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Militias, Rebels and Islamist Militants Human Insecurity and State Crises in Africa Edited by Wafula Okumu and Augustine Ikelegbe

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  • Militias, Rebels and Islamist Militants Human Insecurity

    and State Crises in Africa

    Edited by Wafula Okumu andAugustine Ikelegbe

  • Militias, Rebels and Islamist Militants Human Insecurity

    and State Crises in Africa

    Edited by Wafula Okumu andAugustine Ikelegbe

  • Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iv

    About the book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vi

    About the editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vii

    About the contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .viii

    Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xii

    List of tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xiv

    List of maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xv

    List of acronyms and abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xvi

    Chapter 1Introduction: towards conceptualisation and understanding of the threats of armed non-state groups to human security and the state in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1Augustine Ikelegbe and Wafula Okumu

    PART I: ISSUES AND DIMENSIONS

    Chapter 2Historical and cultural dimensions of militia and rebel groups in Africa . . .45Anne Kubai

    Chapter 3Mapping the phenomenon of militias and rebels in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69Bettina Engels

    Chapter 4Armed non-state entities in international law: status and challenges of accountability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89Godfrey Musila

    MIILITIAS, REBELS AND ISLAMIST MILITANTS: HUMAN INSECURITY AND State Crises IN AFRICA i

    ContentsAs a leading African human security research institution, the Institute for

    Security Studies (ISS) works towards a stable and peaceful Africa characterised

    by sustainable development, human rights, the rule of law, democracy,

    collaborative security and gender mainstreaming. The ISS realises this vision by:

    Q Undertaking applied research, training and capacity building

    Q Working collaboratively with others

    Q Facilitating and supporting policy formulation

    Q Monitoring trends and policy implementation

    Q Collecting, interpreting and disseminating information

    Q Networking on national, regional and international levels

    © 2010, Institute for Security Studies

    Copyright in the volume as a whole is vested in the Institute for Security Studies, and no part may be reproduced in whole or in part without the express permission, in writing, of both the authors and the publishers.

    The opinions expressed do not necessarily re�ect those of the Institute, its trustees, members of the Council or donors. Authors contribute to ISS publications in their personal capacity.

    ISBN 978-1-920422-10-3

    First published by the Institute for Security Studies,PO Box 1787, Brooklyn Square 0075Tshwane (Pretoria), South Africa

    www.issafrica.org

    Cover photographsSudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA) soldiers. AP Photo/Jean-Marc Bouju.Hundreds of thousands of refugees stream out of Mugunga refugee camp and head toward the Rwanda border as Zairian rebels move in to occupy what was the largest refugee camp in the world. AP Photo/Enric Marti.

    Production, typesetting and layout Image Design + 27 11 469 3029Cover design Janice KuhlerPrinting Remata iNathi

  • MIILITIAS, REBELS AND ISLAMIST MILITANTS: HUMAN INSECURITY AND State Crises IN AFRICAii INSTITUTE FOR SECURITY STUDIES iii

    CONTENTS WAFULA OKUMU AND AUGUSTINE IKELEGBE

    Chapter 5Crises of the state and governance and armed non-state groups in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119Augustine Ikelegbe

    PART II: CASE STUDIES

    Chapter 6Marginalisation and the rise of militia groups in Kenya: the Mungikiand the Sabaot Land Defence Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147Adams Oloo

    Chapter 7Rebels and militias in resource conflict in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183Phillip Kasaija

    Chapter 8Militias, pirates and oil in the Niger Delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219Ibaba Samuel Ibaba and Augustine Ikelegbe

    Chapter 9Rebels, militias and governance in Sudan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255Samson S Wassara

    Chapter 10Regionalisation of rebel activities: the case of the Lord’s Resistance Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287Paul Omach

    Chapter 11Militant Islamist groups in northern Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .313Muhammed Kabir Isa

    Chapter 12Armed Islamist groups in Egypt, Algeria and Morocco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341Eric George and Aleksi Ylönen

    Chapter 13From rebellion to opposition: UNITA in Angola and RENAMO inMozambique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .365Justin Pearce

    PART III: RESPONSES

    Chapter 14Local communities, militias and rebel movements: the case of theRevolutionary United Front in Sierra Leone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .389Krijn Peters

    Chapter 15State, regional and international responses to militia and rebel activities in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .417Macharia Munene

    Chapter 16Confronting the threats of armed non-state groups to human security and the state in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .437Wafula Okumu and Augustine Ikelegbe

    Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .469

    Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .481

    Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .524

  • iv vMIILITIAS, REBELS AND ISLAMIST MILITANTS: HUMAN INSECURITY AND State Crises IN AFRICAINSTITUTE FOR SECURITY STUDIES

    WAFULA OKUMU AND AUGUSTINE IKELEGBE

    for providing research assistance, and Marinkie Maluleke for taking care of all theadministrative matters.

    Last, but not least, we owe our families immeasurable gratitude for enduringour absences during the periods we sneaked out to libraries during weekends orstayed late at the office to work on the book. We will forever be indebted to ourspouses, C aroline a nd On ovughe, f or co ntinually b eing t he s ources o f o urintellectual curiosity and scholarly endeavours.

    Wafula Okumu and Augustine IkelegbePretoria

    October 2010

    Militias, rebels and Islamist militants has b een in t he w orks sin ce 2006 a nd i s aculmination of t he a uthors’ a ssiduousness, f ervour a nd fortitude t o makecontributions t hat in crease un derstanding o f o ne o f A frica’s m ost unf ortunatephenomena; that of armed non-state groups undermining human security and thestate capacity to provide it. After Musa Abutudu had introduced us to each other,we t ook t he f irst s tep o f p reparing a co ncept n ote t hat wa s en dorsed b y t heInstitute f or S ecurity S tudies (ISS) a nd s upported w ith f unds p rovided b y t hegovernment o f Fin land. I n t his r egard, w e w ould li ke t o exp ress o ur de epestappreciation to the ISS Executive Director, Jakkie Cilliers, the ISS Pretoria OfficeDirector, C heryl Frank, and t he A frican C onflict Prevention Programme Head,Paul-Simon Handy. All continued to offer words of encouragement and useful tipson content, concepts and historical facts.

    This b ook i s an expression o f our desire t o unpack a p henomenon t hat h asbecome a prominent feature of African politics. It is also an outcome of hard workby all of the contributors who made many sacrifices to research and write superbchapters, as well as to review each other’s work. Bettina Engels, Eric George, IbabaS Ib aba, M uhammad K abir, P hillip K asaija, A nne K ubai, M acharia M unene,Godfrey Musila, Adams Oloo, Paul Omach, Justin Pearce, Krijn Peters, SamsonWassara, and Aleksi Ylönen should also be thanked for providing us with a wealthof knowledge that we heavily relied on to compile and edit the volume.

    This b ook would n ot h ave b een completed in t ime w ithout t he professionalsupport we received f rom t he ISS p ublications office. Iolandi Pool, PublicationsCoordinator, and Tsakani Shipalana, Assistant Publications Coordinator, devotedimmense en ergies t o en sure t hat w e h ad t he n ecessary m aps a nd co pyrightpermissions, typesetting and copy-editing.

    We w ere s upported a nd en couraged b y o ur co lleagues t hrough w ords a ndreviewing of t he chapters. In p articular we s hould extend our special t hanks toJudy Smith-Höhn, Paula Roque, David Zounmenou, Martin Ewi, Musa Abutuduand Osumah Oarhe. We also owe a mountain of gratitude to Namhla Matshanda

    Acknowledgements

  • MIILITIAS, REBELS AND ISLAMIST MILITANTS: HUMAN INSECURITY AND State Crises IN AFRICAINSTITUTE FOR SECURITY STUDIESvi vii

    Wafula Okumu holds a P hD from Atlanta University in t he US. H e is a S eniorResearch F ellow a t t he I nstitute f or S ecurity S tudies (ISS), w here h e h as a lsoserved a s t he H ead o f A frican S ecurity A nalysis P rogramme (A SAP). B eforejoining the ISS in 2006, Dr O kumu taught at McMaster University’s C entre forPeace Studies, Prescott College, Mississippi University for Women and ChapmanUniversity. He also served as a co nflict analyst for the African Union and as anAcademic P rogramme A ssociate a t t he U nited N ations U niversity, Tokyo. H isresearch work and publications have been on a variety of topics ranging from theuse of child soldiers to human rights, democracy, terrorism, the African Union,African boundaries, peacekeeping and humanitarian assistance. In addition to hismany publications in refereed journals, Dr Okumu has also co-edited (with PaulKaiser) Democratic t ransitions i n Eas t A frica and (w ith A nneli B otha) t heUnderstanding t errorism i n Africa series. He i s t he a uthor (w ith P rofessor Sa mMakinda) o f African Union: c hallenges o f gl obalisation, s ecurity a nd go vernanceand is currently working on two forthcoming titles on African boundaries and theAfrican Union’s peace and security architecture.

    Augustine O vuoronye I kelegbe obtained a P hD in P olitical S cience f rom t heUniversity of Ibadan, Nigeria. He is a Professor of Comparative Politics and PublicPolicy a t t he University o f B enin a nd Adjunct R esearch A ssociate P rofessor o fConflict Studies at the Centre for Population and Environmental Development,Benin Ci ty, N igeria. H e wa s V isiting F ellow, U niversity o f W olverhampton,Wolverhampton 1999–2000; Visiting Fellow, the African Studies Centre, Leiden,2004; a nd H ead o f t he D epartment o f P olitical S cience, U niversity o f B enin,2006–2008. Dr Ik elegbe has researched, published and consulted extensively onresource conflicts and the roles of militias, youth and civil society in the conflictsand p olitics o f A frica. H is o ther w orks in clude Intergovernmental r elations i nNigeria (PEFS – co-authored); Oil, resource conflicts and the post conflict transitionin the Niger Delta region: beyond the amnesty (CPED); and Oil, environment andresource conflicts in Nigeria (LIT Verlag – forthcoming).

    About the editorsMilitias, rebels and Islamist militants: human insecurity and s tate cr ises in Africaexplores h ow a rmed n on-state g roups h ave em erged a s k ey p layers in A fricanpolitics a nd a rmed co nflicts sin ce t he 1990s. Th e b ook i s a cr itical,multidisciplinary and comprehensive study of the threats that militias, rebels andIslamist mi litants pose to human security and the s tate in A frica. Through casestudies utilising multidisciplinary approaches and concepts, analytical frameworksand p erspectives c utting acr oss t he s ocial s ciences a nd h umanities, t he b ookconceptualises armed non-state groups in A frica through their links to the state.After contextualising these groups in history, culture, economics, politics, law andother fac tors, a sys tematic ef fort i s made to lo cate t heir roots in g roup identity,social dep rivation, r esource co mpetition, e lite m anipulations, t he y outhproblématique, economic decline, poor political leadership and governance crisis.Differentiating mi litias f rom in surgents, r ebel g roups a nd ext remist r eligiousmovements, t he b ook i llustrates h ow s ome o f t he g roups h ave s ustainedthemselves, undermining both human security and the state capacity to provide it.The responses to their threats by local communities, states, regional mechanismsand ini tiatives, a nd t he in ternational co mmunities a re a nalysed. Th e f indingsprovide a co nceptual r eference f or s cholars a nd p ractical r ecommendations f orpolicymakers.

    About the book

  • MIILITIAS, REBELS AND ISLAMIST MILITANTS: HUMAN INSECURITY AND State Crises IN AFRICA ix

    WAFULA OKUMU AND AUGUSTINE IKELEGBE

    INSTITUTE FOR SECURITY STUDIESviii

    of Nigeria. H is w ork h as b een p ublished in t he Journal o f R esearch i n NationalDevelopment, J ournal o f S ocial a nd P olicy I ssues, A frican J ournal o f C onflictResolution, I nternational J ournal o f D evelopment I ssues, J ournal o f P eace a ndConflict S tudies, a nd Nigerian J ournal o f O il a nd P olitics. (E-m ail:[email protected])

    Augustine I kelegbe lectures in t he D epartment o f Political S cience a nd Pu blicAdministration a t t he University o f B enin in B enin Ci ty in E do S tate, N igeria.(E-mail: [email protected])

    Mohammed K abir I sa lectures in t he D epartment o f L ocal G overnment a ndDevelopment Studies at Ahmadu Bello University in Zaria, Nigeria. He has morethan a decade’s teaching and research experience in the fields of local governmentadministration, youth studies, ethnic conflict and social t ransformation. He is amember of the UNESCO-MOST Ethno-Net Africa at the University of Yaoundé inCameroon and has published extensively. (E-mail: [email protected])

    Anne K ubai is a n a ssociate p rofessor o f World C hristianity a nd I nterreligiousRelations in t he D epartment of Theology at Uppsala University in S weden. Sheworked a s t he r esearch dir ector f or t he L ife a nd P eace I nstitute in U ppsala inSweden, s enior s ocial s cientist a t t he D epartment o f Pu blic H ealth S ciences,Division o f I nternational H ealth C are R esearch (IH CAR) a t t he K arolinskaInstitutet in Stockholm in Sweden, and head of the Department of Religion at theKigali Institute o f E ducation in R wanda. Her research interests in clude religionand conflict, religion and international migration, religion and health, and gender-based v iolence in p ost-conflict s ocieties and p ost-conflict s ocial reconstruction.(E-mail: [email protected])

    Macharia M unene is a p rofessor o f H istory a nd I nternational R elations a t t heUnited S tates I nternational U niversity (US IU) in N airobi. H e h as t aught a tuniversities in Kenya, the United States and Spain, and is a regular columnist forBusiness D aily in K enya a nd a m edia co mmentator o n t opical i ssues. P rofessorMunene has been consulted by Kenya’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs, ParliamentaryCommittee o n D efence a nd F oreign R elations, a nd t he C onstitution o f K enyaReview C ommission. H e h as p ublished w idely o n t opics r elated t o di plomatichistory, African history and politics, peace and conflict, Kenyan history, politicsand foreign relations. (E-mail: [email protected])

    Kasaija P hillip Apuuli holds a do ctoral deg ree in I nternational L aw f rom t heUniversity of Sussex in t he United Kingdom. He is a le cturer in t he Departmentof Political Science and Public Administration at Makerere University, Kampala inUganda. He has done research for the Africa Peace Forum, the Conflict, Securityand D evelopment G roup a t K ings C ollege in L ondon, a nd t he A frica S ecuritySector N etwork o n sm all a rms a nd lig ht w eapons in U ganda, o n t he n orthernUganda conflict and on s ecurity in t he Great L akes region. His work h as b eenpublished a s b ook c hapters a nd in t he African J ournal o f I nternational A ffairs,Criminal L aw F orum, J ournal o f I nternational C riminal J ustice, Eas t A fricanJournal of Human Rights and Democracy, and Journal of Genocide Research. (E-mail: [email protected] / [email protected])

    Bettina Engels is a post-doctoral research associate at the research unit for peaceand conflict studies at Freie Universität in Berlin, Germany. She studied politicalscience and rural development, and wrote her PhD thesis on the motives of non-state violent actors, focusing on the Forces Nouvelles in Côte d’Ivoire. Her currentresearch in terests a re en vironmental s ecurity, f ood cr ises a nd lo cal co nflict inNiger and Ethiopia. (E-mail: [email protected])

    Eric George is the UNESCO Chair of Philosophy for Peace and lecturer in Peace,Conflict a nd D evelopment S tudies a t t he U niversidad J aume I in C astellon inSpain. H e r eceived hi s do ctorate in I nternational S tudies (P eace, C onflict a ndDevelopment) from the Universidad Jaume I. His research focuses on peace andsecurity issues such as piracy, private security companies and religious militancyin Africa. (E-mail: [email protected])

    Ibaba Samuel Ibaba lectures in the Department of Political Science of the NigerDelta University on Wilberforce Island in Bayelsa State, Nigeria. He holds a PhDin Development Studies from the University of Port Harcourt. He has carried outextensive research on youth and armed non-state groups in the Niger Delta region

    About the contributors

  • INSTITUTE FOR SECURITY STUDIESx

    ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS

    Krijn P eters is c urrently a le cturer a nd h ead o f t eaching a t t he C entre f orDevelopment S tudies a t S wansea U niversity in W ales. H e h olds a P hD inTechnology and Agrarian Development from the University of Wageningen in theNetherlands. He has been consulted by the World Bank, the European Union, theRoyal I nstitute o f t he T ropics, t he S pecial C ourt f or S ierra L eone a nd n on-governmental organisations such as Save the Children on issues related to armedconflict a nd p ost-war r econstruction. H is r esearch, f ocusing o n di sarmament,demobilisation a nd r eintegration o f ex-co mbatants, c hild s oldiers, t ransitionaljustice, a nd y outh m arginalisation a nd ex clusion, h as b een p ublished in b ooks,monographs a nd j ournals s uch a s International M igration, J ournal o f P eace,Conflict a nd D evelopment, a nd Cultural S urvival Q uarterly. (E-m ail:[email protected])

    Samson S Wassara is the vice-chancellor of Western Equatoria University. He hasserved as the dean of the College of Social and Economic Studies and director ofthe C entre f or P eace a nd D evelopment S tudies a t t he U niversity o f J uba inKhartoum in S udan. He h olds a D octorat en Dr oit, Nouveau R égime (P hD) inPublic International Law (Hydro-politics and International Water Legal Regimes)from t he U niversity o f P aris XI. P rofessor W assara h as co nducted ext ensiveresearch on peace, conflict, governance and development in Sudan. His work hasbeen published as reports, book chapters and in the Journal of Scientific Researchof Science and Arts, Journal of Peace and Development Research, Dirasat Ifriqiyya,and African Journal of Political Science. (E-mail: [email protected])

    Aleksi Y lönen is c urrently t eaching a t B ayreuth I nternational G raduate S choolof A frican S tudies. H e i s a do ctoral c andidate in t he I nternational R elationsand A frican S tudies p rogramme a t t he A utonomous U niversity o f M adrid.His r esearch o n m arginalisation, ex clusion, in surgencies a nd co nflict h asbeen p ublished a s b ook c hapters a nd in j ournals s uch a s New P erspectives o nPolitical E conomy, a nd Revista d e R elaciones I nternacionales. (E-m ail:[email protected])

    xiMIILITIAS, REBELS AND ISLAMIST MILITANTS: HUMAN INSECURITY AND State Crises IN AFRICA

    Godfrey M Musila holds a P hD in I nternational Criminal Law and Justice fromthe U niversity o f t he W itwatersrand in J ohannesburg, S outh A frica. H e wa s asenior researcher at the International Crimes in Africa Programme of the Institutefor Security Studies before taking up his current position as Director of Researchwith Kenya’s Truth, Justice and Reconciliation C ommission. He has written andpublished widely in t he f ields of international law, international cr iminal justiceand transitional justice. (E-mail: [email protected])

    Adams Oloo holds a PhD in Political Science from the University of Delaware andis c urrently a s enior le cturer in t he D epartment o f Political S cience a nd Pu blicAdministration at the University of Nairobi, Kenya. He has published articles ondemocratisation, leg islative a nd electoral p olitics, ci vil s ociety p olitics a nddevolution. His c urrent research interests a re p arty p olitics, p olicy a nd s ecurityissues in Kenya. (E-mail: [email protected])

    Wafula Okumu is a Senior Research Fellow at the Institute for Security Studies inPretoria, South Africa. (E-mail: [email protected])

    Paul Omach is a senior lecturer in the Department of Political Science and PublicAdministration a t M akerere U niversity in U ganda. H e h olds a P hD f rom t heUniversity o f t he W itwatersrand in S outh A frica. H e wa s a N ational S ecurityFellow at t he Institute on G lobal C onflict and C ooperation at t he University o fCalifornia a nd a B arrat-Rotary V isiting R esearch F ellow a t t he S outh A fricanInstitute o f I nternational A ffairs in J ohannesburg. H is r esearch o n co nflict,security, t he s tate a nd in ternational r elations in A frica h as b een p ublished in t he International E ncyclopaedia o f t he S ocial S ciences, A frican A ffairs a nd South A frican Yearbook o f I nternational A ffairs, a nd a s b ook c hapters. (E-m ail:[email protected])

    Justin P earce is co mpleting hi s do ctoral s tudies in A frican S tudies a t O xfordUniversity in t he U nited K ingdom. H e i s a co ntributor t o Oxford A nalytica, afreelance j ournalist a nd co nsultant, a nd p reviously s erved a s t he B BC’s Southern A frica co rrespondent. H e h as b een co nducting r esearch o n i ssues o fconflict a nd s ociety, h uman r ights a nd s ocial p olicy sin ce 2003. (E-m ail:[email protected])

    WAFULA OKUMU AND AUGUSTINE IKELEGBE

  • MIILITIAS, REBELS AND ISLAMIST MILITANTS: HUMAN INSECURITY AND State Crises IN AFRICAxii INSTITUTE FOR SECURITY STUDIES xiii

    WAFULA OKUMU AND AUGUSTINE IKELEGBE

    struggles for political space and access to resources, power struggles, activities tocombat crime and vigilantism.

    Second, the book proposes a new framework for understanding these groups.One of the intriguing findings is the fact that some of the groups have proliferatedin reaction to poor state formations and stunted democratic transitions. In severalinstances, these groups have constituted themselves into major civil armed forces,alternative p olice o r a nti-crime f orces, s tanding et hnic, r eligious a nd r egionalarmies, a morphous b ands, a nd a rmed w ings o f p olitical p arties, in surgencymovements and movements f ighting for self-determination. In several ways, thegroups are specific responses to the multiple and deep crises of the state and to thechallenges of development, democratisation and governance in A frica as a r esultof centralised, patrimonial, privatised and hegemonised state power, exclusionarypolitics, co rruption, s tate m alformation, de-co nstitutionalism, t runcatedtransitions and successions, inequitable distribution and redistribution of publicgoods, inter-group tensions, poor leadership, and misuse and abuse of the state.Hence it is important for both researchers and practitioners to be conversant withthe fact that remedies for addressing the threats of these groups do not lie solely instate responses such as military action or use of brute force by the police, but inbuilding the capacity of states to govern well.

    Third, t he b ook w ill s erve a s a u seful r esource f or b oth ac ademics a ndpractitioners in t he s ense t hat i t s eeks t o es tablish a t heoretical f ramework t hatlinks the formation and sustenance of armed non-state groups to how the state isgoverned and its capacity to guarantee human security. It also makes far-reachingproposals on how to effectively combat and prevent threats posed by these groups.Indeed, if A frica h as t o addr ess t he cr isis o f t he s tate a nd t he t hreats p osed t ohuman s ecurity b y a rmed n on-state g roups, i t w ill r equire w ell-researchedinformation such as that contained in this volume.

    The ISS i s p roud t o b e a ssociated w ith t his p roject t hat a ims t o co ntributeknowledge t hat w ould b ring a bout a de eper un derstanding t o o ne o f t he m ostserious threats to human security on the continent, as it relates to its mission ofgenerating knowledge that empowers Africa.

    Dr Jakkie CilliersExecutive Director

    Institute for Security Studies

    Although armed non-state groups have been major players in a lmost all Africanarmed conflicts sin ce 1960, a nalysis o f t heir p articipation in t hese conflicts h asoften b een limi ted t o fac tors s uch a s g reed a nd g rievance. G enerally, t here h asbeen a lack of a deeper analysis of the impact of these groups’ activities on humansecurity and the capacity of the state to provide it.

    Militias, rebels and Islamist militants: human insecurity and state crises in Africais b eing p ublished a t a cr itical m oment o f a ssessing t he cos ts o f t he ac tions o farmed n on-state g roups a nd exp loring a venues f or addr essing s ome o f t helongstanding co nflicts in w hich t hey a re in volved. I n a r eport r eleased in 2007entitled Africa’s missing billions: international arms f lows and the cost of conflict,Oxfam International, the International Action Network on Small Arms (IANSA)and Sa ferworld es timated t hat b etween 1990 a nd 2005, co nflicts cos t A fricaUS$300 billion. This is equivalent to the amount of international aid the continentreceived during the same period. The formation of the African Union in 2002 wasinfluenced by the realisation that ‘the scourge of conflicts in A frica constitutes amajor impediment to the socioeconomic development of the continent and of theneed to promote peace, security and stability’. Since then many concerted effortshave been made to minimise or eliminate these debilitating conflicts.

    This book is a timely contribution for a number of other reasons. First, i t i s b e b eing r eleased a t a t ime w hen a rmed n on-state g roups a re

    becoming increasingly involved in A frican politics, particularly during and afterelections o r a s r epresentatives o f m arginalised a nd ex cluded g roups s eekingredress of their grievances. Even though militias, rebels and Islamist militants arekey players in African armed conflicts, no previous studies had been conducted todetermine how they directly threaten human security and the state, or to criticallyanalyse t he va rious a pproaches t o p reventing a nd co mbating t he a ssociatedthreats. A rmed n on-state g roups in A frica a re q uite w idespread, m anifestingthemselves in dif ferent f orms. Th e co ntributors t o t his v olume hig hlight t hesegroups' different identities – ranging from ethnic clan/community, religious, youthand cultural to political and economic. They also discuss the groups’ motivations.These va ry f rom et hnic, r eligious a nd r egional a ssertions t o co ntestations a nd

    Foreword

  • MIILITIAS, REBELS AND ISLAMIST MILITANTS: HUMAN INSECURITY AND State Crises IN AFRICA xvINSTITUTE FOR SECURITY STUDIESxiv

    Table 1–1: Types of militia in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

    Table 1–2: Types of rebel movements in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

    Table 1–3: Comparisons of militias, Islamist militants and rebel movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

    Table 6–1: Criminal gangs in Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151

    Table 7–1: Rebel groups in the eastern DRC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194

    Table 7–2: Natural resources in the DRC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197

    Table 8–1: Trend of conflicts in the Niger Delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .224

    Table 8–2: Changes in the derivation component of revenue allocation . .236

    Table 8–3: Actors in Niger Delta conflicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238

    Table 9–1: Main rebel groups in Sudan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .263

    Table 9–2: Main Darfur rebel factions after the Darfur Peace Agreement . .271

    Table 9–3: Sample of militia groups according to the three regions ofSouthern Sudan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .276

    List of tablesMap 7–1: DRC's natural resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189

    Map 7–2: Natural resources in eastern DRC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198

    Map 7–3: Map of natural resources and conflict areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201

    Map 8–1: Niger Delta region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234

    Map 9–1: Oil exploration and conflict areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261

    Map 9–2: Rebel-controlled areas in south Sudan, 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268

    Map 10–1: LRA activities, December 2008 – April 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .302

    Map 11–1: Nigerian map of states with Shariah laws and principles . . . . . . .321

    List of maps

  • MIILITIAS, REBELS AND ISLAMIST MILITANTS: HUMAN INSECURITY AND State Crises IN AFRICAINSTITUTE FOR SECURITY STUDIESxvi xvii

    ADF Allied Democratic Forces ADLF Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo-Zaïre AENF Alliance of Eritrean National ForcesAFD Alliance de Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du CongoAFRICOM United States African Command AFRC Armed Forces Revolutionary CouncilAIAI Al-Ittihad al-IslamiAIDS Acquired immunodeficiency SyndromeAIS Armée Islamique du SalutAK-47 Avtomat Kalashnikova 47ALiR Armée pour la Libération du RwandaALS/ARS Alliance for the Liberation of Somalia / A lliance for the Reliberation

    of SomaliaAMIS African Union Mission in Sudan AMP Alliance pour la Majorité PrésidentielleANR Armée Nationale de RésistanceANC African National CongressANSGs Armed non-state groupsAPC Arewa People’s CongressAPCP All Peoples’ Congress PartyAPRM African Peer Review MechanismAQIM Al-Qaeda in t he Islamic M aghreb (L’organisation A l-Qaïda a u

    Maghreb Islamique)APC All People’s CongressAPCLS Alliances des Patriotes pour un Congo Libre et SouverainAPRD Armée P opulaire p our l a R estauration d e l a R épublique e t l a

    Démocratie (Army f or t he R estoration o f t he R epublic a nd o f Democracy)

    ATNM Alliance Touareg du Niger et du MaliAU African UnionBAMOSD Bakassi Movement for Self-DeterminationBOFF Biafran Organisation of Freedom Fighters

    List of acronyms andabbreviations

    CAR Central African RepublicCDF Civil Defence ForceCDU Civil Defence UnitCNDD-FDD Conseil National pour la Défense de la Démocratie / Forces pour la

    Défense de la DémocratieCNDP Congrès National pour la Défense du PeupleCNL Conseil Nationale de Libération (National Liberation Council)CNT Concorde Nationale TchadienneCOMA Coalition for Militant Action CP Conservative Party CPA Comprehensive Peace AgreementCSNPD Comité de Sursaut National de la Paix et de la DémocratieCSOs Civil society organisations DDR Disarmament, demobilisation and reintegrationDDRR Disarmament, demobilisation, rehabilitation and reintegrationDIF/A Darfur Independence Front/ArmyDP Democratic Party DPA Darfur Peace Agreement DRC Democratic Republic of CongoEBA Egbesu Boys of AfricaECOMOG Economic Community of West African States Monitoring and

    Observation GroupECOWAS Economic Community of West African StatesEIJ Egyptian Islamic Jihad ELF Eritrean Liberation FrontEPRDF Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front EPLF Eritrea People’s Liberation FrontFAC Forces d’Armées CongolaisFAN Forces Armées du NordFARDC Forces Armées de la République Démocratique du CongoFARF Forces Armées de la République FédéraleFAR Forces Armées Rwandaises (Rwanda Armed Forces)FARS Forces Armées Révolutionnaires du SaharaFBI Federal Bureau of Investigation FDLR Forces Démocratique pour la Libération du RwandaFDLR Forces Démocratique pour la Libération du RwandaFDPC Front Démocratique du Peuple CentrafricainFERA February 18 Revolutionary Army

  • MIILITIAS, REBELS AND ISLAMIST MILITANTS: HUMAN INSECURITY AND State Crises IN AFRICA xix

    WAFULA OKUMU AND AUGUSTINE IKELEGBE

    FII Finnish Institute of International AffairsFIPI Front pour l’Intégration et la Paix en IturiFIS Front Islamique du SalutFLAA Front pour la Libération de l’Air et de l’AzawadFLEC Frente de Libertação do Estado de CabindaFLN Front National de Libération (National Liberation Front) FLNC Front de Libération Nationale CongolaisFLGO Forces de Libération du Grand Ouest (Forces for the Liberation of

    the Great West)FNDIC Federated Niger Delta Ijaw Communities FNI Front des Nationalistes et IntégrationnistesFNL Forces Nationales de LibérationFNLA Frente Nacional da Libertação de AngolaFPR Front Patriotique RwandaiseFRELIMO Frente de Libertação de MoçambiqueFRF Forces Républicaines FédéralistesFROLINAT Front de Libération Nationale du TchadFRPI Forces de Résistance Patriotique d’IturiFUC Front Uni pour le Changement DémocratiqueG3 Gewehr 3 rifleGIA Groupes Islamiques ArmésGICM Groupe Islamique Combattant MarocainGLORIA Global Research in International Affairs GoSS Government of Southern SudanGPP Groupe Patriotique pour la PaixGSPC Groupe Salafiste pour la Prédication et le CombatGWOT Global War on Terror HIV Human Immunodeficiency VirusHRW Human Rights WatchHSMF Holy Spirit Mobile ForcesICC International Criminal CourtICG International Crisis Group ICGLR International C onference o n P eace, S ecurity, D emocracy a nd

    Development in the Great Lakes regionICJ International Court of Justice ICL International criminal law ICT International Criminal Tribunals ICTR International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda

    INSTITUTE FOR SECURITY STUDIESxviii

    ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

    IDPs Internally displaced personsIDMC Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre IGAD Inter-governmental Authority on DevelopmentIHL International Humanitarian LawIHRL International Human Rights Law IMF International Monetary FundIMN Islamic Movement in Nigeria IPF IGAD Partners ForumIRC International Rescue Committee JEM Justice and Equality MovementJIBWIS Jama’atul Izalatul Bid’ah Wa Ikamatus SunnahJIG Jihadi Islamic Group JIUs Joint integrated unitsKAIPTC Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training CentreKANU Kenya African National Union KNCHR Kenya National Commission on Human RightsKNYA Kenya National Youth Alliance KPA Khartoum Peace Agreement KPU Kenya People’s Union LDUs Local defence units LPC Liberia Peace CouncilLRA Lord’s Resistance ArmyLURD Liberians United for Reconciliation and DemocracyMAP Mass awareness and participation MASSOB Movement for the Realisation of the Sovereign State of BiafraMDJT Mouvement pour la Démocratie et la Justice au TchadMEND Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta MFDC Mouvement des Forces Démocratiques de la CasamanceMLC Mouvement pour la Libération du CongoMK Umkhonto we SizweMNC Mouvement National CongolaisMNJ Mouvement des Nigériens pour la JusticeMODEL Movement for Democracy in LiberiaMONUC Mission d es N ations U nies en R épublique D émocratique d u

    Congo MONUSCO Mission d e l ’Organisation d es N ations Unies p our l a S tabilisation

    en République Démocratique du CongoMPCI Mouvement Patriotique de Côte d’Ivoire

  • MIILITIAS, REBELS AND ISLAMIST MILITANTS: HUMAN INSECURITY AND State Crises IN AFRICA xxi

    WAFULA OKUMU AND AUGUSTINE IKELEGBE

    MPRC Mouvement P atriotique po ur la R estauration de la Rép ublique Centrafricaine

    MPRD Mouvement pour la Paix, la Reconstruction et le DéveloppementMPLA Movimento Popular de Libertação de AngolaMRC Mouvement Révolutionnaire CongolaiseMSS Muslim Students’ Society of NigeriaMTNMC Mouvement Touareg Nord Mali pour le ChangementNATO North Atlantic Treaty OrganisationNDMFS Niger Delta Militant Force Squad NDPSF Niger Delta People’s Salvation Front NDPVF Niger Delta People’s Volunteer ForceNDVF Niger Delta Volunteer ForceNDVS Niger Delta Volunteer Service NDV Niger Delta VigilanteNEPAD New Partnership for Africa’s Development NFDLF Northern Frontier District Liberation FrontNGOs Non-governmental organisationsNIF National Islamic Front NLMs National liberation movementsNMRD National Movement for Reform and DevelopmentNPFL National Patriotic Front of LiberiaNRA/M National Resistance Army/MovementOAU Organisation of African UnityODM Orange Democratic Movement OLF Oromo Liberation FrontONGC Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited ONLF Ogaden National Liberation Front/ArmyOPC O’odua People’s Congress PAC Pan-Africanist Congress PAIGC Partido Africano da Independência da Guiné e Cabo VerdePALIPEHUTU Parti pour la Libération du Peuple Hutu (Party for the Liberation

    of the Hutu People)PANAFU Pan-African UnionPARECO Patriotes Résistants CongolaisPDF Popular Defence ForcePDP People’s Democratic PartyPNU Party of National Unity Polisario Frente Popular de Liberación de Seguía el Hamra y Río de Oro

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    ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

    PRA Popular Resistance Army PRISM Project for the Research of Islamist Movements PUSIC Parti pour l’Unité et la Sauvegarde de l’Intégrité du CongoRCD Rassemblement C ongolais p our l a D émocratie (Congolese R ally

    for Democracy)RCD-ML Rassemblement C ongolais p our l a D émocratie – M ouvement d e

    LibérationRENAMO Resistência Nacional de MoçambiqueRFC Rassemblement des Forces pour le ChangementRPF/A Rwanda Patriotic Front/Army (Front Patriotique Rwandais)RPR Rassemblement Populaire RwandaiseRoC Republic of CongoRSLMF Republic of Sierra Leone Military Force RUD Ralliement pour l`Unité et la DémocratieRUF Revolutionary United FrontSADR Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic SAF Sudan Alliance ForcesSBU Small Boys Unit SCSL Special Court for Sierra Leone SCUD Socle pour le Changement, l’Unité et la DémocratieSLDF Sabaot Land Defence Force SLM/A Sudan Liberation Movement/ArmySNA Somali National AllianceSNF Somali National FrontSNM Somali National MovementSPDC Shell Petroleum Development CompanySPLM/A Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/ArmySPM Somali Patriotic MovementSSDF Somali Salvation Democratic FrontSSDF Southern Sudan Defence ForceSWAPO South West Africa People’s OrganisationTJRC Truth, Justice and Reconciliation Commission TNCs Transnational corporationsTPLF Tigray People’s Liberation FrontTSCTI Trans-Saharan Counterterrorism Initiative UCDA Uganda Christian Democratic ArmyUFDD Union des Forces pour la Démocratie et le DéveloppementUFDG Union des Forces Démocratiques de Guinée

  • CHAPTER 1

    MIILITIAS, REBELS AND ISLAMIST MILITANTS: HUMAN INSECURITY AND State Crises IN AFRICA 1

    INTRODUCTION

    A m ajor p resence in t he A frican s tates i s t he m ultiplicity o f a rmed n on-stategroups (ANSGs) t hat range from armed bands, vigilantes, cultist groups, privatesecurity companies, criminal bands, community/ethnic/religious/regional armies,armed wings of political parties and private armies to militias, Islamist militantsand rebel groups. These groups have been key players in the political violence thathas s everely un dermined h uman s ecurity a nd t he s tate c apacity n eeded t oguarantee it. Particularly militias, rebel groups and Islamist militant groups havebeen major actors in the ethnic, regional, religious and political conflicts, resourceconflicts a nd in surgency m ovements in A lgeria, A ngola, B urundi, t he C entralAfrican R epublic (CAR), C had, t he R epublic o f C ongo (R oC), t he D emocratic

    Introduction: towards conceptualisation andunderstanding of the threats of armed non-state groups

    to human security and the statein Africa

    AUGUSTINE IKELEGBE AND WAFULA OKUMU

    UFDN Union des Forces pour une Guinée NouvelleUFDR Union des Forces Démocratiques pour le RassemblementUFF Uganda Freedom Fighters UFR Union des Forces RépublicainesUIC Union of Islamic CourtsULIMO United Liberian Movement for DemocracyUNAMID United Nations African Union Mission in DarfurUNDP United Nations Development Programme UNESCO-MOST United N ations E ducational, S cientific a nd C ultural

    Organisation - Management of Social TransformationsUNIMIS United Nations Mission in the SudanUNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund UNITA União para a I ndependência Total de Angola (National Union

    for the Total Independence of Angola)UNLA Uganda National Liberation Army UNRF Uganda National Rescue Front UNSC United Nations Security CouncilUPC Uganda People’s Congress UPC Union des Patriotes CongolaisUPDA Uganda People’s Democratic ArmyUPDF Uganda Peoples’ Defence ForceUPLTCI Union d es P atriotes p our l a L ibération T otale d e l a C ôte

    d’IvoireUPM Uganda Patriotic Movement USGAO United States Government Accountability OfficeWKHRW Western Kenya Human Rights Watch WNBF West Nile Bank Front WSB West Side BoysWSLF Western Somali Liberation FrontZANU Zimbabwe African National Union ZAPU Zimbabwe African People’s UnionZIF Zentrum für Internationale Friedenseinsätze ZSVS Zamfara State Vigilante Service

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    ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

  • MIILITIAS, REBELS AND ISLAMIST MILITANTS: HUMAN INSECURITY AND State Crises IN AFRICA 3

    WAFULA OKUMU AND AUGUSTINE IKELEGBE

    groups and ext remist r eligious m ovements? How do t hese g roups sustainthemselves? How do t hese groups undermine both human security and the statecapacity to provide it? How are these groups dealt with at different levels, rangingfrom lo cal t o in ternational? Thi s b ook i s a n a ttempt t o a nswer s ome o f t hesequestions.

    Particularly, the book seeks to analyse and understand ANSGs a s institutionsof s truggle, o pposition, r esistance a nd v iolence in A frican p olitics; a s p art o f abroad and larger politics of the struggles by identity groups and counter-elite forpower a nd r esources a nd h ow t hese s truggles a re m ediated b y t he s tate, r ulingclasses, p olitical e lite, ci vil s ociety, n eighbouring co untries, a nd in ternationalorganisations a nd ac tors. Th e b ook f urther in vestigates h ow ANSGs a retransformed from civil struggle groups into militant and violent movements andhow t hey a re t ransformed in to n on-violent p olitical ac tors. Fin ally, t he b ookmakes a concerted effort to provide knowledge that could inform policy related toANSGs in Africa.

    This book is composed of case studies that utilise multidisciplinary approachesand co ncepts, a nalytical f rameworks a nd p erspectives dra wn m ainly f rom t hesocial s ciences a nd h umanities. Th e s pecific c ase s tudies dra w o n hi storical,cultural, s patial a nd r elated co ntexts, a nd o n co ntemporary de velopments(incidences a nd ac tual o ccurrences, p erceptions a nd a ttitudes). B eyond t heenunciated q uestions a nd co ncerns, t he w ork cr itically in terrogates t hephenomenon of ANSGs in Africa, particularly the narratives of grievances and thediscourse of struggles, the philosophical and ideological platforms of mobilisation,and the interfaces with culture and religion as well as international law.

    The b ook hig hlights t he g rowing r ole o f ANSGs in t he p olitical a ndsocioeconomic landscape and the conflicts in Africa and their growing use of armsand violence, which traditionally were the monopoly of the state. The work alsoidentifies the interfaces between the state, the nature of governance and politicswith the emergence, ac tivities and methods of ANSGs a s well as with how theyimpact on the multiple crises of the state, governance and development in Africa.Further, the impact of ANSGs’ activities and engagements is examined, as well asthe effect of internal conflicts, insurgencies and civil wars on human security andprogress in A frica. Th e b ook co ncludes w ith a cr itical lo ok a t t he n ature a ndeffectiveness of responses at the local, state, regional and international levels to theANSG ac tivities a nd p osits a s et o f p olicy p roposals t hat h ave im plications f orconflict resolution and peace-building efforts.

    INSTITUTE FOR SECURITY STUDIES2

    Introduction

    Republic of Congo (DRC), Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Liberia, Mozambique, Nigeria,Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan and Uganda. Apart from the 19 civil warsand one interstate war in 16 African countries between 1990 and 2000,1 there havebeen numerous internal conflicts in w hich militias, militant Islamist movementsand sm aller r ebel g roups w ere in volved. Th ese a re s et o ut b y B ettina En gels(chapter 3 and appendix).

    The activities of these groups in national and regional conflicts have exerted ahuge toll on the stability, development and security of Africa. Human insecurityhas been a major casualty in terms of massive internal displacements, disruptionof livelihoods, violations of human rights, heightened criminality, loss of lives andhumanitarian crises.

    Although ANSGs h ave exi sted in A frica in t he p re-colonial, co lonial a ndimmediate p ost-independence p eriods, t here h as b een a r esurgence sin ce t he1990s, w ith g roups b eing f ormed f or di ssent, r esistance, ci vil def ence, a ndstruggles f or s elf-determination, p olitical r eforms a nd r esource co ntrol. A lsonotable has been the persistence and seeming entrenchment of this phenomenonin some countries such as the DRC, Somalia and Sudan.

    The increased incidence and activities of these ANSGs raise serious concernsabout the institutionalisation of violence as a m eans of redressing grievances, itswidespread u se a nd a buse b y s tate a nd n on-state ac tors, t he exp osure o f t hecitizenry t o v icious v iolence, a nd t he los s o f s tate m onopoly o ver t he u se o fviolence. Violence also weakens the capacity of the state to provide the res publica(particularly democracy, public security and general welfare), and an environmentthat a llows b asic n eeds to b e m et. Th ese and t he p ossible lin kages w ith humaninsecurity, h umanitarian cr ises, de velopment a nd g overnance cr ises, in stabilityand co nflicts, a re a mong t he r easons f or a g rowing in terest in cr iticallyinterrogating and understanding the phenomenon of ANSGs in Africa.

    A cr itical exa mination o f t he p henomenon o f ANSGs ra ises n umerousquestions: How can we conceptualise militias, Islamic militants and rebel groupsin Africa? Is it enough to regard them as groups arising from frustration, engagedin conflicts and that apply violence or merely as armed civil organisations with ahigh propensity for violence? From what perspectives can we seek explanations?How do g roup iden tities, s ocial dep rivation, r esource co mpetition, e litemanipulations, t he p roblem o f t he y outh, e conomic de cline, p oor p oliticalleadership a nd g overnance cr ises co ntribute t o t he un derstanding o f t hephenomenon? H ow do w e dif ferentiate b etween mi litias a nd in surgents, r ebel

  • MIILITIAS, REBELS AND ISLAMIST MILITANTS: HUMAN INSECURITY AND State Crises IN AFRICAINSTITUTE FOR SECURITY STUDIES4 5

    Introduction WAFULA OKUMU AND AUGUSTINE IKELEGBE

    Western countries, the militia was either a reserve army or an emergency force ofthe p aramilitary t ype t hat wa s es tablished b y a g overnment o r co mmunities.Militias of the resistance, rebellion, liberation and self-defence persuasion existedin Europe and America until the mid-20th century in co untries such as France,during the World War II German occupation, and Austria, after World War I. Thereserve, special duty or emergency paramilitary type is the quintessential militiaidentified b y G odfrey Musila (c hapter 4), w ho ado pts a s tate-centrist a nd lega lconception of militia as an extension, and volunteer corps, of a regular army thatconforms to the law.

    The m ore co ntemporary f orm, p articularly in A frica, i s t hat o f sm all a ndmobile bands, usually youths, who are voluntarily and selectively recruited, poorlytrained and moderately armed, and organised to respond to immediate challengesthat may be national, regional, sectional, ethnic, religious and communal and thatmay relate to issues of power, resources, self-determination, freedom, insurgencyor co unterinsurgency. Th ey m ay b e f ormed b y r etired o r c urrent s ecuritypersonnel o r b y t hose w ith t he r elevant t raining a nd exp erience, a nd u suallyrevolve a round cer tain p rominent co mmanders o r wa rlords. Th ey a re o ftenmilitant w ings o r e ven a rmed w ings o f s ome ci vil a gitation o r s truggles, s elf-determination movements, political parties, or informal armed wings of factionsof the ruling class and political elite.

    There are essentially two forms of militias in history: statist and non-statist orprivate militias. State militias are ‘paramilitary formations that organise in defenceof the political order’ and proxies set up or cultivated as ‘adjuncts of state power’and w hich f ight f or, o n b ehalf o f o r a t t he b ehest o f t he s tate a nd s tatefunctionaries.4 Each o f t hese c an b e c ategorised in to o ne o f t hree t ypes:quasimilitary o r p aramilitary mi litias, g overnment mi litias a nd s tate-patronisedmilitias.5

    The quasimilitary or paramilitary militia is constructed as the populist, large-scale, p eriodic, s hort-term complement t o a s tanding a rmy in n eighbourhoods,communities and provinces of countries where the s tandard army is not widelypresent a nd ac tive. I t i s a p art-time, a uxiliary a nd r eserve mi litary f orce w ithoccasional duties t hat i s es tablished for p articular public purposes and p eculiarcircumstances s uch a s em ergencies, di sasters, in ternal co nflicts a nd wa r a ndconsists of those who are by law available for call-up or service. As a public force

    This chapter captures the major findings of the contributors in nine sections.The first section is an overview of the three types of ANSGs – militias, rebels andIslamist mi litants – t hat f orm t he m ain t opic o f t his s tudy. Th e s econd s ectioncontextualises ANSGs in Africa. The third to fifth sections explore the social basesof militias and rebel movements, the causality and sustainment of armed conflictsand ANSGs a nd the nexuses between ANSGs, p ower, politics and violence. Thesixth and s eventh s ections are exp osés of how ANSGs t hreaten human s ecurityand undermine the state in A frica. The last two sections focus on the emergingregional d ynamics a nd ra mifications o f ANSG ac tivities, a nd dra w s omeconclusions.

    MILITIAS, REBEL MOVEMENTS AND ISLAMIST MILITANTGROUPS IN AFRICA: CONCEPTS AND TYPES

    Militias

    A mi litia i s a n a rmed f orce o f o rdinary p ersons o r, a s Z ahar p uts i t, ‘an a rmedfaction’ engaged in combat or fighting or that resorts to violence to attain certainobjectives.2 This presupposes f irst t hat i t i s a ci vil force or a p rivately organisedgroup of armed persons and second that it is largely an informally organised forcewhose s tructures, hiera rchies, co mmands, p rocedures a nd p rocesses a re u suallynot fixed and rigid. Third, it is generally mobilised voluntarily on the basis of somecommon identity challenges or general concerns and threats.

    Drawing o n c haracterisation b y Z ahar, o ne c an iden tify t he es sentialcharacteristics o f mi litias a s ir regular f orces (o utside r egular mi litary f orces),informal (n ot u sually f ormal s tate mi litaries o r p aramilitaries), p rivate f orces(established and commanded by private persons), illegal (not sanctioned by law),illegitimate (e ven t hough t hey may b e adjuncts of or connected to regimes andrecognised p olitical g roups) a nd c landestine (s upport, f unding, a rms a ndmanagement are often secret and outside the public view).3 The purpose or goalsof militias usually relate to projecting or protecting, and fighting for and defendingcertain private, group, communal, ethnic, religious, sectional, regional, national,regime o r r elated in terests t hat m ay co ncern p ower a nd r esource s truggles,security and safety.

    Historically, t he mi litia i s a n o rganisation o f lo cal def ence s ervice o r d uty,which acts in response to challenges of war, disaster and security. In the advanced

  • Community, et hnic a nd r egional mi litias a re a rmed g roups m obilised a longidentity lin es a nd co nstitute iden tity-based lo cal a rmies o r f oot s oldiers o fprimordial co ncerns. I n co nflict-ridden, cr ime-infested a nd in secureenvironments, citizens are sometimes constituted into local armed organisations,usually b y co mmunity, et hnic a nd r egional c hieftains o r en trepreneurs, inresponse to certain common threats and enemies. In the eastern DRC there are amultiplicity of et hnic mi litias such as t he Mouvement R évolutionnaire C ongolais(Congolese Revolutionary Movement, MRC) in the Ituri region, the Mai-Mai, theInterahamwe, t he Union d es P atriotes C ongolais (Union o f C ongolese P atriots,UPC) a nd t he L endu. I n Kenya, et hnic mi litias in clude t he Rift Valley KalenjinWarriors, M ungiki, Ch inkororo, A machuma, J eshi l a K ayole and Sa baot L andDefence Force (SLDF).

    Youth mi litias a re a rmed g roups t hat m ay c ut acr oss co mmunities, et hnicgroups and regions, but are composed mainly of youths driven by opposition to,rebellion and resistance against s tate p olicies and practices, e lite b ehaviour, andnational a nd r egional p roblems a nd co nditions. Warlord mi litias a re sm all-armbands a nd c ult g roups t hat a re co nstructed a round in dividual mi litant le aders.They may be part of larger groups, but usually tend to freelance and are availablefor diverse commercial violence and may be involved in resource plundering andcriminal violence.

    Apart f rom t he a bove c ategories, mi litias c an a lso b e c lassified u sing o thervariables. F or exa mple, t he co re r easons f or t he mi litia g roup f ormation co uldunderpin i ts s tructure, r oles, d ynamics a nd m ethods a nd t herefore o ne co uldcategorise mi litias in t erms o f o bjectives o r p urposes. Th us t here a re p oliticalmilitias, in surgent mi litias, v igilante mi litias a nd s elf-determination mi litias.Insurgent mi litias a re f ormed t o r esist s tate p olitics, p olicies a nd p ractices a ndparticularly i ssues o f m arginality, co rruption a nd r epression t hrough a rmedinsurrection. G overnments o r r uling e lites m ay a lso f orm o r s ponsorcounterinsurgent militias to silence or intimidate opponents of governments in theform of individuals, groups, political parties or insurgent rebels. Vigilante militiascan em erge f rom a rmed a nti-crime a nd s ecurity co ntrol ef forts, a nd t hensometimes t ransform t hemselves in to in surgent o r co unterinsurgent g roups.Criminal mi litia g roups are armed b andits t hat engage in cr iminal ac ts s uch a spiracy, extortion, kidnapping and political intimidation.

    One c an f urther dif ferentiate mi litias b y t heir s ocial b ase, a ge a nd iden tity(ethnic, regional and religious). In terms of the breadth or extent of mobilisation

    MIILITIAS, REBELS AND ISLAMIST MILITANTS: HUMAN INSECURITY AND State Crises IN AFRICA 7

    WAFULA OKUMU AND AUGUSTINE IKELEGBE

    INSTITUTE FOR SECURITY STUDIES6

    Introduction

    constituted by law, its mobilisation, organisation, training, discipline, equipment,funding and deployment are regulated by the state. The reserve militia and the lessformally organised state militias and alternative forces that existed in Europe andAmerica b etween t he 17t h a nd 19t h centuries f it in to t his m ould. Th e m odernversion is the reserve army and standby forces of some states.6

    State or regime militias are civil armed groups constituted by governments tocombat cer tain t hreats o r s ecurity si tuations. Th e mi litia m ay b e a f ormalquasimilitary organisation or a privately armed group of a top government leader.The former may be remunerated and equipped with public funds but its existenceand sustainment is tied to a particular regime rather than constitutional provisionsand en actments. P residential, p alace o r p rivate s ecurity gu ards a re exa mples o fnon-military armed forces.7

    There a re g overnment m obilised, p atronised, s upported a nd gu aranteedprivate mi litias o f co mmunities, et hnic g roups, wa rlords, y ouths a nd p oliticalmovements. Here governments may directly or surreptitiously make use of militiason the basis of utility and expedience and may discreetly fund, equip and protecta mi litia g roup for purposes of cr ime control and counterinsurgency. In Sudan,Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire and the DRC, governments have legitimised, supported orpatronised some militia groups.8 In Sudan, the el-Bashir government has used theJanjaweed militias to fight rebel groups in the Darfur region. In Côte d’Ivoire thegovernment has used the Jeunes Patriotes (Young Patriots) in the civil war to targetnortherners, immigrants and the French.9

    Non-state mi litias a re p rivately o rganised a rmed ci tizen g roups, u suallyconstituted b y v olunteers r ecruited f rom lo cal a reas, n eighbourhoods,communities and provinces. Such militias sometimes support the state and statecauses and wars, but more often are engaged in s ectional and primordial causes.The non-state militias may take the form of political, community, ethnic, regionaland youth militias.

    Political militias are ‘private armies of pro-regime strongmen’ or armed wingsof political parties, sociopolitical movements and sometimes civil groups, that aresometimes m obilised t o m aintain in ternal o rder, co mbat o pposing g roups a ndperform cer tain c landestine p olitical r oles s uch a s co mmitting o r co unteringelectoral a nd p olitical v iolence.10 Examples a re t he Mambas, C obras, Z olou andNinja militias in the civil strife and power struggles in the RoC during the 1990s.

  • Table 1–1: Types of militia in Africa

    Types Goals Cases

    State Reserve army / Complement state National Guard (Nigeria)militias auxiliaries of militaries

    national armies

    Government- Counterinsurgency Popular Defence Force /supported/ Janjaweed (Sudan)-patronised Kamajor (Sierra Leone)

    Fifth Brigade (Zimbabwe)Arrow Group (Uganda)Jeunes Patriotes (Côte d’Ivoire)

    Non- Political militias Political objectives Mambas, Cobras and Ninjas (RoC)state/ Struggle forprivate political dominationmilitias

    Community/ Identity rights Egbesu/Oduduwa People’sethnic militias Struggle for Congress (Nigeria)

    inclusion, resources Mungiki (Kenya)and justice Militias under Southern Defence

    Force (Sudan)Interahamwe (Rwanda)

    Youth militias Identity Niger Delta Volunteer Force /Resource access Movement for the Emancipation ofInsurgency the Niger Delta (Nigeria)

    Vigilante Security Bakassi Boys (Nigeria)militias Crime control

    Warlord militias Struggle for power Armed bands and cult groups inand resources the Niger Delta (Nigeria)Commercial violence

    Source: compiled by authors.

    and recruitment, there can also be social movement or broad-based militias andwarlord-based militias.

    There i s co nsiderable f luidity in co louration a nd r oles a nd in fac t mi litiascould, and do, wear different tags at different times. Community, ethnic and youthmilitias, for example, could be insurgent or counterinsurgent, political and pro-government o r e ven v igilante mi litias. Vigilante mi litias co uld b ecome p oliticaland p ro-government mi litias a nd cr iminal mi litias co uld h ave p olitical o r e veninsurgent m otives. C ounter-insurgent a nd s tatist mi litias co uld a lso b e

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    community-, et hnic- a nd y outh-based. Th e Kamajor militias in S ierra L eone,though ini tially f ormed a nd s upervised b y g overnment o fficials, b ecame agrassroots p opular co mmunity m ovement o rganised, s upported a nd e vensponsored by community leaders and members.11 The Interahamwe in Rwanda wasboth a state militia and an ethnic militia.

    Rebel movements

    Rebel movements are organisations t hat essentially engage in a rmed oppositionand resistance, and particularly insurrection or insurgency against governmentsand ruling regimes. It is the latter that defines the movement as rebel or creates therebel t ag. A s H arbom a nd W allensteen n ote, r ebel m ovements a re a rmedopposition o r in surgent o rganisations t hat a re in compatible w ith, di sagree w ithand c hallenge exi sting n ational g overnments.12 The cen tral g oal o f a r ebelmovement i s c hange in t erms o f di splacement a nd r eplacement o f exi stinggovernments, the change of existing frameworks to enable their participation inand p ossibly co ntrol o f g overnments, t he de volution o f a uthority t o g rantautonomy t o r egional g overnments o r t he r edesign o r r edrawing o f n ationalboundaries to grant separate existence to some regional or ethnic homeland.

    The co ncepts o f r ebel a nd r ebellion a re ac tually r elative a s t hey a re m erelylabels that are based on perceptions and opinion. Further, the designations ignorethe other side that is being violently challenged, usually the government or regime,in terms of character, legality and legitimacy.

    There are different types of rebel movements.13 The liberation rebel movementresists co lonisation a nd f oreign r ule a nd s eeks in dependence, w hereas t heinsurgent r ebel m ovement s eeks p olitical c hange a nd p olitical p ower. A sThompson n otes, in surgent m ovements a re co mmitted t o t he n ation-state, b utseek to ‘overthrow the existing state’ and replace it with a new political order andto ‘build alternative political authority’.14 The separatist, secessionist or irredentistrebel m ovement s eeks a s eparate exi stence f rom a n exi sting co untry o r h assecessionist o bjectives. Th e r eformist r ebel m ovement s eeks t o es tablish a n ewpolitical system based on an ideology such as communism. Warlord insurgenciesare closely knit groups built around leaders that seek to overthrow regimes/regimeleaders but create ‘personal territorial fiefdoms’.15

    Rebel m ovements t hat h ave b een en gaged in li beration s truggles a gainstcolonial a nd f oreign do mination in clude t he Mau Ma u (Kenya), Front d eLibération N ationale (National L iberation F ront, FLN – A lgeria), Movimento

    INSTITUTE FOR SECURITY STUDIES8

    Introduction

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    Popular de Liberteção de Angola (Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola,MPLA – A ngola), Frente de L ibertação de M oçambique (Liberation F ront o fMozambique, FRELIM O – M ozambique), S outh W est A frica P eople’sOrganisation (SWAPO – N amibia), Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU)and Z imbabwe A frican P eople’s U nion (Z APU) (Z imbabwe), Partido A fricanopara a Independência da Guiné e Cabo Verde (African Party for the Independenceof G uinea a nd C ape V erde, P AIGC – C ape V erde) a nd t he A frican N ationalCongress (ANC) and the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC – South Africa). Some ofthe liberation movements, for example the União para a I ndependência Total deAngola (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola, UNITA), as Pearcenotes in c hapter 13, s tarted a s li beration m ovements a nd t hen b ecame r eforminsurgencies, w hile t he Resistência N acional d e M oçambique (MozambicanNational Resistance, RENAMO) was a r eform insurgency. Both had elements ofwarlordism, however.

    A di stinguishing f eature o f t he li beration m ovement a s di scussed by Musila(chapter 4), i s t hat i t i s r ecognised in in ternational l aw a nd s ubject t o i t. S omeinsurgent rebel movements grew out of grievances and agitation associated withidentity-based ex clusion a nd a lienation b y co rrupt a nd a utocratic r egimes t hatabused a nd r epressed t he o pposition a nd m arginalised g roups. A ccording t oClapham the earliest versions of this group are anti-colonial insurgencies that grewout o f g rievances a gainst r epressive a nd exp loitative co lonial p olicies a ndpractices.16 Anti-colonial g rievances un derpinned in surgency m ovements inEthiopia (Er itrea P eople’s L iberation F ront, EPLF) a nd A lgeria (t he Front d eLibération Nationale, FLN).

    Post-colonial insurgencies have occurred in, among others, Uganda (NationalResistance A rmy, NR A), C had (Forces A rmées d u N ord / A rmed F orces o f t heNorth, F AN), E thiopia (E thiopian P eople’s R evolutionary D emocratic F ront,EPRDF) a nd t he D RC ( Alliance d es Forces D émocratiques p our l a Libération duCongo-Zaïre / Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo/Zaire,ADLF).17 In Burundi, rebel groups such as the Conseil National pour la Défense dela Démocratie / Forces pour la Défense de la Démocratie (National Council for theDefence of Democracy / Forces for the Defence of Democracy, CNDD-FDD) andthe Forces Nationales de Libération (National Forces of Liberation, FNL), formerlyknown as the Parti pour la Libération du Peuple Hutu (Party for the Liberation ofthe H utu P eople, P ALIPEHUTU), h ave f ought a gainst m arginalisation b y t heTutsis in t he government and military for over a de cade. In Chad, the Union desForces pour la D émocratie e t l e D éveloppement (Union of Forces for D emocracy

    INSTITUTE FOR SECURITY STUDIES10

    Introduction

    11

    Table 1–2: Types of rebel movements in Africa

    Liberationmovements

    DecolonisationIndependence fromforeigngovernment

    OppressionExploitative foreignrule

    Popularmovements drivenby militantnationalistorganisations

    Nationalist andliberation ideals

    Militant nationalistleaders

    Guerrilla warfarePitched battlesfrom controlledterritories

    Mau Mau (Kenya) African Party for theIndependence ofGuinea and CapeVerde (Guinea-Bissau)African NationalCongress (SouthAfrica)

    Insurgent rebelmovements

    ResistanceReform strugglesOverthrow ofregimes/governments

    MarginalisationExclusionEthnic and regionalhegemonyMisgovernance

    Armed wing ofpolitical movement

    Politicalprogrammes/arrangements ofinclusion/reform

    Excludedpoliticians/youths/opposition

    Guerrilla warfarePitched battles fromcontrolled territories

    National RedemptionFront/Army (Sudan)Revolutionary UnitedFront (Sierra Leone) Lord’s ResistanceArmy (Uganda)

    Separatist rebelmovements

    AutonomySelf-existence

    Ethnic/regionalmarginalisation

    Ethnoregionalmovements

    Militantethnoregionalleaders

    Guerrilla warfarePitched battlesfrom controlledterritories

    Rebel groups inSudan, Mali,Nigeria (1967–1970), Senegal,Ethiopia

    Islamist rebelmovements

    Islamic law/rule

    UnbeliefCorruption ofIslamic practicesand rules ofgovernance

    FundamentalistPuritanReform

    Political Islam

    Militant Islamicleaders

    Bloody protestRiotsTerror attacksGuerrilla warfare

    Armed religiousgroups inAlgeria, Somalia

    Rebelmovements

    Purpose

    Grievancenarrative

    Organisation

    Ideology

    Leadership

    Dominant methods ofengagement

    Examples

    Source: Compiled by authors.

  • and Development, UFDD) has been f ighting government forces in t he east in astruggle to topple the government of Idriss Deby. Uganda’s Lord’s Resistance Army(LRA) i s p erhaps o ne o f t he o ldest r ebel m ovements in A frica a nd t he m ostregionalised. It has been fighting the Museveni government for over two decades.Bad g overnance b ased o n et hnic a nd r egional h egemonic r ule, m arginalisationand exclusion, fermented separatist rebel movements such as the Sudan People’sLiberation M ovement/Army (S PLM/A) in S outhern S udan a nd t he EP LF inEthiopia. Th e Tuareg r ebellion in t he n orthern p arts o f M ali, N iger a nd S outhAlgeria seeks an Azawad independent state. In the Casamance region of Senegal,the Mouvement d es F orces D émocratiques d e l a C asamance (Movement o fDemocratic Forces of Casamance, MFDC) has been waging a self-determinationstruggle sin ce t he 1980s. I n E thiopia, a s eparatist g roup, t he Ogaden N ationalLiberation Front (ONLF), is fighting the Ethiopian government for the control ofthe oil- and gas-rich Ogaden region.

    Militant Islamist groups

    Militant Islamist groups are a reflection of the resurgence of political Islam, radicalIslamism a nd t he g lobal jihad. Th e g roups, acco rding t o K abir (c hapter 11)manifest t hemselves in p olitically ext remist f orms o f v iolent r esistance a nddissidence against regimes, policies and society branded as impious, unIslamic, ortainted by modernising and Western influences. George and Ylönen (chapter 12)as well a s Kabir (chapter 11) iden tify s everal o f t hese g roups in E gypt, A lgeria,Morocco a nd N igeria, s uch a s al-Jihad, t he Armée I slamique du S alut (AIS),Groupe Salafiste pour la Prédication et le Combat (Salafist Group for Preaching andCombat, GSPC),19 Egyptian Islamic Jihad, Boko Haram and Taleban. In Somalia,religious militias such as the Al-Ittihad al-Islami (Union of Islamic Courts, UIC),Al-Shabaab and ahlu Sun na, which co ntrol m ost o f t he co untryside, h ave f orseveral years made the country ungovernable.20 The strategy of militant Islamistgroups to target Westerners, Western allies and Western interests has earned themmembership on the ‘terrorist list’ compiled by the US State Department. Becauseof their perceived links to the global jihad, al-Qaeda and Osama bin Laden, thesegroups h ave dra wn k een in terest f rom W estern s ecurity in stitutions s uch a sAFRICOM. The chapters by Kubai, Kabir, George and Ylonen provide an Africanperspective for understanding these groups and propose far-reaching measures ofaddressing the threats that they pose to the state and human security.

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    INSTITUTE FOR SECURITY STUDIES12

    Introduction

    Table 1–3: Comparisons of militias, Islamist militants and rebel movements

    Militias Armed religious groups Rebel movements

    Goals Limited sociopolitical Clear religious objectives Clear and larger socio-goals and more specific such as Islamic basis and political goals such aslocal/community/ethnic reform of the state/ change of governmentsissues government and secession

    Motivation Identity-based socio- Religious and socio- Larger political grievancespolitical grievances and political grievances and struggles for powerchallenges with a mix of and access to resourcesopportunism

    Scope and Small groups constructed Larger groups founded Larger groups size around commanders/ on Islamic leaderships constructed as fighting

    leaders and cells that operate units that operate in orOperate in limited among the population seek extensive territorialgeographic space in controldispersed small enclavesGenerally do not hold territories

    Methods Armed protests, violent Violent protests and Larger-scale organisedattacks and guerrilla attacks fighting through guerrillawarfare, but often may and conventional warfarenot hold territory from controlled territories

    Engage- Low-intensity conflicts Violent attacks against Intensive conflicts againstments/ Engage security agents, civil population and the government/pro-targets rival militias and security agencies, government groups and

    perceived enemies/ perceived infidels and military over extensiveenemy groups deviant religious groups territory

    Full-scale war

    Social base Community and ethnic Religious and youth Larger social basis, whichgroups and youths volunteers may comprise identity/Rarely spread beyond non-identity and youthsidentity territorial base May conscript childRarely conscript soldiers and women

    Funding Local extortions/levies/ Tolls/levies/taxes Extensive toll collectionstolls Elite funding Imposed leviesLow-level resource External support Extensive resourceplundering exploitation/plundering/Local and ethnic elite tradingfunding

    Source: compiled by authors.

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    relations, t reatment of communities and civilians and behaviour.23 Militias thatare well-structured and organised with regard to chains of command and control,sanctions p rocesses a nd di scipline a re a ble t o enf orce s tandards o f co nduct,attribute r esponsibility, de velop enf orcement a nd r etribution m echanisms a ndensure co mpliance w ith r ules. Th ese c haracteristics en sure di sciplined f orces,reasonable conduct, control of operations and better relations with communities.24

    Peters (c hapter 14) n otes t hat ANSG r elations w ith co mmunities a nd t o s omeextent t heir le vel o f s uccess in a ttaining a ims, dep end o n t he exi stence o f ameaningful ideology that attracts combatants and non-combatants, a low risk tocommunities because of the conduct of fighters and a low level of predation on orexploitation of communities.

    Exemplary le adership a nd t he le vel o f e ducation, a nd t hus k nowledge a ndpersonal c apacity o f t he le adership, a re a lso cr ucial. C lapham n otes t hatuneducated insurgent leaders such as Foday Sankoh of the Revolutionary UnitedFront (R UF) a nd J oseph K ony o f t he LR A w ere un able t o ‘ create di sciplinedmovements with clearly defined political projects’.25

    The environment in which ANSGs operate determines specific organisationalstructures, strategies, operations and behaviours of members. For example, thereexist more brutal methods of social control and more disjuncture in a spirations,values a nd g oals in a symmetrical en vironments. Peters (c hapter 14) p oints o utthat ANSGs that are challenged by unfavourable environments, such as restrictionto jungle camps in inaccessible forests as in t he case of the RUF in S ierra Leone,and s parsely p opulated v illages a s in t he c ase o f t he LR A in U ganda, r esort t oforced conscriptions, abductions, forced labour, harsh punishments for escapees,confiscation o f m aterials a nd de adly r eprisals. ANSGs t hat h ave in dependenteconomic r esources o r t hat h ave sy mbiotic ra ther t han p arasitic o r p redatoryeconomic relations with locals and who depend on locals for critical support, tendto show greater concern for and sensitivity to locals.26 Insurgent movements thatoperate in unfamiliar areas and among unfriendly communities usually use brutalmethods t o p revent co nspiracy a nd b etrayal.27 Groups t hat s eek in clusion,acceptance, recognition and legitimacy from national, regional and internationalaudiences and actors tend towards more moderate behaviour and relations withinhabitants of the controlled territories.28

    The social bases of militias and rebel movements

    The p articipation in ANSGs i s do minated b y f oot s oldiers w ho a re m ale a ndyoung, un employed a nd un deremployed, s chool dr opouts o r p oorly e ducated,

    INSTITUTE FOR SECURITY STUDIES14

    Introduction

    The nature and character of ANSGs in Africa

    Most ANSGs a re ei ther un structured o r lo osely s tructured hiera rchicalorganisations, whose members, usually between a h undred and some thousands,are trained in the use of modern light weapons by retired and disengaged military,police a nd o ther s ecurity a gencies. Th eir a rsenal u sually co mprises t raditionalweapons, assault rifles (the most popular being the AK-47), machine guns, rocket-propelled grenades, bazookas, hand grenades and explosives.

    ANSGs have a variety of characteristics and peculiarities. Some have been wellorganised, co hesive a nd di sciplined, w ith a c lear hiera rchy a nd co mmand a ndcontrol s tructures, c losely k nit ce lls, w ell-coordinated sys tems, s trict r ules a nddecentralised o perations. S ome h ave c lear o bjectives, a s trong ide ologicalfoundation, p olitical e ducation a nd a f ramework o f r ules a nd r egulations t hatguides operations and behaviour of followers as well as visionary, clear-headed andeffective leaderships who weld the groups together, and inspire and sustain them.Among these are the NRA in Uganda and the EPLF in Eritrea. Clapham has notedthat groups exhibiting these organisational and leadership characteristics were ableto achieve success in the battlefield, a fair level of governance in the territories theycontrolled, p ositive relations w ith communities a nd lo cal p eople a nd e ventuallyattained their objectives.21

    However, the majority of ANSGs are disorganised and undisciplined with loosecontrol over operations and ac tivities, p oor le adership, organisational problems,control and co mmand p roblems and factional fighting, a nd are p rone t ofragmentation o r f racturing in to di verse a rmed b ands. Th ese p roblems o ftenmanifest in cr iminal ac tivities, v iolent inf ighting, in discriminate a nd g ratuitousviolence, exp loitation a nd a buse o f lo cal co mmunities, f orceful co nscription o fchildren, abuse of drugs and plundering of community resources.

    In A frica m any ANSGs des cend f rom in surgency a nd o ther r esistance a ndsociopolitical objectives into cr iminal and s everely destructive movements. Thishas been evident in ANSG ac tivities in L iberia, Sierra Leone, the DRC, the RoC,Uganda, Sudan, Rwanda, Burundi and Nigeria. A critical question then is, how andwhy has this transformation taken place?

    The internal dynamics and behaviour of ANSGs could be explained by factorssuch as the levels of training, ideological leanings, dedication to goals, the qualityof leadership, the nature of relations with host communities, the nature of threatsfaced and the nature of the environment.22 Zahar asserts that militia membership,objectives, s tructures a nd r esource b ase det ermine t he n ature o f mi litia-civil

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    WAFULA OKUMU AND AUGUSTINE IKELEGBE

    Mano a nd G io g roups in C harles T aylor’s N ational P atriotic F ront o f L iberia(NPFL), and the Mende ethnic group in Foday Sankoh’s RUF in Sierra Leone.

    At the early stages of development, membership is mainly voluntary and basedon identity patriotism, mobilisation and solidarity and particularly the depth offeelings about perceived identity-based grievances.32 In some cases recruitment isrestrained by space, arms and maintenance resources. However, as engagementsbroaden a nd co nfrontations b ecome m ore ext ensive a nd s tressful, a nd a s t heybegin t o los e co ntact w ith co mmunities, ANSGs m ay t urn t o co nscription a ndforced recruitment from within and outside their identity base. Juveniles, younggirls and children are sometimes captured, conscripted and used as fighters, spies,ordnance carriers, sex slaves and cannon fodder. In Sierra Leone, drugs were usedto psy chologically p repare m embers f or ac tion.33 Examples o f c hild r ebelsubgroups in clude C harles Taylor’s Small B oys Unit (SBU), t he Gronna B oys inLiberia, Museveni’s Kidogos in Uganda,34 and the Green Bombers in Zimbabwe.35

    The u se o f c hild r ebels i s q uite p revalent in A frica. I n A ngola f or exa mple,about 8 000 children registered for demobilisation in 2002, while in Mozambiquethere w ere a bout 300 000 c hildren u sed d uring t he wa r.36 The r ecruitment a ndcirculation o f y ouths a nd c hild rebels across b orders w ere m ain f eatures o f t heconflict in t he M ano R iver a nd C ôte d ’Ivoire. Th ey w ere r ecruited f rom C ôted’Ivoire into Liberia, from Liberia into Sierra Leone and Côte d’Ivoire, and fromGuinea into Côte d’Ivoire.37 In northern Uganda, the LRA abducted or forcefullyconscripted more than 60 000 y ouths, mainly young adolescents between 13 and15 years of age. The LRA, like other rebel groups, prefers child rebels because oftheir n et b enefits in t erms o f in doctrination a nd ef fectiveness.38 Children a ndyouths also form almost half of the militias and rebels in the DRC. As at February2007, a bout 54 000 c hildren h ad b een di sarmed a nd dem obilised co mpared t o 115 000 adult combatants, while an estimated 15 000 – 20 000 children comparedto 85 000 adults were awaiting demobilisation.39

    ANSGs also draw members from migrants and fighters across borders. BettinaEngels (c hapter 3) in troduces t he co ncepts o f r egional r ecruits (mig rants) a ndregional warriors (recruited fighters) to explore this phenomenon and asserts thatmost ANSGs are regionally embedded. In West Africa, there has been a high levelof m obility o f f ighters acr oss b orders b etween co untries s uch a s L iberia, S ierraLeone and Côte d’Ivoire.

    INSTITUTE FOR SECURITY STUDIES16

    Introduction

    apprentices, artisans, street urchins and the urban and rural poor. They are largelymarginalised, a lienated a nd f rustrated y ouths, w hose a spirations h ave b eenblocked a nd w ho a re o ften s ubmerged in m oral cr ises, s ocially di slocated a ndsuffer material hardship and misery. George and Ylönen (chapter 12) a nd Kabir(chapter 11) a rgue t hat a lienated, f rustrated a nd di senchanted y ouths, w ho a remostly urban and unemployed, together with poverty, are at the root of militantIslamist groups. Adams Oloo (chapter 6) lo cates the social base of the militias inKenya in t he lower class, among the unemployed youths, artisans, small traders,landless squatters, street children, hawkers, urban poor and slum dwellers.

    Marginalised and alienated youths such as the Moryham youths in Somalia, theRaray boys in Sierra Leone, Bayaye in Kenya and Uganda, Machicha in Tanzania,Hittiste in Algeria, Tsotsis in South Africa, Area Boys in Lagos and Yan D aba inKano, Nigeria, have made up the core membership of several ANSGs.29 In Nigeria,the O ’odua P eople’s C ongress (O PC) a ttracted a rtisans, t raders, un employed,peasants and the underclass in the densely populated areas of Lagos. However, atthe t op e chelons o f m any mi litias a nd r ebel m ovements a re a s prinkling o feducated and partly educated elements and activists who provide intellectual andgeneral le adership, r elate t o o r li aise w ith t he o utside w orld a nd, in p articular,speak for the groups. This has been especially the case with the ethnic militias inNigeria.30

    The p lace o f w omen in ANSGs h as b een n eglected in t he li terature.Furthermore, w omen h ave on t he w hole b een presented m erely a s v ictims. B utthey perform important roles, such as carrying fetish items, ferrying arms, actingas spies or informants and providing such services as cooking, social welfare andhealth care. Women also act as local moderators of behaviour and peace-builders.They also act as a moderating influence, and in the Niger Delta resource conflicts,for exa mple, co mmunity w omen g roups h ave s ought t o r estrain y outh v iolenceand h ave p rotested t he ef fects o f v iolence o n t heir co mmunities, li velihoods,children and local economies.31 Although Alice Lakwena remains the most famousrebel leader in recent times, rebel groups such as ONLF, EPLF and RPF are knownto have women in their rank and file.

    As far as identity is concerned, ANSGs t end to share identity commonalitiessuch as community, ethnicity, region and religion. Even when ANSGs have broadmembership o r a p an-identity s pread, t hey b egin w ith a co re iden tity a nd m ayhave identity-based structures at a subgroup and cell level. As Peters notes (chapter14), the point of entry and initial base of mobilisation and recruitment in ANSGsand insurgencies are often marginalised and oppressed ethnic groups, such as the

  • MIILITIAS, REBELS AND ISLAMIST MILITANTS: HUMAN INSECURITY AND State Crises IN AFRICAINSTITUTE FOR SECURITY STUDIES18 19

    Introduction WAFULA OKUMU AND AUGUSTINE IKELEGBE

    The thesis is based on evidence of the association between mineral wealth andthe o ccurrence a nd d uration o f co nflicts; t he exi stence o f v iolent s crambles f orresources in conflict regions; the concentration of conflicts in resource-rich zonesof co nflict r egions; t he p rofiteering f rom wa r a nd co nflicts b y r ulers, wa rlords,traders a nd f ighters; t he hig h le vels o f e conomic cr imes a nd un dergroundeconomies; t he involvement of mercantilists, sy ndicates and b lack marketeeringcompanies in r esource-rich zo nes o f co nflict r egions, a nd t he in terference o fneighbouring co untries t hat t end t o b e m otivated b y s truggles f or p rivilegedresource access.

    However, in spite of some evidence from the cases of Liberia, Sierra Leone andthe DRC, t he g reed t hesis i s simplistic, one-sided and weak in s everal respects.First, the larger issues such as the character of the state, regimes and governance,hegemonic struggles, the roles of politics and state failures and economic declineon which the causation and dynamics of civil wars are situated, are neglected inthis t hesis. S econd, a s em erging e vidence s uggests, t he en gagement in ANSGactivities, violence and terrorism is not simply the result of the motives of peoplewith a low level of education and low market opportunities, but a complex matrixof issues such as ideology, identity, localised and mundane reasons and personalmotivations s uch a s h ate, v engeance a nd p restige.47 Third, t he t hesis ig noresconflict histories and exonerates regimes and governments from greed. Alao andOlonisakin h ave n oted t hat t he g reed a nalysis t ends t o a pply a ‘ broad b rushexplanation’ t hat ig nores complex s ociopolitical i ssues and p olitical m otivationsthat are ‘at the root of many contemporary civil wars’.48 For example, while focusingonly o n t he r ebel-based c auses o f co nflict a