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MOTIVATION AND JOB SATISFACTION AMONG CUSTOMS OFFICERS: A CASE STUDY OF KUALA LUMPUR INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT (KLIA) BY SITI HAFIZAH BINTI DAUD A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (Political Science) Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences International Islamic University Malaysia JULY 2012

MOTIVATION AND JOB SATISFACTION AMONG BY SITI HAFIZAH

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MOTIVATION AND JOB SATISFACTION AMONG

CUSTOMS OFFICERS: A CASE STUDY OF KUALA

LUMPUR INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT (KLIA)

BY

SITI HAFIZAH BINTI DAUD

A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirement

for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (Political

Science)

Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and

Human Sciences

International Islamic University

Malaysia

JULY 2012

ii

ABSTRACT

This study aims to examine the level of job satisfaction among customs officers,

particularly at the Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA). This study investigates

the relationship between job satisfaction and motivational factors, as well as hygiene

factors, based on the theoretical framework developed by Frederick Herzberg’s theory

known as Two Factor Theory. A 49-item questionnaire was adopted from Minnesota

Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) in order to measure the level of job satisfaction. A

sample of 108 customs officers were chosen from Kuala Lumpur International Airport

(KLIA) headquaters by using quota sampling. The data collected were tested using

descriptive and inferential statistics. Based on the findings, it is found that job

satisfaction has positive and significant relationship with motivational factors where

“responsibility” is a strong indicator towards overall job satisfaction, followed by

“achievement”, “recognition”, “work itself” and lastly, “advancement”. Refering to

the data, hygiene factors bring significant relationship with job satisfaction, where

“policy” is the strongest factor that contributes to overall job satisfaction, followed by

“work condition”, “salary”, “supervisor” and lastly “peers”. Based on the open-ended

questions, “remenuration system”, “promotion” and “job workload” are among the

factors suggested by the customs officers that can be given more attention in order to

increase job satisfaction level. Based on the findings of the study, recommendations

that are made can be forwarded to the Royal Malaysian Customs of Kuala Lumpur

International Airport (KLIA) management are made to enhance the customs officers’

job satisfaction.

iii

iv

APPROVAL PAGE

I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion it conforms

to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and

quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (Political

Science).

………………………………………..

S. M. Abdul Quddus Supervisor

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable

standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a

dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (Political Science).

……………………………………….

Tunku Mohar Tunku Mohd Mokhtar Examiner

This dissertation is submitted to the Department of Political Science and is accepted as

fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (Political

Science).

………………………………………..

Tunku Mohar Tunku Mohd Mokhtar Head, Department of Political

Science

This dissertation is submitted to the Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and

Human Sciences and is accepted as fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of

Master of Human Sciences (Political Science).

……………………………….………..

Badri Najib Zubir

Dean,

Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed

Knowledge and Human Sciences

v

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigations, except

where otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently

submitted as a whole for any other degree at IIUM or other institutions.

Siti Hafizah Binti Daud

Signature……………………… Date……………………..

vi

COPYRIGHT PAGE

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION

OF FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH

Copyright © 2012 by International Islamic University Malaysia. All rights

reserved.

Motivation and Job Satisfaction among Customs Officers: A Case Study of

Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA)

No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval

system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,

photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the

copyright holder except as provided below.

1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may

only be used by others in their writing with due acknowledgement.

2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies (print or

electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.

3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieval system

and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other

universities and research libraries.

Affirmed by Siti Hafizah Binti Daud.

……………………………. ………………..

Signature Date

I hereby affirmed that The International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) hold

vii

DEDICATION

I dedicate this dissertation to my precious family;

My father,

Daud Bin Ghazali

My mother

Hamisah Binti Johor

My siblings

Siti Hajar Idayu, Safiah Maisarah, Muhd Firdaus, Muhd Ali, Muhd Fitri & Muhd Arif

Hafizi

My grandmother

Saadiah Bt Ismail

For their love, support, inspiration, sufferings and constant prayers (do’a)

viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In the name of Allah, Most Gracious and Most Merciful, I am thankful to you for

providing me the will, strength and patience to complete this research successfully.

My warmest heartfelt thanks and deepest gratitude goes to my supervisor Assoc. Prof.

Dr. S. M. Abdul Quddus who provided excellent guidance, invaluable advice, helpful

criticims, comments and encouragement throughout the course of the thesis. His patience,

dedication, promptness and tireless supervision were intrumental in the completion of this

thesis.

My gratitude goes to my lecturers in Political Science Department, IIUM: Professor

Dr. Abdul Rashid Moten, Professor Dr. El Fatih A. Abdel Salam, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ishtiaq

Hossain, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Garoot S. Eissa, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Wahabuddin Ra’ees, Assist. Prof.

Dr. Tunku Mohar Tunku Mohd Mokhtar, Dr. Monirizzaman, Dr. Aldila Isahak, Dr.

Muhammad Fuzi Omar, and lastly Sis Norlia who always help me when needed.

My special appreciation goes to the Royal Malaysian Customs and Excise Department

Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA) for their kindness and assistance in completing

the questionnaires with regard to my thesis. My special gratitude goes to Mr. Daud bin

Ghazali as the person in charge in gathering the questionnaires and giving me personnal

access to r Royal Malaysian Customs.

I am eternally grateful to my parents, Daud bin Ghazali and Hamisah binti Johor for

their love, steady support and continous motivation throughout my period of study and for

always being there through thick and thin. To my siblings; Siti Hajar Idayu, Safiah Maisarah,

Muhammad Firdaus, Muhammad Ali, Muhammad Fitri, Muhammad Arif Hafizi, thank you

for being there when needed. I would like to thank my friends who gave me emotional support

in writing my thesis: Safrina Ibrahim, Nur Liana Syazwani, Maisarah Saniah, Nur Ashikin,

Nur Amalina and others who motivated and cheered me on throughout the hard times.

Thank You

Jazakumullahu Khairan Katsiran

ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract .................................................................................................................... ii

Abstract in Arabic .................................................................................................... iii

Approval Page .......................................................................................................... iv

Declaration Page ...................................................................................................... v

Copyright Page ......................................................................................................... vi

Dedication ................................................................................................................ vii

Acknowledgments .................................................................................................... viii

List of Tables ........................................................................................................... xi

List of Figures .......................................................................................................... xii

List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................... xiii

CHAPTER 1: FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYSIS ............................................. 1

Background to the Study .............................................................................. 1

Statement of the Problem ............................................................................. 3

Significance of the Study ............................................................................. 4

Objectives of the Study ................................................................................ 5

Research Questions ...................................................................................... 5

Literature Review ......................................................................................... 6

Definitions of Job Satisfaction ............................................................. 6

Other Theories in Job Safisfaction ........................................................ 10

Related Studies on Literature Review ................................................... 12

Theoretical Framework of the Study ........................................................... 15

Hypotheses ................................................................................................... 18

Operational Definitions ................................................................................ 19

Method and Data Collection ........................................................................ 21

Limitations of the Study ............................................................................... 23

Chapter Outline ............................................................................................ 23

CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW OF ROYAL MALAYSIAN CUSTOMS .............. 24

Introduction .................................................................................................. 24

Historical Background of Royal Malaysian Customs .................................. 24

Royal Malaysian Customs Department: Kuala Lumpur International

Airport (KLIA) ............................................................................................ 32

Issues within Royal Malaysian Customs Department .................................. 40

Conclusion .................................................................................................... 47

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ....................................................................... 48

Introduction .................................................................................................. 48

Method of Data Collection ........................................................................... 48

Measurement ................................................................................................ 49

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Independent Variables .................................................................................. 49

Demographic Information ............................................................................ 50

Sample Composition .................................................................................... 51

Pilot Test ...................................................................................................... 54

Sampling Method ......................................................................................... 55

Conclusion .................................................................................................... 55

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ...................................................................................... 56

Introduction .................................................................................................. 56

Demographic Characteristics of the Sample ............................................... 56

Descriptive Analysis ................................................................................... 58

Motivational Factors .................................................................................... 59

Hygiene Factors ........................................................................................... 67

Inferential Statistics ...................................................................................... 75

Pearson Moment Correlation Coefficient .................................................... 76

Multiple Regressions Analysis ..................................................................... 79

Level of Job Satisfaction among Customs Officers ..................................... 81

Responses to Open-Ended Questions .......................................................... 82

Conclusion .................................................................................................... 88

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION .......................................... 89

Level of Job Satisfaction among Royal Malaysian Customs ....................... 89

Relationship between Motivational/ Hygiene Factors ................................. 90

Remedies for Enhancement of Job Satisfaction ........................................... 92

Suggestions for Future Study ....................................................................... 94

Conclusion .................................................................................................... 95

BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................. 97

APPENDIX : Open Ended Questionnaire Responses ............................................. 103

xi

LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Page No.

2.1 New Remuneration System in 1991 41

2.2 Differences between New and Old Remuneration System in Malaysia 43

2.3 Promotion Criteria among Different Agencies in the Government 44

2.4 Promotion Criteria for Customs Officers 45

2.5 Human Resources Structure in Selected State 46

3.1 Sample Composition 52

4.1 Demographic Characteristics of the Sample 58

4.2 Frequency Table on Achievement 59

4.3 Frequency Table on Recognition 61

4.4 Frequency Table on Advancement 62

4.5 Frequency Table on Work Itself 64

4.6 Frequency Table on Responsibility 66

4.7 Frequency Table on Salary 68

4.8 Frequency Table on Peers Relation 69

4.9 Frequency Table on Work Condition 71

4.10 Frequency Table on Organization Policy 72

4.11 Frequency Table on Supervisor 74

4.12 Correlation among Motivational Variables in 76

Motivational Factors and Job Satisfaction

4.13 Correlation among Clusters of Variables in Hygiene 77

Factors and Job Satisfaction

4.14 Descriptive Statistics and Correlation among 78

Study Variables (N108)

xii

4.15 Multiple Regressions on Motivational Factors and 80

Overall Job Satisfaction

4.16 Multiple Regressions on Hygiene Factors with 81

Overall Job Satisfaction

xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Page No.

2.1 Organization Structure of Royal Malaysian Customs KLIA 34

4.1 List of suggestions in Open Ended Questions 86

xiv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

KLIA Kuala Lumpur International Airport

RMCD Royal Malaysian Customs Department

AMC Administrative Management Centre

KDRM Kastam Diraja Malaysia

JKDRM Jabatan Kastam Diraja Malaysia

DURBAR Federated Malay States Rulers Conference

IMF Internatonal Monetary Fund

AKMAL Akademi Kastam Malaysia

INTAN Institut Tadbiran Awan

KDRM KLIA Kastam Diraja Malaysia Kuala Lumpr International Airport

KLAS Kuala Lumpur Airport Service

FCZ Free Commercial Zone

MAHB Malaysia Airport Holding Berhad

PERKASA Malaysian Customs Senior Officers Association

LCCT Low Cost Carrier Terminal

PMK Mail Currier Centre

UPP Unit Khas Pemeriksaan Penumpang

ITD Techinical Service Division

AEO Authorised Economic Operator

WMD Weapons of Mass Destruction

IPR Intellectual Property Rights

SPM Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia

STPM Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran Malaysia

PMR Penilaian Menengah Rendah

SSB Sistem Saraan Baru

SSM Sistem Saraan Malaysia

1

CHAPTER ONE

FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYSIS

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

In recent times, several newspaper articles have highlighted cases of customs officials

being convicted for bribery and corruption. In 2004, two officers were charged for

accepting bribe (Berita Harian, 2004; January, 2), while in 2008, a customs

superintendant was charged for accepting RM50,000 from a forwarding agent of an

automobile (Malaystar, 2008: August, 25). Four customs officers were also convicted

for accepting bribe for smuggling sand into Singapore (Harian Metro, 2010: January,

29). Recently, two high ranking customs officers were also convicted for taking

bribery and money laundering (Berita Harian, 2011: April, 5).

Such incidents bring negative perceptions and poor images of the Royal

Malaysian Customs Department among the general public and make people question

their accountability as a trusted government agency. These unacceptable conducts are

caused by factors such as low levels of motivation and unresolved disputes among

Customs officers which are supported by findings of studies published by Persatuan

Pengawai Kanan Kastam Malaysia (Malaysian Customs Senior Officers Association)

PERKASA (2007) and Malaysia Peninsula Customs Officer Association (Kesatuan

Pengawai Kastam Semenanjung Malaysia (2010). Their studies state that there are

several unresolved issues which can lead to job dissatisfaction, low level of

motivation and may promote corruption in the Royal Malaysian Customs Department,

for example:

1) Contradictory and unrealistic performance evaluation in the department

2

2) Delayed promotion and confirmation procedure, and

3) Lack of standardization in organizational development.

In order to settle such unresolved issues and at the same time aim at overall

development of the Royal Malaysian Customs Department, a new scheme was

introduced under the fourth Prime Minister, Mahathir Mohammad in 1991 known as

Sistem Saraan Baru (New Remuneration System) replacing the previous government

scheme of 1976 called Jawatankuasa Kabinet 1976. The new scheme also intends to

eliminate the bureaucratic red tape in the government sector.

However, there is dissatisfaction among the officers, especially related to

promotions in the Royal Malaysian Customs Department. According to Malaysian

Customs Senior Officers Association (PERKASA), inconsistent criteria and policies

are applied in selecting officers for promotion, especially for the position of Customs

Superintendants (Grade W3). When Customs Superintendants are promoted to Deputy

Director Position, it is understandable and expected that their salary and workload

would increase but in reality when a customs officer gets promoted to this position,

his basic salary remains the same even though he could be transferred to another

branch. As a consequence, the particular officer would feel demotivated and this

might affect his performance in his new workplace.

On November 1st, 2002, the Malaysian government introduced a new scheme

known as Sistem Saraan Malaysia (SSM), Malaysia Remuneration System under the

fifth Malaysian Prime Minister, Abdullah Ahmad Badawi. The rationale behind SSM

was to introduce elements of competency in human resource management within

Malaysian civil servants. The government has improvised the scheme by adding new

grades into the system.

3

With the new government structure introduced under the SSM scheme, it is

expected that the unresolved issues mentioned earlier can be solved. Nonetheless, they

remain unresolved and are circulating within the SSM Scheme, especially in relation

to issues on the organizational development of the Royal Malaysian Customs

Department.

There are a number of issues that surround the Royal Malaysian Customs

Department that may lead to job dissatisfaction among its officers. Among the

problems are contradictory and unrealistic performance evaluation criteria, followed

by delayed promotion and confirmation procedure and finally, lack of standardization

in organizational development. Because of these problems, stress and demotivation

are felt among customs officers who consequently lead to immoral activities.

Therefore, there is a need to examine the level of job satisfaction among customs

officers in order to understand why such problems still occur in the Royal Malaysian

Customs Department.

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Since the establishment of Kuala Lumpur International Airport in 1998, the Royal

Malaysian Customs Department has played an important role with regard to

safeguarding the Malaysian territory from international crime, preventing money

laundering, collecting indirect taxes as well as avoiding vices such as drug and

cigarette smuggling.

The Kuala Lumpur International Airport is known as one of the two crucial air

cargo hubs in Malaysia, the other being Penang International Airport. The Royal

Malaysian Customs Department is therefore entrusted as the sole collector of indirect

taxes and protector of Free Commercial Zone activities with Malaysian Airport

4

Berhad. In 2009, the Royal Malaysian Customs Department of KLIA Department

under the administration of Royal Malaysian Customs Department Kuala Lumpur

Department had collected excise duty amounting to an exact figure of RM3,

461,643,560.10. (Jabatan Kastam di Raja Malaysia, 2009: 51) However, the

speculation is that the figure could have been much higher if some of the customs

officers were not involved in corruption such as bribery (Berita Harian, 2011; April,

11). Thus, it is important to determine why some of the customs officers are involved

in illegal activities and the structural factors and procedures that affect the

effectiveness of the Royal Malaysian Customs Department.

In writing the research, there is a study conducted on the level of job

satisfaction among Royal Malaysian Customs Department officers in Selangor made

by Sazali (2000), but there is no research carried out with regards to Royal Malaysian

Customs Department at KLIA. Therefore, it is essential to investigate the level of job

satisfaction among customs officers of the Royal Malaysian Customs Department and

its credibility as a tax collector because it plays a crucial role in deriving revenue for

the national economy.

1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

There is a need to examine the level of job satisfaction among Royal Malaysian

Customs Department officers at KLIA in order to identify various existing problems

associated with the Royal Malaysian Customs Department and search for possible

solutions in order to overcome job dissatisfaction among its officers increase the level

of efficiency and simultaneously reduce vulnerability to corruption. It is hoped that by

conducting this study the credibility of the Royal Malaysian Customs Department as a

tax collector could be enhanced and preserved since it plays a crucial role in deriving

5

revenues for the Malaysian economy. By conducting this research, we can identify the

problems and possible remedies.

1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

This study aims to examine the level of job satisfaction among Royal Malaysian

Customs Department officers at KLIA. The overall objective of this research is to

identify factors that influence job satisfaction among officers of the Royal Malaysian

Customs Department in KLIA. Specifically the study aims:

1. To investigate the level of job satisfaction among officers at the Royal

Malaysian Customs Department at KLIA.

2. To examine the relationship between internal/external causes and

consequence of job satisfaction/motivation.

3. To suggest remedies that will help to ensure better job satisfaction, hence

the motivation in the Royal Malaysian Customs Department officers.

1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

In line with the objectives of this research, the following are the research questions for

this study:

1. What is the level of job satisfaction among officers at the Royal Malaysian

Customs Department at KLIA?

2. What is the relationship between internal/external causes and consequence

of job satisfaction/motivation?

3. What are suitable remedies that will help to ensure better job satisfaction,

hence enhancing the motivation of the Royal Malaysian Customs

Department officers?

6

1.6 LITERATURE REVIEW

This section discusses issues related to the definitions of job satisfaction, theories

which evolve in relation to job satisfaction and related research which have been done

by other researchers related to job satisfaction and motivation of employees in an

organization.

1.6.1 Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction as defined by Locke and Henne (1986 in Amy Martadillah, 2011: 7) is

simply how people feel about their jobs and the different aspects of their jobs. To an

extent, it relates to what people like (satisfaction) or dislike (dissatisfaction) about

their job. Job satisfaction is generally assessed as an attitudinal variable as supported

by Amy Mardatillah (2008: 7), who mentions that job satisfaction is generally related

to work attitude. However, job satisfaction has different meanings which differ from

one scholar to another. According to Aamodt, job satisfaction is determined by how

employees feel about their work in the morning which can later lead to better

performance at the workplace and willingness to stay with the organisation (cited in

Amy Martadillah, 2008: 7). Furthermore, job satisfaction may reduce the problems of

high turnover, absenteeism and poor performance at work.

There are other definitions as well. Crossman and Zaki (2003) state that there

are two opinions on job satisfaction. Firstly, job satisfaction refers to a feeling as well

as an attitude toward the job which probably influences one’s perception of the job

itself. Besides that, job satisfaction is also referred to as a positive emotional state

resulting from the pleasure a worker derives from their job and as the affective and

cognitive attitudes held by an employee towards various aspects of their work (cited in

Amy Mardatillah, 2008: 7). Moreover, Smith and Kendall (1969) state that job

7

satisfaction is an affective feeling that an individual has towards a job position (cited

in Amy Martadillah, 2008: 10).

As defined by Schermerhorn (2000), job satisfaction is the degree to which

individuals feel positively or negatively about their job. He further explains that job

satisfaction is an emotional response to one’s tasks as well as to the physical and

social conditions of the workplace. In other words, job satisfaction is motivational and

leads to positive employment relationships and high levels of individual performance.

Mullins (2002: 277) admits that job satisfaction is a complex and multifaceted concept

which can hold different values for each person which he defines as an attitude or

internal state associated with personal feelings of quantitative or qualitative

achievement. Beside that, Herzberg (1959) defines job satisfaction as an outgrowth of

achievement, recognition (verbal), the work itself (challenge), responsibility and

advancement (promotion) (cited in Miller, 2000: 165).

Job satisfaction is an area investigated in other disciplines such as psychology,

sociology, management as well as organisational behaviour. Therefore, it is important

to have studies on job satisfaction. As claimed by Kaarna (2004: 9), it is a reflection of

good treatment whereby it examines whether workers are treated fairly and

respectfully or vice versa. Moreover, it can be considered an indicator of a person’s

emotional well-being or physiological health. Job satisfaction among employees can

also influence their behaviour which has an effect on organisational functioning.

According to the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working

Conditions (2007: 2), there are various reasons why the level of job satisfaction is

measured frequently by organisations. Specifically, it can affect labour market

behaviour and influence work productivity, work effort, employee absenteeism and

staff turnover. Beyond the research literature and studies, job satisfaction is also

8

important in everyday life. Organisations have significant effects on the people who

work for them and some of those effects are reflected in how people feel about their

work (Spector, 1997: 2).

Moreover, there are some variables that influence job satisfaction in different

ways for different people. As noted by Mullins (2002: 277), job satisfaction is a

complex concept and it is difficult to measure objectively, yet there are some variables

which are agreed upon by scholars namely personality, values, social influence and

work situations (Mullins, 2002: 277; George, 2002: 83).

Personality is referred to as the enduring ways a person has of feeling, thinking

and behaving (George, 2002: 81). George (2002) argues that an individual’s

personality is related to their thoughts and feelings about the negativity or positivity of

a job. Personality includes education and qualification, intelligence and ability, age,

marital status as well as work orientation (Mullins, 2002: 278). Mullins (2002: 278)

and Kaarna (2004: 19) observe that personality affects job satisfaction in terms of

genetics. This observation is based on a study conducted by Arvey in 1989 which

found that genetic factors influence 30% of individuals to choose certain kinds of jobs.

Value is a second factor that determines job satisfaction. It is a reflection of a

worker’s faith and beliefs about the outcomes that his work directs to and how he

should behave at the workplace (George, 2002: 82). Values include attitudes, beliefs

and ethics. George argues that a person with strong intrinsic work values (which relate

to work itself) is more likely to be satisfied with the job content and achieve personal

satisfaction compared to a person who has strong extrinsic values (which relate to

consequences of work) who is more likely to be satisfied with a job that offers a good

salary rather than personal satisfaction (George, 2002: 82).

9

The third factor that has a significant impact on job satisfaction is one’s work

environment. There are several indicators that the work environment influences one’s

level of job satisfaction: the tasks that the individual has to perform (either the job is

interesting or boring), the personal interaction (relationship between supervisor,

colleague, group working and norms, opportunities for interaction, informal

organisation and customers), the environment itself which relates to noise level,

crowdedness, temperature and lastly, the treatment that the individual receives as the

job holder (formal structure, Human Resource policies and procedures, employee

relations, nature of the work, technology and work organisation, supervision and style

of leadership, management systems along with working conditions) (Mullins, 2002:

277).

Finally, the fourth factor is social influence which can be referred to as the

influence of individuals and groups on an individual’s attitude and behaviour (George,

2002:.82). It is mostly affected by the co-workers or groups a person attaches him to,

and the culture in which the person grew up and/or lives in.

Experts on organisational behaviour present several ways of examining job

satisfaction. Spector (1998: 5) for example, mentions that there are two ways in

assessing job satisfaction: examining overall job satisfaction or examining job

satisfaction facets. There are six questionnaires which are widely used in both areas.

Four of the questionnaires use job satisfaction facets, namely the Job Satisfaction

Survey (JSS) (Spector, 1985), the Job Descriptive Index (JDI) (Smith, Kendall and

Hulin, 1969), the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) (Weiss, Dawis,

England and Lofquist, 1967) and the Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) (Hackman and

Oldham, 1975). The remaining two surveys which assess overall job satisfaction are

the Job in General Scale (JIG) (Ironson, Smith, Brannick, Gibson and Paul, 1989) and

10

the Michigan Organisational Assessment Questionnaire Subscale (Cammann,

Fichman, Jenkins and Klesh, 1979).

1.6.2 OTHER THEORIES IN JOB SATISFACTION

Many scholars have tried to formulate theories with regard to defining job satisfaction

and the factors that determine it. Mayo emphasises human relationships, especially

social control and work conditions, as influences on job satisfaction (George and

Jones, 2002: 38). Maslow stresses on human needs in order to motivate job

satisfaction which include physiological needs, safety needs, love needs, esteem needs

and the need for self-actualisation (Miner, 2003: 135). There is also an improvised

version of human needs known as the Existence, Relatedness and Growth (ERG)

Theory where Aldelfer compressed Maslow’s needs into three categories: 1) Existence

is a reflection of a person’s requirement for material and energy exchange, 2)

Relatedness involves relationships with significant others and 3) Growth is the need

for personal development and creativity (Aldelfer, 2001: 104).

Later on, Theory X and Theory Y were developed by McGregor. It divides

motivation levels into 2 features. The first, Theory X presumes that employees are

naturally lazy and tend to work as little as possible, while the employer lacks

ambition, dislikes responsibility and prefers to lead. In contrast, Theory Y assumes

that the employee will exercise self-direction and self-control in the service of

objectives to which he is committed (Miner, 2003: 259). In addition, Theory Z was

developed by Ouchi whereby the key features in industrial organisations are related to

personnel relationships, mutual trust and loyalty lifetime employment (George and

Jones, 2002: 39).