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MOTIVATION AND PRODUCTIVITYIncreasing productivity
Snehlata Jaswal
ProductivityProductivity has always been the goal of work behaviour
Modern organizations exhibit the importance of other goals, such as –1. Raising the morale of the employees2. Satisfaction of other stake holders3. Social influence: Corporate social responsibilityNevertheless, productivity remains the most important concern of all organizations – whether they are providing services or manufacturing goods
Assessment of ProductivityProductivity may be assessed:1. In comparison to an external standard of excellence2. As an input/ output ratio (in terms of efficiency)
In Psychology, the school of behaviorism emphasized increasing productivity as the goal of all organizations.
Behaviorism proposed that reinforcement contingencies can change the work behavior of any person
Behaviorism: Main tenetsMain proponents: Watson and Skinner
Tabula rasa
Extreme emphasis on environmentImportance of ‘Engineering’ the environment
All behavior is learnt Reinforcement is crucial for learningTwo types of conditioning:
‐ Classical conditioning‐ Operant conditioning
Cognitive behaviorism – Observational learning
Behaviorism: Classical ConditioningMain proponents: Pavlov and Watson
US URCS + US UR
CS CR
Experiments by Pavlov
Experiments by Watson
Real life examples Emotional conditioningConditioning of autonomic responses
Behaviorism: Classical ConditioningPhenomena in Classical Conditioning1. Acquisition
‐ Temporal relations in conditioning: Forward (Simultaneous, Delayed, Trace), and Backward
‐ Pairing schedule: Continuous vs. intermittent2. Extinction3. Generalization4. Discrimination5. External Inhibition6. Spontaneous recovery7. Higher order conditioning8. Counter‐conditioning – Response substitution9. Blocking10. Overshadowing11. ConfiguringWhat is learnt in classical conditioning?‐ Association between the CS and US? … Sign learning‐ Association between the CS and CR? … Stimulus substitution
Behaviorism: Operant conditioning• Main proponent: Skinner• Assumption: Behavior is controlled by its consequences• Reinforcement contingent response learning• No specific stimulus• Organism ‘operates’ on the environment to get the reinforcer
• Classic experiment: – Rat in a Skinner box presses a lever to get a pellet of food• Examples:
‐Most voluntary behaviors‐Working for rewards or due to fear of punishment‐ Language
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Behaviorism: Operant conditioningReinforcement in operant conditioning:Anything that increases behavior is a reinforcerTypes of reinforcement:
Positive reinforcement – Increases approach behaviourNegative reinforcement – Increases avoidant behaviourPunishment – Decreases behaviour
Schedules of reinforcement: Continuous vs. partialPartial schedules:
Fixed intervalFixed ratioVariable intervalVariable ratio
Chaining of schedulesConcurrent schedules
Premack principle
Effects of partial schedules of reinforcement
Hull’s theoryD drive
SH R habit strength.
SER reaction potential = SH R × DIR reactive inhibition
SIR conditioned inhibition
SĒR effective reaction potential = SH R × D – (IR + SIR)K incentive motivationV stimulus intensity
SĒR = SH R × D × K × V – (IR + SIR)
Spence’s incentive motivationFor Spence, K was also the energizer of learned behavior. Unlike Hull, who multiplied K to the basic equation, Spence added K to the equation as follows:
SĒR = (D + K)× SH R – INThe major implication of Spence’s revision is that the learned response may be given in a situation if the incentive is present, even if no drive is present. Thus, organisms sometimes eat when they are not hungry, drink when they are not thirsty, simply because they have developed strong tendencies to perform these acts under certain circumstances. A person continues to work to accumulate money even though he or she has more than enough to satisfy his or her basic needs. On the other hand, the organism would go on making a learned response, even if there is no incentive for doing so, as long as the drive is present. In fact, as long as D or K have a value above 0, an organism would make a learned response if SHR > 0
The Frustration‐Competition Theory of Extinction:In his equations Hull’s symbols for inhibition were IR and SIR and Spence’s symbol is IN. This reflects a major theoretical difference between Hull and Spence – concerning the nature of inhibition. Hull explained reinforcement by saying that when reinforcement is removed from the situation (K=0), IR and SIR become the dominant influences and thus the animal stops emitting the learned response. For Spence non‐reinforcement causes frustration that elicits responses that are incompatible with the learned response and therefore compete with it. Eventually behavior stimulated by frustration and anticipation of frustration becomes dominant, and we say that the learned response has extinguished. Thus Hull explains extinction on the basis of fatigue (a bodily process), whereas Spence explains it on the basis of frustration (a mental process). Experimental tests reveal that Spence’s explanation fares better.
Spence’s theory of extinction
Cognitive behaviorism – Basic conceptsMain proponents: Tolman and BanduraAkin to behaviorists in objectivity, empiricism, and environmentalismBut do not think of the learner as an ‘empty’ or ‘black’ boxAssume that our behaviour is controlled by our thoughts Propose a difference between learning and performanceReinforcement is important for performance, but not for learning
Important factors in learning are:ExpectanciesBehavior or actionsConfirming or disconfirming experiences
Observational learning is our usual mode of learning
Enhancement of ProductivityProductivity may be enhanced by the following methods:• Explicit training of associations• Use of reinforcement – positive and negative• Use of punishment• Use of partial schedules• Use of Premack principle – make activity itself interesting• Increasing drive• Increasing stimulus intensity• Decreasing negative drives• Providing incentives• Modeling for observational learning• Changing expectancies• Providing confirming and disconfirming experiences• ……………
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