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Motivational differences among talented teenage athletes: the significance of gender, type of sport and level of excellence Braathen ET, Svebak S. Motivational differencesamong talented teenage athletes: the significanceof gender, type of sport and level of excellence. A range of motivational characteristics were studied in a sample of 228 males and 124 females (age: 15-16 years) recruited from the most promising performers of merent sports, mainly in western Norway. They all comple- ted the Sport Orientation Questionnaire (competitiveness, win and goal or- ientation), fie short Sensation Seeking Scale, the Life Orientation %st (op timism), a new scale on Social Reactivity (reactive and proactive negativism) and questionS on the importance of friendship among sport performers and of being the best. Differences of motivational styles were tested between males and females, performers of endurance, explosive and team sports and moderatelyversus bighiy s u d performers. The males scored signifio antly higher on competitiveness, win and goal orientation,sensation seeking and so-called reactive negativism,but scored significantly lower than fe- males on the importance of friendship. More amplex group differences were also significant. One emmple is the relatively high mean score for pro- active negativism in males performing explosive sports and the low mean in females of team sports. Our findings indicate a role for gender, type of sport, and level of excellence in motivational differences among these prom- ising athletes. The prospective significance of motivational differences for future success in sport competitions will be tested in a follow-up study. Scaad J Med Sci Sports 1992: 2 153-159. The psychological aspects of youth comptitive sports participation has attracted considerable re- search interest in recent years. A focus has been put in this research on the nature of motives for taking part in competitive sports (1). This research has iden- tifid some reasons why young athletes are involved in sport in general. A more specific question was raised in the present study, which explored differ- ences in a range of motivational characteristics among male and female teenage performers in dif- ferent types of competitive sports and at different le- vels of excellence. Achievement behaviour may be best explaiued by understanding the achievement goals of the athletes. Maehr & Nicholls (2) proposed a cognitive model of achievement motivation that distinguishes multiple goals in achievement behavior. These goals include factors such as demonstration of ability, enjoyment of challenge and seeking social approval. Ewing (3) cor- roborated the importance of these goals and addi- tional goals, related to the learning of a motor task Competitivenesshas been regarded as a sport-spe- cific form of the more general achievement motive. Martens (4) explicitly stated that competitiveness is a and to --taking. E.T Braathen, S. Svebak Universiiy of Bergen, Nomay Key words: adotesmnce; excellence; gender; moti- vation; sport8 Eli Torild Braethen, Deprbnenl of BWd and Medical Fsy&W, University of Bergen, had- veim 21, N6009 Bergen, Nomay Accepted for publication April 15,1992 disposition to strive for satisfaction when making comparisons with some standard of excellence in the presence of evaluative others in sport. Gill & Deeter (5) developed the Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ) as a multidimensional sport-specific measure of individual differences in achievement orientation. They studied undergraduates and high school stu- dents in competitive as well as uncompetitive skills classes. The SOQ has 3 separate but related sub- scales: one is a measure of competitiveness. Another set of items measures the importance given by the athlete to winning (win orientation), and the third subscale provides a measure of goal orientation. Gill & Deeter (5) found that males scored higher than fe- males on competitiveness as well as win orientation. However, males scored lower than females on goal orientation. Competitive sport participants scored signifcandy higher than noncompetitive participants on SOQ competitiveness and scored somewhat high- er on win and goal orientations. Unlike the present study, Gill & Deeter did not relate their findings to the performance of different types of sports. Zuckerman (6) found that sensation seeking was related to sport preferences and that men scored higher than women on the Sensation Seeking Scale 153

Motivational differences among talented teenage athletes: the significance of gender, type of sport and level of excellence

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Page 1: Motivational differences among talented teenage athletes: the significance of gender, type of sport and level of excellence

Motivational differences among talented teenage athletes: the significance of gender, type of sport and level of excellence

Braathen ET, Svebak S. Motivational differences among talented teenage athletes: the significance of gender, type of sport and level of excellence.

A range of motivational characteristics were studied in a sample of 228 males and 124 females (age: 15-16 years) recruited from the most promising performers of merent sports, mainly in western Norway. They all comple- ted the Sport Orientation Questionnaire (competitiveness, win and goal or- ientation), fie short Sensation Seeking Scale, the Life Orientation %st (op timism), a new scale on Social Reactivity (reactive and proactive negativism) and questionS on the importance of friendship among sport performers and of being the best. Differences of motivational styles were tested between males and females, performers of endurance, explosive and team sports and moderately versus bighiy s u d performers. The males scored signifio antly higher on competitiveness, win and goal orientation, sensation seeking and so-called reactive negativism, but scored significantly lower than fe- males on the importance of friendship. More amplex group differences were also significant. One emmple is the relatively high mean score for pro- active negativism in males performing explosive sports and the low mean in females of team sports. Our findings indicate a role for gender, type of sport, and level of excellence in motivational differences among these prom- ising athletes. The prospective significance of motivational differences for future success in sport competitions will be tested in a follow-up study.

Scaad J Med Sci Sports 1992: 2 153-159.

The psychological aspects of youth comptitive sports participation has attracted considerable re- search interest in recent years. A focus has been put in this research on the nature of motives for taking part in competitive sports (1). This research has iden- tifid some reasons why young athletes are involved in sport in general. A more specific question was raised in the present study, which explored differ- ences in a range of motivational characteristics among male and female teenage performers in dif- ferent types of competitive sports and at different le- vels of excellence.

Achievement behaviour may be best explaiued by understanding the achievement goals of the athletes. Maehr & Nicholls (2) proposed a cognitive model of achievement motivation that distinguishes multiple goals in achievement behavior. These goals include factors such as demonstration of ability, enjoyment of challenge and seeking social approval. Ewing (3) cor- roborated the importance of these goals and addi- tional goals, related to the learning of a motor task

Competitiveness has been regarded as a sport-spe- cific form of the more general achievement motive. Martens (4) explicitly stated that competitiveness is a

and to --taking.

E.T Braathen, S. Svebak Universiiy of Bergen, Nomay

Key words: adotesmnce; excellence; gender; moti- vation; sport8

Eli Torild Braethen, Deprbnenl of BWd and Medical Fsy&W, University of Bergen, h a d - veim 21, N6009 Bergen, Nomay

Accepted for publication April 15,1992

disposition to strive for satisfaction when making comparisons with some standard of excellence in the presence of evaluative others in sport. Gill & Deeter (5) developed the Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ) as a multidimensional sport-specific measure of individual differences in achievement orientation. They studied undergraduates and high school stu- dents in competitive as well as uncompetitive skills classes. The SOQ has 3 separate but related sub- scales: one is a measure of competitiveness. Another set of items measures the importance given by the athlete to winning (win orientation), and the third subscale provides a measure of goal orientation. Gill & Deeter (5) found that males scored higher than fe- males on competitiveness as well as win orientation. However, males scored lower than females on goal orientation. Competitive sport participants scored signifcandy higher than noncompetitive participants on SOQ competitiveness and scored somewhat high- er on win and goal orientations. Unlike the present study, Gill & Deeter did not relate their findings to the performance of different types of sports.

Zuckerman (6) found that sensation seeking was related to sport preferences and that men scored higher than women on the Sensation Seeking Scale

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Page 2: Motivational differences among talented teenage athletes: the significance of gender, type of sport and level of excellence

(SSS). Rowland et aL (7) found that males high on sensation seeking prefer explosive types of sports, whereas males low on sensation seeking prefened endurance sports. From a related perspective, Kerr & Svebak (8) found that young adult performers of risk sports scored significantly lower than performers of safe sports on arousal avoidance, a subscale of the %lic Dominance Scale. Arousal avoidance can be taken as the opposite of sensation seeking. Svebak & Kerr (9) have documented systematic relations be- tween motivational styles such as planning orienta- tion and arousal avoidance and preference for en- durance sports. Conversely, impulsiveness and arou- sal seeking were found to be assaciated with sprint and other explosive sports in amateur samples of young adults. (See Material and methods below for criteria on types of sport.) The present study tested the association between sensation seeking and type of sport as well as level of excellence and gender in a young sample of athletes in competitive sports.

The recent interest in the significance of optimism is based upon the idea that actions are greatly afEec- ted by pples’ beliefs about probable outcomes of those actions (lo). Empirical studies of changes in ef- ficacy expectations among performers of sport have found increases in self-efficacy expectations to be po- sitively related to performance outcome (1043). Ac- cording to Bandura (14), high self-efficacy expecta- tions are manifestations of an optimistic lifestyle. Therefore, in our study, we expected optimism to be associated with a high level of excellence among males and females in different sports. The Life Or- ientation Rst was developed by Scheier & Carver (15) to measure individual Merences in optimism (pessimism), and this scale was used in the present

Negativism has been defined as a feeling of being compelled to do something contrary to what is re- quired by some external source (16). It has been sug- gested to incorporate a variety of functions, such as to increase felt levels of arousal, and to gain indepen- dence and autonomy. McDermott & Apter (17) pub- lished a survey measure to assess individual differ- ences in negativistic lifestyles. This aspect of motiva- tion has not been studied in relation to sports despite the potential for negativism to be a significant factor in one’s willingness to make effort in competitive sports. McDerrmott & Apter (17) distinguished be- tween reactive and proactive negativism, and found that males score higher than females on both scales. Reactive negativism is defined as an emotional reac- tion to an interpemnal (extrinsic) disappointment or frustration. Subjects who obtained high scores on re- active negativism were likely to be individualistic and, thus, unlikely to subordinate their needs to those of others. McDermott & Apter (17) found reactive ne- gativism to be associated with a high need of power

Study.

to control the environment and with preference for impulsiveness rather than planned action.

Proactive negativism was distinguished by McDer- mott & Apter (17) as one form of negativism that is primarily directed towards obtaining a pleasurable state. It is essentially hedonistic and represents an in- trinsic kind of negativism with goals of fun and exci- tement and is, therefore, conceptually related to sen- sation seeking.

In our study we assumed that low reactive negati- vism would facilitate participation in team sports, whereas subjects with high proactive negativism would be more prevalent among skilled performers of explosive and risk sports, compared with perfor- mers of endurance, team and safe sports. The Social Reactivity Scale was developed by McDermott & Ap- ter (17) to measure individual differences in reactive and proactive negativism, and this scale was used in the present study.

Spink (18) found that specific measures of group cohesiveness are positively related to collective effi- cacy for expert volleyball teams but not for recrea- tional teams. One aspect of group cohesiveness is the significance of friendship among performers within a sport. We assumed that, in our study, females give higher rating than males on the significance of friendship. This is because norms related to sex roles in European culture sti l l seem to present a bias of this kind. As already noted, gender differences in motiva-

tional characteristics have been found among young adult athletes (5,6,17). Therefore, we predicted gen- der differences in motivation also among teenage performers of sports.

It is evident from the introduction above that sev- eral motivational variables have been studied in pre- vious reports on sports (such as competitiveness, win and goal orientation, sensation seeking, impulsive- ness, friendship relations). However, each of these studies have focused on a relatively narrow range of motivational measures. Therefore, a major purpose of the present study was to incorporate a more exten- sive number of motivational variables than has been previously reported. This approach incorporated also the motivational variables of reactive and proactive negativism as well as of optimism; variables that have, to our knowledge, never before been explored in relation to sports. Also in contrast with previous studies, measures were obtained on all these vari- ables from performers within a large number of dif- ferent sports. Thew sports were grouped into more general classes distinguished as a) explosive, endur- ance and team sports, as well as b) risk and safe sports. Moreover, a relative distinction was made be- tween c) moderate and high levels of excellence in competitive sports.

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Motivation in sports

Material and methods participated in l a d competitions and with relatively great success (moderate).

Subjects

The total sample consisted of 228 15- to 16-year-old males and 124 females at the same age. They were re- cruited from the most promising performers of vari- ous competitive sports in western Norway. Perfor- mers of winter sports were also recruited from the eastern and northern parts of Norway, where the cli- mate is more suitable for performance of these sports. They all volunteered to complete the survey.

Survey measures The survey included the SOQ (9, the short SSS (B), the Life Orientation Test (15) and the Social Reactivity Scale, consisting of subscales for reactive and proactive negativism (17). Questions about the importance of friendship and of being the best were also assessed as attriiutions to self, others and coach, respectively, in one's sport.

Design Subjects were recruited to form subgroups according to gender, level of excellence and participation in dif- ferent types of sports. One criterion differentiated between endurance, explosive and team sports. This latter criterion reflected the relative importance of the aerobic or the anaerobic energy systems in the different sports (20). There were 160 performers of both sexes in endurance sports (such as rowing,

swimming, cross-country skiing and orienteering). Performers of explosive sports (such as sprinting, jumping, slalom, 5@m freestyie swimming, tae kwon do,, boxing, gymnastics and racket sports) counted 81 subjects of both sexes. Seventy-seven subjects of both sexes performed team sports such as basketball, soc- cer, volleyball and European handball. Participants of individual sports with a balanced activation of aerobic and anaerobic metabolism (such as ski-shoot- ing and ski combination) were excluded from this part of the study.

The distinction between risk and safe sports reflec- ted high and low levels of physical risk in exercise of different sports (6, 8). There were 144 subjects of both sexes performing risk sports such as slalom, ski- jumping, cycle-racing, soccer, karate and boxing, while 207 subjects performed safe sports such as dis- tance running, swimming, orienteering, rowing and

A third grouping differentiated between levels of excellence. Subjects participating in competitions at the ~ t iona l or international level counted 188 sub- jects (high), whereas another group of l2l subjects

kayaking, walking race, distance running, cycling,

cross-country skiing.

Data scoring and analysis Scores for motivational variables were calculated as the sum of positive responses to items on SOQ com- petitiveness (scale range: 13-65), win (range: 6-30) and goal orientation (range: 6-30), respectively. The SSS made use of a scale with a maximum of 20 and a minimum of 10 points. Highest score on reactive ne- gativism could be 8 and the lowest possible score was 1, whereas proactive negativism was scored by use of a scale with maximum point of 6 and a minimum of 1. The scale range for optimism was 1-8, with high scores reflecting an optimistic lifestyle. The items on importance of friendship and being the best (self, others, coach) presented a five-step scoriug format (1 =very low, 5 =very high).

Group differences in motivational variables were tested in relation to gender type of sport (risk, safe; endurance, explosive, team) and level of excellence (medium, high). 'heway analysis of variance (ANO- VA two by two or two by three) tested group differ- ences in scores on these variables. All analyses were computed on a Speny 1100 Univac system using the SPSS-X software (2). Significant effects are indica- ted in the means tables, and details on F-scores and P-values are given in the text.

Results

Gender and risk versus safe sports

ANOVA showed a sigdkantly higher mean saxe for competitiveness in males than in females (F (1,347) = 22.98, Pc 0.001). Performers of risk sports scored re- latively higher on competitiveness than performers of safe sports (F (l,347) = 1152, PcO.001) P b l e 1). There was no interaction between gender and type of sport in scores on competitiveness.

Scores on win orientation paralleled those for competitiveness because males scored higher than fe- males (F (1,347) = 1188, P< 0.001), and performers of risk sports scored higher than those performing safe sports (F (1,347) = 8.07, P< 0.005) (Bble 1).

A main effect of gender was also computed in scores on goal orientation (F (1, 347) = 639, Pc 0.012): males turned out to be more goal-oriented than females.

Males scored signXcantly higher than females on sensation seeking (F (1,347) = 20.60, P<O.OOl). Moreover, gender interacted with type of sport to yield particularly high scores among male safe sport performers, but low scores in female safe sport per- formers, with medium range scores for both males and females performing risk sports (F (l,347) = 5.45, Pc 0.02) @ble 1).

Page 4: Motivational differences among talented teenage athletes: the significance of gender, type of sport and level of excellence

TaMe 1. Meens and standmi devietian sum (SD) famivahwl ~amongmeleendfemaleteenageperformelsdriskendsafe~.ThelastcoluMlis t h e 8 U f l l ~ d t r n m g y V A

Risk !Me

Males (n = 97) Females(n=47) Males (n = 130) Femeles(n=77) Variables mean SD meen SD meen SD mean SD P

ccmpetiliveness 59.0 5.4 56.1 6.6 56.9 6.5 53.4 6.1 I)** a*** Win aien$lion 22.0 5.0 20.7 4.0 20.8 4.6 18.8 4.3 l)*** 2)* Goalaien$lion 28.2 3.2 25.7 3.4 26.1 3.2 24.9 3.5 l)**

16.3 1.6 16.0 1.4 16.5 1.6 15.4 1.7 l)*** 3)* 5.5 3.0 4.4 2.5 5.4 3.0 4.7 2 7 l)**

-- -n@wyn --m 3.9 3.4 3.5 2.6 3.7 3.1 3.1 2.5 Ns

29.7 4.6 30.4 3.9 30.4 4.9 29.1 5.1 Ns 4.4 0.7 4.6 0.6 4.5 0.6 4.6 0.5 I)*

m FIiWKMlip9df Friendshipothers 4.1 0.8 4.2 0.6 4.0 0.8 4.3 0.6 1 I* Ffk4Kktdpcoech 4.3 0.9 4.3 0.6 4.2 0.8 4.2 0.8 NS Ewmlf 4.5 0.7 4.1 0.7 4.1 1 .o 3.8 0.9 1)*** 2)* Bestdhm 4.3 0.7 4.2 0.7 4.3 0.7 4.0 0.8 l)** Bestcoech 4.3 0.7 4.4 0.6 4.2 0.8 4.2 0.8 2)'

Males Females Males Females Males Femeles n = 5 0 n = 31 n-106 n = 54 n = 47 n - 3 0

veriebles mean SD mean SD m e a n S D m e e n SD mwn SD m e a n S D P

58.8 21.9 26.5 16.5 6.0 4.6

30.5 4.4 4.0 4.1 4.5 4.3 4.2

5.2 4.4 3 2 1.5 3.0 3.5 4.3 0.6 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.8

53.2 19.0 25.5 16.2 4.4 3.6

30.3 4.5 4.2 4.2 4.0 4.3 4.3

6.0 57.1 6.8 3.7 20.7 4.5 2.6 26.4 3.2 1.6 16.6 1.6 2.5 5.3 3.0 2 7 3.6 3.1 3.9 30.5 5.1 0.6 4.5 0.7 0.6 4.1 0.8 0.8 4.3 0.8 0.8 4.2 1.0 0.7 4.4 0.6 0.7 4.1 0.9

54.1 19.3 25.5 15.3 5.1 3.1

29.3 4.6 4.3 4.3 3.8 4.0 4.2

5.6 4.3 2.8 1.7 2.6 2.6 4.7 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.9

58.5 22.3 25.6 159 4.7 3.0

29.9 4.5 4.0 4.1 4.3 4.0 4.5

5.8 55.1 7.7 5.1 19.4 4.2 3.2 23.8 4.8 1.8 15.4 1.5 2.9 3.5 2.2 2.9 3.0 2.4 4.4 29.7 5.6 0.6 4.6 0.6 0.7 4 2 0.7 0.9 4.1 0.8 0.8 3.8 1.0 0.8 3.8 0.8 0.7 4.2 0.7

1)H* 1)- 1)" 2)* ti** 2)* l)** 2)' 3)' 2). NS I)* 1)** NS l)* 1)*2)* NS

1) = mein elled dgender; 2) = mein elled of sports; 3) = interection between gender and spats. HeW of signifkame: ** PcO.001; * P<O.Ol; P<O.05. NS = notsignficant

Males scored significantly higher than females on items that assessed the lifestyle of reactive negativism (F (1, 306) = 6.28, P< 0.013). Gender interacted with the risk-safe criterion to yield particularly marked differences among males and females in risk sports (F (1,340) = 7.08, P< 0.008). There was no signifi- cant safe versus risk sport difterence nor gender dif- ference in scores for proactive negativism.

The scores computed for responses given to the LOT (optimism) showed no general difference be- tween males and females, subjects in different types of sports or between subjects at different levels of ex- cellence.

Females rated friendship as being a more import-

ant factor in their sport compased with males (friendship-self) (F (1,340) = 5.66, P<O.018). Fe- males also believed their sport mates were giving friendship a more important place in their sport than was indicated in scores from males (friendship- others) (F (1,343) = 5 . l , P< 0.025) ('lhble 1).

The significance of being the best (best-self) in sport was rated relatively high among males (F (1,343) = 16.67, P<O.OOl). They also believed their colleagues in sport to rate high on significance of being the best (best-others) (I; (1,343) = 8.33, P< 0.004). Performers of risk sports scored particu- larly high on the importance of being the best in sport (F (1,343) = 1250, P< 0.001), and they believed

Page 5: Motivational differences among talented teenage athletes: the significance of gender, type of sport and level of excellence

Motivation in sports

Table 3. Means and standard deviation scorn (SO) for malivalianal variables amono male and female $enage perfamers at modera$ and high levels of ex& lence. The lart cokvnn is thesummary oftw-way ANOVA

Males (n = 97) Females (n = 47) Meles (n = 130) Females(n=77) mean SD mean SD mean SD meen SD P

57.9 5.7 54.4 6.7 58.6 5.7 55.0 6.2 l)*** Win orien$tion 20.8 5.2 20.0 4.8 21.9 4.3 19.5 4.2 1)" Goelc4imMon 26.7 2.9 25.3 3.6 26.0 3.3 25.3 3.3 1 )* sensationwng 16.1 1.5 15.4 1.7 16.5 1.6 15.9 1.5 1)*** 2)* ReaclivelW@iVbl 5.2 3.0 4.7 2.7 5.6 2.9 4.6 25 l)** Roactivenegativism 3.2 3.1 2.5 2.0 3.8 3.2 3.8 2.7 2).

Friendship-& 4.4 0.6 4.7 0.5 4.5 0.6 4.6 0.6 I)* Frieridshipothers 4.0 0.8 4.2 0.6 4.0 0.8 4;3 0.6 I)*

Best& 4.2 0.8 3.8 1 .o 4.4 0.8 4.0 0.8 1)*** 2)*

Bestcoach 4.1 0.8 4.1 0.8 4.3 0.8 4.4 0.7 2)**

optimism 30.4 4.0 28.9 5.0 30.1 5.0 30.1 4.2 NS

F r i e n d s h i 4.2 0.8 4.4 0.7 4.3 0.9 4.1 0.8 NS

Beswhm 4.4 0.6 3.9 0.7 4.3 0.7 4.2 0.7 1)* 3)-

1) = mein -of gender; 2) = main Wofsports; 3) = interadon NS = notsignif~cant

gender and sports. Revels ofsignikam: "*P<0.001; *P<O.M; *P<0.05.

their coaches to rate high on sigx.uticance of being the best (bestcoach) compared with such attriiutions among performers of safe sports (F (1,343) = X50, P< 0.001). The interaction between gender and type of sport yielded insigniscant F-soores for these variables.

Explosive, endurance and team sports Means and standard deviation scores on motivational variables are given in 'Ltible 2 for males and females in sports grouped' as explosive, endurance, and team sports. No significaut effect of these groupings of sports was computed for scores on competitiveness and win orientation. However, performers of endur- ance sports were sqpificantly more goal-oriented than performers of team sports in particular

A main effect of type of sport reflected that per- formers of team sports scored low on sensation seek- ing (F (2,312) = 3.90, P < 0.021).

Performers of team sports scored low on items related to reactive negativism compared with the cor- responding scores obtained by performers of endurance and explosive sports (F (2,306) = 3.90, P<0.021). Gender interacted significantly with type of sports (F (2,306) = 3.15, P < 0.044): the highest mean score was computed for males performing explosive sports, whereas the lowest mean score was obtained for fe- males performing team sports.

Performers of explosive sports scored highest and performers of team sports scored lowest on the scale for proactive negativism (F (2,306) = 3.97, P < 0.020).

Social perception related to the importance of

(F(2,312) = 3.74,P<0.025).

being the best (best-self/others/coach) and friendship (friendsbip-self/others/coach) was evenly distriiuted across subjects in endurance, explosive and team Sports.

Level of excellence All males and females were also grouped according to a distinction between moderate versus high level of excellence. Mean scores and standard deviations for motivational variables are given for these group ings in 'Ltible 3. Subjects at the highest level of excel- lence were significantly more sensation seeking than were subjects at the moderate level of performance (F (1,305) = 5.26, P< 0.023).

Scores on proactive negativism were relatively lllgh among subjects at the high level of excellence com- pared with subjects at the moderate level (F (1,299) = 5.88, P< 0.016).

Subjects at the high level of excellence scored high on significance of being the best (best-self) (F (1, 302) = 3.83, P< 0.05). They also believed their coaches were more preoccupied with making their trainees the best in sport, compared with subjects at the moderate level of excellence (bestaach) (F (1,302) = 8.92, P< 0.003). Males at the moderate level of excellence perceived their colleagues in sport to rate high on importance of being the best, whereas females at the same level of excellence attributed low rates to their colleagues in sport (best-others) (F (4302) = 7.58, P<O.o06). No other effects were significant to the distinction between athletes at the moderate and high levels of excellence (Table 3).

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Page 6: Motivational differences among talented teenage athletes: the significance of gender, type of sport and level of excellence

Discussion Perhaps the most striking result from the present study is the range of gender differences, rather than the less extensive differences between types of sport or level of excellence. The promising young males presented motivational Hestyles with more competi- tiveness and higher win and goal orientation, com- pared with the promising young female athletes. These results from the SOQ supported earlier find- ings reported by Gill & Deeter, except for goal orien- tation, as they reported females in competitive clas- ses to score as high as males and higher than females in nonampetitive classes (5). GiU & Deeter studied a somewhat older sample (high school and under- graduates). The young age of our subject sample and the somewhat different cultural settings for the two studies may explain the discrepancies. Perhaps the most unique aspect of our young sample is the high number of subjects who had demonstrated talent in their sport, with medals at the national or inter- national level of competition.

Males scored higher than females on items related to sensation seeking. At this point, therefore, our findings were consistent with those reported by Zuckerman from older samples of subjects (6). The gender difference for reactive negativism, ie., negati- vistic behavior provoked in response to an external (extrinsic) source, partly supported gender differ- ences reported by McDermott & Apter (17). They compared males and females who were not orga- nized according to criteria of sport. They found males to score higher than females, also on items tes- ting amount of proactive negativism (Le., negativism due to intrinsic sources). The latter gender diflerence was not observed in our sample of talented young athletes.

The relatively high value of friendship among the female sport performers presents a motivational style different from the one that is reflected in the high scores for males on achievement motivation (compe- titiveness, winning, goal orientation). This discre- pancy could be taken as a basis for the hypothesis that high achievement, rather than friendship, is of major importance to the males who, therefore, may work harder than females to demonstrate excellence early in their career as athletes. confounding factors at this point are the biological differences due to the somewhat earlier physical maturation of the female body, as well as the difEerences due to menstruation.

Performem of explosive types of sports scored high on the SSS, whereas performers of team sports scored relatively low on this measure. These results are in agreement with previous findings reported by Rowland et al. (8), Zuckerman (6) and Svebak & Kerr (9). Nevertheless, the relatively high mean score on sensation seeking among the males performing

safe sports was in contrast with previous findings from older athletes. In Norway, especialhi in rural districts, there are strong traditions for preference of endurance types of sports. Therefore many young athletes may be recruited to such sports by tradition instead of by the nature of their own motivational style. Kerr & Svebak (7) reported a discrepancy be- tween the sports that were actually performed and those that were preferred when given a free choice, among Australian university students: a number of explosive sports are regarded as typical male sports in Australia, and the association between sensation seeking and explosive sport performance may there- fore be confounded with different norms for sport preferences for boys and girls.

The present result for scores on reactive negati- vism indicated a trend for males to score high, and this trend was most explicit among the males per- forming risk and explosive sports. However, males and females in team sports scored relatively low on both reactive and proactive negativism. It is possible, therefore, that both kinds of negativistic lifestyles are in conflict with the social demands for development of excellence in team sports.

The results from our study partly confirmed the hypothesis that differences in some motivational characteristics between performers of different types of sports are most evident among athletes at a high level of excellence. One should keep in mind at this point, however, that performers at the age of 15-16 years can hardly be called elite athletes. Nonetheless, in our study subjects at the most successful level scored relatively high on sensation seeking as well as proactive negativism. They also ratd high on import- ance of being the best in sport. These characteristics of subjects at the high level of emllence should be viewed in light of the fact that males were more or- iented towards becoming the best, whereas females rated relatively high on the importance of friendship among colleagues in their sports. The prospective nature of our study permits of the predictive significance of these complex motivational differences for the development of future excellence in sports.

Ac knowledgement This report is part of a project supported by a grant from the Norwegian Research council for social Science and the Huma- nities (Medical Board).

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