'' theory is for someone and for somep%rpose, then critica' sec%rity st%dies is for thevoice'ess, the %nrepresented , the po!er'ess,and its p%rpose is their emancipation" The theoretica' imp'ications of this orientation have a'ready 2een disc%ssed in the previo%s chapters" They invo've a f%ndamenta'reconcept%a'i;ation of sec%rity !ith a shift in r eferent o2#ect and a 2roadenin& of the ran&e of iss%es considered as a 'e&itimate part of the disco%rse" They a'so invo've a reconcept%a'i;ation of strate&y !ithin this

e1panded notion of sec%rity" B%t the 0%estion remains at the concept%a' 'eve' of ho! these a'ternative types of theori;in&even if they are se'fconscio%s'y a'i&ned to thepractices of critica' or ne! socia' movements, s%ch as peace activism, the str%&&'e for h%man ri&hts, and the s%rviva' of minority c%'t%rescan 2ecome a force for thedirection of action " 7&ain, -ramsciQs !or$ is insi&htf%'" 3n the Prison Lote2oo$s, -ramsci advances a sophisticated ana'ysis of ho!dominant disco%rsesp'ay a vita' ro'e in %pho'din&partic%'ar po'itica'and economic orders, or, in -ramsciQs termino'o&y, historic 2'ocs (-ramsci GFG: +*++FF."-ramsci adopted Aachiave''iQs vie! of po!er as a centa%r, ha'f man, ha'f 2east: a mi1t%re of consent and coercion" /onsent isprod%ced and reprod%ced 2y ar%'in&he&emonythat ho'ds s!ay thro%&h civi' society and thro%&h !hichr%'in& or dominant ideas 2ecome !ide'y dispersed" * 3npartic%'ar, -ramsci descri2es ho! ideo'o&y 2ecomes sedimented in society and ta$es on the stat%s of common senseK it2ecomes s%2conscio%s'y acceptedand even re&arded as 2eyond 0%estion" Oviously, for -ramsci, there is nothing immutale aoutthevalues that permeate society? they can and do change(3n the socia' rea'm, ideas andinstit%tionsthat !ere once seen as nat%ra' and 2eyond 0%estion(i"e", commonsensica'. in the >est, s%ch as fe%da'ism ands'avery, are no! seen as anachronistic, %n#%st, and %naccepta2'e" 3n Aar1Qs !e''!orn phrase, 7'' that is so'id me'ts into the air"-ramsciQs intention is to harness this potentia' for chan&e and ens%re that it moves in the direction of emancipation" To do this he s%&&ests a strate&y of a !ar of position (-ramsci GFG: ***+." -ramsci

ar&%es that in states !ith deve'oped civi' societies, s%ch as those in >estern 'i2era' democracies, any s%ccessf%' attempt at pro&ressivesocial changere*uires a s'o!, incremental, even molecular& struggle to 2rea$ do!n the prevai'in& he&emonyand constr%ct an a'ternative co%nterhe&emony to ta$e its p'ace" Nr&anic intellectuals have a crucial role to play in this process


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2y he'pin& to %nderminethe nat%ra' ,commonsense, interna'i;ed nat%re of the stat%s 0%o" Thisin t%rn he'ps createpolitical space within which alternative conceptions of politics can e developed andne! historic 2'ocs created" 3 contend that -ramsciQs strate&y of a !ar of position s%&&ests an appropriate mode' for proponents of critica' sec%rity st%dies to adopt in re'atin& their theori;in& to po'itica' practice"

The Tas$s of /ritica' Sec%rity St%dies 3f the pro#ect of critica' sec%rity st%dies is conceived in terms of a !ar of position, then the main tas$ of those inte''ect%a's !hoa'i&n themse'ves !ith the enterprise is to attempt to %ndermine the prevai'in& he&emonicsec%rity disco%rse" This may 2e accomp'ished 2y %ti'i;in& specia'ist information and e1pertise to en&a&e in an immanentcriti*ue ofthe prevailing sec%rityregimes, that is, comparing the justifications of those regimes

with actual outcomes">hen this is attemptedin the sec%rity fie'd, theprevai'in& str%ct%res and re&imes are fo%nd tofail &rievo%s'yon their own terms" S%ch an approach a'so invo'vescha''en&in& theprono%ncementsof those inte''ect%a's, traditiona' or or&anic,!hose vie!s serve to 'e&itimate, and hencereprod%ce, the prevai'in& !or'd order "This cha''en&e entai'steasin& o%tthe often s%2conscio%s and certain'y %ne1aminedass%mptions that %nder'ie their ar&%ments !hi'e drawing attention to the normative

viewpoints that are smuggled into mainstream thinking a2o%t sec%rity ehind itspositivist facade(3n this sense, proponents of critica' sec%rity st%dies appro1imate to =o%ca%'tQs notion of specific inte''ect%a's !ho%se theire1pert $no!'ed&e to cha''en&e the prevai'in& re&ime of tr%th (=o%ca%'t GC: G+*." Ho!ever, critica' theorists mi&ht !ish to reform%'atethis sentiment a'on& more fami'iar _%a$er 'ines of spea$in& tr%th to po!er (this sentiment is a'so centra' to Said G6. or even a'on& the eisteddfod 'ines of spea$in& tr%th a&ainst the !or'd" Nf co%rse,traditiona' strate&ists can, and indeed do, sometimes c'aim a simi'ar ro'e" /o'in S" -ray, for e1amp'e, states that strate&ists m%st 2e prepared to Wspea$ tr%th to po!erQ (-ray GC*a: G+." B%t the difference

2et!een -ray and proponents of critica' sec%rity st%dies is that,!hereas the former see$s to inf'%ence po'icyma$ers inpartic%'ardirections!itho%t 0%estionin& the 2asis of their po!er, the 'atter aim at a thoro%&h&oin& criti0%e of a''that traditiona' sec%rityst%dies has ta$en for &ranted " =%rthermore, critica' theorists 2ase their criti0%e on the pres%pposition, e'e&ant'y stated 2y7dorno, that the need to 'end s%fferin& a voice is the precondition of a'' tr%th (cited in Jameson G: @@." The aim of critica'sec%rity st%dies in attemptin& to%ndermine the prevai'in&orthodo1y is ultimately educational" 7s -ramsci notes, Every re'ationship of Whe&emonyQ is necessari'y a peda&o&icre'ationship (-ramsci GFG: +9K see a'so the disc%ssion of critica' peda&o&y in Le%fe'd G9: GG@G*G." Th%s,2y critici;in& the he&emonic disco%rse and advancin&a'ternative conceptions of sec%rity 2ased on different %nderstandin&s of h%man potentia'ities,the approach is sim%'taneo%s'y p'ayin& a part inerodin& the 'e&itimacy of the r%'in& historic2'oc and contri2%tin& to the deve'opment ofa co%nterhe&emonic position"There are a n%m2er of aven%es open to critica' sec%rity specia'istsin p%rs%in& this ed%cationa' strate&y"7s teachers , they can tryto foster and enco%ra&e s$epticism to!ard accepted !isdom and open minds to other possi2i'ities" They can a'so ta$e advanta&e of theseemin&'y %n0%encha2'e thirst of the media for instant p%nditry to for!ard a'ternative vie!s onto a 2roader sta&e" Lancy =raser ar&%es: 7s teachers, !e try to foster anemer&ent peda&o&ica' co%nterc%'t%re"""" 7s critica' p%2'ic inte''ect%a's !e try to in#ect o%r perspectives into !hatever c%'t%ra' or po'itica' p%2'ic spheres !e have accessto (=raser GC: GG." Perhaps si&nificant'y, s%pport for this type of emancipatory strate&y can even 2e fo%nd in the !or$ of the %'trapessimistic 7dorno, !ho ar&%es:3n the history ofcivi'i;ation there have 2een not a fe! instances !hen de'%sions !ere hea'ed not 2y foc%sedpropa&anda, 2%t, in the fina' ana'ysis, 2eca%se scho'ars, !ith their %no2tr%sive yet insistent

!or$ ha2its, st%died !hat 'ay at the root of the de'%sion" (cited in e''ner G*: vii. S%ch %no2tr%sive yet insistent !or$ does not in itse'f createthe socia' chan&e to !hich 7dorno a''%des" The concept%a' and the practica' dangers of collapsing practice into

theory must e guarded against"ar (ristensen GF hi&h'i&hts the search of U"S" n%c'ear p'anners for ne!tar&ets for o'd !eapons." 7nd, of co%rse, the press%res for conformism are hei&htened in the fie'd of sec%rity st%dies !hen &overnments have a very rea' interest in mar&ina'i;in& dissent" Leverthe'ess,

opport%nities for critica' thin$in& do e1ist, and this thin$in& can connect !ith the practices of socia' movements and2ecome a forcefor the direction of action " The e1perience of the GCs, !hen,in the depths of the second /o'd >ar,critica' thin$ers ris$ed demoni;ationand in some co%ntries far !orse in order to challenge received wisdom, th%sar&%a2'yplaying a crucial role in the very survival of the human race , sho%'d act as 2oth an inspiration and a cha''en&eto critica' sec%rity st%dies"


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0ase


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%ntervention


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8T @roupthink

@roupthink theory is wrong7nthony /empell A, User E1perience /ons%'tin& Senior 3nformation 7rchitect,-ro%pthin$: 7n introd%ction to Janis? theory of conc%rrencesee$in& tendencies in &ro%p

!or$", http:!!!"anthonyhempe''"compapers&ro%pthin$, Aarch +3n the thirty yearssince Janis first proposed the &ro%pthin$ mode', there is sti'' little agreementas to the validity of the model in assessin& decisionma$in& 2ehavio%r(Par$, *." Janis?theory is often critici;ed 2eca%se it does not present a frame!or$ that is s%ita2'e forempirica'testin& K instead, the evidence for &ro%pthin$ comes from 'ar&e'y 0%a'itative, historica' orarchiva' methods(S%nstein, *+." Somecritics &o so far as to say that Janis?s !or$ re'ies on8anecdote& casual oservation& and intuitive appeal rather than rigorousresearch. (Esser, GC, cited in S%nstein, *+, p"G6*." >hi'e some st%dies have sho!n s%pport for the &ro%pthin$ mode', the s%pporttends to 2e mi1ed or conditiona' (Esser, GC.K some st%dies have revea'ed that a c'osed 'eadership sty'e and e1terna' threats (in partic%'ar, timepress%re. promote &ro%pthin$ and defective decision ma$in& (Lec$ V Aoorhead, G9, cited 2y /hoi V im, G.K the effect of &ro%pcohesiveness is sti'' inconc'%sive (A%''en, 7nthony, Sa'as V Dris$e', G6, cited 2y /hoi V im, G." Janis?s mode' tends to 2e s%pported 2yst%dies that emp'oy a 0%a'itative casest%dy approach as opposed to e1perimenta' research, !hich tends to either partia''y s%pport or not s%pportJanis?s thesis (Par$, *." The 'ac$ of s%ccess in e1perimenta' va'idation of &ro%pthin$ may 2e d%e to diffic%'ties in operationa'i;in& andconcept%a'i;in& it as a testa2'e varia2'e (Ho&& V Hains, GCK Par$, *." Some researchers have critici;ed Janis for cate&orica''y deno%ncin&

&ro%pthin$ as a ne&ative phenomenon (Ion&'ey V Pr%itt, GC, cited in /hoi V im, G." Snie;e$ (G*. ar&%es that there are instances !hereconc%rrencesee$in& may promote &ro%p performance" >hen %sed to e1p'ain 2ehavio%r in a practica' settin&, &ro%pthin$ has 2een frames as adetrimenta' &ro%p processK the res%'t of this has 2een that many corporate trainin& pro&rams have created strate&ies for avoidin& &ro%pthin$ in the

!or$p'ace (_%inn, =aerman, Thompson V Ac-rath, G, cited in /hoi V im, G."7nother criticism of &ro%pthin$ isthat Janis overestimates the 'in$ 2et!een the decisionma$in& process and the o%tcome(Ac/a%'ey, GCK Tet'oc$, Peterson, Ac-%ire, /han& V =e'd, G*K cited in /hoi V im, G." Tet'oc$ et a' ar&%e that there aremany other factors 2et!een the decision process and the o%tcome" The o%tcome of anydecisionma$in& process, they ar&%e, !i'' on'y have a certain pro2a2i'ity of s%ccess d%e to

vario%s environmenta' factors (s%ch as '%c$."7 'ar&esca'e st%dy researchin& decisionma$in& in seven ma#or 7mericancorporations conc'%ded that decisionma$in& !or$ed 2est !hen fo''o!in& a so%nd information processin& methodK ho!ever these &ro%ps a'sosho!ed si&ns of &ro%pthin$, in that they had stron& 'eadership !hich attempted to pers%ade others in the &ro%p that they !ere ri&ht (Peterson eta', GC, cited in S%nstein, *+." Esser (GC. fo%nd that &ro%pthin$ characteristics !ere corre'ated !ith fai'%resK ho!ever cohesiveness did notappear to 2e a factor: &ro%ps consistin& of stran&ers, friends, or vario%s 'eve's of previo%s e1perience to&ether did not appear to effect decision

ma$in& a2i'ity" Janis? c'aims of ins%'ation of &ro%ps and &ro%ps 'ed 2y a%tocratic 'eaders did sho!that these attri2%tes !ere indicative of &ro%pthin$ symptoms" Aoorhead V Aontanari

cond%cted a st%dy !here they conc'%ded that groupthink symptoms had no significanteffect on group performance, and that 8the re'ationship 2et!een &ro%pthin$ind%ceddecision defects and o%tcomes !ere not as stron& as Janis s%&&ests8(Aoorhead V Aontanari, GC@, p" +Kcited 2y /hoi V im, G."
http://www.anthonyhempell.com/papers/groupthink/http://www.anthonyhempell.com/papers/groupthink/


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8T 8ccidents

Safeguards check###no accidental war+yaikihn& Boltunov& Miasnikov& 9Dr" Ieonid hite Ho%se and the rem'in in G@+" 3n GFG the USSar, in the Ton$in -%'f reso'%tion, and the 3ra0 !ar,2oth of !hich have prod%cedsharp divisionin 7merican domestic po'itics and proven to 2e mista$es"The other side of the coin here %s%a''y &oes 'itt'e noticed, 2%t is #%st as important for eva'%atin& the s%2stantive performance of the /on&ressfirst

system" To a si&nificant e1tent, m%ch of the !ar po!ers 'iterat%re foc%ses on sit%ations in !hich the UnitedStates mi&ht erroneo%s'y enter a !ar !here the costs o%t!ei&h the e1pected 2enefits"Statisticians%s%a''y 'a2e' s%ch errors of commission as Type 3 errors" Scho'ars rare'y, if ever, as$ !hether re0%irin& con&ressiona'e1 ante approva' for forei&n !ars co%'d increaseType 33 errors" Type 33 errorsocc%r!hen the U nited S tatesdoes not enter a conf'ict !here the e1pected2enefits to the nation o%t!ei&h the costs , and thisco%'d occ%r today !hen the President ref%ses to 'a%nch a preemptive stri$e a&ainst a nationhar2orin& a hosti'e terrorist &ro%p, for e1amp'e, o%t of concerns over con&ressiona' opposition"3t may 2ethe case that 'e&is'ative participation in !arma$in& co%'d prevent the United States from enterin&, orde'ayin& entry, into !ars that !o%'d 2enefit its forei&n po'icy or nationa' sec%rity" The c'eareste1amp'e is >or'd >ar 33" D%rin& the inter!ar period, /on&ress enacted severa' stat%tesdesi&ned to prevent the U nited S tates from enterin& into the !arsin E%rope and 7sia" 3n G6 and G6G, President

=ran$'in D" ar, 7merican entry into >or'd >ar 33 mi&ht

have 2een de'ayed 2y at 'east another year, if not 'on&er"GF no!in& !hat !e no! $no!, most !o%'d a&ree that7mericaQs ear'ierentry into >or'd >ar 33!o%'d have 2een m%ch to the 2enefit of the United States and to the

!or'd " 7 more recent e1amp'e mi&ht 2e 7merican po'icy in the Ba'$ans d%rin& the midd'e and 'ate Gs"


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)arfighting


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8T Eower Erojection

/egemonic retrenchments key to avoid great power war###maintaining unipolaritys self#defeating which internal link#turns

their offenseL%no P" Monteiro 1,, 7ssistant Professor of Po'itica' Science at Ma'e University, Unrest7ss%red: >hy Unipo'arity is Lot Peacef%', 3nternationa' Sec%rity, >inter *G*, o'" +@, Lo" +,p" 6

=rom the perspective of the overa'' peacef%'ness of the internationa' system, then, no U"S"&rand strate&y is, as in the -o'di'oc$s ta'e, #%st ri&ht"GG@ 3n fact, each strategic option availale tothe unipoleprod%ces si&nificant conf'ict" >hereas offensive and defensive dominance !i'' entan&'e it in !ars a&ainstreca'citrant minor po!ers, disen&a&ement !i'' prod%ce re&iona' !ars amon& minor and ma#or po!ers" hereas >oh'forth 2e'ievesthat the po!erpreponderanceof the United States!i'' 'ead a'' states in the system to 2and!a&on!ith the %nipo'e, 3predict thatstates en&a&ed in sec%rity competition !ith the %nipo'eQs a''ies and states for

!hom the stat%s 0%o other!ise has 'esser va'%e!i'' not accommodate the %nipo'e" To thecontrary, these minor po!ers !i''ecome recalcitrant despite 2(S( powerpreponderance, disp'ayin& the limited pacifying effects of 2(S( power "

>hat, then, is the va'%e of %nipo'arity for the %nipo'e)hat can a unipole do that agreat power in2ipo'arity or multipolarity cannot5Ay ar&%ment hints at the possi2i'ity thatat 'east in thesec%rity rea'munipolarity does not give the unipole greater influence overinternational outcomes "GGC 3f %nipo'arity provides str%ct%ra' incentives for n%c'earpro'iferation, it may, as


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invo'ved in !ars" %f the unipole fails to e$ercise restraint, other states !i'' deve'optheir capa2i'ities,inc'%din& n%c'ear !eaponsrestraining it all the same"G**Parado1ica''y, then, more relative power does not necessarily lead to greaterinfluenceand a 2etter a2i'ity to convert capa2i'ities into favora2'e o%tcomes peacef%''y" 3neffect, unparalleled relative power re*uires une*ualed self#restraint "


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SOE


27/60

8T /+ :orms

/uman rights cred is irrelevant###no 2S model7ndre!Moravcsik F, PhD and a Professor of Po'itics and 3nternationa' 7ffairs at Princeton,*9, 8The Parado1 of U"S" H%man


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Glock


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B


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Eerm###,:0

complete rejection is critical:eocleous H 4Aar$ Leoc'eo%s, Prof" of -overnment Br%ne', Critique of Security, GC9@5

The on'y !ayo%t of s%ch a di'emma,to escape the fetish, is perhaps to eschew the logic of security

altogether to re#ect it as so ideo'o&ica''y 'oadedin favo%r of the state that any rea' po'itica' tho%&htotherthan the a%thoritarian and reactionary sho%'d 2e pressed to &ive it %p " That is c'ear'y somethin& that can not 2e achieved !ithin the 'imits of

2o%r&eois tho%&ht and th%s co%'d never even 2e&in to 2e ima&ined 2y the sec%rity inte''ect%a'" 3t is a'so somethin& that the constant iteration of the refrain Wthis is an insec%re!or'dQ and reiteration of one fear, an1iety and insec%rity after another !i'' a'so ma$e it hard to do" B%t it is somethin& that the criti0%e of sec%rity s%&&ests !e may have to

consider if !e !ant a po'itica' !ay o%t of the impasse of sec%rity" This impasse e1ists 2eca%se sec%rityhas no! 2ecome so a''encom passin& that itmarginalises all else , most nota2'ythe constr%ctive conicts,deates and discussions that animatepolitical life "The con stant prioritisin&of a mythica' sec%rity as a po'itica' end as the po'itica' end constitutes a rejection of politics in any meanin&f%' sense of the term" That is, as a mode of action in !hich differences can 2e artic%'ated, in

!hich the conicts and str%&&'es that arise from s%ch differences can 2e fo%&ht for and ne&otiated, in !hich peop'e mi&ht come to 2e'ieve thatanother !or'd is possi2'e that they mi&ht transform the !or'd and in t%rn 2e transformed" Sec%rity po'itics simp'y removes thisK !orse, it removes it !hi'e p%rported'y addressin& it" 3n so doin&it s%ppresses a'' iss%es of po!er and t%rns po'itica' 0%estions into de2ates a2o%t the most efbcient !ay to achieve Wsec%rityQ, despite the fact that !e are never 0%ite to'd never

co%'d 2e to'd !hat mi&ht co%nt as havin& achieved it" Sec%rity po'itics is,in this sense, an antipo'itics,G6G dominatin& po'itica'disco%rse in m%ch the same manner as the sec%rity state tries to dominate h%man 2ein&s,reinforcin& sec%rity fetishismand the monopo'istic character of sec%rity on the po'itica' ima&ination">e therefore need to get

eyond security politics& not add yet more 7sectors to it in a !ay that simp'y e1pands the scope of the state and'e&itimises state intervention in yet more and more areas of o%r 'ives" Simon Da'2y reports a persona' comm%nication !ith Aichae' >i''iams, coeditor of the important te1t/ritica' Sec%rity St%dies, in !hich the 'atter as$s: if yo% ta$e a!ay sec%rity, !hat do yo% p%t in the ho'e thatQs 'eft 2ehind B%t 3Qm inc'ined to a&ree !ith Da'2y: may2e there is no

ho'e"G6* The mista$e has 2een to thin$ that there is a ho'e and that this ho'e needs to 2e b''ed !ith ane! vision or revision of security in !hich it is re#mapped or civilised or &endered orh%manised or e1pandedor !hatever" 7'' of these ultimately remain within the statist politicalimaginary& and conse0%ent'y end %pre afIrm in& the state as the terrain of modern politics , the&ro%nds of sec%rity" The rea' tas$ is not to b'' the s%pposed ho'e !ith yet another vision of sec%rity, 2%t tob&ht for an alternative political language !hich ta$es %s 2eyond the narro! hori;on of

2o%r&eois sec%rity and !hich therefore does not constant'y thro! %s into the arms of the state"ThatQs the point of critica' po'itics: to deve'op a ne! po'itica' 'an&%a&emore ade0%ate to the $ind of society !e !ant"Th%s !hi'e m%ch of !hat 3 have said here has 2een of a ne&ative order, part of the tradition of critica' theory is that the ne&ative may 2e as si&nibcant as the positive in settin&tho%&ht on ne! paths" =or if sec%rity rea''y is the s%preme concept of 2o%r&eois society and the f%ndamenta' thematic of 'i2era'ism, then to $eep harpin& on a2o%t insec%rity and

to $eep demandin&Wmore sec%rityQ(!hi'e mee$'y hopin& that this increased sec%rity doesnQt dama&e o%r 'i2erty. is to lind ourselvesto the possiility of uilding real alternatives to the authoritarian tendencies incontemporary politics" To sit%ate o%rse'ves a&ainst sec%rity po'itics !o%'d a''o! %s tocirc%mvent the de2i'itatin& effect achieved thro%&h the constant sec%ritisin& of socia' andpo'itica' iss%es, de2i'itatin& in the sense that Wsec%rityQ he'ps conso'idate the po!er of the e1istin& forms of socia' domination and #%stibes the shortcirc%itin& of eventhe most democratic forms" 3t !o%'d a'so a''o! %s to forge another kind of politics centred on a differentcon ception of the &ood" >e need a ne! !ay of thin$in& and ta'$in& a2o%t socia' 2ein& and po'itics that moves %s 2eyond sec%rity" This !o%'d

perhaps 2e emancipatory in the tr%e sense of the !ord" >hat this mi&ht mean, precise'y, m%st 2eopen to de2ate" B%t it certain'y re0%ires reco&nisin& that sec%rity is an i''%sion that hasfor&otten it is an i''%sionK it re0%ires reco&nisin& that sec%rity is not the same as so'idarityK it re0%ires acceptin& that insec%rity is part of the h%mancondition, and th%s &ivin& %p the search for the certainty of sec%rity and instead 'earnin& to to'erate the %ncertainties, am2i&%ities and Winsec%ritiesQ that come !ith 2ein&

h%manK it re0%ires acceptin& that Wsec%riti;in&Q an iss%e does not mean dea'in& !ith it po'itica''y, 2%t 2rac$etin&it o%t and handin& it to the stateK it re0%ires %s to 2e 2rave eno%&h to ret%rn the &ift"G6+


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180 links swamp the alternative ### our all arguments prove theyinstill a cognitive dissonance aout the true state of security%nan Adr" 7" (7nnette. =rey2er& 3nan 7ssociate Professor, the Director of the Aaster?sPro&ram in Po'itica' Science, Univ of 7msterdam, PhD in Po'itica' Science at the University of-eor&ia, US7" Her A7 de&rees in Po'itica' Science and En&'ish !ere o2tained at the University

of St%tt&art in her native -ermany" Editoria' Board Aem2er: 3nternationa' St%dies ar, !hen Bo%'din&referred to them as the 'ast &reat stron&ho'd of %nsophistication in internationa' po'itics,o2servin& that nations are divided into W&oodQ and W2adQthe enemy is a'' 2ad, oneQs o!n nation is of spot'ess virt%e"@6 The

2ipo'ar system !as common'y characteri;ed as a c'osed one, in !hich perceptions of 'o!hosti'it y are se'f'i0%idatin& and perceptions of hi&h hosti'it y are se'ff%'fi''in&"@9 This is 2eca%se

2oth sides contin%e to interpret ne! information in !ays that he'p preserve the enemy ima&e,even if s%ch information is meant to constit%te a conci'iatory &est%re"/'osed systems s%ffer from the


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dan&ero%s pro2'em of distorted mirror ima&es" Urie Bronfen2renner e1p'ains: Herein 'ies the terri2'e dan&er of thedistorted mirror ima&e , for it is characteristic of s%ch ima&es that they are se'fconfirmin&K thatis, each part y, often a&ainst its o!n !ishes, is increasin&'y driven to 2ehave in a manner !hichf%'fi''s the e1pectations of the other" " " " 4The mirror ima&e5 impe's each nation to act in amanner !hich confirms and enhances the fear of the other to the point that even de'i2erateefforts to reverse the process are reinterpreted as evidence of confirmation"@@ (G*CG+.


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Short T Gad###Gilgin###,:0

)e have time to think aout it###its your role to e$pose the fantasy ofshort#termismPinar Gilgin A3< ` Bi'i$ent 7LD 7dam David ANar a''ies in the post/o'd >arera, name'y, the 3ra0i re&ime of Saddam H%ssein and the Ta'i2an in 7f&hanistan" Both !ere s%pported in an attemptto preserve the de'icate 2a'ance 2et!een the United States and the Soviet Union" The /o'd

>ar po'icy of s%pportin& c'ient re&imes has event%a''yackfired in that US po'icyma$ers nowhave to face the instaility they have caused" Hence the need for a comprehensive%nderstandin& of state fai'%re and the role )estern states have played in fai'in& themthro%&hvaried forms of intervention" 7'tho%&h some commentators may #%d&e that the road to the e1istin&sit%ation is paved !ith &ood intentions, a tr%'y strate&ic approach to the pro2'em of internationa' terrorism re0%ires a more sensitiveconsideration of the medi%mto'on&term imp'ications of state 2%i'din& in different parts of the !or'd !hi'st a'so addressin& theroot ca%ses of the pro2'em of state ?fai'%re?" Deve'opin& this 'ine of ar&%ment f%rther, ref'ection on different socia''y re'evantmeanin&s of ?state fai'%re? in re'ation to different time increments shapin& po'icyma$in& mi&ht convey a'ternative considerations" 3n'ine !ith John


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%mpact Glock###,:0

Their threat discourse mass structural violence###rational impact calcgoes neg


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peop'e of co'o%r are discriminated a&ainstand s%ffer !orse hea'th as a conse0%ence"Oie!ed from this vanta&e point,national security is one massive confidence trick misdirection on an epic scale(%tsprimary function is to distract you from the structures and ine*ualities in society

which are the real threatto the hea'th and !e''2ein& of yo% and yo%r fami'y, and to convince you to epermanently afraid so that youwillac0%iesce to a'' the sec%rity meas%res !hich $eep yo% %nder state contro' and keepthe m ilitaryi ndustrialc omple$ tickinga'on&"Oeep this in mind ne1t time yo% hear a po'itician ta'$in& a2o%t the threatof %ncontro''ed immi&ration, the ris$ posed 2y asy'%m see$ers or the threat of 3ran, or the need to e1pand co%nterterrorism po!ers" The 0%estion is:

!hen po'iticians are ta'$in& a2o%t nationa' sec%rity, !hat is that they donQt !ant yo% to thin$ and ta'$ a2o%t >hat e1act'y is the misdirection they are

en&a&ed in The tr%th is, if yo% thin$ that terrorists or immi&rantsor asy'%m see$ers or 3ran are a &reater threatto yo%r safety than the capita'ist system,yo% have2een !e'' and tr%'y conned, my friend" DonQt 2e'ieve the hype:

youre much more likely to die from any one of several forms of structural violencein society thanyo% are from immi&rants or terrorism" Someho!, !e need to cha''en&e the po'iticians on this fact"


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8T @T Baufman

Baufman goes neg###image of the enemy causes violenceBaufman 9(St%art J, Prof Po'i Sci and 3< U De'a!are, Larratives and Sym2o's in io'entAo2i'i;ation: The Pa'estinian3srae'i /ase,Security StudiesGC:+, p" 6++.There are no heroes in this story" Before /amp David, 2oth sides %ndermined the f%ndamenta'premises of the Ns'o process, 'and for peace, !ith the 3srae'is &ra22in& 'and and the Pa'estinians

!ithho'din& peace" 7t /amp David, the 3srae'isQ openin& position !as a2s%rd'y stin&y ons%2stance, !hi'e the Pa'estinians seemed to re#ect not #%st 3srae'i proposa's 2%t 3srae' itse'f"

7fter /amp David, those in char&e of the &%ns on 2oth sidesthe 3srae'i mi' itary and =atahdecided to resort to vio'ence to try to force the other sideQs hand" The t!o sidesQ hard'inepo'icies !ere the res%'t of nationa' identity narratives that created e1p'osive sym2o'ic iss%es anda''o!ed too 'itt'e room for either to ac$no!'ed&e the 'e&itimacy of the otherQs concerns, !hi'epredisposin& 2oth sides to 2e'ieve vio'ence !o%'d 2e effective" 7s a res%'t, the compromisesnecessary for a ne&otiated peace !ere not po'itica''y possi2'e or even !e'' %nderstood 2yne&otiators on either side, !hi'e vio'ence !as a pop%'ar a'ternative for 2oth"

3n s%m, narratives of nationa' identity #%stifyin& hosti'ity, fears of e1tinction, and a sym2o'icpo'itics of e1tremist mo2i'i;ation !ere !hat drove the esca'ation of conf'ict" 7rafat !asconstrained in his ne&otiations 2y the sym2o'ic po!er of the ref%&ee and Jer%sa'em iss%estheformer 2ein& the centerpiece of the /harter narrative and the 'atter 2ein& the pivota' iss%e in the3s'amist and Dec'aration narratives" The res%'tin& Pa'estinian re#ection of 3srae'i sym2o'icc'aims on the Temp'e Ao%nt and indifference to 3srae'i demo&raphic concerns a2o%t a 'ar&esca'e ret%rn of Pa'estinian ref%&ees convinced 3srae'is that Pa'estinians did not accept rea' peaceor 3srae'Qs ri&ht to e1ist"


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ood Security

ood security pays lip service to the hungry while serving as ajustification for the violent e$pansion of gloal governance8lcock 9(


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the militaristic component of traditional security discourse is reproduced in thewider agenda of food security& through the notions of risk & threat and permanentemergency that constit%te its &overnmenta' rationa'e"


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8pplies to States

Esychoanalysis does apply to the state

Baplowit- 9Jis a research associate at the 3nstit%te of -overnmenta' 7ffairs, University of /a'ifornia at Davis in 3nternationa'


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to sit%ationa' varia2'es as e1p'anations for one?s o!n 2ehavior" Haradstveit?s !or$ (GF, p" 99. s%&&ests the refinement thatactors tend to e1p'ain their o!n 8&ood8 2ehavior in dispositiona' terms 2%t 82ad8 2ehavior insit%ationa' terms" Th%s, there is sti'' the tendency to i&nore the se'f as an e1p'anatory factor re&ardin& that 82ad8 2ehavior !hich is so cr%cia' in internationa're'ations"Second, there is often a powerful disposition, as depthpsycho'o&ica' theory emphasi;es, to i&nore the ro'eof one?s o!n %nder'yin& needs and motives in determinin& attit%des and 2ehavior, partic%'ar'y

!hen s%ch ac$no!'ed&ment !o%'d res%'t in discomfort, em2arrassment, or an1iety " Third, the

very idea that se'fima&es affect 2ehavior imp'ies that one?s o!n nation may sometimes 2eresponsi2'e, at 'east to some de&ree, for the intensity, severity, and even 8irrationa'8 nat%re of conf'icts!ithothers8irrationa'8 in the partic%'ar sense that otherthan8o2#ective8 considerations or the 2ehavior of the opponent acco%nt for, or add a sharp ed&e to, the conf'ict" =o%rth,ear'ier st%dies of se'fima&ery and conf'ict 2ehavior 2y 7dorno, Eri$son, and Ieites !ere to a s%2stantia' de&ree psychoana'ytica''y orientedan approach s%2se0%ent'yresisted in the socia' sciences"


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8T :o ;co %mpact

scientific consensus goes affAar$ Swilling 1,, Professor, S%staina2i'ity 3nstit%te and Schoo' of P%2'ic Ieadership,Ste''en2osch University, pro&ramme coordinator of the S%staina2'e Deve'opment Pro&ramme inthe Schoo' of P%2'ic Ieadership, Ste''en2osch University, pro#ect 'eader of the /entre for theTransdiscip'inary St%dy of S%staina2i'ity and /omp'e1ity, and 7cademic Director of theS%staina2i'ity 3nstit%te, *G*, So !hat is so %ns%staina2'e a2o%t the &'o2a' economy,/ontin%in& Aedica' Ed%cation, o'" +, Lo" +, p" @CFG

Seven &'o2a''y si&nificant, mainstream doc%ments !i'' , in one !ay or another, shapethe !ay o%r&eneration sees the !or'd !hich !e need to chan&e" These are as fo''o!s: Ecosystem de&radation " TheUnited Lations (UL. Ai''enni%m Ecosystem7ssessment, compi'ed

2y G,+@ scientistsfrom 9 co%ntries and re'eased in *9 (!ith virt%a''y no impact 2eyond the environmenta' sciences.,has confirmedfor the first time that @[ of the ecosystems %pon !hich h%man systems depend fors%rviva'are de&raded"F

-'o2a'!armin&" The

2road'y accepted reports of the

3nter&overnmenta'

Pane' on

/'imate

/han&e

confirmthat &'o2a'!armin&is ta$in& p'ace d%e to re'ease into the atmosphere of &reenho%se &ases ca%sed 2y, amon&other thin&s, the 2%rnin& of fossi' f%e's, and that if avera&e temperat%res increase 2y */ or more this is &oin& to 'ead toma#or eco'o&ica' and socioeconomic chan&es, most of them for the !orse, and the !or'dQs poor !i'' e1perience the

most destr%ctive conse0%ences"GF Ni' pea$" The *C >or'd Ener&y N%t'oo$, p%2'ished 2y the 3nternationa' Ener&y 7&ency, dec'ared the Wend of cheap oi'Q"GC 7'tho%&h there is sti'' some disp%teover !hether !e have hit pea$ oi' prod%ction or not, the fact r emains that mainstream perspectivesno!2road'y a&ree !ith theonce vi'ified Wpea$ oi'Q perspective(see !!!"pea$oi'"net." Even the ma#or oi' companies no! a&ree that oi' prices are &oin& to rise anda'ternatives to oi' m%st 2e fo%nd sooner rather than 'ater" Ni' acco%nts for over @[ of the &'o2a' economyQs ener&y needs" N%r cities and &'o2a' economy depend on cheapoi' and chan&in& this means a f%ndamenta' rethin$ of the ass%mptions %nderpinnin& near'y a cent%ry of %r2an p'annin& do&ma"

3ne0%a'ity"7ccordin& to the UL H%man Deve'opment


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and diverse conte1ts on a'' continents" 7'tho%&h this process of scientific in0%iry 'eadin& to po'icy chan&e is most dramatic !ith respectto c'imate science,*6 it is a'so tr%e for the 'ife sciences that fed into the o%tcomes e1pressed in the Ai''enni%m Ecosystem 7ssessment, the reso%rceeconomics that has s'o!'y esta2'ished the si&nificance of risin& oi' prices and, most recent'y, of a'' the rise of materia' f'o! ana'ysis (more on these

'ater." The rise of o%r a2i'ity toWsee the p'anetQ has &iven rise to!hat /'ar$ et a'" have appropriate'y ca''ed theWsecond /opernican revo'%tionQ"*9 The first, of co%rse, &oes 2ac$ to the p%2'ication of De


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0ase


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)arfighting


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K8T /eg Solves )ar

More ev###their datas flawed/hristopher Erele 1J, director of =orei&n Po'icy St%dies at the /7TN 3nstit%te, 7%&%st +,*G, U"S" Ai'itary Po!er: Preeminence for >hat P%rpose, on'ine: http:!!!"catoat'i2erty"or&%smi'itarypo!erpreeminencefor!hatp%rpose

Aost in >ashin&ton sti'' em2races the notion that 7merica is, and forever !i'' 2e, the!or'dQs indispensa2'e nation" Some scho'ars, ho!ever, *uestioned the logic ofhegemonic staility theoryfrom the very 2e&innin&" 7 n%m2er contin%e to do sotoday" They advance ar&%ments diametrica''y at odds !ith the primacist consens%s" Tradero%tes need not 2e po'iced 2y a sin&'e dominant po!erK the internationa' economy iscomp'e1 and resilient" S%pp'y disr%ptions are 'i$e'y to 2e temporary, and the costs ofmiti&atin& their effects sho%'d 2e 2orne 2y those !ho stand to 'ose or &ain the most"3s'amic e1tremists are scary, 2%t hard'y compara2'e to the threat posed 2y a &'o2estradd'in& Soviet Union armed !ith tho%sands of n%c'ear !eapons" 3t is fran$'y a2s%rdthat !e spend more today to fi&ht Nsama 2in Iaden and his tiny 2and of m%rdero%s th%&sthan !e spent to face do!n Joseph Sta'in and /hairman Aao" Many factorshave

contri2%ted to the dramatic dec'ine in the n%m2er of !ars 2et!een nationstatesK it isunrealisticto e1pect that a ne! spasm of gloal conflict!o%'d er%pt if the UnitedStates !ere to modest'y refoc%s its efforts, draw down its military power, and ca'' onother co%ntries to p'ay a 'ar&er ro'e in their o!n defense, and in the sec%rity of theirrespective re&ions"B%t !hi'e there are credile alternativesto the United States servin& in its c%rrent d%a'ro'e as !or'd po'iceman armed socia' !or$er, the forei&n po'icy esta2'ishment in

>ashin&ton has no interest in e1p'orin& them" The peop'e here have &ro!n acc%stomed to'ivin& at the center of the earth, and indeed, of the %niverse" The tan&i2'e 2enefits of a''this mi'itary spendin& f'o! disproportionate'y to this tiny corner of the United States

!hi'e the sch'%2s in f'yover co%ntry pic$ %p the ta2"

:o data suggests a causal link etween unipolarity and peace/hristopher ettweis 1J, Professor of Po'itica' Science at T%'ane University, *G,Dan&ero%s Times The 3nternationa' Po'itics of -reat Po!er Peace, p" GF*GF6

The primaryattac$ on restraint, or#%stification for internationa'ism, positsthat if the 2nited Stateswere to withdrawfrom the !or'd, a variety of i''s !o%'d s!eep over $ey re&ions andevent%a''ypose threats to U"S" sec%rityandor prosperity" These pro2'ems mi&ht ta$e three forms (2esides the o2vio%s, if remar$a2'y%n'i$e'y, direct threats to the home'and.: &enera'i;ed chaos, hosti'e im2a'ances in E%rasia, andor fai'edstates"Historian 7rth%r Sch'esin&er !as typica' !hen he !orried that restraint !o%'d mean 8a chaotic, vio'ent, and ever more dan&ero%sp'anet"8@ 7'' of these concernseither imp'icit'y or e1p'icit'y ass%methat the presence of the United States isthe primary reason for international staility, and if that presence !ere !ithdra!nchaos !o%'d ens%e"3n other !ords, they depend %pon he&emonicsta2i'ity 'o&ic"Simp'y stated, the he&emonic sta2i'ity theory proposesthat internationa' peace is on'y possi2'e !hen

there is one co%ntry stron& eno%&h to ma$e and enforce a set of r%'es" 7t the hei&ht of Pa1


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=irst of a'', the he&emonicsta2i'ity ar&%ment overstatesthe ro'e that the United Statesp'ays in the system" Lo co%ntry is stron& eno%&h to po'ice the !or'd on its o!n" The only

way there can e stailityin the comm%nity of &reat po!ers is if self#policingoccurs, if states have decided that their interests are served 2y peace" 3f no pacificnormative shift had occ%rred amon& the &reat po!ers that !as fi'terin& do!n thro%&h thesystem, then no amount of international constaularywork2y the United States

co%'d maintain sta2i'ity" Ii$e!ise, if it is tr%e that s%ch a shift has occ%rred, then most of!hat the he&emon spends to 2rin& sta2i'ity!o%'d 2ewasted" The 9 percent of the !or'dspop%'ation that 'ive in the United States simp'y co%'d not force peace %pon an %n!i''in&9" 7t the ris$ of 2eatin& the metaphor to death, the United States may2e patro''in& anei&h2orhood that has a'ready rid itse'f of crime" Staility and unipolarity may e

simply coincidental"3n order for U"S" he&emony to 2e the reason for &'o2a' sta2i'ity, the rest of the !or'd !o%'dhave to e1pect re!ard for &ood 2ehavior and fear p%nishment for 2ad" Since the end of the/o'd >ar, the United States has not a'!ays proven to 2e especia''y ea&er to en&a&e inh%manitarian interventions a2road" Even rather incontroverti2'e evidence of &enocide hasnot 2een s%fficient to inspire action" He&emonic sta2i'ity can only take creditforinf'%encin& those decisions thatwould have ended in war without the presence,

!hether physica' or psycho'o&ica', of the 2nited States" Ethiopia and Eritrea are hard'ythe on'y states that co%'d &o to !ar !itho%t the s'i&htest threat of U"S" intervention" Sincemost of the !or'd today is free to fight without 2(S( involvement, somethin& e'sem%st 2e at !or$" Sta2i'ity e1ists in many p'aceswhere no hegemony is present"Second, the 'imited empirical evidence!e have s%&&ests that there is littleconnection etween the relative level of 2(S( activism and internationalstaility" D%rin& the Gs the United States c%t 2ac$ on its defense spendin& fair'ys%2stantia''y" By GC the United States !as spendin& G 2i''ion 'ess on defense in rea'terms than it had in 3"F* To internationa'ists, defense ha!$s, and other 2e'ievers inhe&emonic sta2i'ity, this irresponsi2'e 8peace dividend8 endan&ered 2oth nationa' and&'o2a' sec%rity" 8Lo serio%s ana'yst of 7merican mi'itary capa2i'ities,8 ar&%ed risto' anda&an, 8do%2ts that the defense 2%d&et has 2een c%t m%ch too far to meet 7merica?s

responsi2i'ities to itse'f and to !or'd peace"8F? 3f the pacific trends !ere d%e not to U"S"he&emony 2%t a stren&thenin& norm a&ainst interstate !ar, ho!ever, one !o%'d not havee1pected an increase in &'o2a' insta2i'ity and vio'ence"The verdict from the past t!o decades is fair'y p'ain: The !or'd &re! more peacef%' !hi'ethe United States c%t its forces" :o state seemed to elieve that its security wasendangered y a less#capale Eentagon, or at 'east none too$ any action that !o%'ds%&&est s%ch a 2e'ief" :o militaries were enhancedto address po!er vac%%msK nosecurity dilemmas drove mistrustand arms racesK no regional alancingoccurredonce the sta2i'i;in& presence of the U"S" mi'itary !as diminished" The rest ofthe !or'd acted as if the threat of internationa' !ar !as not a pressin& concern, despite thered%ction in U"S" capa2i'ities" The incidence and magnitude of gloal conflictdeclined!hi'e the United States c%t its mi'itary spendin& %nder President /'inton, and it

$ept dec'inin& as the B%sh 7dministration ramped spendin& 2ac$ %p" Lo comp'e1statistica' ana'ysis sho%'d 2e necessary to reach the conc'%sion that the t!o are %nre'ated"3t is a'so !orth notin& for o%r p%rposes that the United States !as no 'ess safe"


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8T Genevolence

States wont andwagon###capailities outweigh intentions###itsimpossile to make heg seem enevolent

Layne Schwar- , /hristopher Iayne, professor and " B%sh Schoo' of -overnment andP%2'ic ServiceK and Ben#amin Sch!ar;, Lationa' Editor of The 7t'antic, Jan%ary **, 7 Le!-rand Strate&y, The 7t'antic, o'" *C, Lo" G, p" +@6*Ii$e some optimistic Britons in the 'ate ei&hteenth cent%ry, many 7merican strate&iststoday assertthat the United States,the on'y s%perpo!er, is a.enevolent. hegemon, imm%ni;ed from a 2ac$'asha&ainst itspreponderance 2y!hat they ca'' its 8soft po!er8that is, 2y the attractiveness of its 'i2era'democratic ideo'o&y and its open,syncretic c%'t%re">ashin&tona'so2e'ievesthat others don?t fear U"S" &eopo'itica' preeminence

2eca%se they $no! the United States!i''use its%nprecedented power to promotethe goodof theinternationa' system rather thanto advance its o!n se'fish aims"

B%t states m%st always2e more concerned !ith a predominant power's capailitiesthan !ith its intentions, and in fact !e'' 2efore Septem2er GGindeed, thro%&ho%t most ofthe past decadeother states have 2een profo%nd'y an1io%s a2o%t the im2a'ance of po!erin 7merica?s favor" This simmerin& mistr%st of U"S" predominance intensified d%rin& the/'inton 7dministration, as other states responded to 7merican he&emony 2y concertin&their efforts a&ainst it"


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K8T %ntervention %nevitale

The 2(S( wont attempt to maintain hegemony###policymakersrespond rationally to great#power decline

Pa%' " MacConald 11, 7ssistant Professor of Po'itica' Science at >i''iams /o''e&e, andJoseph A" Parent, 7ssistant Professor of Po'itica' Science at the University of Aiami, Sprin&*GG, -racef%' Dec'ine: The S%rprisin& S%ccess of -reat Po!er


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=o%rth, domestic po'itica' theories tend to downplay or ignorethe a2i'ity ofinternationa' conte1t to inform domestic po'itics" Met po'icyma$ers do not operate 4EndPa&e GF5 in a vac%%mK e'ites react to chan&es in the internationa' system"+F Po'icyma$ersat the he'm of risin& po!ers can afford to ind%'&e the interests of domestic 'o22ies !ithminima' conse0%ences" E'ites in risin& po!ers have fe! incentives to reso've tradeoffsamon& competin& interests or veto ne! and %nnecessary forei&n advent%res" 3n contrast,

there are significant pressureson po'icyma$ers in dec'inin& &reat po!ers to put asidetheir parochial interests" They sit atop !astin& assets, and a 'oca' defeat may easi'yt%rn into a &enera' ro%t" 3t is precisely in periods of acute relative declinethat one

sho%'d e$pect partisan rancor and sectoral rivalry to recede"

The 2(S( wont cling to hegemony###momentums growing forretrenchment ut not solidified yetPa%' " MacConald 11, 7ssistant Professor of Po'itica' Science at >i''iams /o''e&e, andJoseph A" Parent, 7ssistant Professor of Po'itica' Science at the University of Aiami,Lovem2erDecem2er *GG, The >isdom of hatever 'eaders? preferences are, 2%rea%cratic press%res promoteconservative decisions, po'icy inertia, and 2i& 2%d&etsnone of !hich is 'i$e'y to %sher inan era of se'frestraint"Cespite deep partisan divides, ho!ever,


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mem2ers of /on&ress, and the air force 2rass" The *G 2%d&et a'so inc'%ded c%ts to thenavy?s f'eet of stea'th destroyers and vario%s components of the army?s ne1t &eneration ofmanned &ro%nd vehic'es"Th%s, c'aims that retrenchment is politically impracticalor impro2a2'e areunfounded" J%st as a more h%m2'e forei&n po'icy !i'' invite neither insta2i'ity nordec'ine, domestic po'itica' factorswill not inevitalyprevent time'y reform" To chart a

ne! co%rse, U"S" po'icy ma$ers need on'y possess foresi&ht and !i''"


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K8T 2S @oes Cown Swinging

:o 2(S( reinterventionPa%' " MacConald 11, 7ssistant Professor of Po'itica' Science at >i''iams /o''e&e, andJoseph A" Parent, 7ssistant Professor of Po'itica' Science at the University of Aiami, Sprin&*GG, -racef%' Dec'ine: The S%rprisin& S%ccess of -reat Po!er


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8T Transition )ars

:o transition warsEarent 11assistant for of po' sci, U Aiami" PhD in po' sci, /o'%m2iaandPa%' AacDona'dassistant prof of po' sci, >i''iams (Joseph, -racef%' Dec'ineKThe S%rprisin& S%ccess of -reatPo!er e 2e'ieve the empirical record supports these

conclusions" 3n partic%'ar, periods of he&emonic transition do not appear more conf'ict prone than those of ac%te dec'ine" The last reversal at thepinnacle of power was

Documents

MV Neg GSU Round5