Models of Lifelong Learning Models of Lifelong Learning and the Knowledge and the Knowledge

Economy/Society in EuropeEconomy/Society in Europe

Andy GreenAndy GreenInstitute of Education, University of LondonInstitute of Education, University of London

Presentation at Comparative IP, MadridPresentation at Comparative IP, MadridJuly 26July 26thth 2005 2005

Regional Patterns in Regional Patterns in EuropeEurope

The European Union is a union of The European Union is a union of les regionsles regions as well as well les paysles pays

Social Scientists and historians have long Social Scientists and historians have long been aware of Europe’s distinctive regions been aware of Europe’s distinctive regions and regional models in term of:and regional models in term of:

Economies and labour markets (Braudel; Economies and labour markets (Braudel; Maurice and Sellier; Leonardi)Maurice and Sellier; Leonardi)

Geo-political Systems (Mackinder; Rokkan)Geo-political Systems (Mackinder; Rokkan) Citizenship concepts (Brubaker; Kohn)Citizenship concepts (Brubaker; Kohn) Welfare Regimes (Esping-Andersen)Welfare Regimes (Esping-Andersen)

The Approach to Analysing The Approach to Analysing regional Modelsregional Models

This paper seeks to examine whether there are This paper seeks to examine whether there are regional models of LLL in Europe and how regional models of LLL in Europe and how these relate to models of the Knowledge these relate to models of the Knowledge Economy/Society.Economy/Society.

We have insufficient units of comparison (in We have insufficient units of comparison (in terms of regions) to analyse this statistically, so terms of regions) to analyse this statistically, so the following uses a logical qualitative the following uses a logical qualitative approach to comparison using statistical data approach to comparison using statistical data descriptively ie ascertaining what the different descriptively ie ascertaining what the different regions have in common and how far they differ regions have in common and how far they differ from other regions in terms of lifelong learning from other regions in terms of lifelong learning systems and their outputs and outcomes.systems and their outputs and outcomes.

The Parameters The Parameters

The paper limits itself to countries in western The paper limits itself to countries in western Europe since the fluidity of systems in the Europe since the fluidity of systems in the East makes their analysis difficult at this East makes their analysis difficult at this point.point.

Regions are normally defined in geographical Regions are normally defined in geographical terms but not exclusively since cultural and terms but not exclusively since cultural and historical affinities may over-ride geography historical affinities may over-ride geography (as with the English-speaking countries)(as with the English-speaking countries)

Countries outside of Europe are included Countries outside of Europe are included where the datasets include them and where where the datasets include them and where they exhibit interesting patternsthey exhibit interesting patterns

Models of High SkillsModels of High Skills

Traditional models of ‘high skills economies’ Traditional models of ‘high skills economies’ have usually been binary:have usually been binary:

• Sharehlder v. stakeholder capitalism (Hutton)Sharehlder v. stakeholder capitalism (Hutton)• Stockmarket v. welfare capitalism (Dore)Stockmarket v. welfare capitalism (Dore)• High skills/low skills economies v. High Skills High skills/low skills economies v. High Skills

Economies/Societies (Brown, Green and Lauder)Economies/Societies (Brown, Green and Lauder)

In most analyses the first types are exemplified In most analyses the first types are exemplified by the USA, the UK and some other English by the USA, the UK and some other English speaking countries – hence the designation speaking countries – hence the designation anglo-saxon model capitalism.anglo-saxon model capitalism.

The second type are variously represented by The second type are variously represented by Germany, Japan and SwedenGermany, Japan and Sweden

Anglo Saxon Shareholder Anglo Saxon Shareholder Model High Skills Model High Skills

EconomiesEconomiesShareholder economies give primacy to market mechanisms and to Shareholder economies give primacy to market mechanisms and to the overriding rights of investors. Innovation and competitiveness the overriding rights of investors. Innovation and competitiveness achieved through:achieved through:

• Flexible labour marketsFlexible labour markets• Light regulationLight regulation• High employment ratesHigh employment rates• Long working hours Long working hours • Lower rates of social expenditureLower rates of social expenditure

The skills formation systems which serve them produce high skills The skills formation systems which serve them produce high skills elites – which serve the high skills sectors – but are typically highly elites – which serve the high skills sectors – but are typically highly polarised, producing long tail of low skilled who serve the cost-polarised, producing long tail of low skilled who serve the cost-based competition strategies of the low skills sectors.based competition strategies of the low skills sectors.

The system is said to promote rapid economic growth but may The system is said to promote rapid economic growth but may come at the price of poorer public services, product and service come at the price of poorer public services, product and service standards, greater income inequality and lower levels of social standards, greater income inequality and lower levels of social cohesion.cohesion.

Stakeholder Economies Stakeholder Economies (social Market Model)(social Market Model)

Stakeholder economies, which balance the rights of investors Stakeholder economies, which balance the rights of investors with the rights of other social interest groups and work through with the rights of other social interest groups and work through social partnership have:social partnership have:

• Higher social expenditureHigher social expenditure• More labour Market and other regulationMore labour Market and other regulation• Lower employment ratesLower employment rates• Shorter working hoursShorter working hours

Economic competitiveness is enhanced through high labour Economic competitiveness is enhanced through high labour productivity but low employment rates and shorter working hours productivity but low employment rates and shorter working hours constrain economic growth. Labour market regulation enhances constrain economic growth. Labour market regulation enhances wage equality but increases inequality between the employed and wage equality but increases inequality between the employed and unemployed. unemployed.

Skills formation systems produce high skilled elites but also Skills formation systems produce high skilled elites but also wider disperpersion of skills which serves the wide variety of high wider disperpersion of skills which serves the wide variety of high skills sectorsskills sectors

Trade Offs 1Trade Offs 1Policy makers typically see the two models as being characterised Policy makers typically see the two models as being characterised by a series of trade offs. by a series of trade offs.

High GDP per capita and economic growth depend on high labour High GDP per capita and economic growth depend on high labour productivity (output per hour), high employment rates and long productivity (output per hour), high employment rates and long working hours.working hours.

In the shareholder model:In the shareholder model:

• High employment rates may be achieved by flexible labour High employment rates may be achieved by flexible labour markets but these may reduce job protection, work quality and markets but these may reduce job protection, work quality and increase wage inequality.increase wage inequality.

• Longer working hours may increase average incomes but lower Longer working hours may increase average incomes but lower leisure time and life quality.leisure time and life quality.

• Low levels of regulation may increase opportunities for Low levels of regulation may increase opportunities for

innovation and economic dynamism but may also lower produce innovation and economic dynamism but may also lower produce and service standards and pose a threat to the environment.and service standards and pose a threat to the environment.

• Higher employment levels from flexible labour markets may Higher employment levels from flexible labour markets may increase social inclusion through work but also increase wage increase social inclusion through work but also increase wage inequality which undermines social cohesion, along with low inequality which undermines social cohesion, along with low levels of welfare spending.levels of welfare spending.

Trade Off 2 Trade Off 2 In the social market model, more regulation and In the social market model, more regulation and higher social spending contribute to:higher social spending contribute to:

• High labour productivity (through HC investment)High labour productivity (through HC investment)• Higher wage equality Higher wage equality • Better product, service and environmental Better product, service and environmental

standardsstandards• Higher life qualityHigher life quality

But also:But also:

• Slower job growthSlower job growth• Higher umemployment (which lower pc GDP)Higher umemployment (which lower pc GDP)• Greater inequality better employed and unemployedGreater inequality better employed and unemployed

Tripodic ModelTripodic ModelHowever recent research (de Mooig and Tang) suggests that this However recent research (de Mooig and Tang) suggests that this dualistic conception of high skills economies/societies with inevitable dualistic conception of high skills economies/societies with inevitable trade offs between employment levels and equality is over-simplified. trade offs between employment levels and equality is over-simplified.

While some aspects of labour market regulation do reduce While some aspects of labour market regulation do reduce employment at the same time as increasing wage equality (such as employment at the same time as increasing wage equality (such as high union membership and employment protection) other aspects high union membership and employment protection) other aspects (such as centralised concerted bargain and active LM policy) infact (such as centralised concerted bargain and active LM policy) infact increase employment and wage equality.increase employment and wage equality.

The Nordic countries typically fit this pattern. This suggest that we The Nordic countries typically fit this pattern. This suggest that we should we thinking of not two but three models of the Knowledge should we thinking of not two but three models of the Knowledge Economy/Society in Europe not two:Economy/Society in Europe not two:

• Anglo-American Model (high employment low equality)Anglo-American Model (high employment low equality)• Core Europe social market model (lower employment higher equality)Core Europe social market model (lower employment higher equality)• Nordic social democratic model (higher employment lower Nordic social democratic model (higher employment lower

inequality)inequality)

Country groupingsCountry groupings

We can examine how different We can examine how different countries fit the three models by countries fit the three models by looking at their relative performance looking at their relative performance in terms of the three constitutents of in terms of the three constitutents of national income. Following de Mooig national income. Following de Mooig and Tang we do this by showing and Tang we do this by showing National rates in relation to the USA National rates in relation to the USA but using a larger range of EU but using a larger range of EU states.states.

GDP/ capita, GDP/ hour, hours worked and labour force participation for selected European countries as a percentage difference with the United States for 2003

-85.0

-60.0

-35.0

-10.0

15.0

40.0

Austria

Belgium

Denm

ark

Finland

France

Germ

any

Greece

Ireland

Italy

Luxembourg

Netherlands

Norw

ay

Portugal

Spain

Sw

eden

Sw

itzerland

Turkey

U.K

.

Czech

Republic

Hungary

Poland

Countries

Per

cen

tag

e d

iffe

ren

ce w

ith

th

e U

S

GDP per Capita GDP per hour Hours worked Labour force participation

US-

Interpreting the dataInterpreting the data• Many European countries achieve higher rates of labour Many European countries achieve higher rates of labour

productivity than US (inc: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, productivity than US (inc: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland, Luxembourg, Netherlands and France, Germany, Ireland, Luxembourg, Netherlands and Norway)Norway)

• All countries (except Lux.) fall behind US in national All countries (except Lux.) fall behind US in national income because of either lower labour productivity or income because of either lower labour productivity or lower employment rates or shorter working hours or a lower employment rates or shorter working hours or a combination of these. Four groups emergecombination of these. Four groups emerge

• Countries which lower GDP mainly because of low labour Countries which lower GDP mainly because of low labour productivity (Greece, Portugal, Spain, Czech R., Hungary, productivity (Greece, Portugal, Spain, Czech R., Hungary, Turkey, Poland) - not taken to be High Skills economies Turkey, Poland) - not taken to be High Skills economies yet.yet.

• Countries with high labour productivity but low Countries with high labour productivity but low employment rates (core Europe: Austria, France, Germany employment rates (core Europe: Austria, France, Germany Italy) or shorter working hours (Belgium and Netherlands).Italy) or shorter working hours (Belgium and Netherlands).

• Countries with high labour productivity and high Countries with high labour productivity and high employment rates but shorter working hours, except employment rates but shorter working hours, except Sweden - Nordics Sweden - Nordics

Public Social Expenditure as % of GDP

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2001

Year

Soci

al E

xpen

ditu

re a

s %

of G

DP

Scandinavia

Southern Europe

Anglo-Saxon

Core Europe

EU-15

Income Inequality

0 10 20 30 40 50

1

Reg

ion/

Cou

ntry

Gini

Anglo-Saxon

Southern Europe

Core Europe

Scandinavia

US 2000

UK 1999

Switzerland 1992

Sweden 2000

Spain 1990

Portugal 1997

Norway 2000

Italy 2000

Greece 1998

Germany 2000

Parameters of Parameters of ComparisonsComparisons

System Characteristics:System Characteristics:

• Visions of LLL and the Knowledge EconomyVisions of LLL and the Knowledge Economy• Institutional StructuresInstitutional Structures• Curricula and AssessmentCurricula and Assessment• Modes of RegulationModes of Regulation

Outcomes:Outcomes:

Participation ratesParticipation rates Levels of attainment Levels of attainment Distribution of attainmentDistribution of attainment

Types of Knowledge EconomyTypes of Knowledge Economy

Modes of RegulationModes of RegulationState………………………………………………………… ……………………….Civil

Society

State State-led SP Formalised SP Voluntary Partnership Market

Centralized LUXEMBOURG GREECE PORTUGAL FRANCE

AUSTRIAITALY

Regionalized GERMANY SPAIN BELGIUM

Localised SWEDEN FINLAND

NORWAY DENMARK

Institutionalized NETHERLANDS UK

Southern Europe: Southern Europe: Institutional StructuresInstitutional Structures

• Comprehensive zoned lower secondary schools Comprehensive zoned lower secondary schools (except Mata) with limited school choice(except Mata) with limited school choice

• Some tracking and grade repeatingSome tracking and grade repeating• Dedicated upper secondary schools of different Dedicated upper secondary schools of different

types with monotechnic vocational high schools types with monotechnic vocational high schools (come comp in Greece and France)(come comp in Greece and France)

• Residual apprenticeship systemResidual apprenticeship system• Limited work-based trainingLimited work-based training• Mixture of unitary and binary HE Mixture of unitary and binary HE

Curricula and Curricula and AssessmentAssessment

• Encyclopeidic school knowledge traditionEncyclopeidic school knowledge tradition• Compulsory core of general subjects Compulsory core of general subjects

through all upper secondarythrough all upper secondary• Group awards with wide range of Group awards with wide range of

subjectssubjects• Some with overarching qualification Some with overarching qualification

systems giving entitlements to HE access systems giving entitlements to HE access to gradsto grads

• UniversalisticUniversalistic

Modes of RegulationModes of Regulation

School systems:School systems:• Centralised with some regionalisation Centralised with some regionalisation • National curricula and school text book National curricula and school text book

authorisation in Greeceauthorisation in Greece• Limited school choice and diversityLimited school choice and diversity• Limited financial delegation to schools (teachers Limited financial delegation to schools (teachers

as civil servantsas civil servants• State allocation of teachers to schoolsState allocation of teachers to schools

CVT:CVT:• State guided social partnershipState guided social partnership• Levies, employee training rights etcLevies, employee training rights etc

German Region - German Region - InstitutionsInstitutions

• Mostly state schoolsMostly state schools• Selective lower secondary schoolsSelective lower secondary schools• Dominant apprenticeship systems in Dominant apprenticeship systems in

upper secondaryupper secondary• Binary HE systemsBinary HE systems• High levels of work-based trainingHigh levels of work-based training

Curricula and Curricula and AssessmentAssessment

• Particularistic knowledge traditions Particularistic knowledge traditions with more specialisationwith more specialisation

• Sharper distinction between Sharper distinction between vocational and general knowledgevocational and general knowledge

• Grouped awards through schools Grouped awards through schools with common core but quite with common core but quite specialisedspecialised

• Particularistic non-integrated system Particularistic non-integrated system of awardsof awards

Modes of RegulationModes of Regulation

• Mostly regional control of schools but high Mostly regional control of schools but high levels of regulation at regional levellevels of regulation at regional level

• School diveristy by types but limited school School diveristy by types but limited school choice within typeschoice within types

• Limited financial delegation to schools with Limited financial delegation to schools with teachers as civil servants. Text book teachers as civil servants. Text book authorization in some.authorization in some.

• Formalised social partner model of work-based Formalised social partner model of work-based training with social partners involved in :training with social partners involved in :

- standard setting; monitoring; assessment; - standard setting; monitoring; assessment; sectoral bargaining over pay and qualification sectoral bargaining over pay and qualification rates for jobs. Extensive license to practise rates for jobs. Extensive license to practise provisions.provisions.

English- Speaking English- Speaking Countries: InstitutionsCountries: Institutions

• Autonomous private schoolsAutonomous private schools• Comprehensive lower sec schools (except Comprehensive lower sec schools (except

in N.I) but with creeping selection and in N.I) but with creeping selection and high levels of diversification and choice in high levels of diversification and choice in several countries (less so Scotland)several countries (less so Scotland)

• Mixed institutional pattern of upper Mixed institutional pattern of upper secondary with residual to growing secondary with residual to growing apprentice sector apprentice sector

• Unitary HE in UKUnitary HE in UK• Relatively high levels of work-based Relatively high levels of work-based

trainingtraining

Curricula and Curricula and assessmentassessment

• Traditional student-centred approachTraditional student-centred approach• High level of (early) specialisation with High level of (early) specialisation with

elective subjects and non common core in elective subjects and non common core in English upper secondaryEnglish upper secondary

• Vocational streams without general Vocational streams without general education tradition in vocational education tradition in vocational educationeducation

• Dominance of elective examinations Dominance of elective examinations within highly fragmented assessment within highly fragmented assessment systemsystem

Modes of RegulationModes of Regulation• School system combines centralised control over School system combines centralised control over

standards and performance with institutional standards and performance with institutional autonomy in deliveryautonomy in delivery

• Financial delegation to schools with school hire and Financial delegation to schools with school hire and firefire

• High level of school diversification and choiceHigh level of school diversification and choice• Voluntary partnership model of CVT:Voluntary partnership model of CVT:- Limited union involvement in standards and sectoral Limited union involvement in standards and sectoral

agreements over pay and qualifications; limited agreements over pay and qualifications; limited licence to practise; few levies, limited training rights; licence to practise; few levies, limited training rights; few obligations on employers to train BUTfew obligations on employers to train BUT

- Emphasis in information and small financial Emphasis in information and small financial incentives for targetted groupsincentives for targetted groups

- Gov’t encouragement of networking between partnersGov’t encouragement of networking between partners

The Nordic Countries - The Nordic Countries - InstitutionsInstitutions

• Overwhelmingly state system throughout Overwhelmingly state system throughout with few private schoolswith few private schools

• Comprehensive all-through neighbourhood Comprehensive all-through neighbourhood primary and lower secondary schoolsprimary and lower secondary schools

• Almost no streaming and settingAlmost no streaming and setting• Dedicated general and vocational high Dedicated general and vocational high

schools (combined in Sweden)schools (combined in Sweden)• State funded extensive adult learning State funded extensive adult learning

(including the adult folk schools)(including the adult folk schools)• Binary higher educationBinary higher education

Curricula and AssesmentCurricula and Assesment

• Encyclopeidic traditionsEncyclopeidic traditions• Late specialisation in upper Late specialisation in upper

secondary with common core secondary with common core general educationgeneral education

• Overarching matriculation system at Overarching matriculation system at end of upper secondary end of upper secondary

Modes of RegulationModes of Regulation

• Predominance of local level control in Predominance of local level control in state school sectorstate school sector

• Limited school diversity and choice (not Limited school diversity and choice (not least since no break between primary and least since no break between primary and secondary)secondary)

• Limited financial delegation to school Limited financial delegation to school since teachers are civil servants – although since teachers are civil servants – although some curricula autonomy at school levelsome curricula autonomy at school level

• Social partner based system of CVT Social partner based system of CVT regulation with strong legislation in key regulation with strong legislation in key areasareas

Scores on Prose, Document and Quantitative Literacy

240250260270280290300

Country Group

Ave

rage

Sco

res

Prose Mean

Document Mean

Quantitative Mean

Standard Deviations of Scores for Country Groups

0

5

10

15

20

25

Country Group

SD

Prose SD

Document SD

Quantitative SD

Average SD

Dispersal of Scores for Reading, Maths and Science by Country Group

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Country Group

Stand

ard De

viatio

n

Combined Reading

Mathematical

Scientif ic Literacy

Average all

Average of SDs

70

75

80

85

90

95

100

105

Country Group

Avera

ge of

SDs Average of SDs

Proportion of 16-65 Year Olds Participating in Adult Education During the Previous Year. 1994-

1998

0

50

100

150

Total Participation Rate * Mean number of Hours perAdult **

Countries/Regions

Finland

Denmark

Sweden

Norway

New Zealand

UK

Switzeralnd

US

Canada

Netherlands

Ireland

Belgium (FL)

Portugal

Scandinavia

Core Europe

Scan

dinavi

a

Core

Europ

e

Anglo

-Saxon

TotalParticipation

Rate

020406080

100120

Region

Participation of 16-65 Year Olds in Adult Education During the Previous Year. 1994-1998.

Total ParticipationRate

Mean Hours per Adult

What Processes Contribute What Processes Contribute to Socio-Economic Effects to Socio-Economic Effects

in Each Model?in Each Model?Lifelong learning contributes directly and Lifelong learning contributes directly and indirectly to Competitiveness and Social indirectly to Competitiveness and Social Cohesion in conjunction with:Cohesion in conjunction with:

• Welfare systemsWelfare systems• Labour market regimesLabour market regimes

Many causal relationships work in two Many causal relationships work in two directionsdirections

Labour Market Regime Welfare Regime Skills Distribution Income Distribution Status Distribution LLL System Employment Rate Social Cohesion Regime

Socialisation

Lifelong Learning System Lifelong Learning System EffectsEffects

The contributions of LLL systems work in The contributions of LLL systems work in three ways (leaving aside the socialisation three ways (leaving aside the socialisation process not analyses here)process not analyses here)

• Produce high levels of aggregate levels of Produce high levels of aggregate levels of skills which contribute towards labour skills which contribute towards labour productivityproductivity

• Produce skills distributions where more equal Produce skills distributions where more equal educational outcomes contribute to income educational outcomes contribute to income quality and, indirectly, to social cohesionquality and, indirectly, to social cohesion

• Renew adult skills which contributes to Renew adult skills which contributes to employment, and indirectly to social employment, and indirectly to social inclusion.inclusion.

Proportion of Workers in High Skilled Jobs

0 20 40 60

1

Country/Region

Anglo-SaxonCore EuropeScandinaviaPortugalIrelandAustriaNew ZealandGermanyUSAUKCanadaDenmarkNorwaySwitzerlandFinlandNetherlandsSweden

Scan

dinav

ia

Core

Europ

e

Anglo

-Saxo

n

S10

10

20

30

40

50

Country / Region

Proportion of Workers in High Skilled Jobs

Series1

Skills Distribution in the Skills Distribution in the ModelsModels

Anglo-American model of LLL produce high Anglo-American model of LLL produce high inequality of skills outcomes through welfare inequality of skills outcomes through welfare systems and diversity and choice in systems and diversity and choice in education system.education system.

This has negative effects on social cohesion.This has negative effects on social cohesion.

On the other and, high rates of adult learning On the other and, high rates of adult learning contributes towards higher employment contributes towards higher employment rates and therefore social inclusion. Effects rates and therefore social inclusion. Effects limited, however, because of wage inequality.limited, however, because of wage inequality.

Core Europe Model of Core Europe Model of Social MarketSocial Market

Education system produce unequal outcomes Education system produce unequal outcomes but these are mitigated by Apprenticeship but these are mitigated by Apprenticeship system. system.

Overall the skills system produces less Overall the skills system produces less inequality than Anglo-American one but more inequality than Anglo-American one but more than Nordic one.than Nordic one.

The relative skills equality reduces wage The relative skills equality reduces wage inequality which has positive effects on social inequality which has positive effects on social cohesion. However, labour market regime cohesion. However, labour market regime creates barriers to employment and increases creates barriers to employment and increases inequality between waged and unwaged thus inequality between waged and unwaged thus constraining positive effects on social cohesion constraining positive effects on social cohesion

Nordic ModelNordic Model

Egalitarian school system generates Egalitarian school system generates highly equal educational outcomes highly equal educational outcomes which contribute directly to income which contribute directly to income equality and indirectly to social equality and indirectly to social cohesioncohesion

Adult learning contributes to high Adult learning contributes to high employment rates and also to social employment rates and also to social inclusion through employment.inclusion through employment.