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MOTIVATION AND JOB SATISFACTION AMONG
CUSTOMS OFFICERS: A CASE STUDY OF KUALA
LUMPUR INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT (KLIA)
BY
SITI HAFIZAH BINTI DAUD
A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirement
for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (Political
Science)
Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and
Human Sciences
International Islamic University
Malaysia
JULY 2012
ii
ABSTRACT
This study aims to examine the level of job satisfaction among customs officers,
particularly at the Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA). This study investigates
the relationship between job satisfaction and motivational factors, as well as hygiene
factors, based on the theoretical framework developed by Frederick Herzberg’s theory
known as Two Factor Theory. A 49-item questionnaire was adopted from Minnesota
Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) in order to measure the level of job satisfaction. A
sample of 108 customs officers were chosen from Kuala Lumpur International Airport
(KLIA) headquaters by using quota sampling. The data collected were tested using
descriptive and inferential statistics. Based on the findings, it is found that job
satisfaction has positive and significant relationship with motivational factors where
“responsibility” is a strong indicator towards overall job satisfaction, followed by
“achievement”, “recognition”, “work itself” and lastly, “advancement”. Refering to
the data, hygiene factors bring significant relationship with job satisfaction, where
“policy” is the strongest factor that contributes to overall job satisfaction, followed by
“work condition”, “salary”, “supervisor” and lastly “peers”. Based on the open-ended
questions, “remenuration system”, “promotion” and “job workload” are among the
factors suggested by the customs officers that can be given more attention in order to
increase job satisfaction level. Based on the findings of the study, recommendations
that are made can be forwarded to the Royal Malaysian Customs of Kuala Lumpur
International Airport (KLIA) management are made to enhance the customs officers’
job satisfaction.
iv
APPROVAL PAGE
I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion it conforms
to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and
quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (Political
Science).
………………………………………..
S. M. Abdul Quddus Supervisor
I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable
standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a
dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (Political Science).
……………………………………….
Tunku Mohar Tunku Mohd Mokhtar Examiner
This dissertation is submitted to the Department of Political Science and is accepted as
fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (Political
Science).
………………………………………..
Tunku Mohar Tunku Mohd Mokhtar Head, Department of Political
Science
This dissertation is submitted to the Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and
Human Sciences and is accepted as fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of
Master of Human Sciences (Political Science).
……………………………….………..
Badri Najib Zubir
Dean,
Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed
Knowledge and Human Sciences
v
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigations, except
where otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently
submitted as a whole for any other degree at IIUM or other institutions.
Siti Hafizah Binti Daud
Signature……………………… Date……………………..
vi
COPYRIGHT PAGE
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION
OF FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH
Copyright © 2012 by International Islamic University Malaysia. All rights
reserved.
Motivation and Job Satisfaction among Customs Officers: A Case Study of
Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA)
No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the
copyright holder except as provided below.
1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may
only be used by others in their writing with due acknowledgement.
2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies (print or
electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.
3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieval system
and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other
universities and research libraries.
Affirmed by Siti Hafizah Binti Daud.
……………………………. ………………..
Signature Date
I hereby affirmed that The International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) hold
vii
DEDICATION
I dedicate this dissertation to my precious family;
My father,
Daud Bin Ghazali
My mother
Hamisah Binti Johor
My siblings
Siti Hajar Idayu, Safiah Maisarah, Muhd Firdaus, Muhd Ali, Muhd Fitri & Muhd Arif
Hafizi
My grandmother
Saadiah Bt Ismail
For their love, support, inspiration, sufferings and constant prayers (do’a)
viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In the name of Allah, Most Gracious and Most Merciful, I am thankful to you for
providing me the will, strength and patience to complete this research successfully.
My warmest heartfelt thanks and deepest gratitude goes to my supervisor Assoc. Prof.
Dr. S. M. Abdul Quddus who provided excellent guidance, invaluable advice, helpful
criticims, comments and encouragement throughout the course of the thesis. His patience,
dedication, promptness and tireless supervision were intrumental in the completion of this
thesis.
My gratitude goes to my lecturers in Political Science Department, IIUM: Professor
Dr. Abdul Rashid Moten, Professor Dr. El Fatih A. Abdel Salam, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ishtiaq
Hossain, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Garoot S. Eissa, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Wahabuddin Ra’ees, Assist. Prof.
Dr. Tunku Mohar Tunku Mohd Mokhtar, Dr. Monirizzaman, Dr. Aldila Isahak, Dr.
Muhammad Fuzi Omar, and lastly Sis Norlia who always help me when needed.
My special appreciation goes to the Royal Malaysian Customs and Excise Department
Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA) for their kindness and assistance in completing
the questionnaires with regard to my thesis. My special gratitude goes to Mr. Daud bin
Ghazali as the person in charge in gathering the questionnaires and giving me personnal
access to r Royal Malaysian Customs.
I am eternally grateful to my parents, Daud bin Ghazali and Hamisah binti Johor for
their love, steady support and continous motivation throughout my period of study and for
always being there through thick and thin. To my siblings; Siti Hajar Idayu, Safiah Maisarah,
Muhammad Firdaus, Muhammad Ali, Muhammad Fitri, Muhammad Arif Hafizi, thank you
for being there when needed. I would like to thank my friends who gave me emotional support
in writing my thesis: Safrina Ibrahim, Nur Liana Syazwani, Maisarah Saniah, Nur Ashikin,
Nur Amalina and others who motivated and cheered me on throughout the hard times.
Thank You
Jazakumullahu Khairan Katsiran
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract .................................................................................................................... ii
Abstract in Arabic .................................................................................................... iii
Approval Page .......................................................................................................... iv
Declaration Page ...................................................................................................... v
Copyright Page ......................................................................................................... vi
Dedication ................................................................................................................ vii
Acknowledgments .................................................................................................... viii
List of Tables ........................................................................................................... xi
List of Figures .......................................................................................................... xii
List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................... xiii
CHAPTER 1: FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYSIS ............................................. 1
Background to the Study .............................................................................. 1
Statement of the Problem ............................................................................. 3
Significance of the Study ............................................................................. 4
Objectives of the Study ................................................................................ 5
Research Questions ...................................................................................... 5
Literature Review ......................................................................................... 6
Definitions of Job Satisfaction ............................................................. 6
Other Theories in Job Safisfaction ........................................................ 10
Related Studies on Literature Review ................................................... 12
Theoretical Framework of the Study ........................................................... 15
Hypotheses ................................................................................................... 18
Operational Definitions ................................................................................ 19
Method and Data Collection ........................................................................ 21
Limitations of the Study ............................................................................... 23
Chapter Outline ............................................................................................ 23
CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW OF ROYAL MALAYSIAN CUSTOMS .............. 24
Introduction .................................................................................................. 24
Historical Background of Royal Malaysian Customs .................................. 24
Royal Malaysian Customs Department: Kuala Lumpur International
Airport (KLIA) ............................................................................................ 32
Issues within Royal Malaysian Customs Department .................................. 40
Conclusion .................................................................................................... 47
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ....................................................................... 48
Introduction .................................................................................................. 48
Method of Data Collection ........................................................................... 48
Measurement ................................................................................................ 49
x
Independent Variables .................................................................................. 49
Demographic Information ............................................................................ 50
Sample Composition .................................................................................... 51
Pilot Test ...................................................................................................... 54
Sampling Method ......................................................................................... 55
Conclusion .................................................................................................... 55
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ...................................................................................... 56
Introduction .................................................................................................. 56
Demographic Characteristics of the Sample ............................................... 56
Descriptive Analysis ................................................................................... 58
Motivational Factors .................................................................................... 59
Hygiene Factors ........................................................................................... 67
Inferential Statistics ...................................................................................... 75
Pearson Moment Correlation Coefficient .................................................... 76
Multiple Regressions Analysis ..................................................................... 79
Level of Job Satisfaction among Customs Officers ..................................... 81
Responses to Open-Ended Questions .......................................................... 82
Conclusion .................................................................................................... 88
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION .......................................... 89
Level of Job Satisfaction among Royal Malaysian Customs ....................... 89
Relationship between Motivational/ Hygiene Factors ................................. 90
Remedies for Enhancement of Job Satisfaction ........................................... 92
Suggestions for Future Study ....................................................................... 94
Conclusion .................................................................................................... 95
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................. 97
APPENDIX : Open Ended Questionnaire Responses ............................................. 103
xi
LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Page No.
2.1 New Remuneration System in 1991 41
2.2 Differences between New and Old Remuneration System in Malaysia 43
2.3 Promotion Criteria among Different Agencies in the Government 44
2.4 Promotion Criteria for Customs Officers 45
2.5 Human Resources Structure in Selected State 46
3.1 Sample Composition 52
4.1 Demographic Characteristics of the Sample 58
4.2 Frequency Table on Achievement 59
4.3 Frequency Table on Recognition 61
4.4 Frequency Table on Advancement 62
4.5 Frequency Table on Work Itself 64
4.6 Frequency Table on Responsibility 66
4.7 Frequency Table on Salary 68
4.8 Frequency Table on Peers Relation 69
4.9 Frequency Table on Work Condition 71
4.10 Frequency Table on Organization Policy 72
4.11 Frequency Table on Supervisor 74
4.12 Correlation among Motivational Variables in 76
Motivational Factors and Job Satisfaction
4.13 Correlation among Clusters of Variables in Hygiene 77
Factors and Job Satisfaction
4.14 Descriptive Statistics and Correlation among 78
Study Variables (N108)
xii
4.15 Multiple Regressions on Motivational Factors and 80
Overall Job Satisfaction
4.16 Multiple Regressions on Hygiene Factors with 81
Overall Job Satisfaction
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No. Page No.
2.1 Organization Structure of Royal Malaysian Customs KLIA 34
4.1 List of suggestions in Open Ended Questions 86
xiv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
KLIA Kuala Lumpur International Airport
RMCD Royal Malaysian Customs Department
AMC Administrative Management Centre
KDRM Kastam Diraja Malaysia
JKDRM Jabatan Kastam Diraja Malaysia
DURBAR Federated Malay States Rulers Conference
IMF Internatonal Monetary Fund
AKMAL Akademi Kastam Malaysia
INTAN Institut Tadbiran Awan
KDRM KLIA Kastam Diraja Malaysia Kuala Lumpr International Airport
KLAS Kuala Lumpur Airport Service
FCZ Free Commercial Zone
MAHB Malaysia Airport Holding Berhad
PERKASA Malaysian Customs Senior Officers Association
LCCT Low Cost Carrier Terminal
PMK Mail Currier Centre
UPP Unit Khas Pemeriksaan Penumpang
ITD Techinical Service Division
AEO Authorised Economic Operator
WMD Weapons of Mass Destruction
IPR Intellectual Property Rights
SPM Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia
STPM Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran Malaysia
PMR Penilaian Menengah Rendah
SSB Sistem Saraan Baru
SSM Sistem Saraan Malaysia
1
CHAPTER ONE
FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYSIS
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
In recent times, several newspaper articles have highlighted cases of customs officials
being convicted for bribery and corruption. In 2004, two officers were charged for
accepting bribe (Berita Harian, 2004; January, 2), while in 2008, a customs
superintendant was charged for accepting RM50,000 from a forwarding agent of an
automobile (Malaystar, 2008: August, 25). Four customs officers were also convicted
for accepting bribe for smuggling sand into Singapore (Harian Metro, 2010: January,
29). Recently, two high ranking customs officers were also convicted for taking
bribery and money laundering (Berita Harian, 2011: April, 5).
Such incidents bring negative perceptions and poor images of the Royal
Malaysian Customs Department among the general public and make people question
their accountability as a trusted government agency. These unacceptable conducts are
caused by factors such as low levels of motivation and unresolved disputes among
Customs officers which are supported by findings of studies published by Persatuan
Pengawai Kanan Kastam Malaysia (Malaysian Customs Senior Officers Association)
PERKASA (2007) and Malaysia Peninsula Customs Officer Association (Kesatuan
Pengawai Kastam Semenanjung Malaysia (2010). Their studies state that there are
several unresolved issues which can lead to job dissatisfaction, low level of
motivation and may promote corruption in the Royal Malaysian Customs Department,
for example:
1) Contradictory and unrealistic performance evaluation in the department
2
2) Delayed promotion and confirmation procedure, and
3) Lack of standardization in organizational development.
In order to settle such unresolved issues and at the same time aim at overall
development of the Royal Malaysian Customs Department, a new scheme was
introduced under the fourth Prime Minister, Mahathir Mohammad in 1991 known as
Sistem Saraan Baru (New Remuneration System) replacing the previous government
scheme of 1976 called Jawatankuasa Kabinet 1976. The new scheme also intends to
eliminate the bureaucratic red tape in the government sector.
However, there is dissatisfaction among the officers, especially related to
promotions in the Royal Malaysian Customs Department. According to Malaysian
Customs Senior Officers Association (PERKASA), inconsistent criteria and policies
are applied in selecting officers for promotion, especially for the position of Customs
Superintendants (Grade W3). When Customs Superintendants are promoted to Deputy
Director Position, it is understandable and expected that their salary and workload
would increase but in reality when a customs officer gets promoted to this position,
his basic salary remains the same even though he could be transferred to another
branch. As a consequence, the particular officer would feel demotivated and this
might affect his performance in his new workplace.
On November 1st, 2002, the Malaysian government introduced a new scheme
known as Sistem Saraan Malaysia (SSM), Malaysia Remuneration System under the
fifth Malaysian Prime Minister, Abdullah Ahmad Badawi. The rationale behind SSM
was to introduce elements of competency in human resource management within
Malaysian civil servants. The government has improvised the scheme by adding new
grades into the system.
3
With the new government structure introduced under the SSM scheme, it is
expected that the unresolved issues mentioned earlier can be solved. Nonetheless, they
remain unresolved and are circulating within the SSM Scheme, especially in relation
to issues on the organizational development of the Royal Malaysian Customs
Department.
There are a number of issues that surround the Royal Malaysian Customs
Department that may lead to job dissatisfaction among its officers. Among the
problems are contradictory and unrealistic performance evaluation criteria, followed
by delayed promotion and confirmation procedure and finally, lack of standardization
in organizational development. Because of these problems, stress and demotivation
are felt among customs officers who consequently lead to immoral activities.
Therefore, there is a need to examine the level of job satisfaction among customs
officers in order to understand why such problems still occur in the Royal Malaysian
Customs Department.
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Since the establishment of Kuala Lumpur International Airport in 1998, the Royal
Malaysian Customs Department has played an important role with regard to
safeguarding the Malaysian territory from international crime, preventing money
laundering, collecting indirect taxes as well as avoiding vices such as drug and
cigarette smuggling.
The Kuala Lumpur International Airport is known as one of the two crucial air
cargo hubs in Malaysia, the other being Penang International Airport. The Royal
Malaysian Customs Department is therefore entrusted as the sole collector of indirect
taxes and protector of Free Commercial Zone activities with Malaysian Airport
4
Berhad. In 2009, the Royal Malaysian Customs Department of KLIA Department
under the administration of Royal Malaysian Customs Department Kuala Lumpur
Department had collected excise duty amounting to an exact figure of RM3,
461,643,560.10. (Jabatan Kastam di Raja Malaysia, 2009: 51) However, the
speculation is that the figure could have been much higher if some of the customs
officers were not involved in corruption such as bribery (Berita Harian, 2011; April,
11). Thus, it is important to determine why some of the customs officers are involved
in illegal activities and the structural factors and procedures that affect the
effectiveness of the Royal Malaysian Customs Department.
In writing the research, there is a study conducted on the level of job
satisfaction among Royal Malaysian Customs Department officers in Selangor made
by Sazali (2000), but there is no research carried out with regards to Royal Malaysian
Customs Department at KLIA. Therefore, it is essential to investigate the level of job
satisfaction among customs officers of the Royal Malaysian Customs Department and
its credibility as a tax collector because it plays a crucial role in deriving revenue for
the national economy.
1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
There is a need to examine the level of job satisfaction among Royal Malaysian
Customs Department officers at KLIA in order to identify various existing problems
associated with the Royal Malaysian Customs Department and search for possible
solutions in order to overcome job dissatisfaction among its officers increase the level
of efficiency and simultaneously reduce vulnerability to corruption. It is hoped that by
conducting this study the credibility of the Royal Malaysian Customs Department as a
tax collector could be enhanced and preserved since it plays a crucial role in deriving
5
revenues for the Malaysian economy. By conducting this research, we can identify the
problems and possible remedies.
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
This study aims to examine the level of job satisfaction among Royal Malaysian
Customs Department officers at KLIA. The overall objective of this research is to
identify factors that influence job satisfaction among officers of the Royal Malaysian
Customs Department in KLIA. Specifically the study aims:
1. To investigate the level of job satisfaction among officers at the Royal
Malaysian Customs Department at KLIA.
2. To examine the relationship between internal/external causes and
consequence of job satisfaction/motivation.
3. To suggest remedies that will help to ensure better job satisfaction, hence
the motivation in the Royal Malaysian Customs Department officers.
1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
In line with the objectives of this research, the following are the research questions for
this study:
1. What is the level of job satisfaction among officers at the Royal Malaysian
Customs Department at KLIA?
2. What is the relationship between internal/external causes and consequence
of job satisfaction/motivation?
3. What are suitable remedies that will help to ensure better job satisfaction,
hence enhancing the motivation of the Royal Malaysian Customs
Department officers?
6
1.6 LITERATURE REVIEW
This section discusses issues related to the definitions of job satisfaction, theories
which evolve in relation to job satisfaction and related research which have been done
by other researchers related to job satisfaction and motivation of employees in an
organization.
1.6.1 Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction as defined by Locke and Henne (1986 in Amy Martadillah, 2011: 7) is
simply how people feel about their jobs and the different aspects of their jobs. To an
extent, it relates to what people like (satisfaction) or dislike (dissatisfaction) about
their job. Job satisfaction is generally assessed as an attitudinal variable as supported
by Amy Mardatillah (2008: 7), who mentions that job satisfaction is generally related
to work attitude. However, job satisfaction has different meanings which differ from
one scholar to another. According to Aamodt, job satisfaction is determined by how
employees feel about their work in the morning which can later lead to better
performance at the workplace and willingness to stay with the organisation (cited in
Amy Martadillah, 2008: 7). Furthermore, job satisfaction may reduce the problems of
high turnover, absenteeism and poor performance at work.
There are other definitions as well. Crossman and Zaki (2003) state that there
are two opinions on job satisfaction. Firstly, job satisfaction refers to a feeling as well
as an attitude toward the job which probably influences one’s perception of the job
itself. Besides that, job satisfaction is also referred to as a positive emotional state
resulting from the pleasure a worker derives from their job and as the affective and
cognitive attitudes held by an employee towards various aspects of their work (cited in
Amy Mardatillah, 2008: 7). Moreover, Smith and Kendall (1969) state that job
7
satisfaction is an affective feeling that an individual has towards a job position (cited
in Amy Martadillah, 2008: 10).
As defined by Schermerhorn (2000), job satisfaction is the degree to which
individuals feel positively or negatively about their job. He further explains that job
satisfaction is an emotional response to one’s tasks as well as to the physical and
social conditions of the workplace. In other words, job satisfaction is motivational and
leads to positive employment relationships and high levels of individual performance.
Mullins (2002: 277) admits that job satisfaction is a complex and multifaceted concept
which can hold different values for each person which he defines as an attitude or
internal state associated with personal feelings of quantitative or qualitative
achievement. Beside that, Herzberg (1959) defines job satisfaction as an outgrowth of
achievement, recognition (verbal), the work itself (challenge), responsibility and
advancement (promotion) (cited in Miller, 2000: 165).
Job satisfaction is an area investigated in other disciplines such as psychology,
sociology, management as well as organisational behaviour. Therefore, it is important
to have studies on job satisfaction. As claimed by Kaarna (2004: 9), it is a reflection of
good treatment whereby it examines whether workers are treated fairly and
respectfully or vice versa. Moreover, it can be considered an indicator of a person’s
emotional well-being or physiological health. Job satisfaction among employees can
also influence their behaviour which has an effect on organisational functioning.
According to the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working
Conditions (2007: 2), there are various reasons why the level of job satisfaction is
measured frequently by organisations. Specifically, it can affect labour market
behaviour and influence work productivity, work effort, employee absenteeism and
staff turnover. Beyond the research literature and studies, job satisfaction is also
8
important in everyday life. Organisations have significant effects on the people who
work for them and some of those effects are reflected in how people feel about their
work (Spector, 1997: 2).
Moreover, there are some variables that influence job satisfaction in different
ways for different people. As noted by Mullins (2002: 277), job satisfaction is a
complex concept and it is difficult to measure objectively, yet there are some variables
which are agreed upon by scholars namely personality, values, social influence and
work situations (Mullins, 2002: 277; George, 2002: 83).
Personality is referred to as the enduring ways a person has of feeling, thinking
and behaving (George, 2002: 81). George (2002) argues that an individual’s
personality is related to their thoughts and feelings about the negativity or positivity of
a job. Personality includes education and qualification, intelligence and ability, age,
marital status as well as work orientation (Mullins, 2002: 278). Mullins (2002: 278)
and Kaarna (2004: 19) observe that personality affects job satisfaction in terms of
genetics. This observation is based on a study conducted by Arvey in 1989 which
found that genetic factors influence 30% of individuals to choose certain kinds of jobs.
Value is a second factor that determines job satisfaction. It is a reflection of a
worker’s faith and beliefs about the outcomes that his work directs to and how he
should behave at the workplace (George, 2002: 82). Values include attitudes, beliefs
and ethics. George argues that a person with strong intrinsic work values (which relate
to work itself) is more likely to be satisfied with the job content and achieve personal
satisfaction compared to a person who has strong extrinsic values (which relate to
consequences of work) who is more likely to be satisfied with a job that offers a good
salary rather than personal satisfaction (George, 2002: 82).
9
The third factor that has a significant impact on job satisfaction is one’s work
environment. There are several indicators that the work environment influences one’s
level of job satisfaction: the tasks that the individual has to perform (either the job is
interesting or boring), the personal interaction (relationship between supervisor,
colleague, group working and norms, opportunities for interaction, informal
organisation and customers), the environment itself which relates to noise level,
crowdedness, temperature and lastly, the treatment that the individual receives as the
job holder (formal structure, Human Resource policies and procedures, employee
relations, nature of the work, technology and work organisation, supervision and style
of leadership, management systems along with working conditions) (Mullins, 2002:
277).
Finally, the fourth factor is social influence which can be referred to as the
influence of individuals and groups on an individual’s attitude and behaviour (George,
2002:.82). It is mostly affected by the co-workers or groups a person attaches him to,
and the culture in which the person grew up and/or lives in.
Experts on organisational behaviour present several ways of examining job
satisfaction. Spector (1998: 5) for example, mentions that there are two ways in
assessing job satisfaction: examining overall job satisfaction or examining job
satisfaction facets. There are six questionnaires which are widely used in both areas.
Four of the questionnaires use job satisfaction facets, namely the Job Satisfaction
Survey (JSS) (Spector, 1985), the Job Descriptive Index (JDI) (Smith, Kendall and
Hulin, 1969), the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) (Weiss, Dawis,
England and Lofquist, 1967) and the Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) (Hackman and
Oldham, 1975). The remaining two surveys which assess overall job satisfaction are
the Job in General Scale (JIG) (Ironson, Smith, Brannick, Gibson and Paul, 1989) and
10
the Michigan Organisational Assessment Questionnaire Subscale (Cammann,
Fichman, Jenkins and Klesh, 1979).
1.6.2 OTHER THEORIES IN JOB SATISFACTION
Many scholars have tried to formulate theories with regard to defining job satisfaction
and the factors that determine it. Mayo emphasises human relationships, especially
social control and work conditions, as influences on job satisfaction (George and
Jones, 2002: 38). Maslow stresses on human needs in order to motivate job
satisfaction which include physiological needs, safety needs, love needs, esteem needs
and the need for self-actualisation (Miner, 2003: 135). There is also an improvised
version of human needs known as the Existence, Relatedness and Growth (ERG)
Theory where Aldelfer compressed Maslow’s needs into three categories: 1) Existence
is a reflection of a person’s requirement for material and energy exchange, 2)
Relatedness involves relationships with significant others and 3) Growth is the need
for personal development and creativity (Aldelfer, 2001: 104).
Later on, Theory X and Theory Y were developed by McGregor. It divides
motivation levels into 2 features. The first, Theory X presumes that employees are
naturally lazy and tend to work as little as possible, while the employer lacks
ambition, dislikes responsibility and prefers to lead. In contrast, Theory Y assumes
that the employee will exercise self-direction and self-control in the service of
objectives to which he is committed (Miner, 2003: 259). In addition, Theory Z was
developed by Ouchi whereby the key features in industrial organisations are related to
personnel relationships, mutual trust and loyalty lifetime employment (George and
Jones, 2002: 39).