Paper ID #16795

Mirror Mirror: Reflection and the Building of Mindsets

Prof. Joe Tranquillo, Bucknell University

Dr. Joseph (Joe) Tranquillo is an Associate Professor at Bucknell University in the Department of Biomed-ical Engineering, He is also co-director of the Institute for Leadership in Technology and Management,co-director of the KEEN Winter Interdisciplinary Design Program, and chair of the Biomedical Engineer-ing Division of ASEE. Tranquillo has published three undergraduate textbooks and numerous engineeringeducation publications, and has presented internationally on engineering and education. His work hasbeen featured on the Discovery Channel, CNN Heath and TEDx. He was a US Case Professor of the Yearnominee and a National Academy of Engineering Frontiers of Engineering Education faculty member.

c©American Society for Engineering Education, 2016

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MirrorMirror:ReflectionandtheBuildingofMindsetsIntroductionIthasbeensaidthatentrepreneurshipisacontactsport(attributedtoTinaSeelig),bywhichitismeantthatentrepreneursarestronglybiasedtowardaction.Butmanyentrepreneursalsowaxpoeticaboutcontinuouslearningandthemindsetthatittakestobesuccessful.Theentrepreneurshipeducationcommunityhastermedthismorereflectivecomponenttheentrepreneurialmindset.Thecompositionandfunctionofamindset,however,isamuchdebatedtopic(WheadonandDuval-Couetil,2015).Inthefirsthalfofthispaper,systemsthinkingwillbeusedtobuildalogicmodelofanentrepreneurialmindset.Whatarisesnaturallyfromthisapproachisthevitalimportanceofreflectioninthedevelopmentofarobustmindset.Whereasactionsareawaytobuildskillsandcollectexperiences,reflectionisthemeansbywhichmodelsoftheselfandworldarecreatedandrefined(Kolb,1984).Assuch,reflection,bothformalandinformal,isanecessarycounterbalancetodoing(cpree.uw.edu).InthesecondhalfofthepaperIwillexploresomepedagogicaltoolsthatincorporatereflectiontobuildmindsetsandmodelsoftheworld.Throughoutthepaperseveralstatementsappearthatfollowfromthelogicmodel.Thesestatementsarenotfacts,butratheraremeanttobetestablehypothesesthatmayhelpmovethestudyofmindsetandreflectionforward.

PartI:ASystemsViewoftheEntrepreneurInthissection,alogicmodelwillbeconstructedthatwillattempttolinktogetherthecomponentsthatanindividualmustpossesstobeaneffectiveinnovatororentrepreneur.Thediagramisafirstprototype,butaimstoshowtheconnectionsbetweenmindset,actions,themodeloftheworld,andreflection.Theoverallgoalistousetheseconnectionstomoreclearlyteaseoutthenebulousfunctionsofamindset.ASystemsViewofanEntrepreneurItisamantraofsystemsthinkingthatitisnotpossibletotrulyunderstandanythinginisolation(Bateson,1979;DorfandBishop,1998).Onemustidentifyinputsandoutputs,andthengoontodeterminefunctions.Inthesystemview,itwouldmakelittlesensetotalkaboutamindset,divorcedfromitsinputs/outputsandfunction.Fromtheperspectiveofaneducator,asystemsmodelshouldalsoprovideinsightsintohowstudentslearntobecomeinnovatorsorentrepreneurs(Fergusonetal.,2013).Toorientthosewhoareunfamiliarwithsystemsthinking,belowisasimplisticviewoftheworld.

Figure1:Asimplesystemsblockdiagramdescribinghowactionsimpacttheworld.

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Inthispictureaboxrepresentsasystem,inthiscasetheworld.Inputstothatsystemarerepresentedasarrowspointingintothesystem,inthiscaseanaction.Arrowspointingoutofthesystemrepresentoutputs,inthiscasearesultofsomeinputaction.Thearrowsimplycausality;anactionisperformedontheworldandtheeffectissomeresult(DorfandBishop,1998).Usingthegraphicallanguageofboxesandarrows,amuchmorecomplexsystemsdiagramisshowninFigure8.Thisdiagram,however,willbecreatedthroughaseriesofsmallerdiagramsthatwillbecombinedtogether.AutomatonsandMakingChangesintheWorldInthe1940’sthegroupknownasthecyberneticistssketchedoutadiagramtodescribeasimpleautomatonthatcoulddisplaygoal-directedbehavior(Wiener,1948).Anautomatoncanchangetheoutsideworldtobeinsomedesiredstate.

Figure2:Thecanonicalfeedbackcontrolsystemthatexplainshowanautomatontakesactionstomaketheworldclosertosomedesiredstate.Suchanautomatonperformsanactionandthenobservestheresult.Theobservedresultisthencomparedtoadesiredresultusingaspecialoperator,designatedbythecirclewiththeplussigninthemiddle(calledajunction).InthecaseofFigure2,negativefeedbackisindicatedbythearrowwiththenegativesignenteringthejunction.Thecyberneticists’claimisthatthenegativefeedbackloopisnecessarybecauseoneactionrarelywillhavethedesiredeffectonthefirsttry.Ratherthefeedbackenablestheactiontocontinuetobeexecuted,andadjusted,untilthedesiredstateisreached.Suchasimplefeedbackcontrolsystemisthebasisforthermostats,biologicalhomeostasisandmanyeconomicphenomena.Itisworthnotingthatactionsareskillsthataredirectedoutintotheworld,whileobservationsareadifferentsetofskillsthatacceptinformationfromtheworld.Whatisclearlymissingistheoriginoftheneedordesire(Bateson,1979).Soasnottogetboggeddowninphilosophy,wewillfocusonthegoalsofanentrepreneurandhowthesegoalsmaycomeabout.Asafirststep,anentrepreneurobservessomethingintheworldthattheythinkshouldbechanged.Inotherwords,theyengageinopportunityrecognition.ThisideaisrepresentedgraphicallyinFigure3.

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Figure3:Aproposedmodelforhowanentrepreneurtakesactionstomaketheworld(astheyperceiveitintheirModeloftheWorld)closertoanimaginedworld.Whatisassumedisthatanentrepreneurcontainsintheirmindamodeloftheworld,thatdescribestheirpersonalperceptionoftherealworld(Duval-Couetiletal.,2012).Theyalsocanimagineaworldthattheythinkwouldbebetterinsomeway.Itisthedifferencebetweentherealworldandimaginedworldthatformstheirvalueproposition(BoulangerandTranquillo,2015;KimandTranquillo2014;Henryetal.,2005).ButtogainthisvaluemeansmakingtheΔ(knownasan“error”insystemslanguage)betweentherealandimaginedworldassmallaspossible.IntentionalandCoordinatedActionsFigures2and3canbecombinedtogethertocreateabroaderpictureofhowachangeagentiteratesontheiractions.

Figure4:Howanentrepreneurcanmakemanysustainedandcoordinatedactionsbyincludingafeedbackloopthatincludestheirmindset.Akeyadditionistheboxlabeled“mindset”.Theimportanceofusingsystemsthinkingisthatitisnotnecessarytoknowwhatamindsetis(whatisinsidethebox)todeterminefunction(howinputsaretransformedintooutputs).BaseduponthepositioninFigure4,amindsetisamoderatorbetweentheidentificationofadesiredchangeandactions.Itspurposeistoaddressacriticalchallengethatispresentedbytheworld.Theworlditselfiscomposedofmanycounterbalancingandstabilizingfeedbackloops(notshownbutcontainedwithinthebox“World”)thatmakeitrobustagainsttheactionsofachangeagent.Tocreateasignificantandsustainedchangethereforerequiresachangeagenttoorchestratecoordinatedandpersistentactions.Itisthisfunctionthatamindsetcanprovide.Wecanalsousethisdiagramtoanalyzetwonecessaryconditionsofamindset.First,toperformitsfunction,amindsetmustberelativelystableonthetimescaleoftheiterationofactionstoachieveadesiredgoal.Otherwise,itcannotserveasamoderator.Thislogicalconclusionhasadoubleedge.Ontheonehand,itis

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consistencyovertimethatgivesamindsetthepowertocoordinatedactions.Ontheotherhand,itmeansthatamindsettakestimetodevelop.Second,skillsandmindsetsmustworkinconcertforachangeagenttohaveanimpactontheworld.Astrongmindset,withouttheskillsneededtoexecute,willnotleadtochange.ModelsoftheWorldBeforedefiningwhatamodeloftheworldis(describedinPartII),amodelfordevelopmentofthatmodelcanbeexplored.Figure5showsacontinuousfeedbackloopthatcontainsthefirstappearanceofreflection.Thefigurealsocontainswithinitthemillennia-oldphilosophicalclaimthatwecannotknowtherealworldasitis.Rather,weconstructamodeloftheworldwithinourselfthatisasimplified(andperhapsinaccurate)approximationoftherealworld.

Figure5:Afeedbacklooptodescribehowanindividualcanrefinetheirmodeloftheworldbyreflectingonaction/observationcorrelations.Acriticalstepisthatanobservationisfedbackintoaboxmarkedreflection,anditisthroughreflectionthataModeloftheWorldiscreatedandmodified.Aswetakeactions,andcorrelatethemwiththeobserveresults,werefineourmodel.Thefunctionofreflectionisthereforeasamediatorbetweenobservationandthecurrentmodeloftheworld.Whatmakesreflectiondifferentfromsomeotherboxesisthatwhenitpointsintoabox,itisabletochangewhatisinsidethatbox.Reflectionisthereforesimplyaninternalskillthatturnsobservationsintochangesinthemodeloftheworld.Asaskill,reflectioncanbelearnedanddevelopedovertime(Dewey,1933).Whatiscriticalisthatweallsubconsciouslyreflect(Eagleman,2011).Sowhenentrepreneursclaimthattheydonotreflect,whattheyreallymeanisthattheydonotconsciouslyreflect.However,likeotherskills,becomingconsciousofreflectionanddedicatingtimeandmentalenergytopractice,willresultinmorepowerful,directedandefficientfunction(e.g.changingthemodeloftheworld).Figure5demonstrateshowamodeloftheworldcanbemodified,butitimpliesthatsomeinitialseedisneededtogettheprocessstarted.Itisnotentirelyclearwherethisinitialmodeloftheworldcomesfrom.Manyneuroscientists,however,wouldtellusthatthereareintrinsicbiasesineveryspecies,forexamplethatgravitypointsdown.Theywouldgoontoclaimthattherearemoresophisticatedbiasesinhumans,forexamplewhatahumanfacelookslike,thatformaninitial,inherited,butincompleteseed,tobegintheformationofamodeloftheworld(Pinker,2003).Itshouldbenotedthatasignificantportionofourcurriculaaregearedtowardbuildingupourstudents’ModeloftheWorld(Bransfordetal.,1999).Whenwe

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gatherevidencethattheirworldmatchesourworld,evenifourworldisnotcorrect,weassumethattheyhavesuccessfullylearnedsomething.TheImaginedWorldTheimaginedworldcanbethoughtofasacopyofthemodeloftheworld.

Figure6:Theroleofmindsetinthecreationofanimaginedworld.

Theimaginedworldisconstructedbysomecomponentsofamindset,namelycreativity,butalsolikelyothercomponentsaswell.Thisisasecondroleforamindset.Asitwouldbeinefficienttocreateanentirelynewimaginedworld,itislikelythatanimaginedworldisstoredonlyasdifferences(Δ)fromthemodeloftheworld.Storingonlydifferencesalsoallowsforseveralimaginedworldstobecreatedandusedsimultaneously.DevelopmentofaMindsetFigure7isahighlevelviewofhowamindsetmaydevelopthroughself-reflection.

Figure7:Afeedbackmodelforthedevelopmentofamindset.Onlyaninternalpathwayisshown.Leftundrawnisthepathwaythatincludestherealworld.Learningamindsetseemstorequireobservingtheresultsofcoordinatedactionsandextractinglearningthroughreflection(Dewey,1933;Kolb,1984).ItshouldbenoticedthatthereisnoconnectiontotheoutsideworldinFigure7.Theinterpretationisthatthe“actions”inFigure7aresimplythoughts.Thinkingisonlyonepathwaytomindsetdevelopment.Thefulldiagram(Figure8)includesanotherpathwaythatloopsintoandoutoftheworld.

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EntrepreneurshipLogicModelThelogicmodelinFigure8isacombinationofthediagramsabove.

Figure8:LogicModeloftheEntrepreneurWiththecompletediagramwecannotesomegeneralpoints.First,thereisacleardividebetweentherealworldandtheself.Theonlylinksbetweenthemareactionsandobservationsanditisthroughtheseskillsthatanindividuallearnsabouttheworld.Second,thereisastrongrelationshipbetweenanindividual’smodeloftheworldandtheirmindset.Bothareobtainedthroughwatchingactions(eithertheirownorsomeotherentity),andthenreactions(eitherinternallyintermsofemotionsandthoughts,orexternalintheworld).Therearemultiplecausalpathwaysforcommunicationbetweenthemindsetandthemodeloftheworld.Third,reflectionalwaystakesasaninputanaction/observationcorrelation,butthissingularcorrelationcanbeprocessedinmultipledifferentways.Lastly,educatorsoftentalkofencouragingstudentstobecomelifelonglearners(Bransfordetal.,1999).InthecontextofFigure8,thissimplymeansdevelopingallofthepathwaysforinformationflowandusingthemregularlyandsynergistically.Figure8proposesthataselfmaintainsaselectivelypermeableboundarytotheoutsideworld.Itisoftheformofanautopoieticsystemdefinedasany“machineorganized(definedasaunity)asanetworkofprocessesofproduction(transformationanddestruction)ofcomponentswhich:(i)throughtheirinteractionsandtransformationscontinuouslyregenerateandrealizethenetworkofprocesses(relations)thatproducedthem;and(ii)constituteit(themachine)asaconcreteunityinspaceinwhichthey(thecomponents)existbyspecifyingthetopologicaldomainofitsrealizationassuchanetwork.”(MaturanaandVarela,1980),Autopoietiswasfirstappliedtobiologicalsystems,inparticularcells,todescribehowself-containednetworksoffunctionscouldcatalyzeoneanotherandmaintainacoherentwhole,againstperturbationsfromtheoutsideworld.Autopoieticsystemsachievethisthroughmanyinterconnectedandinternalcausalloopsthatmovewithinthesystemaswellasinandoutoftheworld.Forexample,inthelogicmodel

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skillshelponeinteractwiththeworld,whichisaprimarypathwayusedinthedevelopmentofamindset.Butamindsetiswhatdrivestherefinementofskills.Likewiseknowledge,containedinthemodeloftheworld,canleadanentrepreneurtomakeachangeintheworld,butthenthatchangeisfeedbackintotheirownmodeloftheworld.Thesetypesofnon-linearcausalloopsallowautopoieticsystemstobecomeproducersofcoherentpatternsthatdefinetheself.Theresultisthatnofunction(boxesinFigure8)makessensewithoutamoreholisticviewoftheentiresystem(Barabetal.,1999).Thereareseveralconsequencesofthinkingofanindividualentrepreneurasanautopoieticsystemthatwillbediscussedlater.Onlytwowillbementionedhere.First,ifanyonepartofthesystemisweak,oroverpowering,relativetotheotherpartsofthesystem,theentrepreneurwillnotbeabletosustainbeingachangeagentforverylong.Second,manyautopoieticsystemshavecriticalcatalyzingfunctionsuponwhichmanyotherfunctionsdepend.Theseformbottleneckswithinthesystem.Analyzingthelogicmodel,itbecomesclearthatamindsetisabottlenecktomakingchangeintheworldandreflectionisabottlenecktomakingachangewithinaself.LimitationsOfcoursetherearemanylimitationstoFigure8.First,asamodel,itisnecessarilyasimplification.Thereareelementsthathavebeenleftundrawnsoastonotoverlycomplicatethediagram.Forexample,thereshouldbeaperson’sactualmindset(asdrawn),butalsoamodeloftheirownmindset(whatneuroscientistscallaTheoryofMind).Thiswouldleadtoanotherdiagram,similartoFigures2,4,and5,thatwouldbeincludedinthemasterdiagram.Havingamodelofone’sownmindsetandskillsmapsverywelltowhatweintheentrepreneurshipcommunitywouldcallself-efficacy.Second,otherpeoplehavenotbeenincluded.Thekeytoaddingotherpeopleistoassumethattheysharethesamerealworld.Theworldisthecanvasthatpeopleusetocommunicatewithoneanother.Anindividualcanobservetheactionsofothers,eitherasindividualsorasgroups,andincludemodels(againthroughreflection)oftheseotherindividualsintotheirmodeloftheworld.Itisbyaddingotherpeopletothediagramthatthelogicmodelcouldbeextendedtoincludeempathy,teamwork,jointvisioncreationandotherinherentlygroupactivities.Third,skills,knowledgeandmindsets,althoughdrawnasdiscreteboxes,areinrealitydistributedthroughoutthesystemandnotaseasytodisentangleasdrawninFigure8.

PartII:TheArchitectureofMindsetsandModelsThefunctionofamindsetoramodeloftheworldcanbeinferredfromFigure8.Theyare,however,shownasblackboxesthatsomehowtransforminputsintooutputs.Inthissection,aproposalwillbemadeforthenetworkstructureofbothmodelsoftheworldandmindsets.Furthermore,itwillbeproposedthatanetworkstructureleadsnaturallytoboththefunctionanddevelopmentofmindsetsandmodelsoftheworld.

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ModelsoftheWorldWittgensteindescribedthestructureofknowledgeasanetworkofinterrelatedinformation(Wittgenstein,1968).Morespecificallyamentalmodeloftheworldisanetworkofhoweventsandthingsintheworldareinterrelated.Toknowsomethingthereforemeanstobeabletoplaceitwithinanetwork.Itistheconnectionsbetweenelementsofthenetworkthatself-makemeaning.Thisideahashadastronginfluenceonhowcognitiveneuroscientiststhinkofneuralnetworksstoringinformation(Haykin,2004),howpsychologiststhinkofschemata(SchacterandTulving,1994),howlinguiststhinkofgrammar(EvansandGreen,2006)andhoweducatorsthinkofconceptsmaps(NovakandCanas,2008;Turnsetal.,2000).Thepowerofthenetworkideaofinternalmodelsisthatitexplainsbothhowamodelisusedandhowitisacquired.Usingknowledge,sometimescalledrecall,issimplyactivatingorenergizingsomepartofthenetwork.Theexactmechanismisnotentirelyclear,butneuroscientistswouldpointtothecoordinatedactivationofparticularneuralcircuits.Atanyonetime,apersonisthereforeonlyactivatingaparticularpartoftheiroverallknowledgenetwork.Knowledgeacquisitionissimplyachangeinthenetwork.Thisisachievedthroughacombinationofaddingnewinformationandconnectionstoanexistingnetwork(Newman2010).Togetanetworkstartedsimplyrequiresaseed.Asdiscussedabove,mostneuroscientistsandpsychologistsagreethatsomeofthisseedisinheritedfrombeinghuman,althoughtheydisagreeonexactlywhatisinnateandwhatislearned.Tosumup,amodeloftheworldisstoredinanetworkstructure.Itsfunction,however,ariseswhenpartsofthatnetworkareactivated.Withthispictureofamodeloftheworld,theskillofreflectionisthemechanismbywhichthenetworkischanged.Whatfollowsistheremaybearangeoffunctionsthatreflectionperforms.Reflectioncanreinforcealinkthatalreadyexistsoraddanewlink.Reflectioncanalsobeusedtoplacenewinformationwithinanexistingnetwork,alongwiththeappropriateconnections.Lastly,reflectioncanrewire(e.g.relearning)existinginterconnectionsbetweeninformation.Theimpetusforchangeineachcaseisobservedexperiences,butwithoutreflectionnochangeswouldbemadetothenetwork.Whenachangeismadetothemodeloftheworld,itcanbeverified(orfalsified)basedonfutureinteractionswiththeworld(Popper,2005).WecaninfactmapFigure8tootherepistemologicalwaysofknowing,includingthescientificmethod,philosophical(logical)reasoning,andtheartisticprocess.Forexample,HeidiNeckhasmappedtheentrepreneurialprocesstothescientificmethod(NeckandGreene,2011).Thereasonthisargumentisstrongisbecauseallofthesewaysofknowingreliesonthesameflowsofinformationbetweenaselfandtherealworld.Therearemanytakeawaysfortheeducator.First,recallisquiteliteratelyareactivationofthepathwaysthatwereconstructedthroughreflection(Bateson,

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1979;Meltzoffetal.,2009;SchacterandTulving,1994).Second,knowledgenetworkscanhavemanydifferentstructuresfrombeingverydisconnectedorsiloed,toveryinterconnected(Newman,2010;Nemanetal.,2006).Thereislikelyadelicatebalancebetweenbeingunderconnected(siloed)andoverconnected(theentirenetworkactivates).Third,duringacquisition,conceptsthatareactivatedtogetherwillbecomeinterconnectedwithoneanother(Hebb,2005).Theconsequenceisthatifyoulearnsomethinginaparticularcontext(e.g.itisstructurallyembeddedinaparticularwayintheknowledgenetwork),itismostlikelytobeactivatedinthatcontext.Furthermore,thetimingofobservationsandpathdependencieswithintheexistingnetworkcanhaveastronginfluence(oftencalledpriming)onhowreflectionwillchangethenetwork(Meltzoffetal.,2009).Fourth,thedevelopmentofarobustmodeloftheworldrequiresrichobservationsandtime.Fifth,eachmodeloftheworldwillbeuniquetothatindividual(Turnesetal.,2000).ActionNetworksFigure8containsboxeslabeled“coordinatedactions”and“observe”,whichhavebeendescribedasskills.Whethermentalorphysical,theseskillshavealsobeenproposedtoformanetworkstructure(Bateson.1979).Apersonwillactivateparticularpartsoftheirnetworkofskills,sometimesincomplexandcoordinatedways,toachieveanactionorobservation.MindsetsAmindsetisproposedtohaveasimilarnetworkstructureasamodeloftheworld,buttobefocusedinwardinsteadofoutward.Ratherthanbeingcomposedofthingsandevents,itisaconstellationofinterconnectedattitudes,outlooks,andhabits.Figure9showstwoexamplesofwhatthestructureofamindsetmaylooklike:

Figure9:Twohypotheticalmindsets,containingthesameelementsbutconnectedthroughdifferentpathways.Apersonexpressestheirmindsetinternallybyactivatingparticularcomponentsoftheirmindsetastheyneedthem.Theconsequenceisthatapersonwillnot,perhapscannot,expressalloftheirmindsetatanyonetime.Intheliterature,thisisknownassituationalexpression(Ryan,2012;Haynieetal.,2010;Brownetal.,1989).Forexample,whenactivatinggrit,anindividualwilllikelyneedtosuppresstheir

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creativity.Inthiswayamindsetisexpressedtolendpowerandcoordinationtobehaviorsandactionsinanadaptiveway.Likethemodeloftheworld,amindsetemergesfromaseed.Forexample,onemaybeinclinedtowardbeingcreative.Buttheremayberecognition,throughreflection,thatcreativeexpressionwillstallifparticularskillsarelacking.Ifapersonhasadoptedagrowthmindset(i.e.thattheycanlearnnewthingsthrougheffort)theywillseekoutwaystolearnandpracticethesenewskills.Eventuallytheywillencounterfrustrationwhenaparticularskillishardtolearn.Failurewillpromptthedevelopmentandactivationofresilienceandgrit.Inthiswaytheinclinationtobecreativewillbecometheseedthatcanfuelotherattributesofamindset.Whatemergesovertimeisamindsetthathasseveralinterconnectedattitudes,outlooksandhabitsthatallhelpcatalyzeoneanother.Thereisinfactarichliteratureondifferenttypesofnetworksandhowtheycangrowfromaninitialseed(Newmanetal.,2006;Newman,2010).Forexample,thenetworkthatemergesmayhaveonestrongcenter(asinahubandspokemodel,lefthalfofFigure9),orperhapssomeotherarrangementthatismoreflatinstructure(righthalfofFigure9).Buteachmindsetwillnecessarilybedifferentandwillbeexpresseddifferentlythroughoutalifetime.Anetworkviewofmindsetmayhelpmakesomesenseoftheon-goingdebateaboutmindsets.Manyresearchersarguethatthereisonekeystoneattributethatfuelstherest.ToCarolDweckthisisagrowthorientation(Dweck,2007)(lefthalfofFigure9).TotheKernFamilyFoundation(www.keennetwork.org;KriewallandMekemson,2010;Leslie,2014)itiscuriosity,andtoPaulTough(Tough,2013)andMalcolmGladwellitisgrit(Gladwell,2008).Othersproposeself-efficiacy(Bandura,1977)orintrinsicmotivation(DeciandRyan,1985;Pink,2009).Whateachisproposingisthatoneattributeistheseedtogetthingsgoing,aswellasthemajorhubofthemindset.Thismayinfactbetrueforparticularindividuals.Butitmayalsobethatresearchershavesimplyconstructedresearchsituationsthatprimesubjectstoexpressaparticularaspectoftheirmindset.Anetworkviewalsomeansthatthereisnoone“right”mindset,ordevelopmentaltrajectory,butratherthatmindsetsaretunedtoparticularenvironments.Theprimarybarriertowardunderstandingmindsetsisthattheyarenotoriouslyhardtomeasure(Brownetal.,1989;Duval-Couetiletal.,2010;Haynieetal.,2010;Hisrichetal.,2007).Unlikethemodeloftheworld,whichisrelativelyeasyforanindividualtoexpressinwaysthatotherscansee,amindsetisapersonalabstraction.Furthermore,theexpressionofamindsetissituational.Theresultisthateducationandeducationalresearchprogramshavefocusedonskillsandknowledge.Asaresultthereisresistancetobuildingeducationalenvironmentsaimedatdevelopingmindsets.Itishopedthatamorecompletelogicmodelmayaidinbetterassessmentofmindset,whichwillleadtomorewidespreadacceptanceofconstructingenvironmentsaimedatfosteringmindsetdevelopment.

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Lastly,asstatedabove,muchofourcurriculaarefocusedonmodelsoftheworld.Recognizingamindsetasadistinctarenaoftheself,however,meansthatitmaydevelopatadifferentrateandthroughdifferentactivitiesthanthedomain-dependentdevelopmentofthemodeloftheworld.Thereareatleasttworelatedhypotheses.First,amindsetmaybedevelopedthroughnon-formal,non-academiceducationsuchasathletics,music,religiouslife,socialinteractions,communityserviceorcombinationsoftheseactivities.Second,elementsofamindsetmaytransferacrossdomainsofexpertise.Forexample,possessinggritinathleticsmaytransferovertotheacademicrealm.TheEmergentEntrepreneurWhenthevariousnetworksmodelsareinsertedintothelogicmodel(Figure8),anentrepreneurcanbeviewedasacomplex,adaptiveandemergentsystem(MillerandPage,2009).Likeallemergentsystems,thedevelopmentofanentrepreneurwillnecessarilyarisebottomupratherthatbeingconstructedbysometop-downplan.Emergenceisanideathatisalreadywellrepresentedinentrepreneurshipeducation.Forexample,prototypesarecreatedandtheniteratedupon.Hypothesesaremadeandthenrealdataisgatheredtovalidateorrefuteclaims.Whatisbeingproposedhereisthatanindividualbecomesanentrepreneurthroughsimilaremergentprocesses.Anotherconclusionisthataneffectiveentrepreneurisnecessarilystronglycoupledtotheenvironmentinwhichtheyareplaced.Thedominantentrepreneurialparadigmisthataniterativeprocessenablesaproducttoemergethatistunedtotheworld.Anindividualcanlikewisebecomeanentrepreneurthroughtheiractions,experiencesandreflectionsthataretunedtotheworldinwhichtheyareembedded.Thistypeofself-tuningoccursbecauseanindividualissimultaneouslyusingandbuildingtheirmindsetaswellastheirmodeloftheworld(Thompson,2007).InsightsandImplicationsfortheEducatorGiventheindividual-focusednatureofFigures8and9,therearesomeseriousquestionsthatariseabouttheroleofaneducator.Theimplicationisthatamindsetcannotbetaught,atleastnotdirectly.Whataneducatorcandoiscreateanenvironmentthatwillestablishthenecessaryconditionsformindsetstogrowandthrive.Amindsetandmodeloftheworldwillemergeastheyaretunedtotheenvironmentcreatedbytheinstructor.Thetypicalclassroomintentionallypresentsamodeloftheworld(usuallytheinstructor’smodel)thatissimplerthantherealworld,onewithoutextraneous“noise”.Educationinsimplesettingsisenormouslybeneficialwhenstartingout.Butatsomepointtheclassroomshouldbecomemorecomplexandbettermirrortherealworld.Morerealisticenvironmentsenablestudentstofinetunetheirmodeloftheworldandstrengthenelementsoftheirmindset.Furthermore,itlikelydoesnotmatterhowtherealworldisexperienced,whetheritisinopen-endedclassrooms,internships,co-ops,bootcamps,pop-upclassesorhack-a-thons(BoulangerandTranquillo,2015;KimandTranquillo,2014).

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Theelementsofamindsetarealmostalwayswrittenaboutaspositiveattributes,butanimbalanceinsomeelementcanbecomedetrimentalwhenitisoverexpressed.Curiosityandcreativitybecomesflightiness.Self-efficacybecomesarrogance.Resolveandgritbecomesstubbornnessandinflexibility.Agrowthmindsetbecomesthebeliefthatonecanlearnanddoanything.Ofcourse,thereisnorightbalanceandsomeofthegreatestinnovators(Isaacson,2014;Csikszentmihalyi,2014)wereinfactveryimbalancedintheirmindsets.Theirsuccessreliedontheirmindsetbeingtunedtoaselectenvironmentandsurroundingthemselveswithotherpeoplewhocouldbalancetheirownmoreextrememindsets.Theundergraduateandgraduateexperiencedoesnothaveaprivilegedplaceinthedevelopmentofmindsets.Longbeforetheywereundergraduates,studentshadprofoundexperiencesthatwillimpactthemfortherestoftheirlives.Theyalreadylearnedmanyskillsandbegantocombinethemtogetherintentionallyandincoordinatedways.Likewise,aftertheygraduatetheywillmostcertainlyberelyingonthevariousattributeswithintheirmindsettonavigatetheworld.Thereis,however,somethingspecialaboutdevelopmentduringthelateteenstoearlytwenties(Bransfordetal.,1999).Theyareatasweetspotwheretheirmindshavebeenseededwithmanyattributes,buttheinterconnectionshavenotyetbeenfullymade.Asinallcomplexadaptivesystems,newconnectionsoftenbringaboutphasetransitions(Bak,2013;MillerandPage,2009;Newman,2010).Asinothertypesofphasetransition,theyoccuroverarelativelyshortperiodoftimeandresultinnewbehaviorsandwaysofknowingthatwerenotpresentbeforehand.Thesearethesortsofindividualparadigmshifts(Khun,2012),whichseemtooccurveryoftenduringthecollegeyears.Manyoutsideoftheentrepreneurshipandinnovationcommunityquestiontheimportanceofthesetopicsintheeducationofcurrentandfuturestudents.Forsure,entrepreneurialexperiencesarenottheonlywayarichmodeloftheworldandstrongmindsetcandevelop.Entrepreneurialenvironments,however,naturallyencourageastudenttoexerciseeverypathwayinthelogicmodelinFigure8.Anentrepreneurmustbecomeveryproficientatadiverserangeofskills(bothactionandobservation),whichmaybeappliedtomanydomains.Nearlyallelementsofamindsetwillbeexpressedatdifferenttimes,sometimesswitchingveryquicklybetweencreativity,grit,andintrinsicmotivation.Anentrepreneurialenvironmentveryquicklyexposesflawsinthemodeloftheworld.Furthermore,theoutputs(products,pitches,valuepropositions)canbeevaluatedandformareasonablepictureoftheinternalprocesseswithinanindividual.Inshort,entrepreneurshipeducationbuildsbotharichmodeloftheworldandstimulatestheemergenceofabalancedmindset.

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PartIII:PedagogicalToolsIngeneral,thecurrenteducationalsystemhasbecomeefficientatencouragingstudentstopracticeskillsandgainknowledgeoftheworld,perhapsbecauseprogressissimplertomeasure.Asshowninthelogicmodel,however,reflectionisthecriticalskillthatfuelstheemergenceofastrongmindsetandmodeloftheworld.Ashumans,allstudentsreflect,whethertheyknowitornot(Könings,2005).Ifreflectionisviewedasaskill,thenpracticewillenableonetobecomebetteratitovertime.Furthermore,moreintentional,focused,andhabitualreflectionwillresultinamindsetandamodeloftheworldthatmorequicklybecomestunedtotheoutsideworld.Therearetwoprimarybarrierstoadoptingreflection:1)thereisalreadytoomuchcontenttocoverand2)mostfacultyhavetroubleenvisioninghowtoincorporatereflectionintheirclassroom(Borregoetal.,2010).Tothefirstargument,thisauthorwouldrespondthatalittleintentionalreflectionseemstogoalongway.Theremainderofthissectionwilladdressthesecondargument,andpresentavarietyofpedagogicaltechniquesforincludingreflectionineducationalenvironments.Thesetechniqueshavebeenusedinlecture-basedcourses,problemandprojectbasedcourses,designbootcamps,studyabroad,pop-upclassesandfacultyteachingworkshops,withintheUnitedStatesaswellaswithinternationalaudiences.Theaimofthissection,however,isnottobeexhaustive,butrathertoencourageandinspireotherstofindtheirownwayofputtingthelogicmodelinsectionsIandIIintopractice.TheReflectionLadderMoststudentsarefamiliarwithreflection.Unfortunatelyinmanycasestherationale,eitherexplicitorimplicit,forproducingareflectionistogivetheprofessorinsight,ratherthanforthepurposesofstudentlearning.Theclassicexampleistheone-timeend-of-coursereflection.Ifreflectionisaskillthatcanbedeveloped,thenagoodfirststepistobuildinrepeatedreflectionsthroughoutanexperience.Thenextstepistogivesomeguidanceonhowtoreflect.Moststudentswhenaskedtoreflect,however,simplysummarizeevents,tellanentertainingstory,orevenworse,communicatewhattheythinktheinstructorwantstohear.Overthepastseveralyears,theauthorhascreatedaframework,calledthereflectionladder(Figure10).Eachrungoftheladdercontainsahigherlevelofabstraction.A“good”reflectionwillcontaininformationateachrung.Informationatthelowerlevelsisusedtobuild,andintegrateacross,levelsofabstractionasastudent“climbs”higher.Theladderanalogyhasbeenfoundtobesticky–“Thehigheryouclimbuptheladderthebetteryoucanseewhereyouhavebeen,whereyouareandwhereyoumightwanttogonext”.Theauthorhasfoundthisframeworktobeeffectivebothinguidingstudentsinopen-endedreflectiontimeaswellasincraftingspecificrefectionprompts.

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Figure10:ReflectionLadderthatservesasaframeworkforstudentreflectionsJournalsandPortfoliosManytechnicalcoursesemphasizedocumentationasapracticethatisvaluedbyindustry,aswellasscientific,governmentanddesignlabs.Documentationintherealworld,however,israrelycompletedwithemployeelearninginmind.Ourdilemmaaseducatorsisthatweoftenrequirestudentstodocumenttheirworkasawaytopreparethemfortheworkplace.Butstudentswhowillnotbeworkingonaprojectpastthesemesterhaveadifficulttimeseeingtheutilityingooddocumentation.Documentationbecomesbusywork,ratherthananimportantcomponentoftheirlearning.Analternativeistodocumentprogresstowardlearninggoals.Thereisalargebodyofliteraturethatinfactaddressesthispointintheformofportfolios(Kilgoreetal.,2014;Penny-Lightetal.,2012).Thesedocumentsaremuchmorethanrecordsofwhatwasaccomplished.Insteadtheycontaininterpretationandreflectiononthelearningprocess.Thelogicmodelpresentedcouldperhapsbeusedtofocusandbalancethecreationofportfoliosasameansoflearning.ReflectionasStoryTherearemanywhoadvocatestorytellingasaformofreflectionandapowerfulwaytounderstandtheworldandself.GregoryBateson,oneoftheearlypioneersofcyberneticsandcomplexadaptivesystems,statedasetofsixattributesofanymind(Bateson,1979).Thefirstattributeonthatlistwasthatamindnaturallyorganizesinformationincausalstructures,otherwiseknownasanarrative.Astoryissimplyanetworkofevents,agentsandobjectsthatinteractastheymoveforwardintime.Becausestoryisthewayamindnaturallyorganizesinformation(Cron,2012),itisthemostefficientwayofmovinginformationinandoutofamind(Bateson,1979).Itisnotsurprisingthatmanyintheentrepreneurshipeducationcommunityhaveextolledthevirtueofgoodstorytelling,butagainweencounteradilemma.The

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abilitytotellagoodstoryisoftenviewedinthecontextofapitch,targetedtowardanaudience.Analternativeistoviewstorytellingasawaytomakesenseoftheworldandself.AwonderfulexampleofthislatterapproachistheworkofBarbaraKaranianwhereshehasaskedstudentstowriteanarrativeabouttheirfirstinteractionwithacar(Karanianetal.,2013).Anotherexample,usedbytheauthorindesignclasses,istoaskstudentstopickthreewordsfromthefollowinglist:Drive.Grit.Resourcefulness.Integrity.Insight.Discipline.Flexibility.Empathy.Ownership.

IntrinsicMotivation.Generosity.Playfulness.Efficiency.Inquisitiveness.Daring.Vision.Decisiveness.Creativity.

Foreachwordtheymusttellastorythatdemonstrateshowtheyhaveembodiedthatwordduringthecourse.Manystudentssharedthatthesestoriescausedthemtothinkaboutthemselvesverydeeplybutalsohadtheaddedbenefitthattheybecamereadytoanswerhardinterviewquestions.Student-writtenLearningObjectivesItseemstobeagiventhatmostcoursesexiststoconveycriticalknowledgeandskillsinwhichtheinstructoristheexpert.Itmakessensethenthattheinstructorwouldwritethelearningobjectives.Thereareseveralcounterstothisposition,evenifthegoalistoteachskillsandknowledge,asexplainedelsewhere(Tranquillo,2015).Amindset,however,isanindividualentityandsoitwouldseemtomakesenseforanindividualtocreatetheirownlearningobjectives.Inthisspirit,theauthoroftenasksstudentstowritetwotofouroftheirownlearninggoalsandproposemethodsofself-assessingtheirprogresstowardthosegoals.Allthatisrequiredissomeinstructiononwritinglearningobjectives.Anicesideeffectoftalkingaboutlearningobjectivesisthatitbecomesmoreclearhowtheinstructorwrotethecourselearningobjectives.TheauthorhasexperimentedwiththisapproachinarequiredBiomedicalSignalsandSystemsclass(TranquilloandCavanagh,2007)andSeniorDesignCapstonesequence.Studentswereaskedtogeneratetwoorthreeindividuallearningobjectivesthatweremindset-related,meaningtheywerenottodevelopaskillorattainsomeparticularknowledgebase.Theyrangedfrombeingmorecreativetobeingmoreconfidenttobettermanagingfrustration.Attheendofthecourse,thefinalreflection(oneofmanyduringthecourse)wasfocusedongrowthtowardtheseindividualgoals,accompaniedbyevidenceintheformofstories.Asimilarapproachhasbeenusedinteam-basedprojects,namelythattheteamidentifieslearninggoals(oftenskillorknowledgebased)thattheywillachieveinexecutingaproject.GuidedDiscussionReflectionhasthusfarbeenframedasanindividualactivity.Fortheeducator,thisisasimplisticposition.Infact,thereisagreatbodyofpsychologicalliteraturethat

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showstheincredibledegreetowhichanindividualmindsetcanbeimpactedbyinteractionwithotherminds.Likewisetheeducationalliteraturehasdocumentedaverysignificantsocialcomponenttolearning(Brownetal.,1989;Palincsar,2005;Wenger,1998).Usingthelogicmodelwecanbegintounderstandhowstudentinteractionscanaddtoeachoftheirmodelsoftheworld.First,havingadiverseclassroomcanbecomeanenormouslearningbenefit,inthatitmakesthemodeloftheworldmorerealisticandcontextuallyrich.Second,studentscanshare,andchallenge,oneanother’smodelsoftheworld.Byhearinganotherexplainsomeaspectoftheirmodeloftheworld,anindividualcangaininformationthatwillhelpthemvalidateorrefutetheirownmodel.Third,asindividualsshareinagrouptheyrevealaspectsoftheirownmindsets.Listeningcanoftenshowhowothershave(orhavenot)balancedtheattributesoftheirmindset.Adeeplyreflectivepersoncanusetheseobservationstoquestiontheirownmindset.Guideddiscussion,aformatthathasbeenusedinthehumanitiesformillennia,isawonderfulwayforaninstructortofacilitatestudentinteractions.Theauthoristheco-directorofthesix-weeksummerInstituteforLeadershipinTechnologyandManagement(www.bucknell.edu/iltm;Tranquillo,2015;Buffintonetal.,2002)thatisnon-creditbearing,intenseandexperiential.Despitetheintensityandaneedtosatisfyanexternalclient,thereismuchtimeallocatedforgroupreflectionintheformofdiscussions.Someareformalandscheduledwhileothersareinformalandtakeplaceduring“non-instruction”times,suchasbusrides.Havingaframework,whetheritisthereflectionladderorsomeotherpublicframework(e.g.McKinsey7Sframework),iscriticaltoguidingthesegroupreflections.Studentevaluationsreportthatgroupreflectionsareoneofthemostenlighteningcomponentsoftheprogram.Theauthorhasalsointroduceddiscussionsintoanelectivecourse(Tranquillo,2014;TranquilloandCavanagh,2007)wherestudentsaretaskedwithmakingmeaningoutofagroupingofreadingsthatpresentcounterargumentstooneanother(Barkleyetal.,2014).MakingConsciousOne’sPatternsofBehaviorsAnotherformofreflectionistounderstandwhatpatternsofbehavior(goodandbad)oneexhibits(Duhigg,2012).Allthatisrequiredistohavequickcheck-ins,ofasimilarnaturetothoseespousedbyself-helpgurus,meditationtechniques,andseveralnewappsthatrunonwatchesandphones.Thegoalistomakeoneawareofahabitandturnthatrecognitionintoanopportunityforself-reflection.Intheauthor’sseniordesigncapstone,eachteammustfillinthefollowingformeetings(heldeachweek)withtheirfacultymentor:Ithasbeendayssincewe _____ lastreachedouttoourmentor _____ lastmetwithourfacultyadvisor _____ lastgainedinformationfromsomeonenotonourteam _____ performedatestorbuiltaportionofourdevice _____ madeacriticaldecision _____ madeatechnicalcalculation

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_____ usedinformationfromapreviousclass _____ hadateammeeting(nomentororadvisorpresent) _____ wroteupwhatwearedoing _____ postedtoourdesignhistoryfileThesesimplepromptscommunicatetothefacultymentorwheretheteamis(orisnot)investingenergy.Theprocessofdeterminingthesenumbers,however,alsopromptsaconversationamongtheteammembers,whichservesasaformofteamreflection.Inseniordesign,andothercourses,theauthoralsoconductsperiodicthreetofiveminute“stand-up”meetingswitheachindividual.Forthesemeetings,adifferentsetofpromptsarepresentedtoindividuals:IthasbeendayssinceI _____ lasttooktheleadonsomething _____ lastdidataskIdidnotwanttodo _____ lastdidataskthatIenjoyed _____ contributedsomethingoriginaltothegroupeffort _____ tookonachallenge _____ usedsomethingfromanotherclass _____ startedbuildingahabitthatIhopetocontinuelaterTheinstructorgainsasnapshotoftheinvestmentofthatindividual,butitisalsoasimplereflectiveexerciseforthestudent.SignsandOtherRemindersOnewaytofocusreflectionistopostsignsaroundtheroom.Manycompanies,suchasIDEO,dothesamewhentheyposttheirculturalvaluesinpublicspaces.Thesesignsreinforceaculturebuttheyalsocanbecomethefocusofintentionalreflections.TheauthorleadstheKEENWinterInterdisciplinaryDesignExperience(K-WIDE)(www.bucknell.edu/kwide;KimandTranquillo,2014;BoulangerandTranquillo,2015)whereaprimaryfocusisthedevelopmentofmindsets.Forexample,inK-WIDEtherearesignswithtitlessuchas“Autonomy.Mastery.Purpose”and“FailuretoGrow?”.Similarsignshavebeenusedinseniorcapstonedesign.Theinstructorcantheusethesesignstopromptreflection.AssessmentAmajoreducationaldilemmaishowtoassessreflectionandthegrowthofamindset.Somepreliminaryattemptscanbefoundinthecitations,butmuchmoreworkremains.Thelogicmodelatleastclarifieswhyamindsetishardtoassess,namelythatitishiddenintheinterioroftheself,issituationallyexpressed,andmaydevelopalongadifferenttrajectoryindifferentmindsembeddedindifferentenvironments.Italsoproposesthatperformingnetworkanalyses,similartohowconceptmapsareusedtoassessthemodeloftheworld,mayshowpromiseinassessingmindset.Likewise,whenreflectionisviewedasaskill,itsdevelopment

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canperhapsbetrackedlikeotherskills.Thereisabodyofresearchthatalreadyexistsforgaininginsightsintomindsets,suchasstandardpre-postsurveys,linguisticcoding,semanticanalysis,networkanalysis,andothers.Morespecifictoentrepreneurship,thereareseveralhybridmeasuresofinnovativenessorentrepreneurialthinking,basedlargelyonconcatenatingvalidatedpsychologicalmeasures(Duval-Couetiletal.,2012;KleineandYoder,2011).TheConsortiumtoPromoteReflectioninEngineeringEducation(cpree.uw.edu;Turnes,2014)hasalsocreatedameasureofthe‘reflectiveness’ofaperson,wheretheydistinguishbetweentypesandstylesofreflection.Asanexample,Figure11showsalinguisticanalysisof54reflectionsfrom18seniorsinaSeniorCapstoneDesignwherethereflectionladderwasused.ThefigurewascreatedusingthesoftwareprogramLeximancerandgoesbeyondsimplewordfrequencycounts(SmithandHumphreys,2006).Ittransformstextintonetworksthatcanrevealhowconceptsarerelated.

Figure11:LinguisticnetworkanalysisofseniordesignreflectionsusingLeximancerThesetypesofanalysiscanmovetoanotherlevelofdepthbymakingcomparisonsbetweenmaps.Forexample,thechangeinanindividual’snetworkmapscouldbetrackedovertime.Alternativelymapscouldbecomparedacrossindividualsworkingonateam.Examplesofsuchmapsarecontainedinapreviouspublication(BoulangerandTranquillo,2015).

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ConclusionsTheengineeringentrepreneurshipeducationcommunityhastakenonthedevelopmentofmindsetsasacoretenantofourmission.Inthispaper,alogicmodelwaspresentedthat,althoughincomplete,mayhelpfurtherthinkingaboutgoalsandpedagogicaltactics.Anetworkstructureofamindsetwasalsoproposedtoexplainhowamindsetdevelopsinconcertwithanenvironmentandisthensituationallyexpressedtocoordinateactions.Reflectionwasidentifiedasavitalcomponentinthebuildingofbothamindsetandamodeloftheworld,andasmallsamplingofpedagogicaltechniqueswerepresentedthatfocusonbuildingreflectiveskillsinourstudents.ReferencesBak,P.Hownatureworks:thescienceofself-organizedcriticality.SpringerScience&BusinessMedia(2013).Bandura,A.Self-efficacy:Towardaunifyingtheoryofbehaviorchange.PsychologicalReview,84,191-215(1977).Barab,S.etal.Principlesofself-organization:Learningasparticipationinautocatakineticsystems.JournaloftheLearningSciences8.3-4(1999).Barkley,E.etal.Collaborativelearningtechniques:Ahandbookforcollegefaculty.JohnWiley&Sons(2014).Bateson,G.Mindandnature:Anecessaryunity.NewYork:Dutton(1979).Borrego,M.,etal.Diffusionofengineeringeducationinnovations:AsurveyofawarenessandadoptionratesinUSengineeringdepartments.JournalofEngineeringEducation99.3(2010).Boulanger,BandTranquillo,J.BlendingEntrepreneurshipandDesigninanImmersiveEnvironment,ProceedingsofASEE(2015).BransfordA.,etal.Howpeoplelearn:Brain,mind,experience,andschool.NationalAcademyPress(1999).Brown,J.,etal.Situatedcognitionandthecultureoflearning.Educationalresearcher,18(1),(1989).Buffinton,K.,etal.Projectteamdynamicsandcognitivestyle.EngineeringManagementJournal14(3)(2002).Cron,L.WiredforStory:TheWriter'sGuidetoUsingBrainSciencetoHookReadersfromtheVeryFirstSentence.TenSpeedPress(2012).

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