MODULE 12: Metabolism, Lectures 25-27

Quadrant – 2 Animations: Metabolic Process Location biology Animation - LearnersTV

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Fat Metabolism classroom.sdmesa.edu/rfremland/Chem%20160/fatmetabolism.ppt Can mobilize from adipose; Release as Fatty acids; Epinephrene and glucagon release cAMP. make fatty acids and glycerol; mobilizes fat. Animation of Process.

Metabolism - Beta-Oxidation nutrition.jbpub.com/animations/animations.cfm?id=23&debug=0 To extract energy from fat, the body first breaks down triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids. Fatty acids are metabolized to multiple units of acetyl CoA by the ...

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Animation: carbohydrate digestion - myDr.com.au www.mydr.com.au › Nutrition & Weight View our animation of how foods containing carbohydrate are digested by your body into glucose. See the part insulin plays in helping glucose to enter your fat ...

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Lipoprotein Metabolism : Animation video - Best Medical Videos tube.medchrome.com/.../lipoprotein-metabolism-animation-video.html [starttext] Composition of Lipoproteins: Consists of non-polar core (Mainly Triglycerides and cholesteryl esters); A single surface layer of amphipathic ...

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Cellular metabolism - HealthKnot health pages www.healthknot.com/cellular_metabolism.html Diagram bellow is the very basic illustration of cellular metabolism; that is, how cells use digested food molecules assimilated from the bloodstream in catabolic ...

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Introduction to Metabolism | Lippincott's Illustrated Reviews:… - Inkling https://www.inkling.com/read/illustrated.../introduction-to-metabolism Free interactive eBook preview | Glycolysis | 8 I. Figure 8.1 Glycolysis, an example of a metabolic pathway. In Chapter 5 Figure 8.1 2 3 Figure 8.2 Important ...

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Metabolic Pathways - MP4 - Regulation Enzyme Activity employees.csbsju.edu/.../Metabolism/MetPathways4_RegEnzActn.html MP4. Regulation of Metabolic Pathways A: How is enzyme activity regulated? ... The list below, illustrated in the following figure, gives common ways to regulate ...

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Bilirubin Metabolism Medical Illustration Medivisuals www.medivisuals.com › Medical Negligence Exhibits › Hematology Schematic diagram showing liver physiology and bilirubin metabolism.

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Musculoskeletal System: Anatomy, Physiology, Metabolic Disorders ... www.amazon.com › Books › Medical Books › Basic Sciences › Anatomy Musculoskeletal System: Anatomy, Physiology, Metabolic Disorders (Netter Collection of Medical Illustrations, Volume 8, Part 1) [Frank H. Netter] on ...

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Video demonstrations: Metabolism - part 1 - YouTube► 6:40► 6:40

www.youtube.com/watch?v=MUtfF2qnzGo Jun 22, 2007 - Uploaded by Eli Har The metabolic pathways that produce energy create important environmental .

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Metabolism Videos tv.naturalnews.com/metabolism.asp Metabolism videos. ... 11/11/2011 1:07:42 PM - Dr. Jan McBarron, M.D., N.D. provides metabolism facts and the impact the metabolism has on weight gain, ...

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introduction to metabolism ppt - instruction.green... www.instruction.greenriver.edu/.../Intro%20to%20Metabolism_Ch%208... Concept 8.1: An organism's metabolism transforms matter and energy, subject to the laws of ... Organization of the Chemistry of Life into Metabolic Pathways.

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Quadrant – 3 Multiple Choice questions – chose correct answer: 1. The second law of thermodynamics essentially says

a) heat is energy b) motion energy converts to heat energy c) at the atomic level, motion is continuous d) entropy increases

2. Which of the following is uncharacteristic of ATP?

a) It is formed by attaching a phosphate group to ADP with a high-energy bond. b) In most reactions involving ATP, only the outer, high-energy bond is hydrolized. c) It is a good long-term energy storage molecule. d) When dephosphorylated, ATP becomes ADP.

3. The most primitive form of metabolism is

a) glycolysis b) oxygen-forming photosynthesis c) the degradation of organic molecules with the released energy stored in ATP d) anaerobic respiration

4. The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy can be

a) created b) destroyed c) converted d) all of the above

5. The universal energy currency for all cells is

a) ATP b) NAD+ c) ADP d) O2

6. Enzymes

a) make endergonic reactions proceed spontaneously b) lower the activation energy of a reaction c) are not very specific in their choice of substrates d) are needed in large quantities because they are used up during catalysis

7. To what category of macromolecules do most enzymes belong?

a) carbohydrates b) lipids c) nucleic acids d) proteins

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8. NAD+ is a(n)

a) enzyme b) coenzyme c) active site d) high-energy bond

9. Which of the following is a reduced compound?

a) O2 b) N2 c) NAD+ d) NADH

10. In an endergonic reaction,

a) the reactants contain less free energy than the products b) the reactants contain more free energy than the products c) no activation energy is required d) catalysis cannot occur

11. The energy of random molecular motion is called

a) heat b) free energy c) enthalpy d) potential energy

12. The energy available to do work in a system is called

a) entropy b) activation energy c) free energy d) heat

13. The initial steps in breaking down glucose are called

a) glycolysis b) chemiosmosis c) intramolecular catalysis d) intermolecular catalysis

14. A catalyst will make a reaction

a) stop b) slow down c) speed up d) go in a different direction

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15. When molecules are reduced they gain a) energy b) electrons c) hydrogen protons d) all of the above

16. Which of the following statements about enzymes is true?

a) some substrates can make enzymes change shape slightly b) all enzymes have the same pH optimum c) the active sites of all enzymes have the same three-dimensional shape d) none of the above

17. Cofactors

a) break hydrogen bonds in proteins b) help facilitate enzyme activity c) increase activation energy d) are linked to ATP by high-energy bonds

18. How much energy is released when one of the high-energy bonds in ATP is broken?

a) 730 cal/mole b) 7.3 cal/mole c) 7.3 kcal/mole d) 73 kcal/mole

19. Why do drastic changes in the temperature or pH of a system alter enzyme activity?

a) they change the three-dimensional shape of the enzyme b) they disrupt hydrogen and ionic bonds in the enzyme c) they disrupt hydrophobic interactions in the enzyme d) all of the above

20. The loss of an electron by a molecule is called

a) oxidation b) reduction c) enthalpy d) allosteric inhibition

21. In the chemical equation G = H - TS, the term G stands for

a) entropy b) the reactants c) enthalpy d) free energy

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22. NAD+ a) is being reduced. b) is a coenzyme. c) is an oxidizing agent. d) all of the above.

23. Which of the following must be true for a reaction to occur spontaneously?

a) delta G must be negative b) delta H must be negative c) delta S must be positive d) delta G must be positive

24. Redox reactions (oxidation-reduction)

a) do not occur in living systems b) require the presence of oxygen c) involve the loss of electrons termed oxidation d) involve the gaining of energy by an oxidized substance

25. Which of the following is NOT an enzyme?

a) lipase b) maltose c) ribonuclease d) dehydrogenase

26. Which of the following is considered a vitamin?

a) FAD b) NAD+ c) coenzyme A (CoA) d) niacin

27. Which of the following cell organelles convert one form of energy into another?

a) ribosomes b) Golgi apparatus c) chloroplast d) lysosome

28. Which organelle converts energy stored in carbohydrates into ATP?

a) Golgi apparatus b) chloroplast c) mitochondria d) nucleolus

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29. Which organelle will convert solar energy into the energy of a carbohydrate? a) chloroplast b) Golgi apparatus c) mitochondria d) nucleolus

State whether Tue/false:

1. In the malate dehydrogenase reaction, NAD+ is a reducing agent. 2. Energy is defined as the capacity to do work 3. Living systems continually take usable energy from the environment and eventually

return it as heat. 4. Energy cannot be created within a system. 5. Glucose is the common energy currency for the synthesis of molecules. 6. Enzymes can only be denatured by high temperatures. 7. Each reaction in a metabolic pathway is catalyzed by a specific enzyme 8. When it functions as a "second messenger", cAMP acts "second in importance" to

AMP 9. The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created nor

destroyed. 10. The letters ATP stand for adenosine triphosphate

Fill in the Blanks:

1. Metabolism may be divided into two categories ______________ and ____________ 2. When muscles contract, chemical energy is converted to mechanical energy with the

loss of heat. This is an example of the ______ law of thermodynamics 3. The second law of thermodynamics says that ______. 4. _______ is a measure of randomness or disorder. 5. The sum of all chemical reactions occurring inside a living cell is called ______. 6. ATP is composed of ______. 7. The amount of energy (e.g., heat) needed for a reaction to occur is called the ______. 8. The breakdown of a single glucose molecule into two molecules of pyruvic acid is

called ________________ 9. Lactic acid fermentation is also known as _________________ respiration 10. _______________ is the enzymatic formation of glycogen by the polymerization of

glucose molecules 11. The energy that is released from ATP when ATP is broken down comes from the

______ 12. ______________ molecule is considered to be the energy currency of cells? 13. Lactase is an enzyme that breaks down ________________ 14. The major free energy sources for anabolic pathways are ___________________

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15. Basal metabolic rate can be measured directly by the amount of ______________________ produced and indirectly by the amount of _____________________ consumed per minute.

16. That part of metabolism characterized by the synthesis of DNA, RNA, protein, glycogen, triglycerides, and other polymers is called _________________________

17. There are _________________________ essential amino acids and __________________ essential fatty acids that are necessary for normal metabolism and that must be obtained from the diet.

18. The hormone from the pancreas that raises the plasma glucose concentrations, such as during periods of fasting, or starving is _____________________

19. The two organs that can store energy reserves in the form of glycogen are the ______________ and ________________

Assignments (questions and solutions):

1. What is metabolism? 2. Discuss on the classification of metabolism 3. What are metabolic pathways? 4. Which are the molecules vital for life? 5. Explain the process of catabolism 6. Explain the mechanism of catabolism? 7. How does the energy released from organic compounds? 8. How does the energy transformation occur? 9. Explain the pathway that releases energy from inorganic compounds 10. How the energy does from light is captured? 11. Explain the biochemical process of anabolism 12. How does Carbon fixation occur in a cell? 13. Explain the process involving generation of carbohydrates and glycans 14. Discuss on synthesis of fatty acids, isoprenoids and steroids 15. Discuss briefly on protein biosynthesis 16. Explain the process of nucleotide synthesis and salvage 17. Discuss briefly on thermodynamics of living organisms 18. Give brief account on regulation and control of metabolic pathways 19. Give brief account on the effect of insulin on glucose uptake and metabolism.

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Quadrant – 4 Supplementary reading:

1. ROSE, S. and MILEUSNIC, R (1999) The Chemistry of Life. (Penguin Press Science), ISBN 0-14-027273-9.

2. BERG, J. TYMOCZKO, J. and STRYER, L., Biochemistry. (W. H. Freeman and Company, 2002), ISBN 0-7167-4955-6.

3. COX, M. and NELSON, D. L., Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. (Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), ISBN 0-7167-4339-6.

4. SCHNEIDER, E. D. and SAGAN, D., Into the Cool: Energy Flow, Thermodynamics, and Life. (University Of Chicago Press, 2005), ISBN 0-226-73936-8.

5. Nelson, David L.; Michael M. Cox (2005). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. New York: W. H. Freeman and company. p. 841. ISBN 0-7167-4339-6.

6. LANE, N., Oxygen: The Molecule that Made the World. (Oxford University Press, USA, 2004), ISBN 0-19-860783-0.

7. BROCK, T. D. MADIGAN, M. T. MARTINKO, J. and PARKER J., Brock's Biology of Microorganisms. (Benjamin Cummings, 2002), ISBN 0-13-066271-2.

8. DA SILVA, J.J.R.F. and WILLIAMS, R. J. P., The Biological Chemistry of the Elements: The Inorganic Chemistry of Life. (Clarendon Press, 1991), ISBN 0-19-855598-9

9. Sakami W, Harrington H (1963). "Amino acid metabolism". Annu Rev Biochem 32: 355–98. doi:10.1146/annurev.bi.32.070163.002035. PMID 14144484.

10. Rademacher T, Parekh R, Dwek R (1988). "Glycobiology". Annu Rev Biochem 57: 785–838. doi:10.1146/annurev.bi.57.070188.004033. PMID 3052290.

11. Opdenakker G, Rudd P, Ponting C, Dwek R (1993). "Concepts and principles of glycobiology". FASEB J 7 (14): 1330–7. PMID 8224606.

12. Guyton, Arthur C.; John E. Hall (2006). Textbook of Medical Physiology. Philadelphia: Elsevier. pp. 855–6. ISBN 0-7216-0240-1.

13. Lengyel P, Söll D (1969). "Mechanism of protein biosynthesis". Bacteriol Rev 33 (2): 264–301. PMC 378322. PMID 4896351.

14. Rudolph F (1994). "The biochemistry and physiology of nucleotides". J Nutr 124 (1 Suppl): 124S–127S. PMID 8283301.

15. doi:10.1146/annurev.arplant.57.032905.105421. PMID 16669783. 16. Demirel Y, Sandler S (2002). "Thermodynamics and bioenergetics". Biophys Chem

97 (2–3): 87–111. doi:10.1016/S0301-4622(02)00069-8. PMID 12050002. 17. Salter M, Knowles R, Pogson C (1994). "Metabolic control". Essays Biochem 28: 1–

12. PMID 7925313. 18. Roach P (2002). "Glycogen and its metabolism". Curr Mol Med 2 (2): 101–20.

doi:10.2174/1566524024605761. PMID 11949930. 19. Romano A, Conway T (1996). "Evolution of carbohydrate metabolic pathways". Res

Microbiol 147 (6–7): 448–55. doi:10.1016/0923-2508(96)83998-2. PMID 9084754. 20. Thykaer J, Nielsen J (2003). "Metabolic engineering of beta-lactam production".

Metab Eng 5 (1): 56–69. doi:10.1016/S1096-7176(03)00003-X. PMID 12749845.

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21. Koffas M, Roberge C, Lee K, Stephanopoulos G (1999). "Metabolic engineering". Annu Rev Biomed Eng 1: 535–57. doi:10.1146/annurev.bioeng.1.1.535. PMID 11701499.

Wiki development on the course/other resources: Metabolism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolism Metabolism is the set of life-sustaining chemical transformations within the cells of living organisms. These enzyme-catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow ...

Cell Metabolism - Metabolic pathway - Enzyme - Fatty acid metabolism What is Metabolism? - from News-Medical.Net

www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Metabolism.aspx Jun 12, 2013 - By Dr Ananya Mandal, MD. Metabolism is a term that is used to describe all chemical reactions involved in maintaining the living state of the ...

Cell Metabolism www.cell.com/cell-metabolism/ One Year Ago ... Selected articles from a year ago. Using a systems genetics approach in more than 100 mouse strains, Lusis and colleagues identify GWAS loci ...

Metabolism: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002257.htm Metabolism refers to all the physical and chemical processes in the body that convert or use energy, such as: Breathing; Circulating blood; Controlling body ...

Nutrition & Metabolism www.nutritionandmetabolism.com/ Nutrition & Metabolism publishes content focused on the integration of nutrition, exercise physiology, clinical investigations, and molecular and cellular ...

Metabolism | Vol 63, Iss 2, Pgs A1-A6, 161-306, (February, 2014 ... www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00260495 The online version of Metabolism at ScienceDirect.com, the world's leading platform for high quality peer-reviewed full-text journals.

Metabolism | Define Metabolism at Dictionary.com dictionary.reference.com/browse/metabolism Biology, Physiology. the sum of the physical and chemical processes in an organism by which its material substance is produced, maintained, and destroyed, ...

Metabolism - Merriam-Webster Online www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/metabolism biology : the chemical processes by which a plant or an animal uses food, water, etc., to grow and heal and to make energy ...

KEGG PATHWAY Database - GenomeNet www.genome.jp/kegg/pathway.html Metabolism Global/overview Carbohydrate Energy Lipid Nucleotide Amino acid Other amino Glycan Cofactor/vitamin Terpenoid/PK Other secondary metabolite ...

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Molecular Metabolism www.molecularmetabolism.com/ Official website of the Molecular Metabolism journal.

Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism - NRC Research Press www.nrcresearchpress.com/journal/apnm Published since 1983, this monthly journal focuses on the application of physiology, nutrition, and metabolism to the study of human health, physical activity, and ...

Chem4Kids.com: Biochemistry: Metabolism www.chem4kids.com/files/bio_metabolism.html Chem4Kids.com! This tutorial introduces the basics of metabolism. Other sections include matter, elements, the periodic table, reactions, and atoms.

metabolism (biology) -- Encyclopedia Britannica www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/377325/metabolism metabolism, the sum of the chemical reactions that take place within each cell of a living organism and that provide energy for vital processes and for ...

Cancer & Metabolism www.cancerandmetabolism.com/ "After several decades of profound advances in our understanding of the genetics and molecular biology of cancer, it has become self-evident that metabolism ...

Biochem of Metabolism www.rpi.edu/dept/bcbp/molbiochem/MBWeb/mb1/MB1index.html Biochemistry of Metabolism. Instructional materials for a studio-format course. * Information for Students * including needed software ...

metabolism - Wiktionary en.wiktionary.org/wiki/metabolism 40+ items - metabolism. Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Armenian

metabolism - Dictionary Definition : Vocabulary.com www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/metabolism Your metabolism is the result of all the processes in your body working together to create the energy that keeps you going.

Solution to Quiz: Chose the correct answer 1. D 6. B 11. A 16. D 21 D 26 D 2. C 7. D 12. C 17. B 22 B 27 C 3. A 8. B 13. A 18. C 23 A 28 C 4. C 9. D 14. C 19. D 24 C 29 A 5. A 10. B 15. D 20. A 25 B

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State whether True or False 1. T 6. T 2. T 7. T 3. T 8. F 4. T 9. T 5. F 10 T Fill in the Blanks 1. Anabolism

and catabolism

6. Adenine base, ribose sugar and phosphate

11 Phosphoanhydrous bonds

16 Anabolism

2. I 7. Activation energy

12 ATP 17 9 and 3

3. Entropy of universe increases

8. Glycolysis 13 Lactose 18 Glucagon

4. Entropy 9. Anerobic 14 ATP, NADPH 19 Liver and muscles

5. Metabolism 10 Glucogenesis 15 Heat and substrate Answers are only indicative. Expand on the outline given: 1. What is metabolism?

Metabolism is the set of life-sustaining chemical transformations within the cells of living organisms. These enzymes -catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. The word metabolism can also refer to all chemical reactions that occur in living organisms, including digestion and the transport of substances into and between different cells, in which case the set of reactions within the cells is called intermediate metabolism.

2. Discuss on the classification of metabolism

Metabolism is usually divided into two categories catabolism, that breaks down organic matter and harvests energy by way of cellular respiration and anabolism that uses energy to construct components of cells such as proteins and nucleic acids.

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3. What are metabolic pathways? The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways, in which one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical, by a sequence of enzymes. Enzymes are crucial to metabolism because they allow organisms to drive desirable reactions that require energy that will not occur by them, by coupling them to spontaneous reactions that release energy. Enzymes act as catalysts that allow the reactions to proceed more rapidly. Enzymes also allow the regulation of metabolic pathways in response to changes in the cells environment or to signals from other cells. A striking feature of metabolism is the similarity of the basic metabolic pathways and components between even vastly different species. For example, the set of carboxylic acids that are best known as the intermediates in the citric acid cycle are present in all known organisms. These similarities in metabolic pathways are likely due to their early appearance in evolutionary history and retained because of their efficacy.

4. Which are the molecules vital for life?

Most of the structures that make up animals, plants and microbes are made from three basic classes of molecule: amino acids, carbohydrates and lipids. As these molecules are vital for life, metabolic reactions either focus on making these molecules during the construction of cells and tissues, or by breaking them down and using them as a source of energy, by their digestion. These biochemicals can be joined together to make polymers such as DNA and proteins, essential macromolecules of life.

Molecules Monomers Polymers Examples Amino acids Amino acids Proteins

(polypeptides) Fibrous & globular proteins

Carbohydrates Monosaccharides Polysaccharides Starch, glycogen & cellulose Nucleic acids Nucleotides Polynucleotides DNA and RNA Enzymes and coenzymes

- - ATP, Vitamins, NAD+, NADP+, etc.

Minerals and cofactors

- - carbon, nitrogen, calcium, sodium, chlorine, potassium, hydrogen, phosphorus, oxygen and sulphur

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5. Explain the process of catabolism Catabolism is the set of metabolic processes that break down large molecules. These include breaking down and oxidizing food molecules. The purpose of the catabolic reactions is to provide the energy and components needed by anabolic reactions. The exact nature of these catabolic reactions differs from organism to organism and organisms can be classified based on their sources of energy and carbon. All the different forms of metabolism depend on redox reactions that involve the transfer of electrons from reduced donor molecules such as organic molecules, water, ammonia, hydrogen sulphide or ferrous ions to acceptor molecules such as oxygen, nitrate of sulphate.

6. Explain the mechanism of catabolism? The most common set of catabolic reactions in animals can be separated into three main stages. In the first, large organic molecules such as proteins, polysaccharides or lipids are digested into their smaller components outside cells. Next, these smaller molecules are taken up by cells and converted to yet smaller molecules, usually acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA), which releases some energy. Finally, the acetyl group on the CoA is oxidised to water and carbon dioxide in the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain, releasing the energy that is stored by reducing the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) into NADH.

A simplified outline of the catabolism of proteins, carbohydrates and fats

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7. How does the energy released from organic compounds? Carbohydrate catabolism is the breakdown of carbohydrates into smaller units. Carbohydrates are usually taken into cells once they have been digested into monosaccharides. Once inside, the major route of breakdown is glycolysis, where sugars such as glucose and fructose are converted into pyruvate and some ATP is generated. Pyruvate is an intermediate in several metabolic pathways, but the majority is converted to acetyl-CoA and fed into the citric acid cycle. Although some more ATP is generated in the citric acid cycle, the most important product is NADH, which is made from NAD+ as the acetyl-CoA is oxidized. This oxidation releases CO2 as a waste product. In anaerobic conditions, glycolysis produces lactate, through the enzyme lactate dehydrogenease re-oxidizing NADH to NAD+ for re-use in glycolysis. An alternative route for glucose breakdown is the pentose phosphate pathway, which reduces the coenzyme NADH and produces pentose sugars such as ribose, the sugar component of nucleic acids. Fats are catabolised by hydrolysis to free fatty acids and glycerol. The glycerol enters glycolysis and the fatty acids are broken down by beta oxidation to release acetyl-CoA, which then is fed into the citric acid cycle. Fatty acids release more energy upon oxidation than carbohydrates because carbohydrates contain more oxygen in their structures. Amino acids are either used to synthesize proteins and other biomolecules, or oxidized to urea and carbon dioxide as a source of energy.

8. How does the energy transformation occur?

Oxidative phosphorylation: In oxidative phosphorylation, the electrons removed from organic molecules in areas such as the protagon acid cycle are transferred to oxygen and the energy released is used to make ATP. This is done in eukaryotes by a series of proteins in the membranes of mitochondria called the electron transport chain. In prokaryotes, these proteins are found in the cell's innermembrane. These proteins use the energy released from passing electrons from redused molecules like NADH onto oxygen to pump protons across a membrane. Pumping protons out of the mitochondria creates a proton concentration difference across the membrane and generates an electrochemical gradient. This force drives protons back into the mitochondrion through the base of an enzyme called ATP synthase. The flow of protons makes the stalk subunit rotate, causing the active site of the synthase domain to change shape and phosphorylateADP+– turning it into ATP.

9. Explain the pathway that releases energy from inorganic compounds

Chemolithotrophy is a type of metabolism found in prokaryotes where energy is obtained from the oxidation of inorganic compounds. These organisms can use hydrogen, reduced sulphur compounds as sources of reducing power and they gain energy from the oxidation of these compounds with electron acceptors such as oxygen or nitrate. These microbial processes are important in global biochemical cycles such asacetogenesis, nitrification and denitrification and are critical for soil fertility.

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10. How the energy does from light is captured? The energy in sunlight is captured by plants, cyanobacteria, purple bacteria, gree sulphur bacteria and some protists. This process is often coupled to the conversion of carbon dioxide into organic compounds, as part of photosynthesis, which is discussed below. The energy capture and carbon fixation systems can however operate separately in prokaryotes, as purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria can use sunlight as a source of energy, while switching between carbon fixation and the fermentation of organic compounds. In many organisms the capture of solar energy is similar in principle to oxidative phosphorylation, as it involves the storage of energy as a proton concentration gradient. This proton motive force then drives ATP synthesis. The electrons needed to drive this electron transport chain come from light-gathering proteins called photosynthetic reaction center or rhodopsins. Reaction centers are classed into two types depending on the type of photosynthetic pigment present, with most photosynthetic bacteria only having one type, while plants and cyanobacteria have two. In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosystem II uses light energy to remove electrons from water, releasing oxygen as a waste product. The electrons then flow to the cytochrome b6f complex, which uses their energy to pump protons across the thylakoid membrane in the chloroplast. These protons move back through the membrane as they drive the ATP synthase, as before. The electrons then flow through photosystem I and can then either be used to reduce the coenzyme NADP+, for use in the Calvin cycle, which is discussed below, or recycled for further ATP generation.

11. Explain the biochemical process of anabolism

Anabolism is the set of constructive metabolic processes where the energy released by catabolism is used to synthesize complex molecules. In general, the complex molecules that make up cellular structures are constructed step-by-step from small and simple precursors. Anabolism involves three basic stages. 1. production of precursors such as amino acids, monosaccharides, isoprenoids and

nucleotides, 2. their activation into reactive forms using energy from ATP, and 3. the assembly of these precursors into complex molecules such as proteins,

polysaccharides, lipids and nucleic acids.

12. How does Carbon fixation occur in a cell? Plant cells (bounded by purple walls) filled with chloroplasts (green), which are the site of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the synthesis of carbohydrates from sunlight and CO2. In plants, cyanobacteria and algae, oxygenic photosynthesis splits water, with oxygen produced as a waste product. This process uses the ATP and NADPH produced by the photosynthetic reaction centers, as described above, to convert CO2 into glycerate 3-phosphate, which can then be converted into glucose. This carbon-fixation reaction is carried out by the enzyme RuBisCO as part of the Calvin – Benson cycle. In photosynthetic prokaryotes the mechanisms of carbon fixation are more diverse. Here, carbon dioxide can be fixed by the Calvin – Benson cycle, a reversed citric acid cycle or

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the carboxylation of acetyl-CoA. Prokaryotic chemoautotrophs also fix CO2 through the Calvin – Benson cycle, but use energy from inorganic compounds to drive the reaction.

13. Explain the process involving generation of carbohydrates and glycans

In carbohydrate anabolism, simple organic acids can be converted into monosaccharides such as glucose and then used to assemble polysaccharides such as starch. The generation of glucose from compounds like pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, glycerate 3-phosphate and amino acids is called gluconeogenesis. Gluconeogenesis converts pyruvate to glucose-6phosphate through a series of intermediates, many of which are shared with glycolysis. However, this pathway is not simply glycolysis run in reverse, as several steps are catalyzed by non-glycolytic enzymes. This is important as it allows the formation and breakdown of glucose to be regulated separately, and prevents both pathways from running simultaneously in a futile cycle.

14. Discuss on synthesis of fatty acids, isoprenoids and steroids

Fatty acids are made by fatty acid synthases that polymerize and then reduce acetyl-CoA units. The acyl chains in the fatty acids are extended by a cycle of reactions that add the acyl group, reduce it to an alcohol, dehydrate it to an alkene group and then reduce it again to an alkane group. The enzymes of fatty acid biosynthesis are divided into two groups, in animals and fungi all these fatty acid synthase reactions are carried out by a single multifunctional type I protein, while in plant plastids and bacteria separate type II enzymes perform each step in the pathway.

15. Discuss briefly on protein biosynthesis

Organisms vary in their ability to synthesize the 20 common amino acids. Most bacteria and plants can synthesize all twenty, but mammals can only synthesize eleven nonessential amino acids, so nine essential amino acids must be obtained from food. All amino acids are synthesized from intermediates in glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, or the pentose phosphate pathway. Nitrogen is provided by glutamate and glutamine. Amino acid synthesis depends on the formation of the appropriate alpha-keto acid, which is then transaminated to form an amino acid.

16. Explain the process of nucleotide synthesis and salvage

Nucleotides are made from amino acids, carbon dioxide and formic acid in pathways that require large amounts of metabolic energy. Consequently, most organisms have efficient systems to salvage preformed nucleotides. Purins are synthesized as nucleotides. Both adenine and guanine are made from the precursor nucleoside inosine monophosphate, which is synthesized using atoms from the amino acids glycine, glutamine and aspartic acid, as well as formate transferred from the coenzyme tetrahydrofolate Pyrimidines, on the other hand, are synthesized from the base orotate, which is formed from glutamine and aspartate.

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17. Discuss briefly on thermodynamics of living organisms Living organisms must obey the laws of thermodynamics, which describe the transfer of heat and work. The second law of thermodynamics states that in any closed system, the amount of entropy (disorder) will tend to increase. Although living organisms' amazing complexity appears to contradict this law, life is possible as all organisms are open systems that exchange matter and energy with their surroundings. Thus living systems are not in equilibrium, but instead are dissipative systems that maintain their state of high complexity by causing a larger increase in the entropy of their environments. The metabolism of a cell achieves this by coupling the spontaneous processes of catabolism to the non-spontaneous processes of anabolism. In thermodynamic terms, metabolism maintains order by creating disorder.

18. Give brief account on regulation and control of metabolic pathways

As the environments of most organisms are constantly changing, the reactions of metabolism must be finely regulated to maintain a constant set of conditions within cells, a condition called homeostasis. Metabolic regulation also allows organisms to respond to signals and interact actively with their environments. Two closely linked concepts are important for understanding how metabolic pathways are controlled. Firstly, the regulation of an enzyme in a pathway is how its activity is increased and decreased in response to signals. Secondly, the control exerted by this enzyme is the effect that these changes in its activity have on the overall rate of the pathway. For example, an enzyme may show large changes in activity (i.e. it is highly regulated) but if these changes have little effect on the flux of a metabolic pathway, then this enzyme is not involved in the control of the pathway.

19. Give brief account on the effect of insulin on glucose uptake and metabolism.

1. Insulin binds to its receptor 2. which in turn starts many protein activation cascades 3. These include: translocation of Glut-4 transporter to the plasma membrane and

influx of glucose 4. glycogen synthesis 5. glycolysis 6. fatty acid synthesis.

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