JAHANGIR

Nur-ud-din Salim Jahangir (Persian: جهانگیر سلیم :full title) (نورالدین Al-Sultan

al-'Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram, Khushru-i-Giti Panah, Abu'l-Fath Nur-ud-din

Muhammad Jahangir Padshah Ghazi [Jannat-Makaani]) (20 September 1569 – 8

November 1627) (OS 31 August 1569  – NS 8 November 1627) was the ruler of the

Mughal Empire from 1605 until his death. The name Jahangir is from Persian جہ�انگير,

meaning "Conqueror of the World". Nur-ud-din or Nur al-Din is an Arabic name

which means " Light of the Faith." Born as Prince Muhammad Salim, he was the third

and eldest surviving son of Mogul Emperor Akbar. Akbar's twin sons, Hasan and

Hussain, died in infancy. His mother was the Rajput Princess of Amber, Jodhabai

(born Rajkumari Hira Kunwari, eldest daughter of Raja Bihar Mal or Bharmal, Raja

of Amber, India).

Jahangir was a child of many prayers. It is said to be by the blessing of Shaikh Salim

Chishti (one of the revered sages of his times) that Akbar's first surviving child, the

future Jahangir, was born. He was born at the dargah of the Shaikh Salim Chishti,

within the fortress at Fatehpur Sikri near Agra. The child was named Salim after the

dervish and was affectionately addressed by Akbar as Sheikhu Baba.

Akbar developed an emotional attachment with the village Sikri (abode of Chishti).

Therefore, he developed the town of Sikri and shifted his imperial court and residence

from Agra to Sikri, later renamed as Fatehpur Sikri. Shaikh Salim Chishti's daughter

was appointed Jahangir's foster mother as a mark of respect to the Shaikh. Jahangir's

foster brother Nawab Kutb-ud-din Khan was private secretary to the emperor

Jahangir and afterwards governor of Bengal. Nawab Kutb-ud-din Khan's son Nawab

Mohtashim Khan was granted by Jahangir 4,000 bigas of land in Badaun District

(United Provinces) where he built a small fort named Sheikhupur, Badaun after

Jahangir, who was called Sheikhu-baba in his childhood.

Revolt

In 1600, when Akbar was away from the capital on an expedition, Salim broke into an

open rebellion, and declared himself Emperor. Akbar had to hastily return to Agra

and restore order. There was a time when Akbar thought of putting his eldest

grandson Khusrau Mirza on the throne instead of Salim. Prince Salim forcefully

succeeded to the throne on 3 November 1605, eight days after his father's death. Salim

ascended to the throne with the title of Nur-ud-din Muhammad Jahangir Badshah

Ghazi, and thus began his 22-year reign at the age of 36. Jahangir soon after had to

fend off his son, Prince Khusrau Mirza, when he attempted to claim the throne based

on Akbar's will to become his next heir. Khusrau Mirza was defeated in 1606 and

confined in the fort of Agra. As punishment Khusrau Mirza was blinded, and the Sikh

Guru Arjun (the religious fifth guru) tortured for five days until he had disappeared

while taking a bath in a river--for giving the then fugitive Khusrau Mirza money when

he visited Guru Arjun. Jahangir's rule was characterized by the same religious

tolerance as his father Akbar, with the exception of his hostility with the Sikhs, which

was forged so early on in his rule.

In 1622, Khurram (Shah Jahan), younger brother of Khusrau Mirza, had Khusrau

murdered in a conspiracy to eliminate all possible contenders to the throne. Taking

advantage of this internal conflict, the Persians seized the city of Qandahar and as a

result of this loss, the Mughals lost control over the trade routes to Afghanistan,

Persian and Central Asia and also exposed India to invasions from the north-west.

AKBAR

Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar ( اکبر محمد الدین Jalāl ud-Dīn Muhammad Akbar), also جلال

known as Shahanshah Akbar-e-Azam or Akbar the Great (15 October 1542  – 27

October 1605),[1][2] was the third Mughal Emperor. He was of Timurid descent;[4] the

son of Humayun, and the grandson of Babur, the ruler who founded the Mughal

dynasty in India. At the end of his reign in 1605 the Mughal empire covered most of

the northern and central India and was one of the most powerful empires of its age.

Akbar was thirteen years old when he ascended the Mughal throne in Delhi, following

the death of his father Humayun. During his reign, he eliminated military threats from

the powerful Pashtun descendants of Sher Shah Suri, and at the Second Battle of

Panipat he defeated the newly self-declared Hindu king Hemu. It took him nearly two

more decades to consolidate his power and bring all the parts of northern and central

India into his direct realm. He influenced the whole of the Indian Subcontinent as he

ruled a greater part of it as an emperor. As an emperor, Akbar solidified his rule by

pursuing diplomacy with the powerful Hindu Rajput caste, and by admitting Rajput

princesses in his harem.

Akbar's reign significantly influenced art and culture in the country. He took a great

interest in painting, and had the walls of his palaces adorned with murals. Besides

encouraging the development of the Mughal school, he also patronised the European

style of painting. He was fond of literature, and had several Sanskrit works translated

into Persian and Persian scriptures translated in Sanskrit apart from getting many

Persian works illustrated by painters from his court. During the early years of his

reign, he had an intolerant attitude towards Hindus and the other religions, but he

exercised great tolerance after he began marriage alliances with Rajput princesses.

His administration included numerous Hindu landlords, courtiers and military

generals. He began a series of religious debates where Muslim scholars would debate

religious matters with Jains, Sikhs, Hindus, Cārvāka atheists, Jews, and Portuguese

Roman Catholic Jesuits. He treated these religious leaders with great consideration,

irrespective of their faith, and revered them. He even founded a religion, the Din-i-

Ilahi (Divine Faith), which included the teachings of major religions of the world, but

it amounted only to a form of personality cult for Akbar and started dissolving after

his death.

Early conquests

Akbar decided early in his reign that he should eliminate the threat of Sher Shah's

dynasty, and decided to lead an army against the strongest of the three, Sikandar Shah

Suri, in the Punjab. He left Delhi under the regency of Tardi Baig Khan. Sikandar

Shah Suri presented no major concern for Akbar, and often withdrew from territory as

Akbar approached.

The Hindu king Hemu, however, commanding the Afghan forces, defeated the Mughal

army and captured Delhi on 6 October 1556. Urged by Bairam Khan, who

remarshalled the Mughal army before Hemu could consolidate his position, Akbar

marched on Delhi to reclaim it. Akbar's army, led by Bairam Khan, met the larger

forces of Hemu on 5 November 1556 at the Second Battle of Panipat, 50 miles (80 km)

north of Delhi. The battle was going in Hemu's favour when an arrow pierced Hemu's

eye, rendering him unconscious. The leaderless army soon capitulated and Hemu was

captured and executed.

The victory also left Akbar with over 1,500 war elephants which he used to re-engage

Sikandar Shah at the siege of Mankot. Sikandar, along with several local chieftains

who were assisting him, surrendered and so was spared death.[26] With this, the whole

of Punjab was annexed to the Mughal empire. Before returning to Agra, Akbar sent a

detachment of his army to Jammu, which defeated the ruler Raja Kapur Chand and

captured the kingdom. Between 1558 and 1560, Akbar further expanded the empire by

capturing and annexing the kingdoms of Gwalior, northern Rajputana and Jaunpur.[27]

After a dispute at court, Akbar dismissed Bairam Khan in the spring of 1560 and

ordered him to leave on Hajj to Mecca. Bairam left for Mecca, but on his way was

goaded by his opponents to rebel. He was defeated by the Mughal army in the Punjab

and forced to submit. Akbar, however forgave him and gave him the option of either

continuing in his court or resuming his pilgrimage, of which Bairam chose the latter.

Expansion

After dealing with the rebellion of Bairam Khan and establishing his authority. Akbar

went on to expand the Mughal empire by subjugating local chiefs and annexing

neighbouring kingdoms. The first major conquest was of Malwa in 1561, an

expedition that was led by Adham Khan and carried out with such savage cruelty that

it resulted in a backlash from the kingdom enabling its ruler Baz Bahadur to recover

the territory while Akbar was dealing with the rebellion of Bairam Khan.

Subsequently, Akbar sent another detachment which captured Malwa in 1562, and

Baz Bahadur eventually surrendered to the Mughals and was made an administrator.

Around the same time, the Mughal army also conquered the kingdom of the Gonds,

after a fierce battle between the Asaf Khan, the Mughal governor of Allahabad, and

Rani Durgavati, the queen of the Gonds. However, Asaf Khan misappropriated most

of the wealth plundered from the kingdom, which Akbar subsequently forced him to

restore, apart from installing Durgavati's son as the administrator of the region.

BABUR

Zahir ud-din Muhammad Babur (February 23 [O.S. February 14] 1483 — January

5 [O.S. December 26, 1530] 1531) was a Muslim conqueror from Central Asia who,

following a series of setbacks, finally succeeded in laying the basis for the Mughal

dynasty of South Asia. He was a direct descendant of Timur through his father, and a

descendant also of Genghis Khan through his mother. Babur identified his lineage as

Timurid and Chaghatay-Turkic, while his origin, milieu, training, and culture were

steeped in Persian culture and so he was largely responsible for the fostering of this

culture by his descendants, and for the expansion of Persian cultural influence in the

Indian subcontinent, with brilliant literary, artistic, and historiographical results.

Overview

Babur's name

Zāhir ud-Dīn Muḥammad ( محمد الدين -also known by his royal titles as al ,ظهير

ṣultānu 'l-ʿazam wa 'l-ḫāqān al-mukkarram pādshāh-e ghāzī), is more commonly

known by his nickname, Bābur (بابر).

According to Stephen Frederic Dale, the name Babur is derived from the Persian

word babr, meaning "tiger", a word that repeatedly appears in Firdawsī's Shāhnāma

and had also been borrowed by the Turkic languages of Central Asia. This thesis is

supported by the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, explaining that

the Turko-Mongol name Timur underwent a similar evolution, from the Sanskrit word

cimara ("iron") via a modified version *čimr to the final Turkicized version timür,

with -ür replacing -r due to the Turkish vowel harmony (hence babr → babür).

"At that time the Chaghatái (descendants of Genghis Khan) were very rude and

uncultured (bázári), and not refined (buzurg) as they are now; thus they found Zahir-

ud-Din Muhammad difficult to pronounce, and for this reason gave him the name of

Bábar. In the public prayers (khutba) and in royal mandates he is always styled

'Zahir-ud-Din Bábar Muhammad,' but he is best known by the name of Bábar

Pádisháh."

Contradicting these views, W.M. Thackston argues that the name cannot be taken

from babr and instead must be derived from a word that has evolved out of the Indo-

European word for beaver, pointing to the fact that the name is pronounced bāh-bor

in both Persian and Turkic, similar to the Russian word for beaver (бобр - bobr).

Sources for the biography

The main source for Babur's biography is a written account of his life, written by

Babur himself. His memoirs are known as the Baburnama and are considered the first

true autobiography in Islamic literature. He wrote the Bāburnāma in Chaghatai

Turkic, his mother-tongue, though his prose was highly Persianized in its sentence

structure, morphology, and vocabulary. The work gives a valuable impression of

Babur's surrounding environment.

Background

Babur was born on February 23 [O.S. February 14] 1483 in the town of Andijan, in

the Fergana Valley which is in modern Uzbekistan. He was the eldest son of ʿOmar

Sheykh Mirzā, ruler of the Fergana Valley, and his wife Qutluq Negār Khānum,

daughter of Yonus Khān, the ruler of Moghulistan.

Although Babur hailed from the Barlas tribe which was of Mongol origin, his tribe

had embraced Turkic and Persian culture,[2][15][16] converted to Islam and resided in

Turkestan and Khorasan. His mother tongue was the Chaghatai language (known to

Babur as Turkī, "Turkic") and he was equally at home in Persian, the lingua franca of

the Timurid elite.

Hence Babur, though nominally a Mongol (or Moghul in Persian), drew much of his

support from the Turkic and Iranian peoples of Central Asia, and his army was

diverse in its ethnic makeup, including Persians (Tajiks or Sarts, as they were called

by Babur),[10] Pashtuns, and Arabs as well as Barlas and Chaghatayid Turco-Mongols

from Central Asia. Babur's army also included Qizilbāsh fighters, a militant religious

order of Shi'a Sufis from Safavid Persia who later became one of the most influential

groups in the Mughal court.

Babur is said to have been extremely strong and physically fit. He could allegedly

carry two men, one on each of his shoulders, and then climb slopes on the run, just for

exercise. Legend holds that Babur swam across every major river he encountered,

including twice across the Ganges River in North India.

His passions could be equally strong. In his first marriage he was "bashful" towards

ʿĀʾisha Ṣultān Begum, later losing his affection for her.

AURANGZEB

Abul Muzaffar Muhy-ud-Din Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir, more commonly

known as Aurangzeb (Persian: full official title) (اورنگ‌زیب Al-Sultan al-Azam wal

Khaqan al-Mukarram Hazrat Abul Muzaffar Muhy-ud-Din Muhammad Aurangzeb

Bahadur Alamgir I, Badshah Ghazi, Shahanshah-e-Sultanat-ul-Hindiya Wal

Mughaliya) (4 November 1618 [O.S. 25 October 1618] – 3 March 1707 [O.S. 20

February 1707]), also known by his chosen imperial title Alamgir ("Conquerer of the

World") (Persian: ع�المگیر), was the 6th Mughal Emperor of India whose reign lasted

from 1658 until his death in 1707.

Badshah Aurangzeb Alamgir I, having ruled most of the Indian subcontinent for

nearly half a century, was the second longest reigning Mughal emperor after the

legendary Akbar. In this period he tried hard to get a larger area, notably in southern

India, under Mughal rule than ever before. But after his death in 1707, the Mughal

Empire gradually began to shrink. Major reasons include a weak chain of "Later

Mughals", an inadequate focus on maintaining central administration leading to

governors forming their own empires, a gradual depletion of the fortunes amassed by

his predecessors and the growth of secessionist sentiments amongst the other

communities of the empire like the Marathas and the Sikhs.

Early life

Aurangzeb was the third son of the fifth Mughal emperor Shah Jahan and Mumtaz

Mahal (Arjumand Bānū Begum). After a rebellion by his father, part of Aurangzeb's

childhood was spent as a virtual hostage at his grandfather Jahangir's court.

Muhammad Saleh Kamboh Salafi had been one of his childhood teachers.

After Jahangir's death in 1627, Aurangzeb returned to live with his parents. Shah

Jahan followed the Mughal practice of assigning authority to his sons, and in 1634

put Aurangzeb in charge of the Deccan campaign. Following his success in 1636,

Aurangzeb became Subahdar (governor) of the Deccan. At this time, he began

building a new city near the former capital of Khirki which he named Aurangabad

after himself. In 1637, he married Rabia Durrani. During this period the Deccan was

relatively peaceful. In the Mughal court, however, Shah Jahan began to show greater

and greater favoritism to his eldest son Dara Shikoh.

War of succession

Shah Jahan fell ill in 1657. With this news, the struggle for the succession began.

Aurangzeb's eldest brother, Dara Shikoh, was regarded as heir apparent, but the

succession proved far from certain when Shah Jahan's second son Shah Shuja

declared himself emperor in Bengal. Imperial armies sent by Dara and Shah Jahan

soon restrained this effort, and Shuja retreated.

Soon after, Shuja's youngest brother Murad Baksh, with secret promises of support

from Aurangzeb, declared himself emperor in Gujarat. Aurangzeb, ostensibly in

support of Murad, marched north from Aurangabad, gathering support from nobles

and generals. Following a series of victories, Aurangzeb declared that Dara had

illegally usurped the throne. Shah Jahan, determined that Dara would succeed him,

handed over control of his empire to Dara. A Rajput lord opposed to Aurangzeb and

Murad, Maharaja Jaswant Singh, battled them both at Dharmatpur near Ujjain.

Aurangzeb eventually defeated Singh and concentrated his forces on Dara. A series of

bloody battles followed, with troops loyal to Aurangzeb battering Dara's armies at

Samugarh. In a few months, Aurangzeb's forces surrounded Agra. Fearing for his life,

Dara departed for Delhi, leaving Shah Jahan behind. The old emperor surrendered

the Agra Fort to Aurangzeb's nobles, but Aurangzeb refused any meeting with his

father, and declared that Dara was no longer a Muslim.

In a sudden reversal, Aurangzeb arrested his brother Murad, whose former

supporters defected to Aurangzeb in return for rich gifts. Meanwhile, Dara gathered

his forces, and moved to the Punjab. The army sent against Shuja was trapped in the

east, its generals Jai Singh and Diler Khan, submitted to Aurangzeb, but allowed

Dara's son Suleman to escape. Aurangzeb offered Shuja the governorship of Bengal.

This move had the effect of isolating Dara and causing more troops to defect to

Aurangzeb. Shuja, however, uncertain of Aurangzeb's sincerity, continued to battle his

brother, but his forces suffered a series of defeats at Aurangzeb's hands. Shuja fled to

Arakan (in present-day Burma), where he was executed after leading a failed coup.

Murad was finally executed, ostensibly for the murder of his former divan Ali Naqi, in

1661.

HUMAYUN

Nasir ud-din Muhammad Humayun (Persian: مايون ;نصيرالدين full title: Al-

Sultan al-'Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram, Jam-i-Sultanat-i-haqiqi wa Majazi, Sayyid

al-Salatin, Abu'l Muzaffar Nasir ud-din Muhammad Humayun Padshah Ghazi,

Zillu'llah; OS 7 March 1508-OS 22 February 1556) was the second Mughal Emperor

who ruled present day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and parts of northern India from 1530–

1540 and again from 1555–1556. Like his father, Babur, he lost his kingdom early,

but with Persian aid, he eventually regained an even larger one. On the eve of his

death in 1556, the Mughal empire spanned almost one million square kilometers.

He succeeded his father in India in 1530, while his half-brother Kamran Mirza, who

was to become a rather bitter rival, obtained the sovereignty of Kabul and Lahore, the

more northern parts of their father's empire. He originally ascended the throne at the

age of 22 and was somewhat inexperienced when he came to power.

Humayun lost his Indian territories to the Pashtun noble, Sher Shah Suri, and, with

Persian aid, regained them fifteen years later. Humayun's return from Persia,

accompanied by a large retinue of Persian noblemen, signaled an important change

in Mughal court culture, as the Central Asian origins of the dynasty were largely

overshadowed by the influences of Persian art, architecture, language and literature.

Subsequently, in a very short time, Humayun was able to expand the Empire further,

leaving a substantial legacy for his son, Akbar.

Background

Babur's decision to divide the territories of his empire between two of his sons was

unusual in India, but it had been a common Central Asian practice since the time of

Genghis Khan. Unlike most European Monarchies which practised primogeniture, the

Timurids, following Genghis Khan's example, did not leave an entire kingdom to the

eldest son. Although under that system only a Chingissid could claim sovereignty and

khanal authority, any male Chinggisid within a given sub-branch (such as the

Timurids) had an equal right to the throne.. While Genghis Khan's Empire had been

peacefully divided between his sons upon his death, almost every Chinggisid

succession since had resulted in fratricide.

Timur himself had divided his territories between Pir Muhammad, Miran Shah, Khalil

Sultan and Shah Rukh, which resulted in inter-family warfare. Upon Babur's death,

Humayun's territories were the least secure. Babur had ruled only four years, and not

all umarah (nobles) viewed Humayun as the rightful ruler. Indeed earlier, when

Babur had become ill, some of the nobles had tried to install Humayun's uncle, Mahdi

Khwaja, as ruler. Although this attempt failed, it was a sign of problems to come.

Personal traits

Humayun was portrayed in the biography "Humāyūn-nāma" written by his sister

Gulbadan Begum, as being extraordinarily lenient, constantly forgiving acts which

were deliberately aimed at angering him. In one instance the biography records that

his youngest brother Hindal killed Humayun's most trusted advisor, an old Sheikh,

and then marched an army out of Agra. Humayun, rather than seek retribution, went

straight to his mother's home where Gulbadan Begum was, bearing no grudge against

his younger brother, and insisted he return home. His many documented acts of mercy

may have stemmed largely from weakness, but he does seem to have been a gentle and

humane man by the standards of the day. He lacked his father’s craftiness and

athleticism. Though he could be a formidable warrior when he chose to be, he was

more laid back and indolent.

He was also deeply superstitious, and fascinated by Astrology and the Occult. Upon

his accession as Padishah (Emperor), he began to re-organise the administration

upon mystically determined principles. The public offices were divided into four

distinct groups, for the four elements. The department of Earth was to be in charge of

Agriculture and the agricultural sciences, Fire was to be in charge of the Military,

Water was the department of the Canals and waterways while Air seemed to have

responsibility for everything else. His daily routine was planned in accordance with

the movements of the planets, so too was his wardrobe. He refused to enter a house

with his left foot going forward, and if anyone else did they would be told to leave and

re-enter.

Early reign

Upon his succession to the throne, Humayun had two major rivals interested in

acquiring his lands — Sultan Bahadur of Gujarat to the south west and Sher Shah

Suri (Sher Khan) currently settled along the river Ganges in Bihar to the east.

Humayun’s first campaign was to confront Sher Khan Suri. Halfway through the

counter offensive Humayun had to abandon it and concentrate on Gujarat, where a

threat from Ahmed Shah had to be squelched. In this he succeeded and annexed

Gujarat and Malwa. Champaner and the great fort of Mandu followed next.

During the first five years of Humayun's reign, these two rulers were quietly extending

their rule, although Sultan Bahadur faced pressure in the east from sporadic conflicts

with the Portuguese. While the Mughals had acquired firearms via the Ottoman

Empire, Bahadur's Gujurat had acquired them through a series of contracts drawn up

with the Portuguese, allowing the Portuguese to establish a strategic foothold in north

western India.

SHER SHAH SURI

Sultan-e-Azam Sher Shah Suri (1486 - May 22, 1545) (Pashto: - Šīr Šāh Sūrīis a

Pashton of Bihar ), birth name Farid Khan Sur, also known as Sher Khan (The Lion

King), was a magnificant and extremely skillful Afghan (Pashtun of Bihar)[2][3][4][5][6][7]

[8] who conquered the Delhi Sultanate in northern India after defeating the armies of

the great Mughals in successive skirmishes and battles . Most commonly amongst the

Pashtuns (Pathans) warrior tribes of the Indian Subcontinent, he is regarded as one of

the most famous, fierce and brave princes of their glorious lineage of warriors. He,

firstly, served as a private before rising to become a commander in the Mughal army

under the Mughal Emperor Zaheeruddin Muhammad Babur and then as the governor

of Bihar. In 1537, when the new Mughal emperor Naseeruddin Muhammad Humayun

was elsewhere on an expedition, Sher Khan Sur overran the state of Bengal and

became the new emperor after establishing the Sur Empire.

A brilliant strategist, Sher Shah proved himself a gifted administrator as well as an

able general. His reorganization of the empire laid the foundations for the later

Mughal emperors, notably Akbar, son of Humayun. During his five year rule from

1540 to 1545, he set up a new template for civic and military administration, issued

the first Rupee and re-organised the postal system of India. He further developed

Humayun's Dina-panah city and named it Shergarh and revived the historical city of

Patna which had been in decline since the 7th century CE. He is also famously

remembered for killing a fully-grown tiger with his bare hands in the Indian jungle.

Government and administration

Sher Shah became a commander by Babur after serving previously as a private in the

Mughal army. After becoming the governor of Bihar, he began reorganizing the

administration efficiently. He organised a well disciplined, one of the largest and most

efficient army. He also introduced tax collection system, built roads along with resting

areas for travellers, dug wells, improved the jurisdiction, founded hospitals,

established free kitchens, organized mail services and the police. His management

proved so efficient that even one of the greatest rulers of human history, the Mughal

Emperor Akbar, organised the Indian subcontinent on his measures, and the system

which lasted untll the 20th century.

He is also credited for rebuilding the longest highway of the Indian subcontinent in

Asia. The highway which is called the "Shahar Rah-e-Azam" or the "Badshahi Sadak"

(renamed "Grand Trunk Road" by the British) survives til this day. It is in use in

present-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab region Punjab, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh,

Bihar and Bengal.

Sher Shah was a visionary ruler and introduced many military and civil reforms. The

system of tri-metalism which came to characterise Mughal coinage was largely the

creation of Sher Shah Suri. He also minted a coin of silver which was termed the

Rupiya that weighed 178 grains and was the precursor of the modern rupee.[10] The

same name is still used for the national currency in Pakistan, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka,

Indonesia, Mauritius, Maldives, Seychelles among other countries. Gold coins called

the Mohur weighing 169 grains and copper coins called Dam were also minted by his

government.

Death and succession

Sher Shah Suri died from a gunpowder explosion during the siege of Kalinjar fort on

May 22, 1545 fighting against the Chandel Rajputs. Sher was also the last and the

main personality of India to offer serious resistance to the Mughals on their advance

to the south, and his death during the siege of Kalinjar (Bundelkhand) in 1545,

cleared the path to the return of Mughal emperor Humayun.

Sher Shah Suri was succeeded by his son, Jalal Khan who took the title of Islam Shah

Suri, and his imposing and proud mausoleum, the Sher Shah Suri Tomb (122 ft high)

stands in the middle of an artificial lake at Sasaram, a town that stands on the Grand

Trunk Road, his lasting legacy. His death has also been claimed to have been caused

by a fire in his store room.

Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi (History of Sher Shah), written by Abbas Khan Sarwani, a waqia-

navis under later Mughal Emperor, Akbar around 1580, provides a detailed

documentation about Sher Shah's administration.

SHAH JAHAN

Shahab-ud-din Muhammad Khurram Shah Jahan I (also spelled Shah Jehan,

Shahjehan, Urdu: ش��اهجہ��اں , Persian: جه�ان (ش�اه (January 5, 1592 – January 22,

1666) was the emperor of the Mughal Empire in India from 1628 until 1658. The

name Shah Jahan comes from Persian meaning "king of the world." He was the fifth

Mughal ruler after Babur, Humayun, Akbar, and Jahangir. While young, he was a

favourite of his legendary grandfather Akbar the great. He is also called Shahjahan

The Magnificent.

Even while very young, he was pointed out to be the successor to the Mughal throne

after the death of Emperor Jahangir. He succeeded to the throne upon his father's

death in 1627. He is considered to be one of the greatest Mughals and his reign has

been called the Golden Age of Mughals. Like Akbar, he was eager to expand his

empire. In 1658 he fell ill, and was confined by his son Emperor Aurangzeb in the

citadel of Agra until his death in 1666. On the eve of his death in 1666, the Mughal

Empire spanned almost 750,000,000 acres (3,000,000 km2) and he was the most

famous and powerful man on earth of the age who had in his empire the biggest and

the most prosperous capital (Shahjahanabad) and some of the most delicate

architectural masterpieces of the world.

The period of his reign was the golden age of Mughal architecture. Shah Jahan

erected many splendid monuments, the most famous of which is the legendary Taj

Mahal at Agra built as a tomb for his wife Empress Mumtaz Mahal (birth name

Arjumand Banu Begum). The Pearl Mosque and many other buildings inside the Red

Fort (Qila Mubarak) at Agra , the complete design of the Old Delhi (Shahjahanabad),

the palaces, the Red Fort and the great mosque at Delhi, mosques in Lahore,

buildings in the Lahore fort (present day Pakistan) and a beautiful mosque at Thatta

(present day Pakistan) also commemorate him. The most famous, celebrated and the

luxurious throne of the world, the Takht-E-Taus or the Takht-E-Shahanshah-E-

Hindustan (Peacock Throne), said to be worth millions of dollars by modern

estimates, also dates from his reign. He was also the founder of Shahjahanabad, now

known as 'Old Delhi'. The important buildings of Shah Jahan were the Diwan-i-Am

and Diwan-i-Khas in the fort of Delhi, the Jama Masjid, the Moti Masjid and the Taj.

It is pointed out that the Palace of Delhi is the most magnificent in the East.

Biography

Baadshah Shah Jahan was born as Prince Shihab-ud-din Muhammad Khurram , in

1592 in Lahore, India (current day Pakistan) as the third and favorite son of the

emperor Jahangir,. The name Khurram - Persian for 'joyful' - was given by his

grandfather Akbar. His early years saw him receive a cultured, broad education and

he distinguished himself in the martial arts and as a military commander while

leading his father's armies in numerous campaigns - Mewar (1615 CE, 1024 AH), the

Deccan (1617 and 1621 CE, 1026 and 1030 AH), Kangra (1618 CE, 1027AH). He

was responsible for most of the territorial gains during his father's reign.[5] He also

demonstrated a precocious talent for building, impressing his father at the age of 16

when he built his quarters within his great grandfather Emperor Babur's Kabul fort

and redesigned buildings within Agra fort. He also carries the universally famous

titles like "The builder of marvels ".

Rule

Although his father's rule was generally peaceful, the empire was experiencing

challenges by the end of his reign. Shahanshah Shah Jahan reversed this trend by

putting down an Islamic rebellion in Ahmednagar, repulsing the Portuguese in

Bengal, capturing the Rajput kingdoms of Baglana and Bundelkhand to the west and

the northwest beyond the Khyber Pass. Under his rule, the empire became a huge

military machine and the nobles and their contingents multiplied almost fourfold, as

did the demands for more revenue from the peasantry. But due to his measures in the

financial and commercial fields, it was a period of general stability — the

administration was centralised and court affairs systematised. Historiography and the

arts increasingly became instruments of propaganda, where beautiful artworks or

poetry expressed specific state ideologies which held that central power and

hierarchical order would create balance and harmony. The empire continued to

expand moderately during his reign but the first signs of an imperial decline were

seen in the later years when he was being imprisoned. Above all it is obligatory to

mention here that India became the richest centre of the arts, crafts and architecture

and some of the best of the architects, artisians, craftsmens, painters and writers of

the world risided in the empire of this magnanimous personality.

NUR JAHAN

Begum Nur Jahan (Persian/Urdu: جاں alternative spelling Noor Jahan, Nur) ( نور

Jehan, Nor Jahan, etc.) (1577–1645), also known as Mehr-un-Nisaa, was an

Empress of the Mughal Dynasty, of Persian origin whose tomb lies in Lahore,

Pakistan.

Begum Nur Jahan was the twentieth and favourite wife of Mughal Emperor Jahangir,

who was her second husband - and the most famous Empress of the Mughal Empire.

The story of the couple's infatuation for each other and the relationship that abided

between them is the stuff of many (often apocryphal) legends. She remains historically

significant for the sheer amount of imperial authority she wielded - the true "power

behind the throne," as Jehangir was battling serious addictions to alcohol and opium

throughout his reign - and is known as one of the most powerful women who ruled

India with an iron fist.

Birth

Begum Nur Jahan was born in 1577 in Kandahar (now in Afghanistan) to traveling

Persians from Tehran (now in Iran). Her Persian-born grandfather, who was in the

service of Shah Tahmasp I, died in Yazd, laden with honours. His heirs, however, soon

fell upon hard times. His son Mirza Ghias Beg (known as Itmad-ud-Daulah, "Pillar of

the State", a title conferred on him by Akbar) travelled to India with his family where

he rose to become an administrative official in the Mughal court. For their journey,

Ghias Beg and his wife, Asmat Begum, joined a caravan travelling southward under

the leadership of a merchant noble named Malik Masud. While still in Persian

territory, less than half the way to their destination, Ghias Beg's party was attacked by

robbers and the family lost almost everything it owned. Left with only two mules,

Ghias Beg, his expectant wife, their children, Muhammad Sharif, Abdul Hasan Asaf

Khan, and one daughter, took turns riding on the backs of the animals. When the

group reached Kandahar, Asmat Begum gave birth to her fourth child and second

daughter, Mehr-un-Nisaa.

Marriage with Sher Afghan

Mehr-Un-Nisaa was married to Sher Afghan Quli Khan when she was seventeen in

1594, the marriage arranged by Akbar. In 1605, Mehr-Un-Nisaa gave birth to a

daughter, also called Mehr-Un-Nisaa (later at court she was named Ladli), Mehr-Un-

Nisaa was the one and only child she ever had. In 1607, Sher Afghan Quli Khan was

killed during a misunderstanding. During this time Sher Afghan Quli Khan had held

the title of Sher Afghan, granted to him by Jahangir as Quli saved his life from an

angry tigress. Also notice, during this time, Jahangir may have been asking Sher

Afghan Quli Khan to give Mehr-Un-Nisaa to him, for his harem, although the truth of

this is incertain, as Jahangir married her in 1611, after she had been at court for four

years.

Marriage with Jahangir

The emperor Akbar died in 1605 and was succeeded by prince Salim, who took the

regal name Jahangir. After her husband Sher Afghan (who was appointed as jagirdar

of Bardhaman, a city in Bengal) was killed in 1607, Mehr-un-Nisaa became a lady-in-

waiting to one of the Jahangir's stepmothers, Ruqayya Sultana Begum. Ruqayya was

the most senior woman in the harem and had been Akbar's first and principal wife and

was also the daughter of Mirza Hindal. The father of Mehr-un-Nisaa was, at that time,

a diwan to an amir-ul-umra, decidedly not a very high post.

The year 1607 had not been particularly good for Mehr-un-Nisaa. Her family had

fallen into disgrace. Her father, who had been holding important posts under Akbar

and Jahangir, had succumbed to his only weakness, money, and had been charged

with embezzlement. Moreover, due to possible involvement in the pro-Khusrau

assassination attempt on Jahangir in 1607, two of Mehr-un-Nisaa's family members

(one brother named Muhammad Sharif and her mother's cousin) were executed on the

orders of the Emperor.

Death

When Jahangir died in 1628, Nur Jahan's brother Asaf Khan took the side of his son-

in-law Khurrum against his sister. It was Khurram who became the new Mughal

emperor under the regal name Shah Jahan. Nur Jahan was confined to a comfortable

mansion for the rest of her life.

During this period, she paid for and oversaw the construction of her father's

mausoleum in Agra, known now as Itmad-Ud-Daulah's Tomb, and occasionally

composed Persian poems under the assumed name of Makhfi.

Nur Jahan died in 1645 at age 68, and is buried at Shahdara Bagh in Lahore,

Pakistan in a tomb she had built herself, near the tomb of Jahangir. Her brother Asaf

Khan's tomb is also located nearby. The tomb attracts many visitors, both Pakistani

and foreign, who come to enjoy pleasant walks in its beautiful gardens. All had been

personally laid out and designed by Nur Jahan herself.

MUMTAZ MAHAL

Mumtaz Mahal (April, 1593 – 17 June 1631) (Persian, Urdu: محل ;ممتاز

pronounced [mumˈtɑːz ˈmɛhɛl]; meaning "beloved ornament of the palace") is the

common nickname of Arjumand Banu Begum, an Empress of India during the Mughal

Dynasty. She was born in Agra, India. Her father Abdul Hasan Asaf Khan who was

also the brother of Empress Nur Jehan (who subsequently became the wife of the

emperor Jahangir). She was religiously a Shia Muslim. She was married at the age of

19, on 10 May 1612, to Prince Khurram, who would later ascend the Peacock Throne

as Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan I. She was his third wife, and became his favorite.

She died in Burhanpur in the Deccan (now in Madhya Pradesh) during the birth of

their fourteenth child, a daughter named Gauhara Begum.

Biography

In 1607 AD (1016 AH), Prince Khurram, also known as Shahjahan, was betrothed to

Arjumand Banu Begum, who was just 14 years old at the time. She would become the

unquestioned love of his life. They would however, have to wait five years before they

were married in 1612 AD (1021 AH), on a date selected by the court astrologers as

most conducive to ensuring a happy marriage. After their wedding celebrations,

Khurram "finding her in appearance and character elect among all the women of the

time", gave her the title 'Mumtaz Mahal' Begum (Chosen One of the Palace). 18 AH).

The intervening years had seen Khurrum take two other wives. By all accounts

however, Khurram was so taken with Mumtaz, that he showed little interest in

exercising his polygamous rights with the two earlier wives, other than dutifully siring

a child with each. According to the official court chronicler, Motamid Khan (as

recorded in his Iqbal Namah-e-Jahangiri), the relationship with his other wives "had

nothing more than the status of marriage. The intimacy, deep affection, attention and

favour which His Majesty had for the Cradle of Excellence (Mumtaz) exceeded by a

thousand times what he felt for any other." She was a woman with a kind heart.

Mumtaz Mahal had a very deep and loving marriage with Shah Jahan. Even during

her lifetime, poets would extol her beauty, grace and compassion. Mumtaz Mahal was

Shah Jahan's trusted companion, travelling with him all over the Mughal Empire. His

trust in her was so great that he even gave her his imperial seal, the Muhr Uzah.

Mumtaz was portrayed as the perfect wife with no aspirations to political power in

contrast to Nur Jehan, the wife of Jahangir who had wielded considerable influence in

the previous reign. She was a great influence on him, apparently often intervening on

behalf of the poor and destitute. But she also enjoyed watching elephant and combat

fights performed for the court. It was quite common for women of noble birth to

commission architecture in the Mughal Empire. Mumtaz devoted some time to a

riverside garden in Agra.

Despite her frequent pregnancies, Mumtaz travelled with Shah Jahan's entourage

throughout his earlier military campaigns and the subsequent rebellion against his

father. She was his constant companion and trusted confidante, and their relationship

was intense. Indeed, the court historians go to unheard lengths to document the

intimate and erotic relationship the couple enjoyed. In their nineteen years of

marriage, they had fourteen children together, seven of whom died at birth or at a

very young age. When Shah Jahan travelled to Balapur fort, Burhanpur, mother of

Mirza Azam and elder daughter of Shahzada Badi uz-Zaman Mirza, alias Shah Nawaz

Khan of the Safawi dynasty Dilrus Banu, wife of Auranzeb along with Mumtaz and

cousin/brother Shah Beg Khan along with military personnel stayed three nights near

Argaon at Hiwarkhed, before the birth of their fourteenth child.

Children

1. Shahzadi Huralnissa Begum (1613–1616)

2. Shahzadi (Imperial Princess) Jahanara Begum ) (1614–1681)

3. Shahzada (Imperial Prince) Dara Shikoh (1615–1659)

4. Shahzada Mohammed Sultan Shah Shuja Bahadur (1616–1660)

5. Shahzadi Roshanara Begum (1617–1671)

6. Badshah Mohinnudin Mohammed Aurangzeb (1618–1707)

7. Shahzada Sultan Ummid Baksh (1619–1622)

8. Shahzadi Surayya Banu Begum (1621–1628)

9. Shahzada Sultan Murad Baksh (1624–1661)

Mumtaz Mahal's Funeral

Initial estimates for the cost of the works of 4,000,000 rupees had risen to 5,000,000

by completion.[f] A waqf (trust) was established for the perpetual upkeep of the

mausoleum with an income of 300,000 rupees. One third of this income came from 30

villages in the district of Agra while the remainder came from taxes generated as a

result of trade from the bazaars and caravanserais which had been built at an early

stage to the south of the complex. Any surplus would be distributed by the emperor as

he saw fit. As well as paying for routine maintenance, the waqf financed the expenses

for the tomb attendants and the Hafiz, the Koran reciters who would sit day and night

in the mausoleum and perform funery services praying for the eternal soul of Mumtaz

Mahal. The initial construction stages were noted by Shah Jahan's chroniclers in their

description of the first two 'Urs, the anniversary celebrations in honour of Mumtaz.

The first, held on the June 22, 1632 CE (1041 AH), was a tented affair open to all

ranks of society and held in the location of what is now the entrance courtyard

(Jilaukhana). Alms were distributed and prayers recited. By the second Urs, held on

May 26, 1633 CE (1042 AH),[e] Mumtaz Mahal had been interred in her final resting

place, the riverside terrace was finished; as was the plinth of the mausoleum and the

tahkhana, a galleried suite of rooms opening to the river and under the terrace. It was

used by the imperial retinue for the celebrations. Peter Mundy, an employee of the

British East India company and a western eye witness, noted the ongoing construction

of the caravanserais and bazaars and that "There is alreadye[sic] about Her Tombe a

raile[sic] of gold". To deter theft it was replaced in 1643 CE (1053 AH) with an inlaid

marble jali.

TAJ MAHAL

The Taj Mahal ( / ̍ t ɑːdʒ m ə ̍ h ɑːl / ; Hindi: ता�ज महल, Urdu: محل crown of" تاج

buildings", pronounced [ˈt ̪aːdʒ məˈɦəl]; also "the Taj") is a mausoleum located in

Agra, India. It is one of the most recognizable structures in the world. It was built by

Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his third wife, Mumtaz Mahal. It is widely

considered as one of the most beautiful buildings in the world and stands as a symbol

of eternal love.

Taj Mahal is the finest example of Mughal architecture, a style that combines

elements from Persian, Islamic and Indian architectural styles.

In 1983, the Taj Mahal became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. While the white

domed marble mausoleum is the most familiar component of the Taj Mahal, it is

actually an integrated complex of structures. The construction began around 1632

and was completed around 1653, employing thousands of artisans and craftsmen . The

construction of the Taj Mahal was entrusted to a board of architects under imperial

supervision, including Abd ul-Karim Ma'mur Khan, Makramat Khan, and Ustad

Ahmad Lahauri. Lahauri is generally considered to be the principal designer.

Origin and inspiration

In 1631, Shah Jahan, emperor during the Mughal empire's period of greatest

prosperity, was grief-stricken when his third wife, Mumtaz Mahal, died during the

birth of their fourteenth child, Gauhara Begum Construction of the Taj Mahal began

in 1632, one year after her death. The court chronicles of Shah Jahan's grief illustrate

the love story traditionally held as an inspiration for Taj Mahal.[12][13] The principal

mausoleum was completed in 1648 and the surrounding buildings and garden were

finished five years later. Emperor Shah Jahan himself described the Taj in these

words:

Should guilty seek asylum here,

Like one pardoned, he becomes free from sin.

Should a sinner make his way to this mansion,

All his past sins are to be washed away.

The sight of this mansion creates sorrowing sighs;

And the sun and the moon shed tears from their eyes.

In this world this edifice has been made;

To display thereby the creator's glory.

The Taj Mahal incorporates and expands on design traditions of Persian architecture

and earlier Mughal architecture. Specific inspiration came from successful Timurid

and Mughal buildings including; the Gur-e Amir (the tomb of Timur, progenitor of the

Mughal dynasty, in Samarkand), Humayun's Tomb, Itmad-Ud-Daulah's Tomb

(sometimes called the Baby Taj), and Shah Jahan's own Jama Masjid in Delhi. While

earlier Mughal buildings were primarily constructed of red sandstone, Shah Jahan

promoted the use of white marble inlaid with semi-precious stones, and buildings

under his patronage reached new levels of refinement.

Architecture

The tomb

The central focus of the complex is the tomb. This large, white marble structure stands

on a square plinth and consists of a symmetrical building with an iwan (an arch-

shaped doorway) topped by a large dome and finial. Like most Mughal tombs, the

basic elements are Persian in origin.

The base structure is essentially a large, multi-chambered cube with chamfered

corners, forming an unequal octagon that is approximately 55 metres (180 ft) on each

of the four long sides. On each of these sides, a huge pishtaq, or vaulted archway,

frames the iwan with two similarly shaped, arched balconies stacked on either side.

This motif of stacked pishtaqs is replicated on the chamfered corner areas, making the

design completely symmetrical on all sides of the building. Four minarets frame the

tomb, one at each corner of the plinth facing the chamfered corners. The main

chamber houses the false sarcophagi of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan; the actual

graves are at a lower level.

The marble dome that surmounts the tomb is the most spectacular feature. Its height

of around 35 metres (115 ft) is about the same as the length of the base, and is

accentuated as it sits on a cylindrical "drum" which is roughly 7 metres (23 ft) high.

Because of its shape, the dome is often called an onion dome or amrud (guava dome).

The top is decorated with a lotus design, which also serves to accentuate its height.

The shape of the dome is emphasised by four smaller domed chattris (kiosks) placed at

its corners, which replicate the onion shape of the main dome. Their columned bases

open through the roof of the tomb and provide light to the interior. Tall decorative

spires (guldastas) extend from edges of base walls, and provide visual emphasis to the

height of the dome. The lotus motif is repeated on both the chattris and guldastas. The

dome and chattris are topped by a gilded finial, which mixes traditional Persian and

Hindustani decorative elements.

The main finial was originally made of gold but was replaced by a copy made of

gilded bronze in the early 19th century. This feature provides a clear example of

integration of traditional Persian and Hindu decorative elements. The finial is topped

by a moon, a typical Islamic motif whose horns point heavenward. Because of its

placement on the main spire, the horns of the moon and the finial point combine to

create a trident shape, reminiscent of traditional Hindu symbols of Shiva.

The minarets, which are each more than 40 metres (130 ft) tall, display the designer's

penchant for symmetry. They were designed as working minarets — a traditional

element of mosques, used by the muezzin to call the Islamic faithful to prayer. Each

minaret is effectively divided into three equal parts by two working balconies that ring

the tower. At the top of the tower is a final balcony surmounted by a chattri that

mirrors the design of those on the tomb. The chattris all share the same decorative

elements of a lotus design topped by a gilded finial. The minarets were constructed

slightly outside of the plinth so that, in the event of collapse, (a typical occurrence

with many tall constructions of the period) the material from the towers would tend to

fall away from the tomb.

Exterior decoration

The exterior decorations of the Taj Mahal are among the finest in Mughal

architecture. As the surface area changes the decorations are refined proportionally.

The decorative elements were created by applying paint, stucco, stone inlays, or

carvings. In line with the Islamic prohibition against the use of anthropomorphic

forms, the decorative elements can be grouped into either calligraphy, abstract forms

or vegetative motifs.

Throughout the complex, passages from the Qur'an are used as decorative elements.

Recent scholarship suggests that the passages were chosen by Amanat Khan. The texts

refer to themes of judgment and include:

Surah 91 – The Sun

Surah 112 – The Purity of Faith

Surah 89 – Daybreak

Surah 93 – Morning Light

Surah 95 – The Fig

Surah 94 – The Solace

Surah 36 – Ya Sin

Surah 81 – The Folding Up

The garden

The complex is set around a large 300-metre (980 ft) square charbagh or Mughal

garden. The garden uses raised pathways that divide each of the four quarters of the

garden into 16 sunken parterres or flowerbeds. A raised marble water tank at the

center of the garden, halfway between the tomb and gateway with a reflecting pool on

a north-south axis, reflects the image of the mausoleum. The raised marble water tank

is called al Hawd al-Kawthar, in reference to the "Tank of Abundance" promised to

Muhammad. Elsewhere, the garden is laid out with avenues of trees and fountains.

The charbagh garden, a design inspired by Persian gardens, was introduced to India

by the first Mughal emperor, Babur. It symbolizes the four flowing rivers of Jannah

(Paradise) and reflects the Paradise garden derived from the Persian paridaeza,

meaning 'walled garden'. In mystic Islamic texts of Mughal period, Paradise is

described as an ideal garden of abundance with four rivers flowing from a central

spring or mountain, separating the garden into north, west, south and east.

Outlying buildings

The Taj Mahal complex is bounded on three sides by crenellated red sandstone walls,

with the river-facing side left open. Outside the walls are several additional

mausoleums, including those of Shah Jahan's other wives, and a larger tomb for

Mumtaz's favorite servant. These structures, composed primarily of red sandstone, are

typical of the smaller Mughal tombs of the era. The garden-facing inner sides of the

wall are fronted by columned arcades, a feature typical of Hindu temples which was

later incorporated into Mughal mosques. The wall is interspersed with domed

chattris, and small buildings that may have been viewing areas or watch towers like

the Music House, which is now used as a museum.

Construction

The Taj Mahal was built on a parcel of land to the south of the walled city of Agra.

Shah Jahan presented Maharajah Jai Singh with a large palace in the center of Agra

in exchange for the land. An area of roughly three acres was excavated, filled with

dirt to reduce seepage, and leveled at 50 metres (160 ft) above riverbank. In the tomb

area, wells were dug and filled with stone and rubble to form the footings of the tomb.

Instead of lashed bamboo, workmen constructed a colossal brick scaffold that

mirrored the tomb. The scaffold was so enormous that foremen estimated it would take

years to dismantle. According to the legend, Shah Jahan decreed that anyone could

keep the bricks taken from the scaffold, and thus it was dismantled by peasants

overnight. A fifteen kilometer (9.3 mi) tamped-earth ramp was built to transport

marble and materials to the construction site and teams of twenty or thirty oxen pulled

the blocks on specially constructed wagons. An elaborate post-and-beam pulley

system was used to raise the blocks into desired position. Water was drawn from the

river by a series of purs, an animal-powered rope and bucket mechanism, into a large

storage tank and raised to a large distribution tank. It was passed into three

subsidiary tanks, from which it was piped to the complex.

he plinth and tomb took roughly 12 years to complete. The remaining parts of the

complex took an additional 10 years and were completed in order of minarets, mosque

and jawab, and gateway. Since the complex was built in stages, discrepancies exist in

completion dates due to differing opinions on "completion". For example, the

mausoleum itself was essentially complete by 1643, but work continued on the rest of

the complex. Estimates of the cost of construction vary due to difficulties in estimating

costs across time. The total cost has been estimated to be about 32 million Rupees at

that time.

The Taj Mahal was constructed using materials from all over India and Asia and over

1,000 elephants were used to transport building materials. The translucent white

marble was brought from Makrana, Rajasthan, the jasper from Punjab, jade and

crystal from China. The turquoise was from Tibet and the Lapis lazuli from

Afghanistan, while the sapphire came from Sri Lanka and the carnelian from Arabia.

In all, twenty eight types of precious and semi-precious stones were inlaid into the

white marble.

RED FORT

The Red Fort (Hindi: ल�ल क़ि�ल�, Urdu: قلعہ usually transcribed into English as Lal ,لال

Qil'ah or Lal Qila) is a 17th century fort complex constructed by the Mughal emperor

Shah Jahan in the walled city of Old Delhi (in present day Delhi, India). It served as

the capital of the Mughals until 1857, when Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar

was exiled by the British Indian government. The British used it as a military camp

until India was made independent in 1947. It is now a popular tourist site, as well as a

powerful symbol of India's sovereignty: the Prime Minister of India raises the flag of

India on the ramparts of the Lahori Gate of the fort complex every year on

Independence Day. It was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2007.

Mughal Emperor Shahjahan, started construction of the massive fort in 1638 and

work was completed in 1648 (10 years). The Red Fort was originally referred to as

"Qila-i-Mubarak" (the blessed fort), because it was the residence of the royal family.

The layout of the Red Fort was organised to retain and integrate this site with the

Salimgarh Fort. The fortress palace was an important focal point of the medieval city

of Shahjahanabad. The planning and aesthetics of the Red Fort represent the zenith of

Mughal creativity which prevailed during the reign of Emperor Shah Jahan. This Fort

has had many developments added on after its construction by Emperor Shahjahan.

The significant phases of development were under Aurangzeb and later Mughal

rulers. Important physical changes were carried out in the overall settings of the site

after the First War of Independence during British Rule in 1857. After Independence,

the site experienced a few changes in terms of addition/alteration to the structures.

During the British period the Fort was mainly used as a cantonment and even after

Independence, a significant part of the Fort remained under the control of the Indian

Army until the year 2003.The Red Fort is a tourist attraction from around the world.

The Red Fort was the palace for Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan's new capital,

Shahjahanabad, the seventh city in the Delhi site. He moved his capital here from

Agra in a move designed to bring prestige to his reign, and to provide ample

opportunity to apply his ambitious building schemes and interests.

The fort lies along the Yamuna River, which fed the moats that surround most of the

wall. The wall at its north-eastern corner is adjacent to an older fort, the Salimgarh

Fort, a defense built by Islam Shah Suri in 1546.The construction of the Red Fort

began in 1638 and was completed by 1648.

On 11 March 1783, Sikhs briefly entered Red Fort in Delhi and occupied the Diwan-i-

Am. The city was essentially surrendered by the Mughal wazir in cahoots with his Sikh

Allies. This task was carried out under the command of the Sardar Baghel Singh

Dhaliwal, who led Karor Singhia misl which comprised of Jat Sikhs from present day

Amritsar and Tarn Taran districts (some major villages being Chabal, Naushehra

Pannuan, Sirhali, Guruwali, Chabba, Sur Singh, Bhikhiwind, Khadur Sahib, Chola

Sahib etc.) .

The last Mughal emperor to occupy the fort was Bahadur Shah II "Zafar". Despite

being the seat of Mughal power and its defensive capabilities, the Red Fort was not

defended during the 1857 uprising against the British. After the failure of the 1857

rebellion, Zafar left the fort on 17 September. He returned to Red Fort as a prisoner

of the British. Zafar was tried on in a trial starting on 27 January 1858, and was

exiled on 7 October.

Red Fort showcases the very high level of art form and ornamental work. The art

work in the Fort is a synthesis of Persian, European and Indian art which resulted in

the development of unique Shahjahani style which is very rich in form, expression and

colour. Red Fort, Delhi is one of the important building complexes of India which

encapsulates a long period of Indian history and its arts. Its significance has

transcended time and space. It is relevant as a symbol of architectural brilliance and

power. Even before its notification as a monument of national importance in the year

1913, efforts were made to preserve and conserve the Red Fort, for posterity.

The walls of the fort are smoothly dressed, articulated by heavy string-courses along

the upper section. They open at two major gates, the Delhi and the Lahore gates. The

Lahore Gate is the main entrance; it leads to a long covered bazaar street, the Chatta

Chowk, whose walls are lined with stalls for shops. The Chatta Chowk leads to a

large open space where it crosses the large north-south street that was originally the

division between the fort's military functions, to its west, and the palaces, to its east.

The southern end of this street is the Delhi Gate.

Important buildings and other structures inside the fort

Diwan-i-Aam

[edit] Diwan-i-Aam

Beyond this gate is another, larger open space, which originally served as the

courtyard of the Diwan-i-Aam, the large pavilion for public imperial audiences with

an ornate throne-balcony (jharokha) for the emperor. The columns were painted in

gold and there was a gold and silver railing separating the throne from the public.

Diwan-i-Khas

Diwan-i-Khas

The Diwan-i-Khas is a pavilion clad completely in marble, the pillars are decorated

with floral carvings and inlay work with many semi-precious stones.

Nahr-i-Behisht

The imperial private apartments lie behind the throne. The apartments consist of a

row of pavilions that sits on a raised platform along the eastern edge of the fort,

looking out onto the river Yamuna. The pavilions are connected by a continuous water

channel, known as the Nahr-i-Behisht, or the "Stream of Paradise", that runs through

the centre of each pavilion. The water is drawn from the river Yamuna, from a tower,

the Shah Burj, at the north-eastern corner of the fort. The palace is designed as an

imitation of paradise as it is described in the Koran; a couplet repeatedly inscribed in

the palace reads, "If there be a paradise on earth, it is here, it is here". The planning

of the palace is based on Islamic prototypes, but each pavilion reveals in its

architectural elements the Hindu influences typical of Mughal building. The palace

complex of the Red Fort is counted among the best examples of the Mughal style.

Zenana

Rang Mahal

The two southernmost pavilions of the palace are zenanas, or women's quarters: the

Mumtaz Mahal (now a museum), and the larger, lavish Rang Mahal, which has been

famous for its gilded, decorated ceiling and marble pool, fed by the Nahr-i-Behisht.

Moti Masjid

Moti Masjid

To the west of the hammam is the Moti Masjid, the Pearl Mosque. This was a later

addition, built in 1659 as a private mosque for Aurangzeb, Shah Jahan's successor. It

is a small, three-domed mosque carved in white marble, with a three-arched screen

which steps down to the courtyard.

Hayat Bakhsh Bagh

To its north lies a large formal garden, the Hayat Bakhsh Bagh, or "Life-Bestowing

Garden", which is cut through by two bisecting channels of water. A pavilion stands

at either end of the north-south channel, and a third, built in 1842 by the last emperor,

Bahadur Shah Zafar, stands at the centre of the pool where the two channels meet.

Red Fort today

The Red Fort by night.

The Red Fort is one of the most popular tourist destinations in Old Delhi, attracting

thousands of visitors every year. The fort is also the site from which the Prime

Minister of India addresses the nation on 15 August, the day India achieved

independence from the British. It also happens to be the largest monument in Old

Delhi.

At one point in time, more than 3,000 people lived within the premises of the Delhi

Fort complex. But after the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, the fort was captured by Britain

and the residential palaces destroyed. It was made the headquarters of the British

Indian Army. Immediately after the mutiny, Bahadur Shah Zafar was tried at the Red

Fort. It was also here in November 1945, that the most famous courts-martial of three

officers of the Indian National Army were held. After India gained independence in

1947, the Indian Army took control over the fort. In December 2003, the Indian Army

handed the fort over to the Indian tourist authorities.

AGRA FORT

Agra Fort (Hindi: आगरा� क़ि�ल�, Urdu: قلعہ آاگرہ ) is a UNESCO World Heritage site

located in Agra, India. It is about 2.5 km northwest of its more famous sister

monument, the Taj Mahal. The fort can be more accurately described as a walled city.

It is the most important fort in India. The great Mugals, Humayun, Akbar, Jehangir,

Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb lived here, and the country was governed from here. It

contained the largest state treasury and mint. It was visited by foreign ambassadors,

travelers and dignitaries.

it was originally a brick fort,held by the sikarwar.it was mentioned for the first time in

1080 AD when a Ghanznavide force captured it. Sikandar Lodi (1487–1517) was the

first Sultan of Delhi who shifted to Agra and lived in the fort. He governed the country

from here and Agra assumed the importance of the second capital. He died in the fort

in 1517 and his son, Ibrahim Lodi, held it for nine years until he was defeated and

killed at Panipat in 1526. Several palaces, wells and a mosque were built by him in

the fort during his period.

After Panipat, Mughals captured the fort and a vast treasure - which included a

diamond that was later named as the Koh-i-Noor diamond - was seized. Babur stayed

in the fort in the palace of Ibrahim. He built a baoli (step well) in it. Humayun was

crowned here in 1530. Humayun was defeated in Bilgram in 1540. Sher Shah held the

fort for five years. The Mughals defeated the Afghans finally at Panipat in 1556.

Realizing the importance of its central situation, Akbar made it his capital and arrived

in Agra in 1558. His historian, Abdul Fazal, recorded that this was a brick fort known

as 'Badalgarh' . It was in a ruined condition and Akbar had it rebuilt with red

sandstone from Barauli area in Rajasthan. Architects laid the foundation and it was

built with bricks in the inner core with sandstone on external surfaces. Builders

worked on it for eight years, completing it in 1573.

It was only during the reign of Akbar's grandson, Shah Jahan, that the site took on its

current state. The legend is that Shah Jahan built the beautiful Taj Mahal for his wife,

Mumtaz Mahal. Unlike his grandfather, Shah Jahan tended to have buildings made

from white marble, often inlaid with gold or semi-precious gems. He destroyed some

of the earlier buildings inside the fort in order to make his own.

At the end of his life, Shah Jahan was imprisoned by his son, Aurangzeb, in the fort. It

is rumored that Shah Jahan died in Muasamman Burj, a tower with a marble balcony

with a view of the Taj Mahal.

The fort was the site of a battle during the Indian rebellion of 1857, which caused the

end of the British East India Company's rule in India, and led to a century of direct

rule of India by Britain.

Layout

The 94-acre (380,000 m2) fort has a semicircular plan, its chord lies parallel to the

river and its walls are seventy feet high. Double ramparts have massive circular

bastions at intervals, with battlements, embrasures, machicolations and string

courses. Four gates were provided on its four sides, one Khizri gate opening on to the

river.

Two of the fort's gates are notable: the "Delhi Gate" and the "Lahore Gate." The

Lahore Gate is also popularly also known as the Amar Singh Gate, for Amar Singh

Rathore.

The monumental Delhi Gate, which faces the city on the western side of the fort, is

considered the grandest of the four gates and a masterpiece of Akbar's time. It was

built circa 1568 both to enhance security and as the king's formal gate, and includes

features related to both. It is embellished with inlay work in white marble, proof to the

richness and power of the Great Mughals. A wooden drawbridge was used to cross

the moat and reach the gate from the mainland; inside, an inner gateway called Hathi

Pol ("Elephant Gate") - guarded by two life-sized stone elephants with their riders -

added another layer of security. The drawbridge, slight ascent, and 90-degree turn

between the outer and inner gates make the entrance impregnable. During a siege,

attackers would employ elephants to crush a fort's gates. Without a level, straight run-

up to gather speed, however, something prevented by this layout, elephants are

ineffective.

Because the Indian military (the Parachute Brigade in particular) is still using the

northern portion of the Agra Fort, the Delhi Gate cannot be used by the public.

Tourists enter via the Amar Singh Gate.

The site is very important in terms of architectural history. Abul Fazal recorded that

five hundred buildings in the beautiful designs of Bengal and Gujarat were built in the

fort. Some of them were demolished by Shahjahan to make way for his white marble

palaces. Most of the others were destroyed by the British between 1803 and 1862 for

raising barracks. Hardly thirty Mughal buildings have survived on the south-eastern

side, facing the river. Of these, the Delhi Gate and Akbar Gate and one palace -

"Bengali Mahal" - are representative Akbari buildings.

Sites and structures

The Khas Mahal

Jahangiri mahal

Anguri Bagh (Grape Garden)- 85 square, geometrically arranged gardens[1]

Diwan-i-Am (Hall of Public Audience) - was used to speak to the people and

listen to petitioners and once housed the Peacock Throne

Diwan-i-Khas (Hall of Private Audience) - was used to receive kings and

dignitary, features black throne of Jehangir

Golden Pavilions - beautiful pavilions with roofs shaped like the roofs of

Bengali huts

Jahangiri Mahal - built by Akbar for his son Jehangir

Khas Mahal - white marble palace, one of the best examples of painting on

marble

Macchi Bhawan (Fish Enclosure) - grand enclosure for harem functions, once

had pools and fountains

Mina Masjid (Heavenly Mosque) - private mosque used by mujahara

Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) - mosque built for use by members of royal court

Musamman Burj - a large, octagonal tower with a balcony facing the Taj

Mahal

Takht-i-Jahangir - Throne of Jahangir

Nagina Masjid (Gem Mosque) - mosque designed for the ladies of the court

Naubat Khana (Drum House) - a place where the king's musicians played

Rang Mahal - where the king's wives and mistresses lived

Shahi Burj - Shah Jahan's private work area

Shah Jahani Mahal - Shah Jahan 's first attempt at modification of the red

sandstone palace

Shish Mahal's glass works

Sheesh Mahal or Shish Mahal (Mirror Palace) - royal dressing room featuring

tiny mirror-like glass-mosaic decorations, and drums built into the walls.

Zenana Mina Bazaar (Ladies Bazaar) - right next to the balcony, where only

female merchants sold wares the countrys name is also called the agra forts

Popular culture

The Agra Fort won the Aga Khan Award for Architecture in 2004. India Post

issued a stamp to commemorate this event

The Agra Fort plays a key role in the Sherlock Holmes mystery The Sign of the

Four, by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle.

The Agra Fort was featured in the music video for Habibi Da, a hit song of

Egyptian pop star Hisham Abbas.

Shivaji came to Agra in 1666 as per the "Purandar Treaty" entered into with

Mirza Raje Jaisingh to met Aurangzeb in the Diwan-i-Khas. In the audience he

was deliberately placed behind men of lower rank, Insulted he stormed out of

the imperial audience and was confined to Jai Sing 's quarters on 12 May

1666. Fearing the dungeons and execution, in a famously sweet legend, he

escaped on 17 August 1666. A heroic equestrian statue of Shivaji has been

erected outside the fort.

In the second expansion pack for the videogame Age of Empires 3, the Asian

Dynasties, Agra fort is one of five wonders for the Indian civilization.

FATEHPUR SIKRI

Fathehpur Sikri (Hindi: फ़ता हपु�रा सी�करा�, Urdu: ی کر ی س ر و پ ح ت is a city and a (ف municipal

board in Agra district in the state of Uttar Pradesh, India. Built near the much older

Sikri, the historical city of Fatehabad, as it was first named, was constructed by

Mughal emperor Akbar beginning in 1570, in honour of Sufi saint Shaikh Salim

Chisti, who lived in a cavern on the ridge at Sikri, and foretold the birth of his son,

who was named Prince Salim after him, and later succeeded Akbar to the throne of

the Mughal Empire, as Jahangir. Fatehabad later acquired the name Fatehpur, and

gave rise to present name Fatehpur Sikri.[2][3]It was the first planned city of the

Mughals and also first one in Mughal architecture, an amalgamation of Indian

architecture, Persian and Islamic architecture, and served as the Mughal Empire's

capital from 1571 until 1585. Though the court took 15 years to build, it was

abandoned after only 14 years because the water supply was unable to sustain the

growing population.[4] and unrest in the North-West.[5] Today, the complex of

buildings, including the extant royal palaces, courts and the Jama Masjid is a popular

tourist attraction, and was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1986.[6] The

site itself is a ghost town, though the city has a population of 28804 as per 2001

census.

History

Sikri is built upon a rocky ridge, an extension of the upper Vindhya ranges, which are

older rounded mountains and hills. It is situated on the bank of a large natural lake,

now mostly dried, and abundance of water, forest and raw material, made it suitable

for habitation, in the pre-historic period, evident by the existence of rock shelters with

paintings found on the periphery of the lake. Stone age tools have been found in this

area, apart from pottery and other items suggesting the habitation of the Ochre

Coloured Pottery culture, dating c. 2nd millennium B.C. and the Painted Grey Ware

culture, Iron Age culture of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, dating around 1200-800 B.C.[2]

It is mentioned in the epic Mahabharat as Saik, defined in the lexicons as a region

surrounded by water. After an archaeological excavation in December 1999, at the

Bir Chhabili ki teela, a mound about 200 metres from the Fatehpur Sikri complex,

further suggestions of continuous habitation in the region after the prehistoric period

were found. Remains amongst of an ancient Jain temple was a 'Jain Saraswati' stone

sculpture, dated 1067 Vikram Samvat i.e. 1010 AD, with an inscription mentioning the

place as Sekrikya, which has a similar meaning to one mentioned in the Mahabharat.

Plus, most of the Jain tirthankara icons also found in the same pit were dated 977 -

1044 AD.

Architecture of Fatehpur Sikri

Fatehpur Sikri sits on rocky ridge, 3 km. in length and 1 km. wide, and palace city is

surrounded by a 11 km wall on three side with the fourth being a lake at the time. [17]

The buildings of Fatehpur Sikri show a synthesis of various regional schools of

architectural craftsmanship such as Gujarat and Bengal. This was because

indigenous craftsmen from various regions were used for the construction of the

buildings. Influences from Hindu and Jain architecture are seen hand in hand with

Islamic elements. The building material used in all the buildings at Fatehpur Sikri,

palace-city complex, is the locally quarried red sandstone, known as 'Sikri sandstone'.[18][19] It is accessed through gates along the five-mile long fort wall, namely, Delhi

Gate, the Lal Gate, the Agra Gate, Birbal's Gate, Chandanpal Gate, The Gwalior

Gate, the Tehra Gate, the Chor Gate and the Ajmere Gate.[

Administrative establishment

Fatehpur Sikri is one of the fifteen Block headquarters in the Agra district[28] it has 52

Gram panchayats (Village Panchayat) under it.[29]

The Fatehpur Sikri, is a constituency of the Lok Sabha, Lower house of the Indian

Parliament , and further comprises five Vidhan Sabha (legislative assembly) segments [30],:

1. Agra Rural

2. Fatehpur Sikri

3. Kheragarh

4. Fatehabad

5. Bah

In all there are 12 villages of Sisodia Rajputs near Fatehpur Sikri fort in Agra district.

These are Daultabad, Nayavas, Satha, korai, Behrawati, Byara, Undera, Kachora,

Singarpur, Vidyapur, Onera, Arrua.