MCWP 3-2 - Aviation Operations

MCWP 3-2

Aviation Operations

U.S. Marine Corps

PCN 143 000019 00

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DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVYHeadquarters United States Marine Corps

Washington, D.C. 20380-1775

9 May 2000

FOREWORD

Aviation is an integral part of the naval expeditionary air-ground team—it ex-tends the MAGTF’s operational reach and flexibility and expands its war-fighting power. Marine Corps Warfighting Publication (MCWP) 3-2, AviationOperations, applies the warfighting philosophy in Marine Corps Doctrinal Pub-lication (MCDP) 1, Warfighting, to Marine aviation operations. It is the link be-tween higher order doctrine and the tactics, techniques, and procedurescontained in other Marine aviation doctrinal publications. This publication es-tablishes the doctrinal basis for the planning and execution of aviation opera-tions and provides the philosophy for employment of Marine aviation in theprosecution of war and other operations in support of the Marine Corps’ missionas the nation’s expeditionary force in readiness.

This publication is intended primarily for commanders and staff officers whoare responsible for the planning and execution of aviation operations. Nonethe-less, it should be read by all Marines who are supported by or involved in the ex-ecution of aviation operations. It is also intended for other doctrine centers, jointand multinational staffs, professional military educational activities, and anyother activity that requires an understanding of Marine aviation. It explains U.S.Marine Corps aviation capabilities and how the Marine air-ground task force(MAGTF) exploits these capabilities, both operationally and tactically. It doesnot discuss the specifics of unit-level tactics and procedures; e.g., air-to-air com-bat tactics, how to conduct a helicopterborne operation, or how to attack anyparticular target. Rather, this publication applies maneuver warfare concepts toMarine aviation operations, especially in aviation’s role as an integrated combatarm of the MAGTF.

As with all Marine Corps doctrinal publications, this publication is authoritativein nature but requires judgment in application. It supersedes Fleet Marine ForceManual (FMFM) 5-1, Organization and Function of Marine Aviation.

Reviewed and approved this date.

BY DIRECTION OF THE COMMANDANT OF THE MARINE CORPS

DISTRIBUTION: 143 000019 00

J. E. RHODESLieutenant General, U.S. Marine Corps

Commanding GeneralMarine Corps Combat Development Command

Aviation Operations

Table of Contents

PageChapter 1 The Role of Marine Aviation

1001 The Evolution of Marine Aviation: Adapting to Meet the Threat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-21002 Marine Aviation and the Levels of War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5

Chapter 2 The Missions, Functions, and Organization of Marine Aviation

2001 Functions of Marine Aviation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12002 Marine Aviation Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-62003 Aviation Combat Element Task Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14

Chapter 3 The Role of Aviation in Combined-Arms Force Operations

3001 The Six Warfighting Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13002 The Operational Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23003 Organizational Adaptability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-33004 Marine Aviation and Maneuver Warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-43005 The ACE in Maneuver Warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-113006 Aviation in Offensive and Defensive Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-123007 Aviation in Security Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-133008 Aviation in Military Operations Other Than War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14

Chapter 4 Command and Control of Marine Aviation Operations

4001 Command Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-14002 Aviation Combat Element Command and Support Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-24003 Marine Aviation Command Relationships in a Joint Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-44004 Other Command Authorities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-64005 The Marine Air Command and Control System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7

Chapter 5 Aviation Planning

5001 The Commander’s Role in Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-15002 Staff Organization for Aviation Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-25003 Planning Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-45004 Aviation Planning as an Element of MAGTF Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-55005 The Air Tasking Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7

Chapter 6 Aviation Logistics

6001 Strategic Aviation Logistics and Aviation Ground Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16002 Operational Aviation Logistics and Aviation Ground Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16003 Tactical Aviation Logistics and Aviation Ground Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-2

Chapter 7 Marine Aviation in Navy, Joint, and Multinational Operations

7001 Navy Fleet Operational Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-17002 Joint Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-17003 Multinational Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3

Chapter 8 Emerging Concepts

8001 Operational Maneuver From the Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-18002 Ship-to-Objective Maneuver. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28003 Sustained Operations Ashore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-38004 MPF 2010 and Beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3

Appendices

A Marine Aviation Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1B Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-1C References and Related Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-1

Chapter 1

The Role of Marine Aviation

“Today [aviation] is the dominant factor in war. It may not win a war by it-self alone, but without it no major war can be won.” 1

—Adm Arthur Radford

Marine forces are general purpose forces and tra-ditionally come “from the sea” with limited or-ganic fire support and mobility assets. As such,Marine forces rely heavily on the fires, fire sup-port, and mobility provided by Marine aviation.Marine aviation is an integral part of the Marineair-ground task force (MAGTF). It provides theMAGTF with a complete spectrum of operationalcapabilities and is a flexible instrument of theMAGTF’s combat power. The aviation combatelement (ACE) is a powerful and versatile part ofthe MAGTF’s combined-arms team, comple-menting the MAGTF’s ground combat element(GCE) and combat service support element(CSSE), while functioning in consonance with theMarine Corps’ doctrinal philosophy of maneuverwarfare.

Marine aviation provides the MAGTF with theoperational flexibility it needs to accomplish itsmission across the range of military operations. Itextends the operational reach of the MAGTF andenables it to accomplish operational objectivesdesigned to achieve strategic goals. The MAGTFuses the strategic and operational mobility afford-ed by the sea to employ its integrated air arm andto exert a powerful influence in most geographicareas of potential national concern. Since mostground- and ship-based fires have a limited rangeand ground-based mobility systems are limited byspeed, range, and the terrain, the MAGTF’s ACEallows the MAGTF commander to conduct thedeep fight. The ACE affords the MAGTF the abil-ity to deliver fires, facilitate integrated commandand control, enhance mobility and maneuver, pro-vide force protection, sustain combat power, andcollect intelligence.

Marine aviation’s expeditionary character sets itapart from all other aviation organizations. TheACE’s role is to project combat power, conductair operations, and contribute to battlespace domi-nance in support of the MAGTF’s mission, and itorganizes, trains, and equips for that role. Marineaviation can operate from amphibious platforms,forward operating bases (FOBs), forward expedi-tionary land bases, carriers (as an integral part ofcarrier air groups), or any combination thereof.

The MAGTF’s single-battle concept exploits thecombined-arms nature of MAGTF operations. Itallows the MAGTF commander to fight a singlebattle with an integrated, task-organized force ofground, aviation, and logistic forces. Based onthis concept, operations performed by Marine avi-ation are rarely undertaken in isolation since itsgreatest value is in its integrated contribution tothe MAGTF’s overall mission. It is designed tofunction most effectively as an integral part of theMAGTF and cannot be separated without a sig-nificant loss of capability. Marine aviation pro-vides enhanced mobility and close fires for unitsin contact and augments ground and naval indi-rect fires. Marine aviation also gives a Marine ex-peditionary force (MEF), which would otherwisebe a light infantry force, the operational reach of acorps-level force.

Marine aviation performs a variety of roles andtasks in support of national objectives. This caninclude fulfilling missions outside Marine avia-tion’s traditional MAGTF, naval expeditionaryforce, and joint force roles. Examples of Marineaviation being used in nontraditional roles includeproviding direct support to the President; provid-ing aviation detachments for independent dutysuch as the Marines attached to the joint force air

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component commander (JFACC) in Aviano, Ita-ly, in support of operations in Bosnia; providingforces for counterdrug operations such as theground-based air search radars teams deployed tosupport Operation Nimbus; and participating indisaster relief operations such as Homestead,Florida after it was struck by Hurricane Andrew.

Marine aviation provides the MAGTF with sixspecific functions: antiair warfare (AAW), offen-sive air support (OAS), assault support, air recon-naissance, electronic warfare (EW), and control ofaircraft and missiles. These six functions are dis-cussed in chapter 2.

1001. The Evolution of Marine Aviation: Adapting to Meet the Threat

The Marine Corps’ contribution to national secu-rity is due largely to the ability of Marines toidentify and adapt to the nation’s strategic andtactical needs, often before those needs are widelyrecognized. As the Navy transitioned from sail tosteam during the era of Alfred Thayer Mahan, theMarine Corps developed a concept for seizure anddefense of advanced bases that would extend thefleet’s reach worldwide. In 1912, the MarineCorps recognized the potential contribution ofaviation to its emerging Advanced Base ForceConcept. Less than a year later, Marine aviationparticipated in its first maneuvers off Guantana-mo, Cuba. Marine pilots performed scouting andreconnaissance missions and dropped aerialbombs to support the fleet. This was the begin-ning of the evolution of Marine aviation thatwould eventually evolve into today’s six func-tions of Marine aviation.

In January 1914, an all-Marine aviation forcefunctioned in conjunction with Marine groundforces of the Advanced Base Brigade during an-nual fleet exercises. This was the first demonstra-tion of what would become the Marine Corps’integrated combined-arms approach to warfare.

During World War I, Marine pilots received theirfirst combat experience when they scored theirfirst air-to-air victories, flew bombing missions,and conducted the first aerial resupply drop.These successfully integrated Marine air-groundoperations proved that aviation could provide co-ordinated, direct support of Marine ground forces.

Marine operations in Nicaragua (1927–1933) pro-duced the first practical air-ground integrationand coordination techniques. Marine aviation wasable to inflict heavy casualties on massed Sandin-ista forces by using bombs and machine guns. Asa result of these attacks, Sandinista forces nevermassed again and were less of a threat to Marineforces. Marine aviation also conducted air recon-naissance, close air support (CAS), deep air sup-port (DAS), aerial logistic support, and combataerial evacuation against the Sandinistas. In 1932,Marine aviation experimented with the use of au-togyros to support combat operations. However,at that stage of rotary-wing aircraft development,the rotary-wing aircraft was deemed ineffectivebecause of its limited payload. But this experi-mentation set the stage for the helicopter’s futuredevelopment as a means of mobility for bothtroops and logistics.

Meanwhile, world events indicated the likelihoodof a major naval war in the Pacific. Accordingly,the Marine Corps developed amphibious warfaretechniques that laid the foundation for U.S. andAllied amphibious triumphs in World War II.These techniques were published in the TentativeLanding Operations Manual (TLOM) in July1935. Concurrent with the development of theTLOM was the formal recognition and integrationof Marine aviation as a part of the Marine Corps’operating forces. On December 8, 1933, the FleetMarine Force (FMF) was created and aviationwas formally incorporated into the FMF’s organi-zation. Marine aviation went on to play a key rolein operations throughout World War II, particu-larly in providing CAS to amphibious forces.

During World War II, in the early months of1942, the U.S. committed six carriers to the Pacif-ic. By November, all but one of them had beensunk or put out of action. Marines on Guadalcanal

Aviation Operations _______________________________________________________________________________________ 1-3

then focused on securing and improving a cap-tured Japanese airstrip, later dubbed HendersonField. From this “unsinkable” aircraft carrier, Ma-rine, Navy, and Army Air Corps pilots launchednumerous counterattacks against the enemy andprovided a shield against Japanese forces attempt-ing to dislodge our foothold on the island. Tacticsused during these operations became the modelfor aviation support of ground and naval forcesthroughout the Pacific island-hopping campaignand, ultimately, led to the success of operations inthe Pacific.

Following World War II, Marines focused on thehelicopter’s potential utility. The first Marine Ex-perimental Helicopter Squadron-1 was estab-lished at Quantico, Virginia. Its purpose was toconduct experiments, develop doctrine, and de-velop tactics for vertical envelopment using hel-icopters. The experiments produced tactics anddoctrine, but the helicopter’s lift capacity in 1948and 1949 was still limited to about 1,500 pounds.This experimentation resulted in the creation ofthe Shepherd Board and the establishment of min-imum lift requirements for Marine troop transporthelicopters.

As helicopter lift capabilities advanced so did theuse of these aircraft. During the Korean War, heli-copters were used extensively in combat opera-tions. In July 1950, Marine Aircraft Group-33(MAG-33) deployed with the Marine Corps’ FirstProvisional Brigade to Korea. One of MAG-33’ssquadrons, Marine Observation Squadron-6(Fixed-Wing) (VMO-6), was composed of fixed-wing observation aircraft and four helicopters.VMO-6 used its helicopters primarily for the res-cue of downed pilots, and it developed tactics(e.g., the use of armed escorts) that are still usedtoday during pilot rescue operations. In Septem-ber 1951, the Marine Helicopter Transport Squad-ron 161 conducted the first Marine Corps verticalenvelopment in combat, which was based on thevertical envelopment doctrine and tactics devel-oped at Quantico, Virginia during the 1940s.

Marine aviation’s tradition of providing effectiveCAS with its fixed-wing aircraft was also signifi-cantly enhanced during the Korean War as it flew

jets into combat for the first time on December10, 1950. During March and April of 1951, onesquadron maintained 10-minute standby alerts,with four pilots in the cockpits of their aircraft.This allowed the unit to respond to urgent callsfor CAS from the tactical air command center(TACC) via the direct air support center (DASC).As a result, a more responsive CAS system wasestablished that allowed the use of airborne, alertaircrews that were briefed as they approached thetarget.

Radar systems that were effective at night werealso installed on some aircraft, such as the F-7FTigercat, during the Korean War. Radar capabili-ties allowed commanders to designate somesquadrons to fly only at night, thereby enhancingthe squadron’s effectiveness while minimizing itsvulnerability. These night-flying pilots were nor-mally under the control of a forward air controller(FAC), an employment method that was laterused extensively in the Vietnam War.

Another advancement during the Korean War wasthe establishment of Marine Photographic Squad-ron 1 on February 25, 1952. This squadron flewF2H-2P Banshees, which were specially modifiedwith a long nose to accommodate several recon-naissance cameras. These were the first Marineaircraft specifically dedicated to reconnaissance.The aerial photographs provided by this unit wereinvaluable aids to intelligence and targeting.

During the post-Korean and pre-Vietnam period,the Marine Corps continued to develop doctrineand tactics for the employment of both fixed-wingand rotary-wing aircraft. In 1962, Marine Medi-um Helicopter Squadron 362 was deployed toSouth Vietnam to provide mobility support to theSouth Vietnamese army, which was conductingoperations south of Saigon. These operations pro-vided invaluable experience to the Marine Corpsin the conduct of helicopterborne operations. Onthe basis of these experiences, helicopters werefitted with door-mounted, M-60 machine guns,which enabled helicopters to return fire whilelanding in hot landing zones. The need for an aeri-al escort to protect the helicopters and prepare alanding zone was also recognized. Initially, this

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role was filled by slow-flying, fixed-wing fighteraircraft. Later, the UH-1B Huey helicopter gun-ship was developed to meet this need and wasfielded in Vietnam in 1963. The need for greaterfirepower and for armor to protect critical areas ofthe helicopter were also identified. The UH-1Bprovided escort and fire support for helicopter-borne operations until the AH-1G Cobra wasfielded in 1967.

Command and control of aircraft improved duringthe Vietnam War. Radar information was manual-ly plotted during the first several years of the war,then a computer-based aircraft command and con-trol system (Marine Corp tactical data system[MTDS]) was deployed to Vietnam. It providedthe first automated aircraft command and controlsystem for Marine aviation that was compatiblewith the Navy’s command and control system.

During the Vietnam War, Marine aviation devel-oped the foundations for the doctrine, tactics, andequipment used today. At the conclusion of theVietnam War, Marine aviation had developed anddemonstrated the capability to conduct OAS,assault support, air reconnaissance, EW (includ-ing the ability to counter modern air defenses),control of aircraft and missiles, and AAW. Rota-ry-wing aviation concentrated on improvementsin lift capability, mobility, and helicopter fire sup-port techniques. Fixed-wing aviation focused onimprovements in turbojet engine technology andaircraft design. These improvements led to a newgeneration of aircraft that were faster and moremaneuverable, and which could carry a wide vari-ety of new and improved munitions. One of themost significant aspects of this new technology,which was to have a profound impact on both air-craft design and AAW doctrine, was the introduc-tion of the guided missile. Unlike the KoreanWar, when air-to-air combat and air defense wasfought with essentially the same weapons and tac-tics as was used in World War II, the Vietnam airwar was fought with the guided missile. By theend of the war, missile technology and employ-ment dominated both friendly and enemy AAWdoctrine and accounted for a majority of our air-to-air combat victories.

Full-scale Marine participation in Vietnam beganin 1965. The doctrine and tactics for helicopter-borne operations, which were refined while sup-porting the South Vietnamese army, provided asound basis on which Marines continued to build.The UH-1B gunships that deployed to Vietnam in1963 were replaced by AH-1G attack helicoptersin 1967 and two-engined AH-1J Sea Cobra in1969. The CH-53A Sea Stallion and the CH-46Sea Knight were introduced in 1966 and provideda significant improvement to lift capacity and theability to conduct helicopterborne assaults and re-supply operations.

In July 1965, Marine Composite ReconnaissanceSquadron 1 (Fixed-Wing) arrived in Vietnam.This unit was equipped with the EF-10B SkyKnight, an electronic countermeasures platform.The EF-10B was flown extensively during thenext 2 years and provided effective protectionagainst Soviet-built and -supplied surface-to-airmissiles (SAMs). Late in 1966, a newer, more ca-pable aircraft (the EA-6A Intruder) replaced theEF-10B. Also in 1966, the Marine Corps intro-duced the RF-4B Phantom, which was a recon-naissance version of the F4 Phantom. The RF-4Bprovided a significant jump in combat capability.It replaced the RF-8A Crusader, initially deployedto Vietnam, and was the first Marine aircraft ca-pable of acquiring imagery at night.

Through the late seventies, the eighties, and intothe nineties, as the U.S. modernized its forces, theMarine Corps continued its legacy of innovation.From vertical/short takeoff and landing (V/STOL)aircraft to unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) toprecision-guided munitions, the Marine Corpscontinued to be a leader in adapting new technol-ogy to warfighting. The Marine Corps developeda warfighting concept that emphasized smallerexpeditionary forces that used speed, tempo, andseamless air-ground integration as force multipli-ers, known as maneuver warfare. This conceptproved highly successful against Iraqi forces dur-ing the Persian Gulf War.

This concept resulted in a Marine air-groundteam, referred to as a MAGTF, that has had a pro-found impact on the nation’s ability to respond to


crises and conflicts. The MAGTF is the MarineCorps’ principal organization for all military op-erations. It is composed of forces task-organizedunder a single commander to accomplish a specif-ic mission. These forces are functionally groupedinto four core elements: a command element(CE), an aviation combat element (ACE), aground combat element (GCE), and a combat ser-vice support element (CSSE). The MAGTF’sflexible organizational structure allows for otherService or foreign military force(s) to be assignedor attached to it. The four core elements are notformal commands. The number, size, and type offorces that comprise each element is mission de-pendent. The ACE is task-organized to providethe specific capabilities required of Marine avia-tion to support the MAGTF. The ACE is not sub-ordinate to the GCE; it is a co-equal combat armof the MAGTF that provides the mobility, flexi-bility, coordination, and firepower required tosuccessfully employ maneuver warfare.

An important part of the development of Marineaviation has been the concurrent development ofthe role of Marine aviation reserve forces. Since1935, the Reserves have not only played animportant role in conflicts but have often led theway in the development of aviation concepts anddoctrine. The Reserves are organized, equipped,and trained as an integral part of Marine aviation.Marine aviation reserve units can provide the fullspectrum of aviation support functions and indi-vidual aviation units to reinforce an ACE.

The end of the Cold War brought with it a periodof crises and conflicts of increasing number, fre-quency, and variety, and the Marine Corps pro-vides the National Command Authorities with thecapability to rapidly respond to crises whereverthey may occur. Crisis response requires a fullspectrum of military capabilities, including forc-ible entry and military operations other than war(MOOTW). Defense of national interests requiresan expeditionary crisis response force that is spe-cifically organized, trained, and equipped toquickly project military power overseas. This rap-id-response, general-purpose force must maintainitself in a continuous state of readiness and it mustbe prepared to adapt to a broad range of operating

environments on short notice. It must possess astrategic mobility that allows it projection wher-ever it is required. By virtue of its naval character,expeditionary nature, and combined-arms organi-zation, the MAGTF, with its ACE, is capable ofresponding to these requirements.

The ever-changing world security environmentrequires that Marine aviation continually antici-pate and adapt to new challenges. Employing newtechnology with existing doctrine will not alwaysprovide the required operational capabilities.Constant refinement of aviation doctrine and acontinuous exploration of innovative ideas arenecessary. This proactive approach has been thehallmark of Marine aviation.

1002. Marine Aviation and the Levels of War

War is fought at three levels: strategic, operation-al, and tactical. Although Marine aviation is de-signed primarily as a tactical instrument, it canmake significant contributions at all three levels.

a. The Strategic Level of War In contrast to tactics, which is the art of winningengagements and battles, military strategy is theart of winning wars. Strategy is implemented bycombatant commanders and is always joint in na-ture. The MAGTF makes a strategic contributionwhen it is used as an element of national power toaccomplish national policy objectives. SinceMarine aviation is bonded to the MAGTF by mis-sion, organization, and employment, its strategiccontributions are normally encompassed withinthe MAGTF support it provides. For example, asea-based MAGTF strategically positioned near aworld “hot spot” may be the ideal force to indi-cate U.S. political concern or resolve on a volatileissue. If the strategic objective is to show a U.S.presence in the area, Marine aviation operationsbecome a visible show of force without physicallylanding U.S. troops ashore. In this case, Marineaviation’s contribution to the strategic objectivewould be dominant, but it is still performed in

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support of the MAGTF’s mission and not consid-ered an independent action.

Marine aviation’s naval expeditionary charactermakes it a force of choice whenever political con-siderations preclude a deliberate build up of forc-es and their supporting infrastructure ashore.Marine aviation also has the collateral mission ofparticipating as an integral component of navalaviation as directed by fleet commanders. Marineaviation has, in some cases, been tasked to con-duct operations while not part of a MAGTF, thisis the exception rather than the rule. For example,Marine aviation has been used against targets ofstrategic value in an air strike launched from aNavy aircraft carrier as part of a joint force. An-other example is the use of Marine aviation assetsin support of North Atlantic Treaty Organization(NATO) forces in Bosnia and Kosovo. Both ex-amples are exceptions to the normal doctrinal em-ployment of Marine aviation. Marine aviation is,first and foremost, an integral component of theMAGTF.

b. The Operational Level of War The operational level of war links tactical resultsto strategic aims. The operational use of aviationrelates to campaigning. Aviation at the operation-al level of war shapes events by deciding when,where, and under what conditions to engage theenemy in battle. At the operational level, theMAGTF commander uses aviation against targetsof operational significance. These targets consistof enemy capabilities or resources whose destruc-tion or neutralization are important to the prose-cution of the campaign.

Marine aviation participates at the tactical and op-erational levels as part of a MAGTF. Doctrinally,this is Marine aviation’s primary mission: to par-ticipate as the air component of the MAGTF inthe seizure of advanced naval bases and to con-duct land operations as may be essential for theprosecution of a naval operation. The capabilitiesprovided by aviation allow the MAGTF com-mander to generate operational capability quicklyat or near the location of any conflict. Aviationprovides the resiliency and flexibility required to

respond appropriately to developing situations byeither expanding or reducing U.S. military pres-ence as directed by the theater commander.

In most operations, the MAGTF serves as part ofa joint task force (JTF) under the command of ajoint force commander (JFC). Joint Publication(JP) 0-2, Unified Action Armed Forces (UNAAF),establishes the doctrine, principles, and policiesof a joint force. Marine aviation supports jointforce operations as an integral part of theMAGTF. This ensures that the MAGTF retains itsunique capability to generate combined-armscombat power. The MAGTF commander will re-tain operational control (OPCON) of the ACEduring all joint operations. Any sorties in excessof the MAGTF’s direct support requirements arenormally made available to the JFC. The JFC usesthe MAGTF’s excess sorties to support othercomponents of the joint force in pursuit of overallcampaign objectives. The MAGTF commanderalso makes sorties available to the JFACC for airdefense, long-range interdiction, and long-rangereconnaissance. See JP 3-56.1, Command andControl for Joint Air Operations, and JP 3-09,Doctrine for Joint Fire Support for detailed infor-mation on command and control of joint air andfire support operations.

The capabilities of aviation, including its speed,range, and mobility, easily translate to the opera-tional level of war. Because Marine aviation hassignificant range, the MAGTF commander canuse air interdiction to strike deep within the ene-my’s rear areas and air reconnaissance to gatherneeded information. Air defense sorties can pro-tect the MAGTF as well as contribute to the pro-tection of a joint force, all of which are significantcontributions to the JFC’s operational goals.

The implications of an action taken at one level ofwar seldom remain confined to that level. Actionstaken at the operational level may influence otheractions across all three levels of conflict. Thisoverlap between the operational and tactical lev-els of war must be understood if we are to maxi-mize opportunities for success.


c. The Tactical Level of WarOperational goals give purpose to tactical actions.In turn, tactical actions may influence operationalgoals. The tactical-operational relationship is im-portant when deciding the best way to employaviation because aviation is uniquely capable ofhaving an immediate impact at both the tacticaland operational levels of war.

Success at the operational level can promote suc-cess at the tactical level. The employment of avia-tion at the operational level during OperationDesert Storm served to disrupt Iraqi commandand control, degrade defenses, and demoralizetroops. The success of Operation Desert Storm’soperational goals contributed to tactical successesduring the ground operations phase.

Success at the tactical level can foster success atthe operational level; however, success at the tac-tical level can prove indecisive unless linked tooperational goals. Aviation can play a significantrole in turning a tactical success into an operation-al decision. This is illustrated by Allied efforts inthe South Pacific during World War II.

Beginning in the Solomon Islands with Guadalca-nal in 1942, naval aviation played a major role inthe destruction of the best elements of the Japa-nese naval air forces. Defending their major baseat Rabaul on the island of New Britain against Al-lied air attacks, the Japanese committed and lostall of their fully-trained naval air units, includingthose that survived the Battle of Midway. They al-so committed and lost a portion of their best-trained army air units. Subsequently, the Japanesenever fully recovered from these losses.

The advantage gained by defeating a large portionof Japan’s best-trained combat pilots in Guadalca-nal and New Britain would prove vital to continu-ing Allied operations. The onslaught againstRabaul by Allied aircraft, over half of which wereflown by Marine aviators, prevented Japanese air-craft from prohibitively interfering with Americanlandings in the Solomons area, most notably atCape Gloucester. The continued pressure of navalaviation against Rabaul eventually caused the

withdrawal of Japanese aircraft from the islandfortress. The combined effect of the tactical suc-cesses in the Solomons degraded Japan’s combatpower and the Allies were able to bypass Rabaul,an operational maneuver that isolated about100,000 Japanese.

Operation Overlord, the great amphibious landingin Normandy during World War II, is an exampleof how the operational use of aviation determinedthe conditions of engagement. The operationalrole of aviation in Operation Overlord was to en-sure that the enemy forces attacking the beach-head did not increase at a more rapid rate than theAllied forces defending it and extending it. Threeair attacks were conducted on targets hundreds ofmiles from the contested ground and were timedto disrupt Nazi attempts to reinforce units en-gaged in Normandy. Allied aviation successfullydelayed the movement of German reserves thatcould have countered the Allied landing. Opera-tionally, the German army remained paralyzed.Field Marshal Erwin Rommel reported in his June10, 1944 dispatch that practically all traffic onroads, tracks, and in open country was pinneddown by powerful fighter-bomber and bomberformations. As a result, the movement of Germantroops on the battlefield was almost completelyparalyzed, while the Allies maneuvered freely.

The Gulf War contains recent examples of tacticalevents that impacted the operational level of war.During the first 6 months of Operation DesertShield, 1st Marine Division spent a great deal oftime scrutinizing the 8-year Iran-Iraq war. Plan-ners learned that Iraqi artillery was very effectivein trapping Iranian soldiers in confined areascalled firesacks, where thousands of Iranians per-ished. The firesack, like our engagement area, isan area along an enemy avenue of approach in-tended to contain and destroy an enemy forcewith the massed fires of all available weapons.Studies of the two obstacle belts in Kuwait andthe positioning of more than 1,200 Iraqi artillerypieces behind those obstacle belts indicated thatwhen the Marines attacked, the Iraqis meant totrap them in at least two firesacks. Marine plan-ners also recognized that their available aviationordnance was not sufficient to destroy the Iraqi

1-8 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-2

artillery during the first phase of Operation DesertStorm. Therefore, planners designed a series ofcombined-arms raids to defeat the Iraqis’ plan be-fore they even attacked into Kuwait.

Operation Desert Storm kicked off on January 17,1991. On January 19th, Marine aircraft conductedtheir first raid. Coalition forces were going tomove an artillery battery, escorted by a light ar-mored infantry company, close to the Kuwaitiborder at night. A Marine EA-6B Prowler EW air-craft was to be stationed inside Saudi Arabian air-space to jam the Iraqis’ radars until after the entireartillery battery had fired on a designated target.As the artillery battery started to withdraw, EA-6B aircraft would stop jamming just long enoughfor the Iraqis to detect the battery’s movement be-fore it began jamming again. The intent was tocause the Iraqi artillery to respond to Marine indi-rect fires. Once the Iraqis began firing, a Marineforward air controller (airborne) (FAC[A]) in aMarine F/A-18 Hornet detected the Iraqis’ muzzleflashes and directed a flight of Marine F/A-18s toroll in on the firing Iraqi artillery.

The plan’s goal was to convince Iraqi artillery-men not to man their artillery pieces for fear thatevery time they did so Marine aircraft would at-tack them. By the third week in February, after aseries of these raids, the plan’s goal was achieved.UAVs showed Iraqi artillerymen abandoning theirhowitzers as Marine aircraft began attacking theirpositions.

These successful raids at the tactical level haddramatic effect at the operational level. The fearof an attack from aviation assets made Iraqi artil-lery ineffective in the final phase of the war. Thisundoubtedly saved many lives and contributed tothe strategic success of Operation Desert Storm.

Another Gulf War example of the impact of avia-tion at the operational level took place the night ofJanuary 29, 1991. During the night, several battal-ion-sized Iraqi units attacked Coalition forces inand around the border town of Khafji. The Iraqissurprised the Coalition forces and occupied thetown. However, Arab ground forces belonging tothe Coalition quickly counterattacked and, withthe aid of CAS, regained possession of Khafji 2days later. This purely tactical event is, only partof the story. The night before the recapture ofKhafji, farther to the north, Saddam Husseinamassed more than two divisions of armor andmechanized infantry to join the fight for the town.Because of technological advancements, the nightno longer provided its traditional sanctuary. With-in minutes, the joint surveillance, and target at-tack radar system (JSTARS) discovered the Iraqiforce and began employing Coalition aircraftagainst it. Using precision-guided weapons, airstrikes continued throughout the night and devas-tated the two divisions. They never reached theirdesired objective, and by morning, they were re-treating in total disarray.

The Battle of Khafji was important for the Coali-tion. Tactically, the Pan-Arab forces defeated theIraqis in a pitched battle, launching a difficultnight counterattack against enemy armor. Opera-tionally, the destruction inflicted on two Iraqi di-visions by Coalition aircraft convinced the Iraqisthat any force that left its defenses to conduct amobile operation would be decimated. During theremainder of the war, the Iraqis never again at-tempted an offensive operation. The operationalresult was a paralyzed military force that was un-able to interfere with Coalition maneuver opera-tions.

Chapter 2

The Missions, Functions, and Organization of Marine Aviation

“Marine aviation units are an integral element of an air-ground combatsystem. They are not merely joined at the top when the time comes to fight.They are fully integrated from top to bottom, and they train that way full-time.”2

—Gen Carl E. Mundy

Marine Corps aviation is organized, trained, andequipped to provide a task-organized ACE forany size MAGTF. The ACE is not a formal com-mand. The term “ACE” categorizes the function-ality of specific forces within the MAGTF. Forany MAGTF, the ACE is composed of task-orga-nized Marine aviation forces under a single com-mander. The ACE commander is the MAGTFcommander’s principal advisor and subject matterexpert on all aviation activities.

The ACE must be prepared to support MAGTFexpeditionary operations from both sea-based andshore-based facilities. The ACE’s primary mis-sion is to support the MAGTF during all phases ofexpeditionary operations as well as during sus-tained operations ashore.

2001. Functions of Marine Aviation

The tasks of Marine aviation fall into six func-tional areas (see fig. 2-1 on page 2-2): offensiveair support, antiair warfare, assault support, air re-connaissance, electronic warfare, and control ofaircraft and missiles. Planners initially considerthe functional area, not the means (i.e., particularweapons systems), when analyzing the fundamen-tal requirements of accomplishing any given ob-jective.

a. Offensive Air Support OAS involves air operations that are conductedagainst enemy installations, facilities, and person-

nel in order to directly assist in the attainment ofMAGTF objectives by destroying enemy resourc-es or isolating enemy military forces. Its primarysupport of the warfighting functions is to providefires and force protection through CAS and DAS.The application of OAS can sometimes be deci-sive by directly or indirectly affecting an enemy’scenter of gravity. OAS allows the commander toinfluence the battle by projecting firepower toshape events in time and space. It also allows thecommander to shape the battlespace by delayingenemy reinforcements, degrading critical enemyfunctions, and manipulating enemy perceptions,which ultimately results in protection of the force.Marine fighter/attack squadrons (VMFAs),Marine fighter attack (all weather) squadrons(VMFA[AW]s), Marine at tack squadrons(VMAs), Marine light/attack helicopter squadrons(HMLAs), and Marine unmanned aerial vehiclesquadrons (VMU) provide OAS during OAS mis-sions. OAS includes two categories: CAS andDAS.

(1) CAS. CAS is an air action performed byfixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft against hos-tile targets that are in close proximity to friendlyforces. CAS requires detailed integration of eachair mission with the fire and movement of friend-ly forces.

(2) DAS. DAS is an air action against enemy tar-gets at such a distance from friendly forces thatdetailed integration of each mission with fire andmovement of friendly forces is not required.Close coordination of the fire and maneuver offriendly forces is a qualifying factor for a DAS

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mission. DAS missions are flown on either side ofthe fire support coordination line. These missionsinclude air interdiction and armed reconnaissance.

(a) Air Interdiction Operations. An air inter-diction operation destroys, neutralizes, or delaysthe enemy’s military potential before it can bebrought to bear effectively against friendly forces.This type of operation is a response to a knowntarget that is briefed in advance.

(b) Armed Reconnaissance Missions. Anarmed reconnaissance mission finds and attackstargets of opportunity (i.e., enemy materiel, per-sonnel, facilities) in assigned areas. This type ofoperation is a response to targets that are notknown or briefed in advance.

b. Antiair Warfare AAW is the actions used to destroy or reduce theenemy air and missile threat to an acceptable lev-

el. It includes such measures as the use of inter-ceptors, bombers, antiaircraft guns, surface-to-airand air-to-air missiles, and electronic attack andthe destruction of an air or missile threat both be-fore and after it is launched. Other measures usedto minimize the effects of hostile air action arecover, concealment, dispersion, deception (in-cluding electronic), and mobility. The primarypurpose of AAW is to gain and maintain whateverdegree of air superiority is required; this permitsthe conduct of operations without prohibitive in-terference by opposing air and missile forces.AAW’s other purpose is force protection.

AAW uses both offensive and defensive means toaccomplish its objectives and to directly supportthe warfighting functions of fires and force pro-tection. Self-defense against enemy air is a taskfor all rotary-wing aircraft. Additionally, the low-altitude air defense (LAAD) battalion, VMFA,VMFA(AW), VMA, and HMLA are all specifi-cally tasked to perform AAW. The Marine air

Figure 2-1. The Six Functions of Marine Aviation.


control squadron (MACS) provides personnel andequipment for the operation of the tactical air op-erations center (TAOC). The TAOC’s mission isto detect, identify, and control the interception ofhostile aircraft and missiles.

(1) Offensive Antiair Warfare. Offensive anti-air warfare (OAAW) are operations conductedagainst enemy air assets and air defense systemsbefore they can be launched or assume an attack-ing role. OAAW operations in or near the objec-tive area consist mainly of air attacks that destroyor neutralize hostile aircraft, airfields, radar, airdefense systems, and supporting areas. OAAWalso includes attacks against enemy theater mis-sile operations and suppression of enemy air de-fenses (SEAD). Offensive counterair [OCA] isthe joint term for an operation that destroys, dis-rupts, or limits enemy air power as close to itssource as possible.

(2) Air Defense. Air defense includes all defen-sive measures designed to destroy attacking ene-my aircraft or missiles in the Earth’s atmosphereor to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of an ene-my attack. Air defense involves both active andpassive measures.

(a) Active Air Defense. Active air defense in-cludes the use of aircraft, air defense weapons, sup-porting weapons (i.e., weapons not primarily usedin an air defense role), and EW. The approved jointterm for this is defensive counterair (DCA).

(b) Passive Air Defense. Passive air defenseincludes all measures other than active defensethat are taken to minimize the effectiveness ofhostile air action. These measures include the useof protective construction, concealment, camou-flage, deception, dispersion, cover, and electronicprotection. Passive air defense is a command re-sponsibility of every unit commander.

c. Assault SupportAssault support contributes to the warfightingfunctions of maneuver and logistics. Maneuverwarfare demands rapid, flexible maneuverabilityto achieve a decision. Assault support uses air-

craft to provide tactical mobility and logistic sup-port to the MAGTF for the movement of high-priority personnel and cargo within the immediatearea of operations (or the evacuation of personneland cargo). It also uses Marine aerial refuelertransport squadrons (VMGRs) to provide in-flightrefueling. Specific assault support tasks are dis-cussed in the following subparagraphs. SeeMCWP 3-24, Assault Support, for additional in-formation.

(1) Combat Assault Transport. Combat as-sault transport provides mobility and logistic sup-port to the MAGTF. It is used to deploy forcesefficiently in offensive maneuver warfare, bypassobstacles, or quickly redeploy forces. Combat as-sault support allows the MAGTF commander tobuild up his forces rapidly at a specific time andlocation.

(2) Air Delivery. Air delivery is the transporta-tion of equipment and supplies to FOBs or remoteareas. Delivery can be accomplished with heli-copters or loads can be air dropped from fixed-wing aircraft such as the KC-130. Air drops arenormally used when surface or helicopter trans-ports cannot be used because of range, closedlines of communications, a lack of adequate air-fields, a prohibitive ground tactical situation, hightonnage, or reduced response time.

(3) Aerial Refueling. Aerial refueling allowsMAGTF aircraft, both fixed- and rotary-wing, toconduct flight-ferrying operations, extend time onstation, and extend mission range.

(4) Air Evacuation. Air evacuation is the trans-portation of personnel and equipment from FOBsor remote areas. This includes flights from areasof operations to secure rear areas, medical evacu-ations, and extraction of forces. Transport heli-copters and fixed-wing transport aircraft performair evacuations.

(5) Tactical Recovery of Aircraft and Per-sonnel. The tactical recovery of aircraft and per-sonnel (TRAP) is performed by an assigned andbriefed aircrew for the specific purpose of the re-covery of personnel, equipment, and/or aircraft.

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TRAP is a subcomponent of combat search andrescue (CSAR) and/or joint combat search andrescue (JCSAR) missions, but it is only executedonce the location of survivors is confirmed. Itdoes not involve dedicating aircraft assets to lo-cating survivors. Tactical recovery occurs oncethe general location of survivors is confirmed. ATRAP mission may include personnel to conducta local ground search if required. Marine Corpstactical aircraft are not normally equipped to con-duct the search portion of CSAR or the over waterportion of search and rescue missions. The com-position of a tactical recovery mission may varyfrom a single aircraft and aircrew to an assaultsupport mission package that consists of multiplefixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft with an on-board compliment of security, ground search, andmedical personnel.

(6) Air Logistical Support. Air logistical sup-port operations are conducted by fixed-wing air-craft and provide assault support of MAGTFforces on the ground. Air logistical support deliv-ers troops, equipment, and supplies to areas be-yond helicopter range and lift capability or whensurface transportation is slow or unavailable.

(7) Battlefield Illumination. Battlefield illumi-nation can be provided by both fixed-wing and ro-tary-wing aircraft. Illumination may be visible tothe naked eye or invisible (i.e., visible only withnight vision equipment). Battlefield illuminationcan last for a few minutes or several hours.

d. Air Reconnaissance Air reconnaissance employs visual observationand/or sensors in aerial vehicles to acquire intelli-gence information. It supports the intelligencewarfighting function and is employed tactically,operationally, and strategically. The three types ofair reconnaissance are visual, multisensor imag-ery, and electronic. All aircraft units constantlyperform visual air reconnaissance. The Marinetactical electronic warfare squadron (VMAQ),VMU, VMA, VMFA, VMFA(AW), HMLA, andother air reconnaissance platforms can beequipped with sensors to conduct other than visu-al reconnaissance. For additional information, seeMCWP 2-11, MAGTF Intelligence Collection,

and MCWP 2-15.4, Imagery Intelligence, formore information.

(1) Visual Reconnaissance. Visual recon-naissance may be conducted by any airborne plat-form. It consists of an observer or pilot visuallysearching a route, point, or area. Visual aerial re-connaissance is frequently used in support of thedelivery of offensive fires such as artillery sup-port, naval surface fire support, or CAS.

(2) Multisensor Imagery Reconnaissance.Multisensor imagery reconnaissance includesphotography from standard cameras, photographand radar imagery from the advanced tacticalaerial reconnaissance system (ATARS), and in-frared imagery. Multisensor imagery reconnais-sance is used to detect and pinpoint the location ofenemy installations, facilities, and concentrationsof forces. It is also used to support terrain analy-sis.

(3) Electronic Reconnaissance. Electronicreconnaissance is used to detect, locate, identify,and evaluate enemy electromagnetic radiation.Electronic reconnaissance is performed with pas-sive interception equipment that recovers signalsand determines signal direction, source, and char-acteristics. It gathers data that, when processed in-to intelligence, is used to update the electronicorder of battle and technical intelligence.

e. Electronic Warfare EW is any military action involving the use ofelectromagnetic and directed energy to control theelectromagnetic spectrum or to attack the enemy.EW supports the warfighting functions of fires,command and control, and intelligence throughthe three major subdivisions: electronic attack,electronic protection, and electronic warfare sup-port. Only the VMAQ is specifically equipped toperform all aspects of EW.

(1) Electronic Attack. Electronic attack is thatdivision of EW that involves the use of electro-magnetic energy, directed energy, or antiradiationweapons to attack personnel, facilities, or equip-


ment with the intent of degrading, neutralizing, ordestroying enemy combat capability.

(2) Electronic Protection. Electronic protec-tion involves the actions taken to protect person-nel, facilities, and equipment from the effects offriendly or enemy employment of EW that de-grade, neutralize, or destroy friendly combat ca-pability.

(3) Electronic Warfare Support. Electronicwarfare support is tasked by or under the directcontrol of an operational commander. It involvesthe actions needed to search for, intercept, identi-fy, and locate sources of intentionally and unin-tentionally radiated electromagnetic energy forthe purpose of immediate threat recognition.

f. Control of Aircraft and Missiles The control of aircraft and missiles integrates theother five functions of Marine aviation by provid-ing the commander with the ability to exercisecommand and control authority over Marine avia-tion assets. It enhances unity of effort and dissem-inates a common situational awareness. Itinvolves the integrated employment of facilities,equipment, communications, procedures, and per-sonnel. It also allows the ACE commander to planoperations and to direct and control aircraft andmissiles to support accomplishment of theMAGTF’s mission. The control of aircraft andmissiles supports the warfighting function ofcommand and control. The ACE commandermaintains centralized command, while control isdecentralized and executed through the Marine aircommand and control system (MACCS), which isdescribed in chapter 4.

The Marine air control group (MACG) is respon-sible for providing, staffing, operating, and main-taining the principal MACCS agencies. Theseagencies include the TACC, TAOC with the earlywarning/control (EW/C) center, Marine air trafficcontrol detachment (MATCD), DASC, and thedirect air support center (airborne) (DASC[A]).All Marine aircraft have the capability to providesome form of airborne coordination and control

during assault support missions, and HMLAs andVMFA(AW)s can provide FAC(A) or tactical aircoordinator (airborne) (TAC[A]) services sup-porting the MACCS. The methods of aviationcontrol are depicted in figure 2-2 and discussed inthe following paragraphs.

(1) Air Direction. Air direction is the authorityto regulate the employment of air resources (in-cluding both aircraft and surface-to-air weapons)to maintain a balance between their availabilityand the priorities assigned for their use. The pur-pose of air direction is to achieve a balance be-tween the MAGTF’s finite aviation resources andthe accomplishment of the ACE’s mission.

(2) Air Control. Air control is the authority todirect the physical maneuver of aircraft in flightor to direct an aircraft or surface-to-air weaponsunit to engage a specific target. Air control in-cludes airspace management and airspace control.

Figure 2-2. Categories of Air Control.

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(a) Airspace Management. Airspace manage-ment is the coordination, integration, and regula-tion of the use of airspace based on defineddimensions. Commanders use airspace manage-ment to optimize the available airspace and to al-low the maximum freedom consistent with thedegree of acceptable operational risk. TheMACCS provides the ACE commander with theability to conduct airspace management.

(b) Airspace Control. Airspace control is theauthority to direct the maneuver of aircraft so thatthe best use is made of assigned airspace. Air-space control provides for the coordination, inte-gration, and regulation of the use of a definedairspace. It also provides for the identification ofall airspace users. The authority to exercise air-space control is inherent to the commander whoseunit is responsible for particular blocks of air-space, types of missions, or types of aircraft. Air-space control does not include measures toapprove, disapprove, deny, or delay air opera-tions. MACCS agencies accomplish airspace con-trol through the use of positive control, proceduralcontrol, or a combination of the two. Positive con-trol is a method of airspace control that relies onpositive identification, tracking, and direction ofaircraft within an airspace. It is conducted withelectronic means by an agency with the appropri-ate authority and responsibility. Procedural con-trol is a method of airspace control based on acombination of previously agreed and promulgat-ed orders and procedures.

2002. Marine Aviation Organization

Administratively, Marine aviation is organized in-to three active duty and one reserve Marine air-craft wings (MAWs). MAWs are designed toprovide units in support of MAGTF or other oper-ations. Each MAW has a unique organizationalstructure (see app. A and fig. 2-3). The MAWmay be reinforced with assets from other MAWsto provide the necessary assets to meet missionrequirements. It is organized into a MAW head-quarters, several Marine aircraft groups (MAGs),

a MACG, and a Marine wing support group(MWSG).

The wing headquarters and subordinate groupsare task-organized based on the assigned mission.When the MAW is deployed as the ACE for aMEF, the MAW headquarters becomes the ACE’scommand element. Each group consists of spe-cialized squadrons and/or battalions that performone or more of the six functions of Marine avia-tion. The MACG contains the bulk of the MAW’scommand and control assets. The MWSG con-tains the personnel and equipment that are neces-sary to provide direct aviation ground support tothe MAW. The MAW is capable of performing allsix functions of Marine aviation. Through task or-ganization, a wing can provide deployable detach-ments that are capable of accomplishing any or allMarine aviation functions. Aviation organizationssmaller than a wing normally task-organize toprovide only a specific portion of the six aviationfunctions.

The following paragraphs provide a brief descrip-tion of the MAW’s subordinate units and howthey relate to the functions of aviation. Table 2-1contains a summary of aviation units and corre-sponding functions. MCRP 5-12D, Organizationof Marine Corps Forces, contains a detailed dis-cussion.

a. Marine Air Control GroupThe MACG coordinates all aspects of air com-mand and control, air reconnaissance, and air de-fense within the MAW. When deployed as part ofthe MAGTF ACE, it provides the command andstaff functions for the MACG commander and co-ordinates the employment of aviation commandand control equipment, facilities, and personnel insupport of the ACE.

Figure 2-3. Notional Marine Aircraft Wing.


Table 2-1. Marine Aviation Units and Functions.

Type of Aviation Unit AAW

AssaultSupport OAS EW

Air Reconnaissance

Control of Aircraft and

MissilesMAW X X X X X X

MACG Support Support Support Support Support X

MTACS TACC

MASS DASC DASC DASC DASC

MACS TAOCATC

ATC TAOCATC

ATC TAOCATC

TAOCATC

LAAD X Support Support X

MWCS Communications

MWSG Support Support Support Support Support Support

MAG (VF/VA) X X X X X Support

MALS (fixed wing) Support Support Support Support Support Support

VMGR Support X Support Support Support DASC(A)

VMAQ Support Support Support X X Support

VMU Support Support Support Support X Support

VMFA X Escort X Support X Support

VMFA (AW) X Escort X Support X FAC(A)/TAC(A)

VMA X Escort X Support X Support

MAG (VH) X X X Support X Support

VMM Self-defense X Support Support Support Airborne control and coordination

MALS (rotary-wing) Support Support Support Support Support Support

HMH (CH-53D) Self-defense X Support Support Support Airborne control and coordination

HMH (CH-53E) Self-defense X Support Support Support Airborne control and coordination

HMM Self-defense X Support Support Support Airborne control and coordination

HMLA Utility Self-defense X Support Support Support Airborne control and coordination

HMLA Attack X X X Support X Airborne control and coordination

X—The unit performs that function of Marine aviation as part of its primary mission. However, all Marine aircraft are specifi-cally designed to be multi-mission capable and provide significant support for multiple functions.Support—The unit provides general support for that function in varying degrees based on equipment capabilities and the situation.Specifically indicated support (armed reconnaissance, DASC, escort, etc.)—Many units perform a specific type of support for one or more of the six functions of Marine aviation. The ability to provide this type of support is often depen-dent on equipment and/or aircraft mission configuration or specialized personnel training, and it must be specifically requested. For MACG units, the MACCS agency provided by the unit is indicated.

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The major task performed by the MACG is plan-ning and coordinating the support of the com-mand and control function of Marine aviation.The MACG ensures that its subordinate squad-rons and battalions are organized, supplied, andprepared to execute the MACCS’ mission.

(1) Mar ine Tact ical Air CommandSquadron. The Marine tactical air commandsquadron (MTACS) provides equipment ,maintenance, and operations for the TACC of theACE. It equips, operates, and maintains themajority of the manning for the current operationssection of the TACC. It also provides andmaintains a facility for the TACC future operationsand future planning sections and installs andmaintains associated automated systems. As aresult of the recent merger of the Marine wingheadquarters squadron (MWHS) into the MTACS,MTACS will also provide administrative, logistic,and supply support (including the wing com-mander’s mess) for the Marine wing headquarters.

The MTACS’s major task is to provide the com-mand post for the ACE commander. This involvesthe planning and coordination of air operations,deployment and employment issues, and logisticand supply support.

(2) Marine Air Control Squadron. TheMACS provides air surveillance, control of air-craft and surface-to-air weapons for AAW, con-tinuous all weather radar and nonradar air trafficcontrol (ATC) services, and airspace managementin support of a MAGTF.

The MACS provides deployable detachments thatare capable of air surveillance, airspace manage-ment, and control of aircraft and SAMs for AAWin support of the MAGTF. It also provides de-ployable detachments that can provide ATC ser-vices at existing or expeditionary airfields (EAFs)and remote area landing sites.

(3 ) Mar ine Wing Communicat ionsSquadron. The MWCS provides expeditionarycommunications for the ACE of a MEF, includingthe phased deployment of task-organizedelements thereof.

The MWCS provides some of the ACE’s majorcommunications support, including planning andengineering. The squadron also provides opera-tional systems control centers, digital backbonecommunications support, tactical automatedswitching and telephone services, electronic mes-sage distribution, external single-channel radioand radio retransmission communications, widearea network (WAN) and deployed local area net-work (LAN) servers, and support of cryptograph-ic sites.

(4) Marine Air Support Squadron. A Marineair support squadron (MASS) provides DASC ca-pabilities for control and coordination of fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft operating in directsupport of MAGTFs. The MASS’s major tasks in-clude conducting operational planning forMAGTF direct air support operations; receiving,coordinating, and processing immediate requestsfor air support; providing equipment, facilities,and personnel for operation of air support ele-ments; and maintaining continuous control of di-rect air support while displacing.

(5) Low Altitude Air Defense Battalion. Themission of the LAAD battalion is to provideclose-in, low altitude surface-to-air weapons firesin defense of the MAGTF. LAAD battalions de-fend forward combat areas, maneuver forces, vitalareas, installations, and/or units engaged in spe-cial or independent operations. Major tasks of theLAAD battalion include—l Providing support of subordinate batteries.l Maintaining a primary capability as a highly mo-

bile, vehicle-mounted, and man-portable sur-face-to-air weapons component of the MAGTF.

l Providing surface-to-air weapons support forunits engaged in special and/or independent oper-ations.

l Providing for the separate deployment of subor-dinate batteries and platoons to accommodatespecial tactical situations and task organizations.

(6) Marine Unmanned Aerial VehicleSquadron. The VMU operates and maintains aUAV system in order to provide unmanned aerialreconnaissance support to the MAGTF via theACE TACC. VMU tasks include—


l Conducting reconnaissance, surveillance, andtarget acquisition.

l Performing airborne surveillance of designatedtarget areas, MAGTF areas of interest and/orinfluence, and other areas as directed.

l Performing airborne surveillance for search andrescue and TRAP.

l Performing reconnaissance of helicopter ap-proach and retirement lanes in support of verti-cal assaults.

l Providing real-time target information to theDASC and fire support coordination center(FSCC).

l Providing information to assist in adjusting in-direct-fire weapons and to support and facili-tate DAS and air interdiction.

l Collecting battle damage assessments (BDAs).

b. Marine Aircraft Group

The MAG provides the staff support necessary forthe effective command of subordinate squadronsof the MAG. The MAG is usually composed offunctionally similar aircraft squadrons and theirsupport units. Table 2-2 delineates the types ofsquadrons and aircraft present in a MAG.

Table 2-2. MAG Squadrons and Aircraft.

Squadron Type Aircraft Type # of Squadrons1 # of Primary AircraftAuthorized2

VMA AV-8B 7 16

VMFA F/A-18A/C 12 12

VMFA (AW) F/A-18D 6 12

VMAQ EA-6B 4 5

VMGR KC-130 5 12

VMAT AV-8 Training 1 30

VMFAT F/A-18 Training 1 12 F/A-18A/C17 F/A-18D

VMFT Aggressor SquadronF-5

1 11 F-5E1 F-5F

VMGRT KC-130 Training 1 8

VMU UAV 2 5

HMH CH-53E 6 16

HMH3 CH-53D 5 8

HMM CH-46E 18 12

HMLA UH-1NAH-1W

10 9 UH-1N12 AH-1W

HMTHMMT(T)

Helicopter Training HMM(T)1 CH-46E1 CH-53E1 CH-53D

1 UH-1N/AH-1W

18 CH-46E15 CH-53E6 CH-53D14 UH-1N20 AH-1W

VMM MV-22 TBD 12

VMMT MV-22 Training 1 TBD

1 The total number of squadrons, including reserve units.2 The primary aircraft authorization for each squadron is a fixed number. However, the actual number of aircraft in a squad-

ron varies based on production timelines, scheduled depot-level maintenance cycles, aircraft transfers, etc.3 Although CH-53D squadrons have retained their HMH designation, they are considered medium lift like a CH-46E squad-

ron, instead of heavy lift like a CH-53E squadron.

2-10 ________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-2

The MAG is the smallest aviation unit that is de-signed to conduct operations with no outside as-sistance except access to a source of supply.MAGs normally contain either fixed-wing or ro-tary-wing aircraft in order to streamline logisticsupport requirements. MAGs can be task-orga-nized to include any combination of fixed-wingand rotary-wing aircraft, as well as other support-ing units. A MAG can also be task-organized intoan ACE for a particular mission in order to pro-vide one or more aviation functions to a MAGTF.When it is deployed as a MAGTF’s ACE, theMAG headquarters becomes the tactical com-mand element for the ACE. Currently, there aretwo types of MAGs within the MAW: the fixed-wing MAG (MAG VF/VA) and the rotary-wingMAG (MAG VH).

The primary mission of a MAG (VF/VA) is toprovide AAW and OAS support for MAGTF op-erations from a variety of main bases, FOBs, andaircraft carriers. The MAG may consist of anycombination of VMAs, VMFAs, VMFA(AW)s,VMGRs, VMAQs, or Marine aviation logisticssquadrons (MALSs) (fixed wing). It also usuallycontains one or more training squadrons.

The primary mission of the MAG VH is to pro-vide assault support for MAGTF operations inany location or environment required. The MAGVH may include any combination of HMLAs,Marine medium helicopter squadrons (HMMs),Marine heavy helicopter squadrons (HMHs),MALS, and one or more training squadrons. Asthe MV-22 is introduced into the fleet, all HMMsand most of the CH53D squadrons will eventuallytransition to Marine medium tilt-rotor squadrons(VMMs).

(1) Marine Aviation Logistics Squadron(Fixed-Wing/Rotary-Wing). The MALS pro-vides aviation logistic support, guidance, and di-rection to MAG squadrons on behalf of thecommanding officer. It also provides logistic sup-port for Navy-funded equipment in the supportingMWSS, MACS, and Marine wing mobile calibra-tion complex. There is normally one MALS in

each MAG VH and MAG VF/VA. The MALSprovides—l Intermediate-level maintenance for aircraft and

aeronautical equipment.l Aviation supply support for aircraft.l Class V(A) ordnance and ammunition logistic

support.l Coordination with the MWSG, the MACG, the

MAW calibration complex, and other support-ing Navy and Marine Corps activities and/oragencies in planning for the support required toexecute the Marine Aviation Logistic SupportProgram (MALSP).

l Maintaining the capability to deploy and pro-vide MALSP support packages.

(2) Marine Aerial Refueler TransportSquadron. The VMGR’s primary tasks are toprovide tactical aerial refueling service to Marineaviation units and to serve as an aircraft platformfor the DASC(A). Other tasks include assault airtransport for air-landed and air-delivered person-nel, supplies, and equipment; ground refuelingservice to aircraft when other suitable means ofaircraft refueling are not available; and air trans-port service for the evacuation of casualties andnoncombatants. The VMGR maintains an allweather capability and the ability to operate froma variety of bases.

(3) Marine Tactical Electronic WarfareSquadron. The VMAQ conducts airborne EWin support of Fleet Marine Force (FMF) opera-tions to meet the EW and air reconnaissance func-tions of Marine aviation. Major tasks include—l Conducting airborne electronic attack and EW

support operations.l Conducting electronic attack in support of

MAGTF training.l Processing and providing mission data on EW

missions for updating and maintaining an elec-tronic order of battle.

l Maintaining the capability of operating fromaircraft carriers, advance bases, and EAFs.

Aviation Operations _____________________________________________________________________________________ 2-11

l Maintaining the capability to operate duringdarkness and under all weather conditions.

l Maintaining the capability to deploy or conductextended-range operations that require aerialrefueling.

(4) Marine Fighter/Attack Squadron. TheVMFA intercepts and destroys enemy aircraft un-der all weather conditions and attacks and de-stroys surface targets.

Note: In this publication, the term all weather isused to indicate that the aircraft can perform allor part of its primary mission in all “types” ofweather, not all “extremes” of weather. This ca-pability is linked more to the type of equipment onboard the aircraft, than to the effect of the weath-er on the aircraft. For example, all Marine air-craft are designed with the capability to fly in fog,rain, sleet, snow, etc. However, only aircraftequipped with special sensors like radar can real-istically perform their mission without visual ref-erences. The term adverse weather is used toindicate that, while the weather is bad, a visualreference can still be maintained.

VMFA tasks include—l Intercepting and destroying enemy aircraft.l Maintaining the capability to attack and destroy

surface targets.l Providing escort of friendly aircraft under all

types of weather conditions.l Maintaining the capability to deploy and oper-

ate from aircraft carriers and advance bases.l Conducting day and night CAS under all types

of weather conditions.l Maintaining the capability to deploy or conduct

extended-range operations by using aerial refu-eling.

l Maintain the capability to conduct SEAD oper-ations.

(5) Marine All-Weather Fighter AttackSquadron. The VMFA(AW) attacks anddestroys surface targets under adverse weatherconditions during both day and night operations;conducts multisensor imagery reconnaissance;provides supporting arms coordination; and

intercepts and destroys enemy aircraft under alltypes of weather conditions. VMFA(AW) tasksinclude—l Conducting day and night CAS under adverse

weather conditions.l Conducting day and night DAS under all

weather conditions, including armed reconnais-sance, radar search and attack, air interdiction,and strikes against enemy installations.

l Conducting multisensor imagery reconnais-sance, this includes pre-strike and post striketarget damage assessment and visual reconnais-sance.

l Conducting day and night supporting arms co-ordination, including forward air control air-borne, tactical air coordination airborne, andartillery and/or naval gunfire (NGF) spotting.

l Intercepting and destroying enemy aircraft.l Maintaining the capability to operate from air-

craft carriers, advance bases, and EAFs.l Maintaining the capability to deploy or conduct

extended-range operations by using aerial refu-eling.

l Maintaining the capability to conduct SEADoperations.

(6) Marine Attack Squadron. The VMAattacks and destroys surface targets under day andnight visual meteorological conditions. It alsoprovides helicopter escort. VMA’s major tasksinclude—l Conducting CAS, armed reconnaissance, air in-

terdiction, and strikes against enemy installa-tions.

l Conducting air defense operations.l Maintaining the capability to operate during

darkness and under instrument flight condi-tions.

l Maintaining the capability of deployment orextended operations by employing aerial refu-eling.

l Maintaining the capability to operate fromaboard carriers, other suitable seagoing plat-forms, EAFs, and remote tactical landing sites.

l Conducting armed escort missions in supportof assault support operations.

2-12 ________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-2

(7) Marine Heavy Helicopter Squadron(CH-53D). The HMH (CH-53D) supports the as-sault support function of Marine aviation by pro-viding assault helicopter transport of heavyweapons, equipment, and supplies during am-phibious operations and subsequent operationsashore. CH-53D squadrons have retained theirHMH designation, but only CH-53E squadronsare now considered to be capable of heavy lift.The CH-53D is now considered a medium lift he-licopter, like the CH-46E. The main tasks for theCH-53D include—l Providing combat assault transport of heavy

weapons, equipment, and supplies.l Providing combat assault transport of troops.l Conducting tactical retrieval and recovery op-

erations for downed aircraft, equipment, andpersonnel.

l Conducting assault support for evacuation op-erations and other maritime special operations.

l Providing support for mobile FARPs.l Maintaining the capability to operate from am-

phibious shipping, other floating bases, andaustere shore bases.

l Maintaining the capability to operate at night,in adverse weather conditions, and under in-strument flight conditions at extended ranges.

(8) Marine Heavy Helicopter Squadron(CH-53E). The HMH (CH-53E) provides assaulthelicopter transport of heavy weapons, equip-ment, and supplies during amphibious operationsand subsequent operations ashore. The main tasksfor the CH-53E include—l Providing combat assault transport of heavy

weapons, equipment, and supplies.l Providing combat assault transport of troops.

Conducting tactical retrieval and recovery op-erations for downed aircraft, equipment, andpersonnel.

l Conducting assault support for evacuation op-erations and other maritime special operations.

l Providing support for mobile forward armingand refueling points (FARPs).

l Maintaining the capability to operate from am-phibious shipping, other floating bases, andaustere shore bases.


l Maintaining the capability to deploy and con-duct extended range operations by employingaerial refueling.

(9) Marine Medium Helicopter Squadron.The HMM provides assault transport of combattroops in the initial assault waves and follow-onstages of amphibious operations and subsequentoperations ashore. HMM’s major tasks include—l Providing combat assault troop transport.l Providing combat assault transport of supplies

and equipment.l Conducting assault support for evacuation op-

erations and other maritime special operations.l Providing support for mobile FARPs.l Maintaining the capability to operate from am-



l Augmenting local search and rescue assets andprovide aeromedical evacuation of causalities.

Tactical HMMs will begin replacing the CH-46Eand CH-53D helicopters with the MV-22 tilt-rotoraircraft beginning in fiscal year 2003.

(10) Marine Medium Tilt-Rotor Squadron.The Marine medium tilt-rotor squadron (VMM)provides transportation of combat troops, sup-plies, and equipment across the spectrum of expe-ditionary operations. VMM’s primary function isto provide combat assault troop transport. It alsoprovides combat assault transport of supplies andequipment, as a secondary function. Other VMMtasks include—l Conducting combat assault support for evacua-

tion operations and other maritime special op-erations.

l Providing support for forward arming and refu-eling points.

l Providing airborne command and control forassault support operations.


l Maintaining a self-defense capability for air-toair and ground-to-air threats.

l Maintaining the capability to operate from na-val ships and expeditionary airfields.

l Maintain the capability to operate at night, inadverse weather, and under instrument flightconditions from extended ranges.

l Maintain the capability for deployment and/orextended range operations employing aerial re-fueling.

l Augmenting local search and rescue assets.l Providing aeromedical evacuation of casualties

from the field to suitable medical facilities orother aeromedical aircraft.

l Performing organizational maintenance on as-signed aircraft in all environmental conditions.

(11) Marine Light/Attack Helicopter Squad-ron. The HMLA provides combat utility helicop-ter support, attack helicopter fire support, and firesupport coordination during amphibious opera-tions and subsequent operations ashore. The pri-mary tasks of utility helicopters include—l Providing an airborne command and control

platform for command elements.l Providing armed escort for assault support op-

erations. l Providing combat assault transport of troops,

supplies, and equipment. l Providing airborne control and coordination for

assault support operations. l Augmenting local search and rescue assets and

provide aeromedical evacuation of casualties.l Conducting combat assault and assault support

for evacuation operations and other maritimespecial operations.

l Controlling, coordinating, and providing termi-nal control for supporting arms, includingCAS, artillery, mortars, and NGF.

l Providing fire support and security for forwardand rear area forces.

l Maintaining the capability to operate from am-phibious shipping, other floating bases, andaustere shore bases.


The primary tasks of attack helicopters include— l Providing fire support and security for forward

and rear area forces. l Conducting point-target and/or antiarmor oper-

ations.l Conducting anti-helicopter operations. l Providing armed escort, control, and coordina-

tion for assault support operations. l Controlling, coordinating, and providing termi-

nal control for supporting arms, includingCAS, artillery, mortars, and NGF.

l Conducting armed and visual reconnaissance. l Maintaining the capability to operate from am-



(12) Marine Wing Support Group. TheMWSG’s mission is to provide aviation groundsupport for the MAW and to provide commandand control, administration, supply, and logisticsupport assets to subordinate units performingaviation ground support for Marine aviation. TheMWSG’s primary task is to provide the capabilityto establish and maintain airfields and FOBs, andtheir associated aviation ground support require-ments, for the conduct of ACE operations in sup-port of the MAGTF.

(13) Marine Wing Support Squadron. TheMarine wing support squadron’s (MWSS’s) mis-sion is to provide for all essential aviation groundsupport requirements for a designated fixed-wingor rotary-wing component of an ACE. TheMWSS also provides aviation ground support forall supporting or attached units of the MACG.The MWSS’s primary tasks include providing—l Internal airfield communications.l Weather forecasting and services.l Aircraft crash, fire, and rescue services.l Structural fire fighting services.l Aircraft and ground equipment refueling.l Essential engineering services.l Motor transport operations internal to the ACE.l Messing facilities.

2-14 ________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-2

l Organic nuclear, biological, and chemical capa-bilities.

l Routine and emergency sick call services.l Security and law enforcement services.l Air base command functions.

See MCWP 3-21.1, Aviation Ground Support,and MCWP 3-35.7, MAGTF Meteorology andOceanography [METOC] Support, for additionalinformation.

2003. Aviation Combat Element Task Organization

An ACE is the core element of a MAGTF that istask-organized to conduct aviation operations. Itprovides all or a portion of the six functions ofMarine aviation. The ACE is usually composed ofan aviation unit headquarters and various otheraviation units or their detachments. It can vary insize from a small aviation detachment of specifi-cally required aircraft to one or more MAWs. TheACE may contain other Service or foreign mili-

tary forces assigned or attached to the MAGTF.The ACE itself is not a formal command.

The ACE is task-organized to contribute to bat-tlespace dominance in support of the MAGTF’smission, project combat power, and conduct airoperations. The ACE is task-organized to supportthe MAGTF based on the MAGTF commander’smission and his estimate of the aviation capabili-ties required to accomplish that mission. TheMAGTF commander presents these requirementsto the Marine Service component commander,and the selection of actual aviation units or de-tachments is determined by the tasked wing com-mander(s). Selected assets are task-organized tomeet the MAGTF commander’s requirements.

The ACE is normally built around an existing air-craft unit (squadron, group, or wing) reinforced asnecessary with the appropriate command and con-trol, combat, combat support, and combat servicesupport (CSS) (including aviation logistic) unitsand detachments. In creating an ACE, the opera-tional requirements of the mission, capabilitiesand limitations of specific units and equipment,and the availability of units determine the choiceof units, type of equipment, and source location.Marine aviation forms the ACE of the three stand-ing MEFs. However, this is merely the startingpoint for constructing the ACE for a MEF in timeof war. For actual deployment, the ACE would bereinforced with units and/or detachments from theother two active duty MAWs and the Reserves. Ifproviding the ACE to a Marine expeditionary unit(special operations capable) (MEU [SOC]), theACE will usually be sourced from a single MAW.

Satisfying the MAGTF commander’s aviation re-quirements is paramount. However, the identifica-tion of specific units for assignment to the ACE isdriven by many factors in addition to the aviationfunctions required to support the MAGTF mis-sion. Some of these factors are as follows:l Mode of deployment (amphibious shipping,

strategic airlift or sealift, aircraft carriers, self-deployment, or a combination).

l Mode of operations (from aircraft carriers and/or amphibious ships, FOBs, EAFs, or a combi-nation).

Figure 2-4. Notional MEF (ACE).

Figure 2-5. Notional MEU ACE.


l Availability of supporting infrastructure (run-ways, shelters, electricity, and fuel).

l Special qualifying criteria, training require-ments and/or, operational experience.

l Length and responsiveness of logistic supportdetermines sustainability.

l Replenishment rate of consumables, specifical-ly aviation fuel and ordnance.

l Anticipated missions and expected intensity offlight operations.

The MEF ACE can be built around one or moreMAWs, or any portion of the MAW, that fulfillsthe required functions of Marine aviation. It mayconsist of one or more MAGs (fixed-wing or rota-ry-wing), a MACG, and a MWSG. The MAW al-so provides task-organized forces for smallerMAGTFs, such as a Marine expeditionary unit(MEU) and spec i a l pu rpose MAGTFs(SPMAGTFs). See figures 2-4 for a notional MEFand 2-5 for a notional MEU ACE.

The MEU ACE normally consists of a reinforcedhelicopter squadron that includes attack aircraftand two fixed-wing assault support aircraft (thelatter are based in the continental United States).The notional MEF ACE is task-organized to pro-vide assault support, low-level air defense, CAS,and airborne command and control. It includes aMACG detachment, MWSS detachment, fixed-wing MALS detachment, and rotary-wing MALSdetachment.

SPMAGTFs, are organized, trained, and equippedwith narrowly focused capabil i t ies. EachSPMAGTF is designed to accomplish a specificmission, often of limited scope and duration. This

special purpose force may be any size but is nor-mally small (the size of a MEU). It may containother Service or foreign military forces assignedor attached to the MAGTF. The ACE compositionfor a SPMAGTF varies, but normally it is the sizeof a MEU ACE or smaller. For example, aSPMAGTF ACE may be created to operate andfly missions in support of host nation forces out ofan EAF. In such a case, the SPMAGTF mightconsist predominantly of Marine aviation unitssupported by only a small security and logisticforce. In other cases, the SPMAGTF ACE mayrepresent a relatively small portion of the force.

Since the ACE is formed around an aviation head-quarters, it will only contain one senior aviationunit. In the case of a MEF, the wing that compris-es the ACE will be task-organized with units froma single wing and/or reinforced with as manygroups and squadrons from other wings as are re-quired to support the MAGTF’s mission. ForMEFs with multiple divisions in the GCE, theACE may require the combined assets and per-sonnel of several wings in order to meet this re-quirement. However, these assets and personnelremain under one ACE commander. This singleACE commander concept is essential to Marineaviation’s doctrinal philosophy of centralizedcommand and decentralized control (discussed indetail in chap. 4).

The ACE may be employed from ships or forwardexpeditionary land bases and can readily transi-tion between sea and land bases without loss ofcapability. It has the capability to conduct com-mand and control across the battlespace. TheACE is one of the two arms of the MAGTF spe-cifically designed to conduct combat operations.

(reverse blank)

Chapter 3

The Role of Aviation inCombined-Arms Force Operations

“On our drive to Manila, I depended solely on [Marine Aircraft Groups 24and 32] to protect my left flank against possible . . . counterattack. . . . . Ican say without reservation that the Marine dive bombers are one of themost flexible outfits that I have seen in this war. They will try anythingonce, and . . . I have found . . . that anything they try usually pans out intheir favor. [They] have kept the enemy on the turn. They have kept him un-derground and have enabled troops to move up with fewer casualties andwith greater speed. I cannot say enough in praise of these men of the divebombers . . . for the job they have done in giving my men close ground sup-port in this operation.”3

—MajGen Verne D. Mudge

The essential difference between Marine aviationand other aviation forces is that Marine aviation isdesigned to operate as an integral part of a com-bined-arms organization. Due to Marine Corpsground forces expeditionary nature and their lim-ited indirect fire assets, ground forces rely heavilyon the ACE to provide fire support in both closeand deep operations. Therefore, the MAGTF mustretain control of its aviation assets. But Marineaviation provides much more than just tacticalfires in support of ground maneuver. It also pro-vides the MAGTF commander with long-rangefires (including electronic fires), intelligence col-lection, enhanced mobility, and force protection.It may also serve as the MAGTF’s main effort.

This chapter begins with a discussion of the sixwarfighting functions; discusses the operationalenvironment; moves to a discussion of a numberof key maneuver warfare ideas; then examines therole that aviation may play in conventional offen-sive and/or defensive operations, security opera-tions, and MOOTW, as discussed in MCDP-1,Warfighting.

3001. The Six Warfighting Functions

Marine aviation provides a significant contribu-tion to each of the warfighting functions duringall phases of an operation. The warfighting func-tions are discussed in more detail in MCDP 1-2,Campaigning, and MCWP 5-1, Marine CorpsPlanning Process.

a. Command and Control

Command and control is the exercise of authorityand direction by the commander over assignedforces in the accomplishment of the assigned mis-sion. Command and control functions are per-formed through organization of personnel,procedures, equipment, communications, and fa-cilities by the commander and staff to plan, direct,coordinate, and control forces and operations inthe accomplishment of the mission. Aviation’sEW capabilities and control of aircraft and mis-siles contribute to this warfighting function.

3-2 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-2

b. Maneuver

Maneuver refers to the employment of ground oraviation forces in order to gain a relative advan-tage over a threat by achieving a tactical, opera-tional, or strategic objective. The advantage canbe positional, temporal, or psychological. In con-junction with fires, maneuver generates tempoand combat power in the battlespace to over-whelm the threat. Mobility operations are inherentin maneuver. Mobility operations enhance thecommand’s ability to move forces and supplieswithin the area of operations. Deception opera-tions are integral to maneuver and usually involveelements of the other warfighting functions.Marine aviation elements may, in some cases,function as maneuver elements themselves. In anycase, any scheme of maneuver will have aviationaspects, particularly in assault support and OAS.

c. Fires

Fires include the organization, planning, coordi-nation, and employment of all lethal and nonlethalattack systems that are available for use againstthreat resources and capabilities. This includes allsea-, air-, and land-based fire systems; the appli-cation of special operations capable forces; andpsychological operations to achieve specified re-sults. AAW, OAS, EW, and the control of aircraftand missiles are aviation functions that contributeto this warfighting function.

d. Intelligence

Intelligence is the actions taken to collect infor-mation, process and analyze it to determine its rel-evance, and disseminate it to commanders in atimely manner to support decisionmaking. Intelli-gence constantly evaluates three of the environ-mental elements (infrastructure, threat, andnoncombatants) of the battlespace. Intelligencefocuses on revealing threat capabilities, disposi-tions, and intentions. It enables the commander toanticipate the threat’s actions and reactions andpromote tempo. Timely intelligence is imperativein developing an effective plan. Air reconnais-sance and aviation EW capabilities are major con-tributors to this warfighting function.

e. Logistics Logistics encompasses all activities required tomove and sustain military forces. The compo-nents of logistics include supplies, maintenance,transportation, general engineering, and healthservices. Aviation assault support is an importantaspect of combat logistics.

f. Force Protection Force protection is the protection of the fightingpotential of the command so that the commandercan conduct decisive actions at a chosen time andplace. It is the most difficult of the warfightingfunctions to execute because it requires the effortsof every member of the command. It involvesboth active and passive measures taken by thecommand that include individual protective mea-sures, camouflage, hardening of facilities andvehicles, operational security procedures, disper-sion, counterreconnaissance operations, counter-intelligence operations, and preventive healthefforts by medical and dental personnel. The syn-chronization of countermobility efforts, fires, andmaneuver results in the generation of combatpower and a tempo that overwhelms the threat’scapability to interfere with friendly mission ac-complishment. All aviation functions, especiallyAAW and air reconnaissance, can contribute toforce protection.

3002. The Operational Environment

Marine aviation is capable of operating in any en-vironment and across the range of military opera-tions. The challenge is to be equally prepared tooperate in high- or mid-intensity combat scenari-os against a technologically advanced and highlycapable threat. Marine aviation must also operateagainst less advanced but numerically superiorfoes; in urban warfare; against diffused, ambigu-ous threats in undeveloped areas; and in adverseenvironmental conditions resulting from naturaland/or manmade catastrophes, including nuclear,biological, chemical, or ecological events. Marineaviation may serve as either the main or support-ing effort in offensive or defensive conventional


warfare, security operations, or MOOTW.MOOTW can include everything from counterin-surgency to disaster relief and other humanitarianoperations.

3003. Organizational Adaptability

Given the uncertainties that are inherent in the op-erational environment, the greatest single require-ment for Marine aviation is adaptability. TheACE can be task-organized to meet the MAGTF’sneeds. All ACE operations are conducted as partof an overall MAGTF air-ground concept of oper-ations that is focused on the enemy. Aviationbrings a degree of versatility, range, and agilitynot possessed by other elements of the MAGTF.It is not, however, a substitute for any other ele-ment of the MAGTF; its unique capabilities com-plement the other MAGTF elements’ capabilities.For example, aviation under ideal circumstancesmay provide the MAGTF commander with long-range, 24-hour, all weather firepower to shape thebattlespace and to exploit enemy critical vulnera-bilities that are beyond the reach of other ele-ments of the MAGTF. It enhances the operationaland tactical mobility of the GCE by providing thecapability to conduct vertical assaults as part of aship-to-objective maneuver (STOM) or duringsustained operations ashore. Aviation units canmaneuver both rapidly and simultaneouslythroughout the battlespace, thereby enabling thecommander to rapidly concentrate combat powerat decisive points, anywhere and at any time, toset the stage for decisive action. The ACE alsoprovides air defense for the MAGTF as part of theMAGTF force protection effort. The ACE’s flexi-bility ensures that aviation combat and logistic ca-pabilities are always available to the MAGTF.

Marine aviation is a highly visible asset. It pro-vides the commander with options that are equal-ly adaptable to combat and to MOOTW. Marinemultirole aircraft provide a formidable capabilitythat is useful across the range of military opera-tions. MAGTF helicopters that carry combat-ready Marines into a hostile landing zone are thesame platforms that evacuate noncombatants from

life-threatening danger. Fixed-wing assault sup-port aircraft can deliver thousands of pounds ofsupplies to support ground operations or thou-sands of pounds of food for humanitarian assis-tance. Multirole fighter/attack aircraft can gain airsuperiority in combat or patrol a no-fly zone tosupport peace enforcement operations.

Similarly, Marine aviation command and controlagencies can function in many diverse roles andenvironments. The ACE MACCS can facilitatecommand and control in joint and combined avia-tion operations such as direction of interceptoraircraft, countering missile threats to the joint orcombined force, or tracking aircraft in support ofcounterdrug operations.

Marine aviation forces can operate outside theMAGTF in support of joint or combined opera-tions. Fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft con-ducting flight operations near a country’scoastline demonstrate military presence throughthe effective use of show of force operations. Forexample, in Bosnia Operations Deny Flight andJoint Endeavor created conditions under which allwarring factions agreed to the cessation of hostili-ties and a monitored separation. Both operationsstand as examples of the powerful presence thataviation can provide in efforts to establish andmaintain peace.

Marine aviation is not constrained by the chal-lenges of poor infrastructure and restrictive ter-rain. The ability to operate from austere sites,along with the reach, mobility, and sustainmentprovided by fixed-wing or rotary-wing transportaircraft, can overcome obstacles commonly en-countered in humanitarian assistance operations.These capabilities are particularly beneficial whenproviding humanitarian relief services. MarineATC units can establish ATC capabilities if theyhave been disrupted or destroyed or if none previ-ously existed. The damage resulting from naturaldisasters may span tens of thousands of squaremiles. Damage to roads and other transportationinfrastructure may hamper disaster relief efforts.Aviation’s ability to operate in such areas, to sus-tain delivery efforts until the local infrastructure

3-4 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-2

is restored, and to respond rapidly to crisis situa-tions can be crucial to success in disaster relief.

One of the key features of a Marine’s expedition-ary nature is the ability to expand, contract, andchange the balance and focus of Marine forces.Because many crises are sudden and require arapid response, the initial force arriving at thescene of a developing crisis is rarely sufficient toconduct decisive operations. The ability torespond effectively to such crises demands theability to restructure an expeditionary force afterits introduction into the theater without sacrificingcontinuity in operational capability. The ACE’smodular structure allows rapid expansion into alarger force by adding the needed forces to eachof the existing subordinate units. Similarly,should the situation require a lesser force or a dif-ferent balance of capabilities, the ACE is easilyredesigned to suit the situation. This flexibility insize and force includes the ability to expand into ajoint or combined force.

3004. Marine Aviation and Maneuver Warfare

The Marine Corps’ warfighting philosophy em-phasizes an integrated combined-arms approachthat employs rapid, flexible maneuver. Maneuverwarfare seeks to shatter the enemy’s cohesionthrough a variety of rapid, focused, and unexpect-ed actions. These actions create a turbulent andrapidly deteriorating situation for the enemy. TheMarine Corps implements the maneuver warfareconcept through air-ground teams—MAGTFs.These teams execute mission-type orders andmaneuver in time and space, in combination withthe application of fires, to create positional ortemporal advantages over the enemy. Inherent inmaneuver warfare is the need for speed in order toseize the initiative, dictate the terms of action, andkeep the enemy off balance. Marine aviationplays a crucial role in the MAGTF’s ability toconduct maneuver warfare by contributing task-organized ACEs that are specifically designed toprovide the MAGTF with the necessary mobility,flexibility, force protection, and fires. The follow-ing subparagraphs discuss ways in which the

maneuver warfare concept relates to the employ-ment of Marine aviation.

a. Orienting on the Enemy Orienting on the enemy is fundamental to maneu-ver warfare. Maneuver warfare attacks the enemy“system.” The enemy system is whatever consti-tutes the entity confronting us within our particu-lar sphere. For a pilot, it might be the combinationof air defense radars, surface-to-air missiles, andenemy aircraft that must be penetrated to reachthe target. For an electronic warfare specialist, itmight be the enemy’s command and control net-work. For a MEF commander, it might be all themajor combat formations within an area of opera-tion as well as their supporting command andcontrol, logistic, and intelligence organizations.

Economy demands that the MAGTF focus its ef-forts toward some object or factor of decisive im-portance to achieve the greatest effect at the leastcost. Therefore, planners must understand boththe sources of the enemy’s strength and where theenemy is vulnerable.

We call a key source of strength a “center of grav-ity.” It represents something without which theenemy cannot function. In broad terms, centers ofgravity are the characteristics, capabilities, or lo-calities from which a military force derives itsfreedom of action, physical strength, or will tofight. In practice, planners must distinguish be-tween a strategic center of gravity and an opera-tional center of gravity. A strategic center ofgravity is an objective whose seizure, destruction,or neutralization will have a profound impact onthe enemy leadership’s will or ability to continuethe struggle. It may be something tangible, like apolitical leader, a particular military force, or acapital city, or it may be intangible, like a popularbelief in a cause or faith in eventual victory. Anoperational center of gravity, on the other hand, isnormally an element of the enemy’s armed forces.It is that concentration of the enemy’s militarypower that is most dangerous to us or the one thatstands between us and the accomplishment of ourmission. The degree of danger that a force posesmay depend on its size or particular capabilities,its location relative to ourselves, or the particular


skill or enterprise of its leader. MCDP 1-2 con-tains detailed information on centers of gravityand critical vulnerabilities.

Often we cannot attack enemy strengths directlybecause they are too well protected. Rather, weseek to attack a weakness that allows us to strikeat the enemy’s center of gravity indirectly, pittingour power against its weakness. A vulnerabilitycannot be critical unless it undermines a keystrength. It also must be something that we are ca-pable of attacking effectively.

However, even critical vulnerabilities may not beeasy to attack. We may have to design a progres-sive sequence of actions that expose, create, orisolate a vulnerability that creates, over time, anopportunity to strike the decisive blow. An exam-ple would be to peel away the enemy’s air defens-es in order to permit a successful air attack on keycommand and control facilities. These facilitiesbecome the critical vulnerability that allow us todisable or destroy the enemy’s air force, which isone of its centers of gravity.

In supporting the maneuver warfare tenet of ori-enting on the enemy, Marine aviation operationsdraw on both the center of gravity and critical vul-nerability concepts. Aviation expands the opera-tional reach of the MAGTF, potentially exposinga wide range of the enemy’s potential critical vul-nerabilities to attack. At the same time, it contrib-utes greatly to the protection of friendly centers ofgravity and critical vulnerabilities. Just as we pur-sue our enemy’s critical vulnerabilities, we shouldexpect the enemy to pursue ours. The ACE canplay a proactive role in identifying those aspectsof the enemy defense that are vulnerable to attackby air. The ACE is also responsible for planningair defense for the MAGTF and ensuring that theMAGTF’s assets are not exposed to enemy avia-tion.

b. Philosophy of Command Our philosophy of command must support theway we fight. First and foremost, to generate thetempo of operations we desire and to best copewith the uncertainty, fluidity, and disorder of

combat, command and control must be decentral-ized. Marine aviation adheres to the MAGTF’smaneuver warfare philosophy of centralized com-mand and decentralized control. Typically, theACE is commanded by a single commander locat-ed in the TACC, who then delegates the control ofaviation assets to the subordinate agencies of theMACCS involved in the execution of operations.

c. Decisive Actions Decisive actions on the battlefield are those ac-tions that most directly and expeditiously lead tothe imposition of our will on the enemy by de-struction of its forces and capability to wage war-fare or the destruction of the enemy’s will toresist. By concentrating our efforts and assets onactions that have a maximum impact on the ene-my, we can minimize the number of decisive en-gagements required to attain victory.

It is possible for aviation forces to provide the de-cisive action in a battle. Normally, however, avia-tion forces are but one of several forces in theMAGTF that together conduct decisive actions.The MAGTF fights as a combined-arms teamwhere the actions of the whole are greater than thesum of the actions of the individual parts. TheMAGTF is more likely to be decisive (e.g., ac-complish its mission) when it is employed as awhole, rather than employing its major subordi-nate elements sequentially, separately, or piece-meal. It does not rely on any one element alone toachieve a decisive action. Marine aviation makesits greatest contribution to MAGTF decisive ac-tion when the individual actions of aviation forcesare integrated with those of the MAGTF’s otherelements.

d. Shaping Action To influence an action to our advantage, we mustproject our thoughts forward in time and space.Since war is inherently disorderly and we cannotexpect to dictate its terms with any sort of preci-sion, we attempt to shape the general conditionsof war. We shape the battlespace to create situa-tions of advantage. Shaping actions are intendedto render the enemy vulnerable to attack, facilitatethe maneuver of friendly forces, and dictate the

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time and place for decisive battle. Shaping opera-tions occur at all levels of war.

Aviation contributes to the MAGTF’s shaping ef-forts in several ways. Aviation can make the ene-my react against its will. It can impede or preventthe enemy from moving when it must. Aviationcan hinder or prevent the massing of enemy forc-es and equipment by delaying the arrival of thoseforces, compelling enemy commanders to committheir forces piecemeal, and denying the enemy thesupplies it needs to remain operational. Aviationcan diminish the enemy’s physical capabilities,upset its plan, and stifle its initiative. Aviation al-so helps shape the battlespace through the opera-tional range and mobility that it provides Marineground forces. The option for vertical insertion ofground forces adds yet another dimension to theground commander’s maneuver options.

Shaping actions, by all elements of the MAGTF,are also used to maximize aviation capabilities.Special operations forces can identify, disrupt, ordestroy portions of the enemy’s air defense sys-tem. Enemy aircraft can be destroyed on theground through OAAW. Ground forces can seizean airfield needed as a FOB to extend the reach ofaviation. CSS units can ensure the uninterruptedsupply of fuel and ammunition at FARPs to en-hance aviation responsiveness. The combinedshaping efforts of all elements provide aviationwith the freedom of action necessary to conductsuccessful air operations.

The MAGTF commander uses organic ACE avia-tion to set the course of operations in support ofthe JFC’s campaign plan well in advance of theGCE’s close combat operations. SuccessfulMAGTF shaping maximizes aviation’s ability toprovide continuous, uninterrupted air support; de-lay enemy reinforcements through interdiction;degrade critical enemy functions or capabilitiessuch as command and control, OAS, or logistics;and manipulate the enemy’s perceptions.

The most important shaping operation performedby aviation is to gain air superiority. Air superior-ity is the degree of dominance in the air battle ofone force over another that permits the conduct of

operations by the former and its related land, sea,and air forces at a given time and place withoutprohibitive interference by the opposing force.Successful MAGTF operations are contingent onthe ability to operate freely within the battlespaceand to deny the enemy freedom of action. TheACE’s ability to shape both the close and deepbattlespace, provide potent and responsive fire-power and enhance mobility are key contributionsto the MAGTF’s achievement of battlespacedominance.

Air superiority is essential to the conduct of allfunctions of Marine aviation and therefore weighsheavily in creating conditions for successful avia-tion operations. Theater-wide air superiority can-not always be achieved immediately. At times, itmay be necessary only to achieve local air superi-ority in order to facilitate a particular phase of acampaign.

Control of the air must be a priority for the entireMAGTF—not just the ACE. Air superiority ex-tends beyond the realm of air-to-air combat. It re-quires the combined efforts of the MAGTF toneutralize or destroy enemy air defenses, airfields,and air command and control facilities. Once airsuperiority is achieved, aviation is free to provideeffective support to the MAGTF.

This is also true for a joint force, where MAGTFactions, at least initially, will be integrated intothe joint force’s goal of achieving a degree of airsuperiority. One of the most important aspects ofthe initial air operations phase of OperationDesert Storm (January 17 to February 23, 1991)was to gain and maintain air superiority. The ef-fectiveness of this action was illustrated by thefact that at no time during the subsequent groundoperations phase (February 24 to 27, 1991) didIraqi aviation possess either the capability or thewill to interfere with our actions. Aviation opera-tions seldom achieve a decisive result alone, butthe advantage that air superiority provides in theconduct of MAGTF or joint operations is signifi-cant.

Although Marine aviation is designed largely fortactical operations, air superiority provides pro-


found operational and strategic benefits. Duringthe island-hopping campaign of World War II, na-val aviation’s ability to attack virtually anywherecompelled the Japanese to spread their combatforces to defend everywhere (e.g., the concept ofdivide and conquer). It forced the Japanese to manliterally hundreds of outposts. Thinly spread, theJapanese military proved unable to mass forces towithstand the combined might of U.S. air, land,and sea forces. This placed the Japanese on thedefensive, created an opportunity to turn thecourse of the war in the Pacific, and achieved adecision.

e. Decisionmaking Decisionmaking is essential to the conduct of warsince all actions are the result of decisions or ofnondecisions. Warfare, by its very nature, isfraught with uncertainty. Uncertainty is exacer-bated by the lack of time—a critical factor and afundamental constraint in effective decisionmak-ing. The commander must always balance the val-ue of gaining more information to mitigateuncertainty against the need to shorten the deci-sionmaking process.

Decisionmaking may be an intuitive processbased on experience, particularly when time is ex-tremely constrained. This will likely be the case atlower command echelons and in fluid, uncertainsituations like those in an ATC center or in thecockpit. Alternatively, decisionmaking may be amore analytical process that is based on compar-ing several options. This will more likely be thecase at higher echelons or in deliberate planningsituations found in the future planning cell of theTACC, where the planning horizon is longer.

In execution, decisionmaking becomes a time-competitive process, and timeliness of decisionsbecomes essential to generating tempo. Tempo isthe use of time as a weapon, and it is a criticalconsideration for the ACE commander. Beingable to consistently generate a tempo of opera-tions that the enemy cannot handle is crucial tothe conduct of maneuver warfare. However, thehighest tempo of operations, of which a force iscapable, is not normally sustainable over extend-ed periods.

Two levels of operational activity exist for avia-tion: sustained and surge. Sustained operationsmatch the regeneration capabilities of the system(maintenance, manpower, and supply) to the utili-zation rate, thus achieving tempo that maintains asteady state. Surge operations can temporarily in-crease tempo in order to take advantage of battle-field opportunities. However, surge rates areobtained at the expense of all or a portion of theregenerative capability. Aviation units operatingat a sustained rate can maintain a specific tempoof operations for an extended period of time.These same units operating at the surge rate canmaintain a heightened tempo, but only for a limit-ed period. The ACE commander must employ anappropriate mix of sustained and surge operationsto control the operational tempo and maintain mo-mentum without exhausting assets before the cul-minating point is reached.

f. Mission Tactics MCDP 1 and MCDP 6, Command and Control,both emphasize a command and control philoso-phy based on mission orders and mission tactics.This approach to command and control lies at theheart of maneuver warfare. Under this approach,seniors assign missions and explain their underly-ing intent but allow subordinates as much latitudeas possible in the manner of accomplishment. It isthe assignment of a subordinate a mission withoutspecifying how the mission must be accom-plished.

Mission tactics works in conjunction with avia-tion’s philosophy of centralized command anddecentralized control. It allows the senior com-mander to focus on higher-level concerns ratherthan the details of subordinate execution andserves as a contract between senior and subordi-nate commanders. The senior prescribes the meth-od of execution only to the degree needed forcoordination. The pace, complexity, and uncer-tainty of modern warfare necessitate this decen-tralization of control. The actual degree to whichcontrol is decentralized depends on the unique re-quirements of the specific situation. In some in-stances detailed and highly centralized control(e.g., ATC) is required. Centralized planning maybe employed to enhance unity of effort and to

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concentrate resources on an identified main effort.However, whenever possible, decentralized con-trol is used to increase the speed and agility of theMAGTF—including its aviation arm.

Once the mission and plan have been preparedand briefed by the commander and the staff, sub-ordinates are expected to exercise their initiativebased on their understanding of the commander’sintent. Aviation groups supply the aircraft andcrews to meet the air tasking order (ATO) or airplan. They execute the assigned mission with thelatitude necessary to accomplish it. MACCSagencies execute the plan for command and con-trol without interference from the commander.Mission tactics are fundamental to Marine avia-tion operations and provide the flexibility neces-sary to adapt to rapidly changing situations andexploit fleeting opportunities.

g. Commander’s Intent

There are two parts to any mission: the task to beaccomplished and the reason or intent behind it.The task describes the action to be taken, and theintent describes the purpose of the action. The in-tent is part of every mission and is established bythe commander assigning it. The commander’s in-tent, clearly stated, enables unity of effort whiledecentralizing command and control. Once themission is assigned, the commander develops avision of how the operation should unfold in orderto achieve the desired goal. This vision is sharedwith subordinates and includes the commander’sintent. In the absence of detailed instructions,which are often unavailable in the midst of uncer-tainty and rapid changes in the battlespace, the in-tent provides the purpose and direction. Thecommander’s intent is a device used at all com-mand echelons within the MAGTF to enable sub-ordinates to take the initiative. The MAGTFcommander provides his intent to the ACE com-mander, the ACE commander provides his intentto his group commanders, and group commandersprovide their intent to their squadron command-ers. Prior to launching any aviation sortie, themission commander, flight leaders, and individualpilots review the commander’s intent and analyzehow it applies to a particular mission so they will

be prepared to take the initiative as the situationdictates.

h. Main Effort The main effort is the designated subordinate unitwhose mission is most critical to overall missionsuccess. Commanders design an operation care-fully so that success by the main effort facilitatesthe success of the entire force. The main effort re-ceives priority for support of any kind, and allother units support the main effort. Unlike com-mander’s intent, which is a harmonizing devicefor subordinate initiative, the main effort is a uni-fying device that concentrates the MAGTF’s ef-forts on the most important goal. Support of themain effort becomes an overriding factor in alldecisions. When the MAGTF commander desig-nates an element (ACE, GCE, or CSSE) of theMAGTF as the main effort, the other elements as-sume a supporting role. Thus, the main effort isthe supported unit (one element of the MAGTF),while the supporting effort is provided by the sup-porting units (other elements of the MAGTF).The ability to shift the emphasis or to change themain effort from one element to another providesthe MAGTF commander with flexibility. Any ele-ment of the MAGTF can be designated as themain effort. But, typically, only the ACE or GCE(or any portion thereof) with their inherent capa-bility to maneuver and fire is designated as themain effort during combat operations. SinceMOOTW encompasses a wide spectrum of opera-tions, any of the three MAGTF elements (ACE,GCE, or CSSE) can be designated as the main ef-fort. The ACE provides the MAGTF commanderwith firepower, flexibility, mobility, force protec-tion, sustainability, and command and control,whether it is designated as the main effort or asthe supporting effort.

Within the ACE, the concept of main effort is crit-ical to the decisions made in the planning and ex-ecution of all aviation operations. With the ACEas the main effort, both the GCE and CSSE pro-vide full support to ensure the success of theACE. For example, the MAGTF commandermight designate the ACE as the main effort whenhis operation plan or the JFC’s campaign plan re-quires air superiority. In this case, the GCE and


CSSE could provide suppression of enemy air de-fenses or security for a FOB, or they could givepriority in fuel and ammunition transportation toaviation units.

When the ACE is not the MAGTF’s main effort,it assumes a supporting role. The ACE command-er focuses all internal ACE resources (mainte-nance, manpower, supply, etc.) on the aviationfunctions and capabilities needed to support theMAGTF’s main effort. The ACE commandermay still designate a main effort within the ACEto achieve maximum ACE support to theMAGTF’s main effort.

i. Surfaces and Gaps Surfaces are enemy strengths, also referred to ashard spots. Gaps are enemy weaknesses, also re-ferred to as soft spots. We avoid enemy strengthsand focus our efforts against the enemy’s weak-nesses. Whenever possible, we exploit existinggaps or we create gaps as needed. Surfaces andgaps are a tactical application of the operationalconcept of finding and attacking a center of gravi-ty through a critical vulnerability. Surfaces andgaps can be, but are not always, centers of gravityor critical vulnerabilities. The commander strivesto match the MAGTF’s strength against the ene-my’s weakness.

Because of the fluid nature of war, gaps will rare-ly be permanent and will usually be fleeting. Toexploit them requires flexibility and speed. Thecharacteristics of Marine aviation make it ideallysuited to temporarily fill gaps or to create gapswhere none exist. Marine aviation’s ability to rap-idly and accurately concentrate firepower in asmall area can be effective in creating gaps, andits continuous and aggressive aviation reconnais-sance can seek out existing gaps. Once gaps arelocated, exploitation by fast-moving, mobile forc-es is critical. Aviation units can prevent enemyforces from closing the gap or they can be used toexploit the gap with assault support forces.

Exploitation usually occurs at a gap and extendsthe destruction of the enemy by maintaining con-tinuous offensive pressure. Exploitation destroys

the enemy’s cohesion. In a classic demonstrationof maneuver warfare, the commander aims to ren-der the enemy incapable of effectively resistingby shattering his moral, mental, and physical co-hesion and his ability to fight as an effective, co-ordinated whole. Marine aviation offers thecommander the speed and flexibility needed tosupport exploitation in a number of ways. It canprovide direct air support to the main effort toprevent enemy forces from disengaging, with-drawing, reconstituting, or reinforcing. It can alsosupport a committed reserve, either with firepow-er or mobility, at the moment when the opportuni-ty for exploitation is realized. As enemy cohesionbreaks down, the exploitation may develop into apursuit.

The pursuit seeks to annihilate the enemy forceonce resistance has completely broken down. Thecondition of the enemy may determine whether anexploitation becomes a pursuit. The opportunityto conduct a pursuit is often fleeting and must beseized quickly by the commander. An effectivepursuit requires the integrated efforts of theMAGTF’s combat arms. During a pursuit, a di-rect-pressure force must have sufficient combatpower to maintain pressure on the enemy. An en-circling force must have continuous fire supportand greater mobility than the enemy. The abilityof aviation to move quickly to destroy enemyforces and deny them routes of escape makes avi-ation particularly valuable as an encircling forcein the pursuit. The main effort may shift to theACE during the pursuit to maintain pressure onthe enemy or to destroy the enemy’s will to resist.

j. Combined Arms

Ten years after the first combat use of aircraft, theItalian air power theorist, Giulio Douhet, recog-nized the need to focus all combat forces towardone common goal. Douhet believed that the use ofmilitary ground, naval, and aerial forces in warshould be focused on a single outcome—to win.Douhet cautioned that the best results can be ob-tained only by a proper apportioning of ground,naval, and aerial forces. To attain maximum ef-fectiveness, these forces must be coordinated andin harmony with one another. These three forces

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should function as ingredients (or factors) thatproduce a single product.

Douhet was speaking of combined arms. TheMAGTF is the epitome of a combined-arms orga-nization that focuses all combat forces on onecommon goal. Within the Marine Corps, com-bined-arms warfare is the full integration of vari-ous arms in such a way that to counteract one, theenemy must make itself more vulnerable to anoth-er. We present the enemy with more than oneproblem—a dilemma in which any action he takesmakes him vulnerable to attack.

We accomplish combined arms through the tac-tics and techniques we use at the lower levels andthrough task organization at higher levels. In sodoing, we take advantage of the complementarycharacteristics of different types of units and en-hance our mobility and firepower. Firepower andmobility are complementary. Firepower aids mo-bility by causing the destruction and chaos neces-sary to render the enemy helpless to oppose ourmovement. Mobility enhances firepower by plac-ing the attacker in a position where the target canbe more accurately and effectively engaged. Incombat, firepower and mobility are inseparableparts of a larger whole.

Firepower damages or threatens to damage enemypersonnel, facilities, and equipment. Firepowersometimes fulfills the purpose of the mission—todestroy an enemy force or keep it from using acertain resource. Firepower aids our movement;e.g., using an air attack to destroy an enemy em-placement whose fires have immobilized ourground force. The benefits of firepower are notlimited to physical destruction, but include thefear and mental chaos that firepower produces inthe enemy. The appropriate application of fire-power can have wide-ranging effects, from de-struction to intimidation, to outright submission,to surrender. Operation Desert Storm is an exam-ple of the integrated application of aviation fire-power in combined arms and its ability tocondition and mold the enemy mentally. The in-novative application of firepower and mobility inOperation Desert Storm created conditions for

success that allowed coalition forces to exploit theenemy’s loss of will and means to fight.

Combining the effects of all combat resources isessential in achieving a decision. For example,consider the outcomes of Operation Strangle ver-sus Operation Diadem. The difference in the out-comes illustrates the difference in effectivenessbetween aviation acting alone and aviation actingas part of a combined-arms team to achieve a de-cisive action.

Conducted in the spring of 1944, OperationStrangle was designed by the Allies to useaviation alone to destroy and disrupt Germanresupply efforts in Italy. Allied aviation as-sets were used to interdict railway systemsthat delivered supplies to the Germans. Un-fortunately, without an Allied ground opera-tion that supported the air effort, the Germantroops had a low supply expenditure rate andwere actually able to stockpile resources dur-ing Operation Strangle.

Operation Diadem was conducted immedi-ately following Operation Strangle. With theground forces designated as the main effort,aviation supported the ground effort by inter-dicting targets in the German rear areas. Thecombined ground and aviation efforts sound-ly broke the German resolve and allowed theAllies to liberate Rome.

Within the ACE, the combined-arms concept isapplied to the tailoring of mission packages to en-sure that each has the appropriate mix of mutuallysupporting aviation capabilities, is focused on acommon goal, and are guided by the command-er’s intent. The actual make-up of mission pack-ages varies significantly and is usually situationdependent. For example, an assault support mis-sion package may include transport helicopters;attack helicopters; fixed-wing AAW, EW, and at-tack aircraft; and command and control aircraftthat represent all six functions of Marine aviation.

Success in battle requires the integration of manydisparate efforts. Effective action in any one ef-fort is rarely decisive in and of itself. However,


the overall effect is greater when all efforts arecombined and coordinated toward a single goal.The Marine Corps achieves this combined-armssynergy by organizing and coordinating all ofthese efforts into six warfighting functions: com-mand and control, maneuver, fires, intelligence,logistics, and force protection. The six functions(i.e., capabilities) of Marine aviation are integrat-ed and provide a significant contribution to eachof these warfighting functions. Table 3-1 alignsthe six functions of Marine aviation with the sixwarfighting functions. This alignment is a neces-sary first step in redefining the six functions ofMarine aviation in terms applicable to emergingdoctrinal concepts.

3005. The ACE in Maneuver Warfare

A maneuver element is a distinct force that usesboth fire and movement in engaging the enemy togenerate and exploit an advantage over it as ameans of achieving a specific objective. Using theMarine aviation forces of the ACE as a maneuverelement provides a wide range of possibilities formission accomplishment. It also increases thenumber of courses of action (COAs) available tothe MAGTF commander. Marine aviation forcescan provide essential fires in support of groundmaneuver elements, assault support aviation canvastly enhance ground forces’ mobility and ma-neuverability, or Marine aviation forces can alsobe used purely or predominantly as a maneuver

element. Aviation leaders and planners should befamiliar with the variety of roles that combat forc-es can play in maneuver and think imaginativelyabout ways in which aviation can contribute.

Opportunities to employ and commit the ACEwill depend on the nature of the enemy, the ter-rain, and the situation. By employing the ACE orits forces as a maneuver element, the MAGTFcommander can fully capitalize on a force’srange, speed, and agility. In that role, aviation canprovide the main effort, provide a supporting ef-fort, or serve as part of the MAGTF reserve.

Some tactical tasks and/or missions in which avi-ation units or forces may be able to perform as amaneuver element are listed below:l Envelopment (single, double, vertical).l Block.l Rupture.l Spoiling attack.l Counterattack.l Feint.l Demonstration.l Diversion.l Reconnaissance.l Raid.l Exploitation.l Pursuit.l Fix.l Screen.

Table 3-1. Functions of Aviation in Support of Warfighting Functions.

Warfighting Functions and the Type of Support Provided

Functions of Marine Aviation Command and Control

Maneuver Fires Intelligence Logistics Force Protection

Assault Support Support Primary Support Support Primary Support

AAW Support Support Support Support Support Primary

Air Reconnaissance Support Support Support Primary Support Support

EW Support Support Primary Primary Support Primary

OAS Support Support Primary Support Support Primary

Control of Aircraft and Missiles

Primary Support Support Support Support Support

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l Guard.l Cover.

Note: While aviation forces are capable of per-forming the tasks and/or missions listed above,they will seldom execute them alone. MarineCorps doctrine dictates that Marine forces oper-ate as a combined-arms team, and most tasks and/or missions will be conducted with a variety of in-tegrated, mutually supporting forces.

3006. Aviation in Offensive and Defensive Operations

The six functions of Marine aviation each play asignificant role in both offensive and defensiveoperations. Because aviation inherently assumesan offensive role, it supports either offensive ordefensive operations in exactly the same way.Aviation can continue offensive operations whilethe GCE is conducting defensive operations. TheACE commander apportions aviation assets asneeded to best support the concept of operationsand its assigned tasks and missions while remain-ing consistent with the MAGTF commander’s in-tent.

a. Offensive Operations The MAGTF conducts four types of offensive op-erations: movement to contact, attack, exploita-tion, and pursuit. It uses five forms of maneuverto effect offensive operations:l A frontal attack can create a gap through which

the attacking force can conduct a penetration.Aviation forces use fires to create gaps in theenemy’s front or to prevent or delay enemy re-inforcements reaching the front lines.

l A penetration is accomplished by concentrat-ing overwhelmingly superior combat power ona narrow front and in depth in order to rupturethe enemy’s position and widen the gap. Mech-anized and aviation forces are used to rupturethe enemy’s position and exploit the rupture.

l A flanking attack is directed at the flank of anenemy. A supporting effort engages the ene-my’s front with fire and maneuver, while the

main effort maneuvers to attack the enemy’sflank. Aviation forces support the main andsupporting efforts as needed.

l An envelopment uses attacking forces to bypassthe enemy’s principal defensive positions to se-cure objectives to the enemy’s rear. The opera-tional reach and speed of aviation forces makethem an ideal force to conduct envelopments.

l A turning movement uses attacking forces topass around or over the enemy’s principal de-fensive positions to secure objects deep in theenemy’s rear. Aviation forces may serve as fix-ing forces or conduct the exploitation and pur-suit in a turning movement.

In today’s nonlinear battlespace, it is likely thatseveral combinations of different types of opera-tions and forms of maneuver will occur simulta-neously. The ACE, with an area of operations thatmatches that of the entire MAGTF, must carefullyallocate its assets to ensure a focus of effort that isresponsive to the constantly changing situation.Depending on the circumstances, the ACE cansupport all forms of maneuver. Whether aviationprovides the main or a supporting effort, its con-tribution with the six functions of Marine aviationin all types of offensive operations is significant.The ACE commander ensures that the focus ofaviation remains commensurate with the MAGTFcommander’s priorities.

b. Defensive Operations Defensive operations represent a coordinated ef-fort to defeat the enemy and prevent it fromachieving its objective. The purpose of defensiveoperations is to cause an enemy attack to fail andto achieve specific objectives, such as gainingtime. These operations act as a prelude to offen-sive operations or serve to protect friendly forcesand centers of gravity. An effective defense isnever passive. Commanders at every level seekevery opportunity to seize the initiative and shiftto the offensive. The ACE is no less dynamic indefensive operations than in offensive operations,and it continuously seeks to create and exploit op-portunities in order to defeat the enemy. The twofundamental types of defense are mobile defenseand position defense. Commanders will rarely useone type or the other exclusively.


(1) Mobile Defense. A mobile defense is thedefense of an area or position in which maneuveris used together with fire and terrain to seize theinitiative from the enemy. A mobile defense fo-cuses on the destruction of the enemy by permit-ting him to advance into positions that expose himto counterattack by a strong, mobile reserve. Min-imal force is placed forward to canalize, delay,disrupt, and deceive the enemy as to the actual lo-cation of our defenses. By retaining the mobileforces until the critical time and place are identi-fied, the commander can then focus combat pow-er in violent and rapid counterattacks throughoutthe depth of the battlespace. Marine aviation pro-vides vital support to all defending forces andmay serve as the main or only counterattack force.

(2) Position Defense. A position defense(sometimes referred to as an area defense) placesthe bulk of the defending force in selected tacticalpositions (where the decisive battle will befought). It denies the enemy critical terrain or fa-cilities. A position defense focuses on the reten-tion of terrain by absorbing the enemy into aseries of interlocked positions from which he canbe destroyed, largely by a combination of fire andmaneuver. Principal reliance is placed on the abil-ity of the forces in the defended positions to main-tain their positions and to control the terrainbetween them. Marine aviation can provide thefires necessary for this form of defense.

3007. Aviation in Security Operations

Security is an aspect of all operations, whether of-fensive, defensive, or retrograde. Security opera-tions are assigned missions. They involve themeasures taken by a unit to protect itself againstall acts that might impair its effectiveness. Thereare three types of security missions: screen,guard, and cover. Each of these missions entailsplacing a force between the enemy and our mainforce. As part of a task-organized security force,Marine aviation can provide various functionalcapabilities that extend a security mission’s reach,responsiveness, and effectiveness. Depending onthe nature of the enemy, weather, and terrain,

fixed-wing and/or rotary-wing aircraft may beable to perform the security mission by them-selves. However, most security operations includea mutually supporting mix of forces.

a. Screen A screen observes, identifies, and reports infor-mation. It fights only in self-protection and—l Provides early warning of enemy approach.l Gains and maintains enemy contact and reports

enemy activity.l Conducts counterreconnaissance within its ca-

pabilities.l Impedes and harasses the enemy within its ca-

pabilities.

A screen provides only surveillance and earlywarning of enemy action, not physical protection.It can be employed as an economy-of-force mea-sure in a low-risk area because it provides securi-ty on a broad frontage with limited assets. Marineaviation combat forces are ideally suited to per-forming a screen because of the large areas to bescreened during rapid and deep offensive opera-tions. However, the cost in resources over time isa factor. For example, a screen consisting of onesection of fighter and/or attack aircraft may re-quire commitment of an entire squadron plus sup-porting aircraft (e.g., to provide EW and targetacquisition) to ensure 24-hour coverage. Also,surveillance from the air has certain limitationsand the enemy may have the ability to conceal itsforces and facilities from aerial observation.

b. Guard A guard protects the main force from attack, di-rect fire, and ground observation by engaging theenemy in order to gain time while also observingand reporting information. It also—l Provides early warning of enemy approach.l Provides maneuver space to the front, flanks, or

rear of the force.l Screens, attacks, defends, or delays (within its

capabilities) to protect the force.

An advance guard provides early warning, devel-ops the situation, and provides time and maneuver

3-14 ________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-2

space for an attacking force. A flank guard oper-ates to the flank of a moving or stationary force toprotect it from enemy ground observation, directfire, and surprise attack. A flank guard must pro-tect the entire depth of the main force’s flank. Arear guard protects the rear of the column fromhostile forces. It attacks, defends, and delays asnecessary. The commander may order the guardto hold for a specified period of time. Marine avi-ation’s reconnaissance capabilities, speed, range,firepower, and mobility make it ideal for a guardmission.

c. Cover

A covering force operates apart from the mainforce to intercept, engage, delay, disorganize, anddeceive the enemy before it can attack the mainbody. It prevents surprise during the advance. Italso—l Gains and maintains contact with the enemy.l Denies the enemy information about the size,

strength, composition, and intention of themain force.

l Conducts counterreconnaissance and destroysenemy security forces.

l Develops the situation to determine enemy dis-positions, strengths, and weaknesses.

Aviation forces assets may provide covering forc-es because of their speed, range, reconnaissance,and communications capabilities. A coverscreens, guards, attacks, defends, and delays asnecessary to accomplish its mission. It is a self-contained maneuver force that operates beyondthe range of friendly artillery positioned with themain force. A covering force may be task-orga-nized (including infantry and aviation forces, ar-tillery, and combat service support) to operateindependently. The cover mission may be ex-pressed in terms of time or enemy disposition(e.g., delay the enemy for 3 hours before battlehandover or delay the enemy until the advanceguard is defeated).

3008. Aviation in Military Operations Other Than War

MOOTW involves the use of military forces insituations other than large-scale, sustained mili-tary operations. MOOTW focuses on deterringwar, resolving conflict, promoting peace, and sup-porting civil authorities in response to domesticcrises. As in war, MOOTW’s goals are to achievenational objectives as quickly as possible and toconclude operations on terms that are favorable tothe United States and its allies. MOOTW may in-volve elements of both combat and noncombatoperations and may occur during either peacetimeor war. JP 3-07, Joint Doctrine for Military Oper-ations Other Than War, lists the following 16types of MOOTW:l Arms control.l Combatting terrorism.l Department of Defense support to counterdrug

operations.l Enforcement of sanctions and/or maritime in-

tercept operations.l Enforcing exclusion zones.l Ensuring freedom of navigation and overflight.l Humanitarian assistance.l Military support to civil authorities.l Nation assistance or support to counterinsur-

gency, which includes—n Security assistance.n Foreign internal defense.n Humanitarian and civic assistance.

l Noncombatant evacuation operations (NEOs).l Peace operations, which include—

n Peace enforcement.n Peacekeeping.n Operations in support of diplomatic efforts

(which include preventive diplomacy, peace-making, and peace building).

l Protection of shipping.l Recovery operations.l Show of force operations.l Strikes and raids.l Support to insurgency.


NEOs involve the protection and subsequent re-moval of noncombatants from potentially hostileor dangerous situations. Like raids, NEOs involvethe swift insertion of a force, the temporary occu-pation of objectives, and a planned withdrawal. Itis the most frequently conducted MOOTW byMarine forces. Marine aviation is a critical re-source in the conduct of NEOs.

Marine aviation is versatile enough to deliver se-curity forces to a remote area, evacuate threatenednoncombatants, conduct rapid force withdrawal,and provide covering and supporting firesthroughout. Its speed and mobility generate tem-po, often allowing friendly forces to act beforeopponents can react. The inherent flexibility andcapabilities of aviation, coupled with the forwardpresence of the MAGTF, make Marine aviationan ideal asset for MOOTW. For example, duringJanuary 1991, while conducting training for Oper-ation Desert Storm off the coast of Oman, the 4thMarine Expeditionary Brigade received orders toconduct a NEO in Mogadishu, Somalia. While el-ements of the 4th Marine Expeditionary Brigade

were steaming from Oman to Somalia, MAGTFaircraft were launched to begin the NEO. Therebydemonstrating Marine aviation’s flexibility torapidly transition from combat to MOOTW.

Another important consideration is the ACE’s lo-gistic capabilities. The ACE’s logistic capabilitieswill sometimes prove far more important thanfirepower in a MOOTW. On April 29, 1991, a cy-clone killed more than 130,000 people in Bang-ladesh. The country’s entire infrastructure alongthe Bay of Bengal was destroyed, leaving an esti-mated 3 million people homeless. Operation SeaAngel provided MAG-50 helicopters that wereloaded with supplies, food, water, water-makingfacilities, medicine and medical units, communi-cations and liaison teams, area air reconnaissance,and basic air transportation. By the time the am-phibious task force departed Bangladesh on May29th, Marine aircraft had flown 1,167 helicoptersorties in 1,114 flight hours, moved 5,485 passen-gers, and delivered close to 700 tons of relief sup-plies.

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Chapter 4

Command and Control ofMarine Aviation Operations

“The lines of communication are part of that unity. They link the army toits base, and must be considered . . . its arteries. . . .

These arteries, then must not be permanently cut, nor must they be too longor difficult to use.”4

—Carl von Clausewitz

The ultimate objective of command and control isto effect the conduct of military action. Commandand control includes activities such as gatheringand analyzing information, making decisions,organizing resources, planning, communicatinginstructions and other information, monitoringresults, and supervising execution. The principalobjectives of the MACCS are to enhance unity ofeffort, integrate elements of the command andcontrol system, and help maintain the command-er’s situational awareness. The MACCS facili-tates these objectives by providing the commandand control architecture to integrate and executeaviation operations. It uses both mission controland detailed control, with emphasis on missioncontrol. The MACCS supports the MAGTF phi-losophy of centralized command and decentral-ized control.

4001. Command Relationships

Command relationships consist of the interrelatedresponsibilities between commanders as well asthe authority of commanders in the chain of com-mand. The JFC organizes forces as needed to ac-complish the assigned mission. The organizationprovides for unity of effort, centralized planning,and decentralized execution. The JFC establishessubordinate commands, establishes appropriatecommand and support relationships, and assignsresponsibilities. Command relationships may dif-fer from one operation to another; therefore, they

require clear definition in directives issued at theJTF level.

As clearly stated in JP 0-2, forces, not commandrelationships, are transferred between commands.When forces are transferred, the command rela-tionship the gaining commander will exerciseover those forces must be specified by the JFC.Therefore, when forces are assigned from onecommand to another (which is relatively perma-nent), the combatant commander will exercisecombatant command (command authority) andthe subordinate JFC will exercise OPCON or tac-tical control (TACON) over assigned forces.When forces are attached from one command toanother (which is relatively temporary), the JFCwill exercise OPCON or TACON, as specified,over the attached forces. These same rules applyto forces assigned or attached to the MAGTF.

The following subparagraphs briefly describe rel-evant command relationships. For more details,see JP 3-0, Doctrine for Joint Operations.

a. Operational Control

OPCON is the authority to perform the functionsof command over subordinate forces that involveorganizing and employing commands and forces,assigning tasks, designating objectives, and giv-ing authoritative direction necessary to accom-plish the mission.

4-2 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-2

b. Tactical Control TACON is the command authority over assignedor attached forces or commands, or over a mili-tary capability or force made available for task-ing, that is limited to the detailed and, usually,local direction and control of movements or ma-neuvers necessary to accomplish missions ortasks assigned. A Marine aviation unit can be un-der TACON of another component commander ina joint force even though the Marine componentcommander retains command.

c. Support Support relationships are established by a superi-or commander between subordinate commanderswhen one organization should aid, protect, com-plement, or sustain another force. Establishingsupported and supporting relationships betweencomponents is a useful option that is needed to ac-complish varying tasks. Each subordinate elementof the joint force can support or be supported byother elements. Unless limited by the establishingdirective, the commander of the supported forcewill have the authority to exercise general direc-tion of the supporting effort. General direction in-cludes the designation and prioritization of targetsor objectives, timing and duration of the support-ing action, and other instructions necessary forcoordination and efficiency. The supporting com-mander has the responsibility to ascertain theneeds of the supported commander and to fulfillthose needs within existing capabilities. At thesame time, the supporting commander must stayconsistent with priorities and requirements of oth-er assigned tasks.

MCWP 6-2, MAGTF Command and Control, de-scribes four categories of support: general, direct,mutual, and close. General support is the actionthat is given to the supported force as a wholerather than to a particular subdivision thereof(e.g., the ACE in general support of the entireMAGTF). Direct support is a mission that re-quires a force to support another specific forceand authorizes it to directly answer the supportedforce’s request for assistance (e.g., an attacksquadron in direct support of one subordinate unitof the GCE). Mutual support is the action that

units render each other because of their assignedtasks, their positions relative to each other, andtheir inherent capabilities. Close support is the ac-tion of the supporting force against targets or ob-jectives that are sufficiently near the supportedforce. This close proximity requires detailed inte-gration or coordination of the supporting actionwith fire, movement, or other actions of the sup-ported force (e.g., aviation units providing CAS tounits in contact).

4002. Aviation Combat Element Command and Support Relationships

Central to the concept of employment for theACE is the philosophy of centralized commandand decentralized control. The commander needsto plan, direct, and coordinate all aspects of avia-tion employment for the MAGTF (i.e., centralizedcommand). The ACE commander also wants tooptimize the flexibility, versatility, and respon-siveness of aviation by allowing control of assetsto be conducted by subordinate agencies. Thesesubordinate agencies are both responsive to thecommander and in touch with the changing dy-namics of the battle (i.e., decentralized control).Plans and orders are brief and general. Executiondepends on the sound judgment of well-trainedsubordinates, their initiative, and their under-standing of the commander’s intent. This style ofcommand and control supports rapid decision-making in a time-constrained environment. It al-lows the ACE to maintain a high operationaltempo. The tasks that must be accomplished bycentralized command are as follows:l Planning aviation operations.l Planning use of the battlespace.l Planning and coordinating the availability of

aircraft, crews, ordnance, fuel, and facilities.l Coordinating Marine aviation with joint and

multinational aviation operations and resourc-es.

l Tasking Marine aviation.l Directing and coordinating the employment of

Marine aviation.


Tasks that the ACE commander expects theMACCS to perform through decentralized controlinclude the following:

l Executing aviation operations through the sixfunctions of Marine aviation.

l Providing air and missile defense to friendlyunits within the operating area.

l Managing and controlling the air portion of theMAGTF battlespace.

l Coordinating with joint and multinational aircontrol agencies.

l Executing the MAGTF ATO or air plan.l Providing timely and accurate information to

the subordinate commanders to support tacticaldecisions.

a. General Support The command support relationship established forthe ACE by the MAGTF commander is almost al-ways in general support of the MAGTF. Thiscommand relationship supports the philosophy ofcentralized command and decentralized control(see fig. 4-1). Since availability of aviation assetsfor mission tasking rarely meets the demand, theMAGTF commander keeps the ACE in generalsupport of the MAGTF. This allows Marine avia-tion to fight or to provide support throughout theMAGTF area of operations and allows the mostefficient and effective allocation of aircraft to the

MAGTF. This process is orchestrated through theair tasking cycle, allowing flexible and prioritizedtasking. By using and completing the air taskingcycle, planners can ensure that finite aviation as-sets are allocated to achieve maximum effect withcorrect prioritization based on the main effort.

The ACE will be assigned the role of general sup-port and supports the MAGTF commander’s maineffort. The general support command relationshipis a formal relationship that is established be-tween the MAGTF and ACE commanders. Thisrelationship provides the ACE commander themost flexible, efficient, and effective means ofapportionment, allocation, and prioritization of allaviation assets in support of the MAGTF. TheACE commander retains centralized commandover the subordinate units, including establishingthe priority of their efforts. This prevents support-ing aviation units from dealing directly with vari-ous GCE and CSS agencies. Sorties allocationwill be promulgated through the ATO cycle to re-questing units. The ACE commander exercisesdecentralized control of these sorties through theMACCS. For example, a GCE or CSSE unit willsubmit requests for immediate air support throughthe DASC or preplanned air support requests tothe TACC. The ACE commander maintains flexi-bility in how and when to fill those requests aslong as the MAGTF commander’s apportionmentand prioritization guidance is met.

Figure 4-1. Centralized Command and Decentralized Control.

4-4 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-2

b. Direct Support

Direct support is a mission requiring a force tosupport another specific force and authorizing itto answer directly the supported force’s requestfor assistance. This support relationship is rarelyestablished by the MAGTF commander for avia-tion units due to the scarcity of fixed-wing and ro-tary-wing assets. The ACE will normally be ingeneral support of the MAGTF. With the designa-tion of an aviation unit to the direct support rolecomes the requirement to establish direct liaison,direct communications to receive critical informa-tion, coordination of local security, and logisticsupport from the supported unit.

The MAGTF commander will rarely establish adirect support relationship between the ACE,GCE or CSSE. If a direct suport relationship ex-ists, it is not a command support relationship thatis designated between higher, lower, and adjacentechelon commanders within the MAGTF. Thesetypes of support relationships usually exist onlywithin the context of mission tasking, where indi-vidual sorties are allocated for a specific MAGTFunit conducting a particular mission (usually ofshort duration). Since these sorties do not repre-sent the ACE’s subordinate units, the ACE’s gen-eral support command relationship does notchange. When ACE units are assigned these typesof command support relationships, they will, inmost cases, be aviation ground units.

An ACE unit assigned a direct support role is im-mediately responsive to the needs of the support-ed unit. It furnishes continuous support to thatunit and coordinates its operations to complementthe concept of operations of the supported unit.The direct support role creates a one-to-one rela-tionship between supporting and supported units.The higher headquarters of the supporting andsupported units becomes involved only on a “byexception” basis. However, each unit must keepits higher headquarters informed of its operationsand plans. Examples include an attack squadronin direct support of one subordinate unit of theGCE, a helicopter section in direct support of amaneuver battalion, or a LAAD battery in directsupport of an infantry battalion.

Note: Mutual and close support relationships arenot usually established within the MAGTF con-text; however, LAAD units may find themselves insuch relationships during joint or multinationaloperations.

4003. Marine Aviation Command Relationships in a Joint Force

Within a joint force, JFCs may establish supportrelationships to enhance unity of effort for givenoperational tasks, emphasize or clarify priorities,provide a subordinate with an additional capabili-ty, or combine the effects of similar assets. Avia-tion is often placed in a supporting relationshipbut can be either the supported or supportingforce. The JFC can organize and conduct opera-tions through Service component commanders,functional component commanders, or a combi-nation of the two.

a. Service ComponentsConducting operations through Service compo-nents has certain advantages, including clear anduncomplicated command lines. This relationshipis appropriate when stability, continuity, econo-my, ease of long-range planning, and scope of op-erations dictate preserving the organizationalintegrity of Service forces. These conditions ap-ply when most of the required functions in a par-ticular dimension are unique to a single-Serviceforce or when Service force capabilities or re-sponsibilities do not significantly overlap.

When the JFC conducts joint operations throughService component commanders, the MarineCorps component commander and the other Ser-vice component commanders have OPCON andADCON of their assigned Service forces (see fig.4-2). Marine aviation forces under this commandrelationship follow the normal MAGTF chain-of-command relationship. All Marine forces, includ-ing aviation assets, come under the command ofthe Marine Corps component commander. To fa-cilitate operations, the JFC may also establish asupport relationship between Service compo-nents. In this case, the Marine Corps componentcommander may provide aviation assets in a sup-port relationship such as general or direct support.


b. Functional Components A JFC may also conduct operations through func-tional components and/or employ them to coordi-nate selected functions. Functional componentscan be appropriate when forces from two or moremilitary departments must operate in the same di-mension or medium or the assigned missionbreaks down into distinct functional aspects.

Clear command relationships must be establishedwhen the JFC centralizes direction and control ofcertain functions or types of joint operationsunder functional component commanders. In jointoperations, each Service has its own aviationelement and the JFC may appoint a joint force aircomponent commander (JFACC) (see JP 3-56.1for a detailed discussion on the JFACC). The JFCmay, because of the interrelationship of thefunctions, choose to assign the responsibilities ofJFACC, area air defense commander (AADC),and airspace control authority (ACA) to the sameperson, but not always. The JFC establishescommand relationships that will most effectivelyaccomplish the campaign plan’s objectives.

The JFC must designate the military capabilitythat will be made available for tasking by thefunctional component commander and theappropriate command relationship(s) that thefunctional component commander will exercise.For example, a JFACC is normally delegatedTACON of the sorties or other available militarycapabilities. The command and control of MarineCorps aviation is specifically covered by JointPub 0-2 (see below). The MAGTF commanderwill make available to the JFC, for taskingthrough the JFACC, sorties in excess of MAGTFdirect support requirements.

Figure 4-2. Joint Operations Conducted Through Service Components.

The MAGTF commander will retain operational control of organic air assets. The primarymission of the MAGTF air combat element is the support of the MAGTF ground element.During joint operations, the MAGTF air assets will normally be in support of the MAGTFmission. The MAGTF commander will make sorties available to the joint force commander,for tasking through the joint force air component commander, for air defense, long-range in-terdiction, and long-range reconnaissance. Sorties in excess of MAGTF direct support re-quirement will be provided to the joint force commander for tasking through the joint forceair component commander for the support of other components of the joint force or the jointforce as a whole. Nothing herein shall infringe on the authority of the geographic combatantor joint force commander in the exercise of operational control to assign missions, redirectefforts (e.g., the reapportionment and/or reallocation of any Marine Air-Ground Task Force(MAGTF) TACAIR sorties when it has been determined by the joint force commander thatthey are required for higher priority missions), and direct coordination among the subordi-nate commanders to ensure unity of effort in accomplishment of the overall mission, or tomaintain integrity of the force.5

—Joint Pub 0-2, Unified Action Armed Forces (UNAFF)

4-6 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-2

Note: Sorties provided for air defense (DCA),long-range interdiction and air reconnaissance,and EW are not “excess” sorties. These sortiesprovide a distinct contribution to the overall jointforce effort and will be covered in the ATO. TheJFC must exercise integrated control of air de-fense, long-range reconnaissance, and interdic-tion aspects of the joint operation or theatercampaign.

The Marine Corps component commander retainscommand of those Marine Corps forces and capa-bilities not designated by the JFC for tasking byfunctional component commanders. The JFACCwill normally not have TACON of Marine avia-tion units, but will have TACON of Marine avia-tion sorties provided to the JFC for tasking. TheMarine Corps component commander advisesfunctional component commanders on the mosteffective use of Marine Corps aviation sorties thatare made available. Marine aviation sorties arethen designated as under TACON of the function-al component commander for operational matters.All Marine Corps forces respond to the MarineCorps component commander for administrativeand logistic support. The JFC may also establish a

support relationship between components to facil-itate operations (see fig. 4-3).

Forward-deployed naval forces (including MarineCorps forces) are usually the first conventionalforces to arrive in an austere theater or area of oper-ations during expeditionary operations. The MarineCorps component commander’s inherent capabilityto command and control Marine Corps forces (andattached or assigned forces of other Services or na-tions) allows command and control of a functionalcomponent. The Marine Corps component com-mander may serve as a functional component com-mander. The JFC can designate the Marine Corpscomponent commander as the joint force maritimecomponent commander (JFMCC), joint force landcomponent commander (JFLCC), or JFACC. If theMarine Corps component commander is assignedas the JFACC, the command and control agency(the joint air operations center [JAOC]) is providedby the MACCS. Figure 4-4 shows the commandrelations for a JFACC.

4004. Other Command Authorities

Administrative control (ADCON) is the directionor exercise of authority over subordinate or otherorganizations in respect to administration andsupport. It includes the organization of Serviceforces, control of resources and equipment,

Figure 4-4. Command Relations for Joint ForceAir Component Commander.

Figure 4-3. Joint Operations Conducted Through Functional Components


readiness, mobilization, personnel management,unit logistics, individual and unit training,demobilization, discipline, and any other mattersnot included in the operational missions ofsubordinate or other organizations. ADCONnormally occurs in conjunction with OPCON.However, a specialized aviation unit could beseparated from its parent unit for a significantamount of time, thereby requiring that ADCONbe given to another headquarters.

4005. The Marine Air Command and Control System

The MACCS consists of various air commandand control agencies that provide the ACE com-mander with the ability to monitor, supervise, andinfluence the application of Marine aviation’s sixfunctions (see fig. 4-5). The ACE commanderuses the MACCS to plan and direct ACE opera-tions and to employ aviation assets in a respon-sive, timely, and effective manner. The MACCSprovides facilities to control aircraft and missilesas well as to establish links with joint, multina-tional, other Services, and civil air command andcontrol systems. Another function of the MACCSis to advise the MAGTF commander and JFC on

the application and employment of Marine avia-tion. The design of the MACCS allows the ACEcommander to conduct centralized planning andoptimize the use of limited resources. At the sametime, the MACCS allows the subordinate com-manders of the ACE to execute the plan in a de-centralized manner. The MACCS provides thecapability to conduct airspace command and con-trol and deconflict aviation assets through central-ized planning of airspace control procedures. Itexercises air direction and decentralized execu-tion of the airspace control plan through its subor-dinate agencies.

a. Air DirectionAir direction is a form of aircraft control used bythe MACCS. It is the authority to regulate the em-ployment of air resources by balancing an air re-source’s availability against its assigned prioritiesand missions.

b. Air ControlAir control is a form of aircraft control used bythe MACCS. Air control is the authority to directthe physical maneuver of aircraft in flight or to di-rect an aircraft or surface-to-air weapons unit toengage a specific target. Air control is composedof airspace control and terminal control. Airspacecontrol directs the maneuver of aircraft to use theavailable airspace effectively. It is made up ofpositive control and procedural control. Terminalcontrol directs the delivery of ordnance, cargo, orpersonnel by aircraft to a specific geographic lo-cation or target. MCWP 3-25.3, Marine Air Com-mand and Control System Handbook, containsdetailed discussions and definitions on the variousforms of aircraft control.

c. Airspace Management Airspace management is distinct from airspacecontrol. Airspace management is the coordina-tion, integration, and regulation of airspace usagein a defined dimension that results in the optimaluse of available space. The MACCS uses effec-tive airspace management to maximize freedomof use within the airspace while remaining consis-tent with the level of operational risk that is ac-ceptable to the commander.

Figure 4-5. Marine Air Command and ControlSystem Organization.

4-8 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-2

d. Marine Air Control Group The MACG establishes, operates, and maintainsthe MACCS. The MACG contains subordinateunits that provide the major agencies of theMACCS (see fig. 4-6). MEU support is providedto the ACE through task-organized MACG de-tachments. These detachments typically consist ofa MASS, a MACS, a LAAD Stinger Section, anda MWCS. The MACG normally consists of thefollowing:l MACG headquarters.l MTACS.l MASS.l MACS.l LAAD battalion.l MWCS.l VMU.

e. Tactical Air Command Center The principal air command agency for the ACE isthe TACC. It provides the command post fromwhich the ACE commander and staff plan, super-vise, coordinate, and execute all current and fu-ture MAGTF air operations, including deepoperations. The TACC integrates these functionswith the MAGTF command element through link-age with the MAGTF FFCC and combat opera-

tions center (COC). The TACC is operated andmaintained by personnel from the MTACS, withaugmentation from the ACE staff and the MACG.

Although the TACC is primarily a command fa-cility, it will also control the execution of deepoperations from the deep battle cell in current op-erations. It provides the capabilities necessary tointegrate, coordinate, and direct air operations insupport of the MAGTF. The TACC interfaceswith the other ACE command and control agen-cies, other MAGTF elements, and external civiland military air control organizations. Its primaryinterface with the MAGTF command element isthrough the force fires coordination center(FFCC) at the MEF level and the FSCC at levelsbelow the MEF. The TACC’s primary external in-terfaces are with the U.S. Army’s tactical opera-tions center (TOC), the U.S. Navy’s tactical aircontrol center (also called the TACC), and theU.S. Air Force’s airfield operations center (AOC).If another Service component commander hasbeen designated as the JFACC, then that com-mander’s respective operations center will be-come the joint air operations center (JAOC). Atthat time, the JAOC becomes the TACC’s prima-ry external interface. In addition to serving as theACE command post, the TACC provides the ca-pabilities necessary for the ACE commander toserve as the JFACC, at which time the TACC willbecome the JAOC. Detailed information on theTACC can be found in MCWP 3-25.4, TacticalAir Command Center Handbook.

f. Direct Air Support Center

The DASC is the principal MACCS air controlagency responsible for the direction of air opera-tions directly supporting ground forces. It pro-cesses and coordinates requests for immediate airsupport and coordinates air missions requiring in-tegration with ground forces and other supportingarms. The DASC is usually the first principalMACCS agency ashore. It functions in a decen-tralized mode, but is subordinate to and directlysupervised by the TACC. MCWP 3-25.5, DirectAir Support Center Handbook, contains detailedinformation on the DASC.Figure 4-6. Notional Marine Air Control

Group Organization.


The DASC is established by the MASS and pro-cesses immediate requests for air support, coordi-nates aircraft employment with other supportingarms, and manages terminal control assets such asFAC(A) and assault support coordinator (air-borne) (ASC[A]) in the support of ground forces.It will provide procedural control of assigned air-craft, UAVs, and itinerant aircraft transitingthrough its assigned area. The DASC can employa DASC(A) aboard a KC-130 that will provideextended line of sight communications with lowflying aircraft. In amphibious operations, theDASC normally lands in the same scheduled oron-call wave as the senior FSCC phased ashore.

The DASC will normally be collocated or elec-tronically linked with the senior FSCC within theGCE. In a MEF operation that consists of multiplemaneuver elements (divisions) within the GCE,the MEF commander may assume the role ofGCE commander and require the MEF FFCC toalso function as the senior FSCC of the GCE. Inthis instance, the DASC may be located with theMEF FFCC or the senior GCE FSCC in order tocentralize management of CAS and assault sup-port between the GCE maneuver elements (divi-sions) and to support the MAGTF commander’sintent. DASC support of a multi-division GCE re-quires the assets and personnel from more thanone MASS. In the multi-division GCE, there willbe a DASC employed at the senior FSCC of theGCE and a DASC or air support element (ASE)for each division’s FSCC. The circumstances thatmay require an ASE to be employed at the divi-sion level will be dictated by operational necessi-ty, although ASEs are normally only employedwith a MEU. These subordinate DASCs or ASEsprovide the necessary links to the MACCS in or-der to request and coordinate direct air support.The size and composition of each DASC and ASEvaries and can be expanded or reduced as the cur-rent situation requires and assets are available.Only the DASC and ASE have the capability toprovide procedural control for aircraft operatingin its area of responsibility.

The DASC has several employment options avail-able, including an airborne configuration in a KC-130. MASS assets are tailored to provide support

based on the mission. A MEF could require a taskorganization that uses the assets of more than oneMASS. At the MEU level, a MASS detachmentwould be task-organized as an ASE and wouldhave a reduced capability due to its size. The sizeand capability of the MEF’s DASC depends onthe number of units that will be requesting airsupport and the number of aircraft executing airsupport missions. The DASC maintains commu-nications connectivity with the other MACCSagencies, the FSCC, the FFCC, aircraft under itscontrol, and joint and other Services’ air supportorganizations. The DASC also requires connec-tivity with forward-based air assets to request alaunch in support of ground forces.

The DASC operates through several air controlorganizations (see MCWP 3-25.3 for detailed in-formation). These air control organizations arediscussed in the following subparagraphs.

(1) Tactical Air Control Party. A tactical aircontrol party (TACP) is a subordinate operationalcomponent of a tactical air control system. It pro-vides air liaison to land forces and provides forthe control of aircraft. In the Marine Corps,TACPs are organic to infantry divisions, regi-ments, and battalions. TACPs establish and main-tain facilities for liaison and communicationsbetween parent units and airspace control agen-cies, inform and advise the ground unit command-er on the employment of supporting aircraft, andrequest and control air support. The TACP is anagency of the MACCS, but administratively it isnot part of the MACG. It is located within theGCE and provides ground commanders with themeans to access direct air support.

(2) Tactical Air Coordinator (Airborne). ATAC(A) is an officer who coordinates, from anaircraft, the action of combat aircraft engaged inclose support of ground or sea forces. Within theMACCS, the TAC(A) is a naval aviator and/ornaval flight officer. The TAC(A) is the senior aircoordinator and has air authority over all aircraftoperating in an assigned area. The TAC(A)’s pri-mary mission is to act as an airborne extension ofthe DASC, TACC, and/or FSCC. The TAC(A)contributes to coordination among TACPs,

4-10 ________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-2

FAC(A)s, and the fire direction of artillery andnaval gunfire.

(3) Forward Air Controller (Airborne). AFAC(A) is a specifically trained and qualified avi-ation officer who exercises control from the air ofaircraft engaged in close air support of groundtroops. The FAC(A) is normally an airborne ex-tension of the TACP. Within the Marine Corps,the FAC(A) is a naval aviator and/or naval flightofficer who is specifically trained, qualified, anddesignated to perform air reconnaissance and sur-veillance, conduct terminal control of aircraft en-gaged in OAS operations, control artillery andnaval surface fire support missions, act as a radiorelay, and control landing zone preparations.

(4) Assault Support Coordinator (Air-borne). An ASC(A) is an aviator who coordi-nates, from an aircraft, the movement of aviationassets during assault support operations. TheASC(A) is an experienced aviator with extensiveknowledge of the MACCS who acts as an air-borne extension of the DASC. This individual as-sists in providing situational awareness to theassault force, relays requests to the DASC, exer-cises launch authority for immediate and on-callmissions, coordinates with the TAC(A), and pro-vides routing recommendations to the air missioncommander.

(5) Helicopter Support Team. A helicoptersupport team (HST) is a task organization formedand equipped for employment in a landing zone tofacilitate the landing and movement of helicopter-borne troops, equipment, and supplies, and toevacuate selected casualties and enemy prisonersof war. Within the Marine Corps, HSTs aresourced from the force service support group(FSSG), specifically, the landing support compa-ny of the support battalion.

g. Tactical Air Operations CenterThe TAOC is responsible for airspace control andmanagement. It provides the ACE with real-timesurveillance of assigned airspace; the capability todetect, identify, and control the interception ofhostile aircraft and missiles; and the direction,

positive control, and navigational assistance forfriendly aircraft. The TAOC collects and displaysinformation from its own sensors, other MarineCorps sources, and external sources that can beused to enhance the ability of the TACC to prose-cute the ACE’s support of deep operations.

Although collocated with the TAOC, theSAAWC is not an air command and control agen-cy. He serves as an extension of the TACC, focus-ing on air defense planning and management. TheSAAWC is the MAGTF’s air defense battle man-ager. The SAAWC manages and coordinates allactive defense weapons within an assigned sector,plans air defense operations, manages air defenseresources, supervises the employment of air de-fense assets, and coordinates with higher and ad-jacent air agencies and activities.

The MACS provides the equipment and personnelneed to operate the TAOC. MACS personnel as-signed to the TAOC use specialized informationsystems, sensors, and dedicated communicationslinks to search the MEF’s airspace and to coordi-nate air defense. The TAOC controls friendly air-craft in the interception of hostile aircraft andassists missile units in locating and destroyinghostile aircraft. Information gained through radarassets and tactical digital information links istransmitted to the TACC to update the air picturefor the ACE commander. The TAOC also inter-faces with the Air Force air operations center andits control and reporting center to coordinate jointair defense efforts.

The TAOC is movable, but not mobile. It is locat-ed in the rear of the MEF area of operations. TheTAOC, with its organic sensors, is located to bestfacilitate surveillance coverage of the MAGTFsector. A MEF will normally deploy with one re-inforced MACS that is task-organized to operateand maintain the TAOC. Normally, a MEU hasno requirement for a TAOC, but an early warningand control capability may be task-organized aspart of a SPMAGTF if required. For additionalMACS information, see MCWP 3-25.6, MarineSector Antiair Warfare Coordinator Handbook,and MCWP 3-25.7, Tactical Air Operations Cen-ter Handbook.


h. Marine Air Traffic Control Detachments

The MATCD is the primary terminal ATC orga-nization within the MACCS. It is organized andequipped to satisfy the ATC requirements forEAFs and FOBs. The detachment provides air-space control, management, and surveillance forits designated sector or area of responsibility.MATCD services include all-weather radar ap-proach and departure control, en route ATC ser-vices within assigned controlled airspace,precision and instrument approaches, control tow-er operations, and tactical air navigation. Addi-tionally, the MATCD contributes to the overall airsurveillance effort. It coordinates air defense ac-tivities within designated base defense zones byassisting in the detection of hostile aircraft forLAAD Stinger teams assigned to airbase defense.The detachment serves as the MAGTF’s liaisonwith host-nation, national, and international civilATC agencies.

ATC detachments are components of the MACS.The MACS usually has four ATC detachments.All four detachments would be required to sup-port a MEF operation in which four EAFs and upto four other air facilities or sites could be estab-lished. Large radar systems, support equipment,and shelters are used to provide MEF-level sup-port. Deployment options include a mobile teamcapability. The mobile team is task-organized toprovide an initial rapid response capability for theestablishment and control of tactical landingzones. At the MEU level, the MACG detachmentcontains a task-organized MATCD mobile team.More detailed information on the MATCD can befound in MCWP 3-25.8, Marine Air Traffic Con-trol Detachment Handbook.

i. Low Altitude Air Defense

The LAAD battalion provides close-in, low-alti-tude, surface-to-air weapons fires in defense offorward combat elements, vital areas, and instal-lations. It also provides surface-to-air weaponssupport for units engaged in special or indepen-dent operations. The battalion uses man-portable

Stinger missiles and a pedestal-mounted vehicularversion (Avenger) that furnishes a shoot-on-the-move capability. LAAD units provide early warn-ing to other elements of the MACCS through ap-propriate communications nets.

The LAAD battalion establishes a COC fromwhich the battalion commander exercises overallcommand and control of battalion operations. TheLAAD battalion COC is usually collocated withthe SAAWC facility at the TAOC to receive cue-ing and increase situational awareness. The battal-ion comprises two batteries, with three platoonsper battery and three sections per platoon. A sec-tion, which is the smallest employable LAAD ele-ment, has five Stinger teams. These may employeither the man-portable Stinger or the vehicle-mounted Avenger system. A MEF is normallysupported by the entire battalion and a MEU isnormally supported by one reinforced section.LAAD units are routinely task-organized to sup-port various contingencies.

When the LAAD operates in general support ofthe MAGTF, its collocation with the TAOC is de-sirable to facilitate integration into the overallMEF air defense effort and to provide access tothe air defense picture. When the LAAD operatesin direct support of the GCE, its collocation withthe DASC is a more effective location to receivethe air defense picture and cueing from MACCSsensors. When information from other MACCSsensors is not available, the section employs alightweight, short-range organic radar to detectaircraft and cue Stinger teams.

The LAAD battalion provides the MAGTF’s onlyorganic surface-to-air defense. Marine Corpsforces have no organic means of ground-launchedmedium- or high-altitude air defense or theatermissile defense, which was formerly provided bythe Hawk missile system. The MAGTF dependson naval or another Services support to providethose requirements. More detailed information onthe LAAD battalion can be found in MCWP3.25.10, Low Altitude Air Defense Handbook.

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j. Marine Wing Communications Squadron The MWCS provides communications for theACE. It is not an agency of the MACCS, but theMWCS provides the backbone for ACE commu-nications. It is responsible for the installation,maintenance, and operation of two distinct com-munications structures. These communicationsstructures provide the ACE commander with themeans to direct the efforts of subordinate com-manders and provide connectivity among the sub-elements of the MACCS.

The MWCS installs, operates, and maintains ex-peditionary communications for the ACE, includ-ing the phased deployment of task-organized

elements. It provides digital backbone communi-cations support; tactical automated switching andtelephone services; electronic message distribu-tion; single-channel radio communications; andWAN, deployed LAN, and server support. Theheadquarters and one detachment normally de-ploy and collocate with the ACE headquarters.When required, personnel and equipment fromoperational platoons are used to support the inte-gration of MACCS agencies as well as supportthe ACE headquarters. At the MEU level, theMACG detachment consists of a task-organizedMWCS communications team. More detailed in-formation on the MWCS can be found in MCWP3-25.9, Marine Air Command and Control Sys-tems Communications Handbook.

Chapter 5

Aviation Planning

“A good plan violently executed now is better than a perfect plan nextweek.”6

—Gen George S. Patton, Jr.

Planning is a continuous, anticipatory, interactive,and cyclic process. There are many planning cy-cles that take place within the context of the forcecommander’s overall planning, decision, execu-tion and assessment (PDE&A) cycle. Some of thecycles that relate to aviation planning are shownin figure 5-1. However, these planning cycles arenot conducted separately, but collectively, and of-ten simultaneously. They are inevitably linked to-gether, with the inputs and outputs of each cycleinteracting with other cycles on a continuous ba-sis. All of these processes support the overall goalof producing a plan—a vital tool used to prose-cute a campaign.

The process of planning is of utmost importancebecause it drives operations. Planning cannot bedone to or for an organization; it must be done byit. Any commander or organization affected by aplan should have the opportunity to contribute tothe planning process. This provides users an un-derstanding of how and why the plan was con-structed and provides an opportunity to affecthow the commander will accomplish the assignedmission.

There are two major aspects of aviation planning:support of the operation plan (OPLAN) and/orfragmentary order (FRAGO) development andproduction of a daily ATO. Both allocate aviationassets, munitions, and support. Marine Corps op-erations and their requisite OPLANs are missionfocused, intent driven, and event and/or conditionbased. ATO production is a continuous cyclebased on assets and time. Aviation planning is thetranslation of the MAGTF commander’s event-and/or condition-based plan into a time-basedplan of action for the ACE.

This chapter describes the ways in which aviationplanning reflects and interacts with other cyclesand planning concepts to produce the force’soverall operation order. It addresses the cyclicalprocess that produces the ATO or air plan.MCWP 5-11.1, MAGTF Aviation Planning, con-tains a detailed discussion on all aspects of avia-tion planning, which culminate into an ATO or airplan.

5001. The Commander’s Role in Planning

The commander—whether the JFC, amphibioustask force (ATF) commander, or MAGTF com-mander—is responsible for providing top-downplanning guidance. Detailed aviation planningmust embody the supported commander’s overallintent and concept of operations. The ACE com-mander is the MAGTF commander’s chief avia-tion expert and advisor and must simultaneouslyparticipate in the aviation planning process atthree levels: within the ACE, within the MAGTFcommand element, and at the naval or joint force

Figure 5-1. Linked Planning Cycles.

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headquarters (if any). The ACE commander di-rects the ACE staff in the execution of the avia-tion planning process. The ACE commander’sinputs are key to the development of Marine avia-tion planning documents. The ACE battlestaff as-sists the ACE commander in executing duties byproviding specialized expertise and advice. TheACE battlestaff (see fig. 5-2) consists of the chiefof staff, the principal staff officers (i.e., G-1, G-2,G-3, G-4, G-6, and aviation logistics division[ALD] representative), and special staff officers(e.g., staff judge advocate, surgeon, chaplain) re-quired by the situation or the ACE commander.The ACE commander’s responsibilities include—l Acting as the MAGTF commander’s principal

Marine aviation advisor.l Advising and assisting the MAGTF command-

er and staff in developing the overall conceptfor the employment of aviation in support ofthe MAGTF.

l Coordinating air operations with the GCE andthe CSSE.

l Coordinating with the naval expeditionaryforce and joint task force as necessary.

l Developing the MAGTF ATO or air plan and/or Marine input to the joint ATO through theair tasking cycle.

5002. Staff Organization for Aviation Planning

From the TACC, the ACE commander conductsfuture operations planning and current operationsmonitoring. Each Marine aviation function (OAS,AAW, assault support, air reconnaissance, EW,and control of aircraft and missiles) has represen-tatives in the TACC. The future operations sec-tion produces the air plan, ATO, or Marine inputto the joint ATO. The current operations sectionmanages the execution of the air plan or ATO.The G-3 or a senior G-3 representative serves asthe senior watch officer within the current opera-tions section. Key inputs to overall aviation plan-ning are developed by the relevant organizations.

The TACC is organized as a fully integrated facil-ity to promote the intra- and inter-staff coordina-tion necessary for responsive and synchronizedMAGTF air operations. The TACC enables theACE staff to align functionally and organization-ally with the MAGTF staff (see figs. 5-3 and 5-4).This facilitates inter-staff coordination, which iscritical for effective planning and execution ofMAGTF air operations. See MCWP 3-25.4 fordetailed information on TACC organization andfunctioning.

Figure 5-2. The ACE Battlestaff.


Figure 5-3. TACC Organizations and Command Relationshipsto the ACE Battlestaff.

Figure 5-4. MEF-ACE Staff Alignment.

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5003. Planning Cycles

All aviation planning takes place within the plan-ning cycles of larger organizations: the JTF, theATF, and the MAGTF. Planners at those levelswill require inputs from aviation elements at eachphase of their own planning, and their planningproducts will drive aviation planning. Movingfrom the general to the specific, key planning cy-cles and planning concepts include the following:

a. The Planning, Decision, Execution, and Assessment Cycle The commander and staff use the PDE&A cycleto plan operations, make accurate and timely deci-sions, direct the effective execution of operations,and assess the results of those operations. It is aseries of continuous, interrelated processes thatframe military operations.

The PDE&A cycle is a continuous cycle—frominitial receipt of the mission through mission ac-complishment. It is both time- and event-driven.It supports the commander’s effort to assimilateinformation in the chaotic environment of war toincrease tempo through timely and decisive ac-tion. For example, the ATO is critical to planningand executing operations and is produced in a cy-cle that requires timely input from subordinates.Planning the next operation also requires a con-stant flow of information from current operations.

b. Integrated Planning Through the Warfighting Functions The integrated approach to planning provides afunctional approach that is systematic, coordinat-ed, and thorough. It is based on the six warfight-ing functions: command and control, maneuver,fires, intelligence, logistics, and force protection.The warfighting functions encompass all activi-ties in the battlespace.

Focusing on warfighting functions instead of spe-cific arms or organizations allows the commanderto fully integrate all actions into supporting themission of the force as a whole. This helps theforce achieve focus and unity of effort across all

organizational lines. For example, the GCE doesnot concern itself solely with maneuver, nor doesthe ACE concern itself solely with fires. Rather,each organization considers how it can contributeto each warfighting function in order to accom-plish the force’s overall mission. When all war-fighting functions are focused to accomplish thedesired strategic objective in the shortest timepossible and with minimal casualties, theMAGTF can obtain maximum impact. The key tointegrated planning within the command is theuse of representatives for each warfighting func-tion on the planning staff and between commandsthe warfighting functions are represented by liai-son officers.

c. The Marine Corps Planning Process Within the PDE&A cycle, specific MAGTF oper-ations and supporting aviation operations areplanned by using the standard framework of mis-sion, enemy, terrain and weather, troops and sup-port available, time available (METT-T) and thecyclical, six-step Marine Corps Planning Process(MCPP) (see fig. 5-5). MCWP 5-1 discusses theMCPP in detail.

Figure 5-5. Marine Corps Planning Process.


The MCPP provides a logical and orderly methodfor planning operations. Each successive step inthe process is linked. The output from one stepbecomes the input for the next. Interactionsamong various planning steps allow a concurrent,coordinated effort that maintains flexibility,makes efficient use of available time, and facili-tates continuous information sharing. Aviationplanning uses the MCPP and adjusts it as neces-sary to address the specific requirements associat-ed with the planning and execution of airoperations. By applying the MCPP to ACE plan-ning, the tenets of the MCPP (single-battle con-cept, top-down planning and integrated planning)are also incorporated into ACE operations. Thefollowing subparagraphs provide a brief descrip-tion of the six steps of the MCPP.

(1) Mission Analysis. Mission analysis is thefirst step in planning. The purpose of missionanalysis is to review and analyze orders, guid-ance, and other information provided by higherheadquarters and to produce a unit mission state-ment. Mission analysis drives the MCPP. The avi-ation commander will advise the commander onthe aviation implications of the mission assigned.

(2) Course of Action Development. DuringCOA development, planners use the missionstatement (which includes higher headquarters’tasking and intent), commander’s intent, andcommander's planning guidance to develop sever-al COAs. Each prospective COA is examined toensure that it is suitable, feasible, different, ac-ceptable, and complete with respect to the currentand anticipated situation, the mission, and thecommander’s intent. In accordance with the com-mander’s guidance, approved COAs are devel-oped in greater detail. Each fully developed COAwill include a concept of air employment.

(3) Course of Action War Games. DuringCOA war games, each friendly COA is examinedagainst selected threat COAs. This analysis in-volves a detailed assessment of each COA as itpertains to the threat and the environment. COAwar games assist the planners in identifyingstrengths and weaknesses, associated risks, andasset shortfalls for each friendly COA. It is also

used to identify branches and potential sequelsthat may require additional planning. Short of ac-tually executing the COA, COA war games pro-vide the most reliable basis for understanding andimproving each COA. For the war game of eachCOA, aviation planners must supply an estimateof supportability. The format for the aviation esti-mate of supportability can be found in MCRP5-11.1A, Aviation Planning Documents.

(4) Course of Action Comparison and De-cision. In COA comparison and decision, the com-mander evaluates all friendly COAs againstestablished criteria. The COAs are then evaluatedagainst each other. The commander selects the COAdeemed most likely to accomplish the mission.

(5) Orders Development. During orders de-velopment, the staff takes the commander’s COAdecision, intent, and guidance and develops or-ders to direct the actions of the unit. Orders serveas the principal means by which the commanderexpresses his decision, intent, and guidance. Avi-ation planners produce an operations order andparticipate in the preparation of many other high-er level orders.

(6) Transition. Transition is the orderly handover of a plan or order as it is passed to thosetasked with execution of the operation. It providesmission executors with the situational awarenessand rationale for key decisions that are necessaryto ensure a coherent shift from planning to execu-tion. For aviation units, transition occurs at theaviation confirmation brief, during which the avi-ation plan is fully briefed to the commander, thestaff, and key participants.

5004. Aviation Planning as an Element of MAGTF Planning

Aviation planning is conducted concurrently andin coordination with other MAGTF planning byusing the steps of the MCPP and integrating thefunctions of aviation into the warfighting func-tions. While the MAGTF command element isplanning overall MAGTF operations, the ACE

5-6 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-2

commander and staff are concurrently planningair operations in support of the MAGTF and coor-dinating with other elements of the MAGTF todetermine their aviation support requirements.This concurrent, parallel approach to planning ispossible through the use of mission-type orders, aclear understanding of the MAGTF commander’sintent, and close and continuous liaison amongthe MAGTF command element, ACE, GCE, andCSSE and external organizations. Concurrent,parallel planning provides aviation planners withthe time necessary to execute the air tasking cyclewhile enhancing the tempo of MAGTF opera-tions. This form of planning also ensures thatACE operations are focused on attainment ofMAGTF objectives in concert with the MAGTFcommander’s concept of operations.

a. Aviation Planning and the Operation Order Because aviation contributes to so many of thewarfighting functions, aviation planners must pro-vide input to the overall MAGTF operation orderin many areas, including intelligence, operations,and logistic annexes. For example, the opera-tions order, Annex C, contains an appendix onfire support that contains a tab on the air fire plan.MCWP 5-1 provides the full structure of an oper-ation order. Details on the aviation operations an-nex can also be found in MCWP 5-11.1 andMCRP 5-11.1A.

Aviation planners produce numerous subordinateplans and documents, such as the airspace controlplan (ACP) and the ATO. Annex W incorporatesthe aviation concept of operations (see MCWP 5-1for an example) and may include any or all of thefollowing appendixes (most of which include sev-eral subordinate tabs):l Appendix 1, Air Defense/Antiair Warfare.l Appendix 2, Offensive Air Support.l Appendix 3, Assault Support.l Appendix 4, Reconnaissance and Surveillance

Plan.l Appendix 5, Supplementary Air Operations.l Appendix 6, Aircraft Armament.l Appendix 7, Air Control.l Appendix 8, Air Communications.

l Appendix 9, Air Movement Plan/Flight Ferry.l Appendix 10, Aircraft Schedules.l Appendix 11, Air Tasking.

This information may be included in Appendix 17(Aviation Operations) to Annex C (Operations) ofthe MAGTF operations order for smaller scaleoperations such as MEUs or (SP) MAGTFs.

b. The Air Tasking Order The JFACC or the ACE commander generates theATO (MCRP 5-11.1A contains the ATO format).The ATO is used to task and disseminate to com-ponents, subordinate units, and command andcontrol agencies the targets and specific missionsof projected sorties, capabilities, and forces. Itnormally provides both general instructions andspecific instructions, including call signs, targets,and controlling agencies (see JP 3-56.1). TheATO may include the airspace control order orthe airspace control order may be issued separate-ly. It also includes special instructions that pro-vide amplifying notes, important details, andchanges. The ATO, airspace control order, andspecial instructions provide operational and tacti-cal direction at appropriate levels of detail. Thelevel of detail should be very explicit when forcesoperate from different bases or when multi-com-ponent and/or composite missions are tasked. Incontrast, less detail is required when missions aretasked to a single component or base. See JP 3-52,Doctrine for Joint Airspace Control in a CombatZone, for further discussion.

Each ATO covers a 24-hour period. There are usu-ally four ATOs at any given time. They include—l The ATO undergoing assessment (yesterday’s

plan).l The ATO in execution (today’s plan), which is

monitored by the current operations staff.l The ATO in production (tomorrow’s plan).l The ATO in planning (the following day’s

plan) by the future operations staff.

Because input to the joint ATO must be provided3 to 4 days in advance, the ATO can representonly a starting point for daily flight operations. Itis impractical to predict every need in advance.


The MAGTF commander must have the flexibili-ty to launch or to divert any aircraft as necessaryto complete the mission, even if this requiresshort-notice deviations from the ATO.

In accordance with the character of maneuverwarfare, the ATO must be flexible enough tochange with the needs of the force as the situationchanges. It is not a rigid constraint on operationalflexibility. Because the ATO represents a greatdeal of necessary coordination and deconflictionof air assets and airspace, necessary deviationsfrom the ATO should be well justified and rele-vant headquarters should be informed as quicklyand as fully as possible. The JFC directs howchanges are made to the ATO.

During Navy and Marine Corps operations afloat,an ATO may not exist, rather a consolidated flightschedule or ship’s air plan is used. All squadronflight schedules are consolidated with the needsof the MAGTF, ship, amphibious ready group(ARG), or carrier battle group (CVBG) at an airboard. The air board works on current and futureplans for air support. The results are published asthe ship, ARG, or CVBG air plan. The air boardalso provides the input for the joint ATO.

Most, if not all, missions involving squadronflight schedules and air plans will appear on the

joint ATO. This includes all MAGTF fixed-wing,rotary-wing, and UAV flights that operate withinthe JTF’s airspace. This is necessary in order tocoordinate airspace and minimize risk of fratri-cide. Those flights which may or may not be in-cluded in the joint ATO are usually routinehelicopter functional check flights or ship-to-shipor ship-to-shore logistic flights. These routinefights have a negligent effect on airspace coordi-nation and have been pre-approved and/or coordi-nated to be conducted on a regular basis.

Ships (particularly aircraft carriers) may also op-erate outside of the JTF’s airspace. Missions thatdo not enter JTF airspace will not appear on thejoint ATO. Nonetheless, every mission that issubmitted and approved for the joint ATO mustappear on squadron flight schedules and theMAGTF, ship, ARG, or CVBG air plan.

5005. The Air Tasking Cycle

The air tasking cycle (see fig. 5-6) is the key toolused by aviation planners to plan air operationsthat support the MAGTF’s mission and producethe MAGTF ATO or air plan. The six-phaseMAGTF air tasking cycle is compatible with thesix-phase joint air tasking cycle. The six phases of

Figure 5-6. MAGTF Six-Phase Air Tasking Cycle.

5-8 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-2

the air tasking cycle are command aviation guid-ance, target/air support mission development, al-location and allotment, tasking, force execution,and combat assessment. JP 3-56.1 addresses thejoint air tasking cycle. JP 3-09 and MCWP 3-42.1address the targeting cycle.

a. Command Aviation Guidance The MAGTF air tasking cycle begins when thecommander assigns a mission to the ACE com-mander. The MAGTF commander provides guid-ance through mission orders, clearly conveyingthe mission intent and designating the MAGTFmain effort. In preparing this guidance, theMAGTF commander will normally consult withsubordinate commanders to assess the results ofthe warfighting effort to date and to discuss futureOPLANs. This provides subordinate commanderswith an opportunity to introduce recommenda-tions, describe their ability to support other ele-ments, and list support requirements.

The commander’s guidance and objectives identi-fy targeting priorities, procedures, joint fire sup-port coordinating measures, rules of engagement,and a definition of direct support sorties. The de-velopment of the concept of fires and targetingguidance is the responsibility of the MAGTFforce fires coordinator and is based on the com-mander's intent and input from the major subordi-nate element commanders.

The MAGTF commander’s uses the recommen-dations of the ACE commander and staff and theMAGTF force fires coordinator to make appor-tionment decisions. These decisions identify thetotal level of effort that should be dedicated toaviation tasks in order to accomplish the as-signed mission. As the battle progresses, theMAGTF commander revises apportionment deci-sions to meet the requirements of the current sit-uation. Apportionment is usually expressed as apercentage of the total aviation effort and helpsto ensure the efficient use of limited aviation re-sources. If the MAGTF is part of a joint force,the MAGTF mission statement may include theJFC’s apportionment guidance for Marine avia-tion if Marine sorties are to be provided to thejoint force. The following is an example of the

MAGTF commander’s apportionment for an am-phibious assault operation:

Pre-Assault Operationsl DAS, AAW, or SEAD sorties = 70% (a

portion of these will go to the joint effort).l CAS sorties = 0%.l Assault support sorties = 10%.l EW sorties = 10%.l Command and control = 5%.l Excess sorties (any type) = 5% (will go to

the joint effort).During the Initial Assaultl DAS, AAW, or SEAD sorties = 10% (a

portion of these will go to the joint effort).l CAS sorties = 30%.l Assault support sorties = 45%.l EW sorties = 5%.l Command and control = 10%.l Excess sorties (any type) = 0% (there may

be no excess sorties available).

Note: Excess sorties are those sorties availablefor tasking, but are not needed by the MAGTF.Sorties provided for air defense, long-range inter-diction, and long-range reconnaissance are notexcess sorties and will be provided up front to theJFC as required. These sorties provide a distinctcontribution to the overall joint force effort. TheJFC must exercise integrated control of air de-fense, long-range reconnaissance, and interdic-tion aspects of the joint operation or theatercampaign. Excess sorties are in addition to thesesorties (see JP 3-56.1 for more details).

b. Target/Air Support Mission Development The specific objectives described by the com-mander are used to focus specific target and airsupport mission development. All potential tar-gets and air support requests are processedthrough the appropriate staff sections, which willidentify, prioritize, and select specific targets/airsupport missions that meet the commander’s ob-jectives and guidance and support the concept ofoperations.


Overall target planning is the responsibility of theMAGTF force fires coordinator. The ACE com-mander and staff assist in this effort and provideessential guidance in the evaluation and selectionof aviation targets. Targets are selected from jointtarget lists (if any), requests from all elements ofthe MAGTF, intelligence recommendations, EWinputs, and current intelligence assessments.

Air support mission development (including thosemissions involving the attack of targets) is also anessential component of this phase of the ATOdevelopment cycle. Air support mission requestsare generated, evaluated, and prioritized in thesame manner as targets. Since all of these mis-sions require the allocation of ACE assets andthose assets are usually finite, the ACE command-er and staff play a central role in their evaluation.The MAGTF commander will ultimately approvethe prioritization of both the target list and the airsupport mission list.

In accordance with the commander’s objectivesand component targeting/air support mission re-quirements, the ACE staff develops air OPLANsto employ all available and appropriate capabili-ties and forces. The end product of this phase ofthe ATO cycle is a MAGTF prioritized list of tar-gets and air support missions.

c. Allocation and Allotment After receiving the commander’s apportionmentdirective and understanding the targeting/air sup-port mission requirements, the ACE commanderallocates the planned effort. Allocation (air) is thetranslation of the air apportionment decision intothe total numbers of sorties (by aircraft type)available for each operation or task. Allocation(air) includes the submission of all air support re-quests (OAS, DAS, AAW, assault support, andcommand and control) to the MAGTF FSCC and/or air center. When all air support requests havebeen received, the ACE commander presents theallocation request to the MAGTF commander.Once the allocation request has been approved,the allocated sorties are distributed, or allotted, tosupport the MAGTF and its elements. Allotmentdecisions allow MAGTF elements to plan and co-ordinate the integration of sorties into their fire

and maneuver efforts. The GCE and CSSE com-manders determine the appropriate distribution ofthese sorties.

d. Tasking Tasking is the process of translating allocationand allotment decisions into an ATO or air planand then passing the tasks to the units involved.The MAGTF ATO or air plan assigns missionsand mission support responsibilities to specificsquadrons.

If a Marine headquarters is designated as theACA and/or JFACC, ATO interoperability withother Services depends to some degree on theContingency Theater Automated Planning System(CTAPS). CTAPS is a hardware and softwaresystem composed of a variable number of work-stations on a LAN that are linked with geographi-cally remote terminals. The focus of CTAPS isthe ATO that tasks operational units to fly speci-fied combat and combat support missions and tomaintain aircraft and aircrews at specified alertstates. CTAPS functions are currently scheduledto be replaced by modules of the U.S. Air Force’sTheater Battle Management Core Systems (TB-MCS) program. TBMCS is an umbrella programthat assimilates the ATO’s production, dissemina-tion and execution that currently resident inCTAPS. Additionally, TBMCS contains softwaremodules that automate the DASC and theater mis-sile defense planning functions. TBMCS is in-tended to resolve those problems of compatibilityand interoperability associated with CTAPS. TB-MCS links the organizational levels of commandwith automated tools as they relate to air opera-tions, creating the functional capabilities for plan-ning, intelligence, and operational execution.Ultimately, TBMCS will receive, display, and in-tegrate a common space, air, ground, and mari-time situation for all forces.

e. Force Execution Aircraft squadrons assign individual aircrews andaircraft to specific mission numbers and issuesquadron flight schedules once they receive theATO or air plan. Actual mission planning and co-ordination with the MAGTF command element,

5-10 ________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-2

ACE, GCE, and CSSE staffs are performed by thedesignated mission commander. Task-organizedflights of aircraft then execute the assigned mis-sions. During execution, the ACE commander ex-ercises command and control of aviation forcesthrough the MACCS, including the dynamic re-tasking of assets to meet the changing situation.

f. Combat Assessment Effective campaign planning and execution re-quire a continuing evaluation of the impact ofcombat operations on the overall campaign. Com-bat assessment is focused at the MAGTF level;however, it is done (in varying degrees) at all lev-els. Normally, the ACE G-3/S-3, assisted by theG-2/S-2, is responsible for coordinating combatassessment of ACE missions. The G-3/S-3’s as-sessment is forwarded to the MAGTF staff forfurther evaluation.

Combat assessment evaluates a combat opera-tion’s effectiveness in achieving command objec-tives. The ACE staff continually evaluates theresults of air operations and provides these evalu-ations to the MAGTF commander for consolida-

tion and overall evaluation of current operations.Combat assessment assesses the effects, relativeto friendly objectives and strategy, of both specif-ic air support missions and air operations in gen-eral against the specific targets attacked, wholetarget systems, and remaining enemy warfightingcapabilities. It should include BDA, munitions ef-fects assessment, and reattack recommendations.It must take into consideration the capabilities,forces, munitions, and attack timing employed.

Assessors should weigh future enemy COAs andremaining enemy combat capabilities against es-tablished targeting/air support mission prioritiesto determine future objectives and reattack recom-mendations. The ACE staff assessment is for-warded to the force commander to determineoverall mission success and to recommend chang-es regarding COAs. Combat assessment marksthe end of the air tasking cycle, but it also pro-vides the inputs for the next air tasking cycle andsubsequent command guidance, target/air supportmission development, allocation and allotment,tasking, force execution, and combat assessment.

Chapter 6

Aviation Logistics

“I don’t know what the hell this ‘logistics’ is that Marshall is always talk-ing about, but I want some of it.”7

—Adm Ernest J. King

ACE commanders and logisticians must plan andexecute both aviation ground support operationsconducted by the MWSS and aviation logisticsoperations conducted by the MALS. The MALSprovides aviation-peculiar logistic support and theMWSS provides aviation ground support (EAF,aircraft rescue and fire fighting, etc.) as well asground-common combat service support. A CSSdetachment from the CSSE provides ground-com-mon logistic support beyond the capability ofACE’s organic CSS units. These logistic opera-tions must sustain the ACE, which in turn pro-vides worldwide expeditionary support to theMAGTF. Direct support for naval aviation (Navyand Marine) is sourced and funded by the Navy,therefore components of the ACE use two sets ofprocedures for supply and maintenance opera-tions: aviation logistic functions are prescribed bynaval publications and aviation ground supportlogistic functions are prescribed by Marine Corpspublications.

6001. Strategic Aviation Logistics and Aviation Ground Support

Within the Marine Corps, the Deputy Chief ofStaff for Aviation is responsible for planning andcoordinating staff activities for all matters relativeto the organization, equipment, manpower, train-ing, and support of Marine Corps aviation unitsand installations, including all aviation logisticand/or aviation ground support matters. SinceMarine Corps aviation is an integral part of navalaviation, the Deputy Chief of Staff for Aviation (aMarine Corps designation) is also designated as aOPNAV (N88M) (the Navy equivalent). This

makes the Marine Corps’ Deputy Chief of Stafffor Aviation equal to the Navy’s Head, Air War-fare Division OPNAV (N88). In this capacity, theDeputy Chief of Staff is responsible to the Chiefof Naval Operations to ensure that Marine Corpsaviation is in consonance with the overall navalaviation program.

Within Headquarters Marine Corps the Depart-ment of Aviation, Aviation Logistics SupportBranch is responsible for the equipping, support-ing, and maintaining of aircraft and aviation unitsand installations across the logistic spectrum. TheAviation Logistics Support Branch coordinateswith the Chief of Naval Operations (OPNAV)staff and numerous Naval Systems Commands toplan needed aviation logistic support of MarineCorps forces. Specifically, it plans the aviation lo-gistic and aviation ground logistic support in mat-ters of policy, management, procurement, supply,and distribution of materiel (including the acqui-sition, planning, programming, construction,management, maintenance, and disposition of realestate and facilities).

6002. Operational Aviation Logistics and Aviation Ground Support

The MAGTF’s power-projection capability isbased on its ability to move rapidly to and operatefreely within an objective area anywhere in theworld. To maintain this power-projection capabil-ity, the MAGTF requires responsive air supportduring all phases of its operations. To provide re-sponsiveness in austere expeditionary environ-ments, Marine aviation must consider basing

6-2 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-2

options and available logistic support. Marine aviva ti on basing selections must consider versa-tility, capability, vulnerability, footprint, and sus-tainability regardless of whether it operates fromthe sea or from shore-based airfields located closeto or in the area of operations.

a. Seabasing Aviation logistic operations from aircraft carriers,aviation-capable amphibious ships, and aviationlogistics support ships (TAVBs) can eliminate theneed to establish vulnerable, relatively immobilesupport facilities ashore. This reduces footprintsashore and translates into greater freedom of ma-neuver and operational flexibility and a lessenedvulnerability for the ACE. Seabasing of Marineaviation also eliminates the political problems as-sociated with obtaining host nation permission touse airfields and facilities. However, the opera-tional situation may be such that the limited spaceand facilities aboard ship are overtaxed or the dis-tance from the ship to the operating area is great.In those cases, aviation forces may require a FOBand retain as much of the aviation logistic supportas possible at sea.

b. Forward Operating Bases When it is necessary to meet operational de-mands, the ACE can operate from shore-based,FOBs. A FOB is any airfield used to support tacti-cal operations without establishing full supportfacilities ashore. FOBs include main air bases, airfacilities, air sites, and air points. FOBs increaseresponsiveness by decreasing the distances be-tween the aviation base and the supported unit.Whenever possible, shore-based ACE operationsexploit existing facilities in the area of operations.Host government airfields are used when avail-able and tactically acceptable. Abandoned or cap-tured airfields are also used to reduce constructionand infrastructure requirements. If existing air-fields are not adequate or suitable, roads and high-ways may be used to provide austere runways.Finally, if facilities are inadequate or nonexistent,Navy and Marine units can be utilized to build anEAF. The MALS/MWSS uses task-organizedsupport packages (see para. 6002c) to provide avi-ation logistics and aviation ground support for

FOBs. ATC support is provided by task-orga-nized MATCD or mobile teams resident withinthe MACG or MACS (see chap. 4).

(1) Expeditionary Airfields. EAFs are porta-ble airfields that can be constructed, used, dis-mantled, and moved to another site for reuse.They are constructed on-site by the MWSS andNavy mobile construction battalions. The EAFcan be used to support the full range of FOBs,from small austere sites to large main bases. TheEAF system is unique and flexible. It permits Ma-rine aviation to operate from captured or damagedrunways, parking lots, or roads and to establishbases where none previously existed. This flexi-bility allows the ACE to adjust to an ever-chang-ing operational situation. The development ofEAF technologies and the storage of these assetson maritime prepositioning force (MPF) shipshave reduced the U.S. deployment time to anytheater of operations in the world from 9 or 10weeks to 2 or 3 weeks.

(2) Forward Arming and Refueling Points.Since existing air bases or air facilities may notexist in a dynamic, nonlinear battlespace, theACE commander can deploy a FARP to providethe required aviation support. It is temporary and,it is established for a specific mission. A FARP issometimes referred to as a laager point.

A FARP permits combat aircraft to rapidly and si-multaneously refuel and rearm from a forward lo-cation. It provides the fuel and ammunitionnecessary for employment of aviation maneuverunits in combat. To reduce response time andmaximize aviation’s capabilities, the FARP is po-sitioned as close to the objective area as the tacti-cal situation allows.

(3) Austere Forward Operating Sites. Insome situations, particularly when operating inunderdeveloped areas of the world, Marine avia-tion forces may be forced to use extremely austeresites as bases for aviation operations. Such sitespossess a minimal ground support capability.They may be nothing more than a jungle clearingthat is large and firm enough to support helicopteror V/STOL operations, or they may be a stretch of


highway that is sufficient to accommodate fixed-wing aircraft.

c. The Marine Aviation Logistics Support Program

Navy-funded aircraft logistic support is providedunder MALSP and administered and maintainedby the MALS. MALSP, together with TAVB andassets prepositioned aboard MPF ships, providesthe supporting MALS the ability to support eitherfixed-wing or rotary-wing aircraft of the ACE.

While the MEU ACE is embarked aboard an air-capable ship (e.g., LHA, LHD), aviation logisticsis the responsibility of the aircraft intermediatemaintenance department (AIMD) and the ship’ssupply department rather than the MALS. WhileMarine Corps aircraft squadrons operate from acarrier, they receive aviation logistic support fromthe AIMD and the carrier’s supply department.Maintenance and supply personnel from both theMALS and Marine Corps aircraft squadrons aug-ment the ship’s AIMD and supply department.

MALSP provides flexible and effective aviationlogistic support to the deployed MAGTF ACE. Itenables ACE logisticians to rapidly and efficient-ly identify, marshal, and deploy aviation logisticelements needed to support a task-organized mixof ACE aircraft.

By structuring aviation logistic support into forcemodules, MALSP provides credible and replen-ishable sustainment packages while reducing liftrequirements and force closure times. Requiredaviation logistic elements (personnel, spares, sup-port equipment, and mobile facilities) are formedinto specific support packages that are retainedwithin every MALS. Specific support packagesconsist of fly-in support packages (FISPs), contin-gency support packages (CSPs), and follow-onsupport packages (FOSPs). They are sized andtailored to meet the aviation logistic requirementsof each type, model, and series aircraft. Thesepackages are used in a “building block” fashion tomaintain aircraft availability during every phaseof an operation.

FISPs are considered enabling packages. Theyprovide the organizational-level spare parts (re-move and replace) that allow Marine aircraft tobegin flight operations immediately upon arrivalin theater. FISPs are airlifted to the operating siteas part of the fly-in echelon (FIE). When com-bined with aviation support equipment and classV(A) ammunition transported aboard MPF shipsor flight ferry aircraft, FISPs provide the criticalaviation support required for 30 days of combatflying. If flight operations are too extensive inscope or duration (i.e., longer than 30 days), thenext building blocks, CSPs, are transported intotheater. CSPs augment FISPs by adding the com-mon and peculiar aviation logistics needed forsustained aviation maintenance, supply, and ord-nance operations. CSPs integrate the supportequipment, mobile facilities, spares, and person-nel to sustain deployed aircraft for up to 90 days.

FOSPs are the final MALSP building block. AFOSP provides the support that the FISP and CSPdo not provide. It provides ACE aircraft with thesame support that is would receive in garrison andincludes first degree engine repair.

Training squadron allowances are built to supporta 30-day endurance period at peacetime flyinghours. It consists of separate, aviation logisticssupport items added to the allowances of a garri-son MAG. Training squadron allowance items areseparate from contingency support packages sothat during times of extended expeditionary oper-ations, CONUS-based training squadrons will re-tain the necessary aviation logistic elements thatwill enable them to continue training operations.

d. Aviation Logistics Support ShipThe TAVB’s primary mission is to provide dedi-cated sealift for movement of I-level aviation lo-gistic support for use in the rapid deployment of aMAGTF ACE. It is designed to transport criticalI-level maintenance and supply assets to a for-ward operating area as part of a MEF-sizedMAGTF contingency. The TAVB’s primary con-cept of operations is to support MPF operations,but it can also be tasked to support an amphibiousoperation. Traditionally, an amphibious opera-tion exerts a forcible entry into an objective area,

6-4 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-2

however a TAVB requires an unopposed entry in-to an objective area (similar to an entry requiredfor a MPF) before offloading the MALS and itscomposited contingency support packages ashore.If the embarked MALS is phased ashore, theTAVB can be used to perform a secondary mis-sion of serving as a strategic sealift asset that iscontrolled by the commander in chief.

To enhance MALS responsiveness, one ship(USS Wright, TAVB 3) is berthed on the eastcoast (Baltimore, MD) and another ship (USSCurtiss, TAVB 4) is berthed on the west coast(Port Hueneme, CA). On notification of move-ment, the TAVB is expected to arrive in the ob-jective area within 30 days to marry withsupported aircraft squadrons, personnel, and avia-tion logistic assets already in theater. Both shipscan be configured to provide I-level support oper-ations while underway, in stream, or pierside. Inconsonance with the operational concept and ifconditions permit, The MALS can be transferredashore upon arrival.

e. Maritime Prepositioning ForceAircraft that are part of an ACE can be supportedin combination by one, or more, of the three MPSsquadrons. Each MPF squadron contains the fol-lowing operational and logistic support assets:class V(A) munitions, O-level and limited I-levelaircraft support equipment, EAF matting and air-field lighting, and ground common CSS assets forutilization by the supporting MWSS. These assetsare required to support the notional MPF ACEaircraft mix as defined by MCBul 3501, MaritimePrepositioning Force (MPF) Marine Air-GroundTask Force (MAGTF) Force List. See MCWP3.32, MPF Operations, for more information.

6003. Tactical Aviation Logistics and Aviation Ground Support

Logistic support for the ACE may be categorizedas either aviation logistics, aviation ground sup-port (e.g., EAF, aircraft rescue and fire fighting),or combat service support. Aviation ground sup-port and combat service support are primarily

funded by the Marine Corps. Aviation logistics(aviation-peculiar) is primarily funded by the Na-vy. The following subparagraphs provide an over-view of the unique tactical aspects of aviationlogistic support of the ACE. See MCWP 3-21.1,Aviation Ground Support, and MCWP 3-21.2,Aviation Logistics, for an in-depth discussion ofaviation ground support,

a. Aviation-Peculiar Logistic SupportEach MALS is organized to provide a core groupof supervisory and support personnel that, whenaugmented by aircraft-specific maintenance per-sonnel from aircraft squadrons, provide an inter-mediate maintenance capability for either fixed-wing or rotary-wing aircraft. Aircraft squadronsare responsible for organizational-level mainte-nance. The following comprise the core capabili-ties of a MALS:l Provide intermediate-level (I-level) mainte-

nance for aircraft and aeronautical equipmentof all supported units, when authorized, per-form first degree repair on specific engines.

l Provide aviation supply support for aircraft andNavy-funded equipment to all supported units.

l Provide class V(A) ammunition logistic sup-port to ACE squadrons. This support encom-passes the requisitioning, storage, handling,assembly, transportation, inventory reporting ofclass V(A) ammunition, and planning for andoperating an ammunition issue point at expedi-tionary sites.

l Interpret, implement, audit, inspect, and pro-vide oversight for the MAG commanding offic-er for all policies and procedures relating to theadministration and management of operationsand maintenance, Navy (less TAD) funds, avia-tion supply, aircraft maintenance, cryogenics,aircraft ordnance, avionics, and data processingfor all units within the MAG and the ACE.

l Coordinate with the MWSG, MWSS, MACG,and other supporting Navy and Marine Corpsactivities in planning for the support required toexecute aviation logistics.

l Screen and inspect nonservicable aeronauticalequipment and material for testing and repair,shipment to another repair facility, or disposal.


l Maintain the capability to deploy and to pro-vide MALSP packages as integral units or astailored aviation logistic elements assigned toanother MALS to support aircraft assigned to ahost MAG, MALS, or ACE.

l Conduct individual and unit training to qualifyorganic and supported squadron personnel forperformance of assigned missions and tasks.

l Provide data processing support to facilitate ex-ecution of aviation supply, maintenance, andNavy-funded financial functions of the MAGand ACE.

b. Aviation Ground SupportThe MWSS provides aviation ground support andCSS functions for airfield operations. Specificservices include EAF, explosive ordnance dispos-al, weather services, military police support, engi-neering support, materials handling equipment,motor transportation, intra-airfield communica-tion, aircraft rescue and fire fighting, utilities sup-port and maintenance, field messing, medicalsupport, and aircraft and ground vehicle refueling.The MWSS routinely performs the camp com-mandant functions and provides the nucleus forrear area security and air base defense. MWSSsare designed to support either fixed-wing or rota-ry-wing operations; however, a single MWSS can

be task-organized to simultaneously supportfixed-wing and rotary-wing operations.

c. Combat Service Support DetachmentA CSSD from the CSSE provides additional com-bat service support to the ACE. CSSD capabilitiesinclude—l Transporting fuel, ordnance, and other supplies

required by the ACE from the point of entry inthe MAGTF area of operations to the EAF sitefor distribution by a MWSS and/or MALS.

l Performing third echelon maintenance on engi-neer, motor transport, and communicationsequipment that is supported by the MarineCorps and operated by the ACE.

l Providing postal, disbursing, exchange, legal,civil affairs, and graves registration services.

l Providing supply, general engineering, healthservices, and other support that cannot be satis-fied by a MWSS.

CSSDs will be formed from the CSSE to providethe required support based on specific support re-quirements that are determined, requested, andcoordinated by the ACE G-4/S-4.

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Chapter 7

Marine Aviation in Navy, Joint,and Multinational Operations

“When a team takes to the field, individual specialists come together toachieve a team win. . . .

But they all must also believe that they are part of a team, a joint team, thatfights together to win.

This is our history, this is our tradition, this is our future.”8

—Colin L. Powell

The Marine Corps’ most significant contributionto a Navy, joint, or multinational operation is theMAGTF. Marine aviation is normally committedas the MAGTF’s ACE, but individual units mayalso be assigned to support other operations.These units may function as an integral part of aNavy carrier force, or they may provide specificfunctions (e.g., EW) in general support of a JTF injoint or combined operations.

7001. Navy Fleet Operational Support

The primary mission of Marine aviation is to par-ticipate as the air component of the MAGTF inthe seizure and defense of advanced naval basesand to conduct land operations that are essentialfor the prosecution of a naval campaign. A collat-eral mission for Marine aviation is to participateas an integral component of naval aviation in theexecution of other Navy functions as fleet com-manders direct. In this role, they normally be-come part of the Navy component of a joint force.In either case, Marine aviation assets are part ofan integral force and are not normally separatedfrom that force.

7002. Joint Operations

Joint operations are military actions conducted byjoint forces or Service forces in relationships(e.g., support, coordinating authority) that ofthemselves do not create joint forces. Joint opera-tions are conducted in support of the JFC’s cam-paign and the commander in chief’s theatercampaign plan.

The MAGTF has a unique, self-contained air-ground capability. However, Marines must beprepared to become a self-sustaining, contributingpart of joint operations ashore under the com-mand of a JFC. A JFC synchronizes the actions ofair, land, sea, space, and special operations forcesto achieve strategic and operational objectivesthrough integrated, joint campaigns and major op-erations. Their goal is to increase the total effec-tiveness of the joint force, not necessarily toinvolve all forces or to involve all forces equally.

The job of planning and tasking Marine aviationto support the MAGTF commander becomesmore complex when operating in a joint environ-ment. MAGTF planners and operators must un-derstand the MAGTF planning and operating

7-2 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-2

environment, the joint planning and operating en-vironment, and how the two interface (see chap. 4for more information).

The JFC organizes forces to best accomplish theassigned mission: along Service lines conductingoperations through Service component command-ers, along functional lines (air, ground, etc.) con-ducting operations through functional componentcommanders, or a combination of the two ap-proaches and assigning functional commands tothe Service component that is best prepared tocontrol each function. Examples of functionalcomponent commanders include the joint forceair component commander (JFACC), joint forceland component commander (JFLCC), and jointforce maritime component commander (JFMCC).The JFC can also use other functional command-ers, such as the AADC, joint special operationsforces commander, and joint force informationwarfare commander.

Normally collocated with the JFC, the JFACCfunctions as a coordinator of the JTF’s aviation re-sources to deliver direct support to certain compo-nents while exploiting the flexibility of airoperations to achieve campaign objectives. TheJFACC recommends apportionment of the joint aireffort to the JFC for approval or revision and trans-lates the JFC’s apportionment decision into sortieallocation. The JFACC determines allocation bymission, but individual components assign mis-sions to specific units. The JFACC is also responsi-ble for tasking available component air sorties forsupport of the joint campaign, normally throughthe ATO. Tasking is done at the JFACC level forjoint targets and missions and at the MAGTF levelfor Marine Corps targets and missions. There is asingle ATO for all joint air operations.

The MAGTF’s expeditionary nature, coupledwith Marine aviation and its associated commandand control capabilities, allows the Marine com-ponent commander to function as the JFACC insmall-scale operations. The Marine componentcommander may also initially serve as the JFACCat the early stages of a larger conflict. As forcescontinue to build up in theater, the JFC normallydesignates the commander with the preponder-

ance of aviation assets and the ability to commandand control all aviation assets as the JFACC.

In joint operations, the JFC normally tasks theMAGTF commander to provide certain types ofsorties for tasking through the JFACC. But theMAGTF commander retains OPCON of allMAGTF ACE assets. This tasking normally in-cludes sorties for air defense (DCA), long rangeair interdiction and air reconnaissance, and EW.

It is important to understand that the MAGTFcommander will retain operational control of or-ganic air assets (TACAIR) during joint opera-tions. This entire policy is outlined in chapter 4,page 5, and described in more detail in JP 0-2,UNAAF. This policy will allow the MAGTFcommander to meet the needs of the JFC whilemaintaining the tactical and operational integrityof the MAGTF component. Key to this arrange-ment is the premise outlined in JP 3-0, Doctrinefor Joint Operations, which states: “The JFC (andCINCs) should allow Service tactical and opera-tional groupings to function generally as they aredesigned.” Further, JP 3-56.1 states that one of themost important aspects of this guidance is the re-quirement for an air capable component to “pro-vide the JFACC a description of their directsupport plan (DSP) to allow for coordination anddeconfliction of targeting efforts between eachcomponent and the JFC staff and agencies.”

The DSP is crucial in clarifying to the JFC at theoutset of the joint campaign what the CommanderMarine Corps Forces (COMMARFOR) requires tosustain Marine Corps operations in support of thejoint campaign plan. It should comprise the follow-ing key elements as stated by the COMMARFOR: l His intent to retain OPCON of his aviation ca-

pability/forces; l That all Marine sorties should be made avail-

able to the JFC for tasking by the JFACC insupport of the JFC's overall objectives andcampaign plan prior to assignment of groundcombat responsibilities since the MARFOR re-quires no direct support sorties or shaping oper-ations during this period. This includes longrange air interdiction and air reconnaissance,


electronic warfare and air defense (defensivecounter air) sorties when required by the JFC;

l His intent to use organic aviation assets in di-rect support of his forces in order to accomplishhis JFC-assigned mission in the designatedMARFOR area of operations (AO). CriticalDSP sub elements to this are:n His intent to consolidate, deconflict, priori-

tize and nominate targets to the joint target-ing coordinat ion board (JTCB) to beincluded on the joint integrated prioritizedtargeting list (JIPTL).

n Provide a MAGTF generated direct supportATO to merge with the JTF joint ATO viaCTAPS/TBMCS.

n Allocate sorties in excess of COMMAR-FOR's direct support requirements to the JFCfor tasking by the JFACC for use in execu-tion of joint operations.

n Recommend to the JFACC, if designated asthe ACA/AADC, airspace control measures(ACM) that enhance integrated commandand control in COMMARFOR's AO/areas ofresponsibility. This includes establishing theMACCS within the MARFOR's AO to pro-vide airspace control functions in the MAR-FOR's airspace control sectors as designatedby the ACA. These details must be incorpo-rated in the air control plan (ACP) and coor-dinated with the ACA to ensure consistencywith JTF airspace control guidance, direc-tives and procedures. COMMARFOR willforward all ACM requests to the ACA viathe MARFOR liaison team at the JFACC.

Normally, any sorties in excess of MAGTF directsupport requirements are also made available tothe JFC. The JFACC uses MAGTF sorties to sup-port the JFC’s campaign objectives, often throughsupport to other components of the joint force. Inturn, the MAGTF commander can also requestaviation support from the JFC when organic Ma-rine aviation assets do not meet the MAGTF’saviation requirements. See MCWP 3-25.4 and JP3-56.1 for a discussion of the contingency theaterautomated planning system, which governs thedevelopment of the ATO.

Note: Sorties provided for long-range interdic-tion, air defense, and long-range reconnaissanceare not “excess” sorties. These sorties provide adistinct contribution to the overall joint force ef-fort and will be covered in the ATO. The JFCmust exercise integrated control of air defense,long-range reconnaissance, and interdiction as-pects of the joint operation or theater campaign.

7003. Multinational Operations

U.S. military operations are often conducted incooperation with the armed forces of other na-tions in pursuit of common objectives. Multina-tional operations, both those that include combatand those that do not, are conducted within thestructure of either an alliance or a coalition. An al-liance is created by formal agreements among twoor more nations in pursuit of broad, long-term ob-jectives. Some alliances (e.g., NATO) have de-tailed interoperability arrangements, protocols,and procedures. A coalition is an temporary ar-rangement among two or more nations for a spe-cific purpose. There is no universal doctrine forcoalition warfare; protocols and operating agree-ments are designed to suit the circumstances.Technically, only alliance operations are com-bined operations, but in common usage the word“combined” is often used to describe any multina-tional operation.

Joint operations that are part of an alliance or coali-tion require close cooperation among all forces.Well-managed combined operations can serve tomutually reinforce strengths, reduce vulnerabili-ties, and provide legitimacy. Effectively plannedand executed multinational operations should, inaddition to achieving common objectives, facilitateunity of effort without diminishing U.S. freedom ofaction. Multinational operations should also pre-serve unit integrity and uninterrupted support.

Each multinational operation is unique. Planningand the conduct of operations vary with the inter-national situation and the perspectives, motives,and values of the operations’s members. Whereasalliance members typically have similar political

7-4 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-2

and economic systems and common long-termgoals, coalitions often bring together very diverseelements and cultures for a limited period of time.Typically, if coalition members perceive theirmembership and participation to be advancingtheir individual interests, the coalition remains in-tact. If their objectives or priorities diverge, thecoalition may break down. Therefore, militaryleaders of member nations must emphasize com-mon objectives as well as mutual support. Follow-ing, contributing, and supporting are importantroles in multinational operations, therefore, theMAGTF is prepared to operate within the frame-

work of an alliance or coalition that is led by a na-tion other than the United States.

The inherent flexibility of the Marine Corps’combined-arms doctrine, maneuver warfare phi-losophy, expeditionary nature, and versatile com-mand and control system create a MAGTF that iswell-prepared for the complexities of coalitionwarfare. Of great concern to the MAGTF, and tothe ACE in particular, will be the problems offorce protection, command and control of vastlydissimilar units, and the avoidance of fratricide.

Chapter 8

Emerging Concepts

“In brief, the whole future of warfare appears to me to lie in the employ-ment of mobile armies, relatively small but of high quality, and rendereddistinctly more effective by the addition of aircraft . . . .”9

—Gen. Hans von Seeckt

Operational maneuver from the sea (OMFTS) isboth the operational foundation and the capstoneof the Marine Corps’ concept of operations for thefuture. From this foundation flows supportingconcepts such as ship-to-objective maneuver, sus-tained operations ashore, MPF 2010 and beyond,and the Marine aviation concept paper, MAGTFAviation and Operational Maneuver From theSea. These concepts define the Marine Corps’,and therefore Marine aviation’s, future role interms of capabilities, operational employment,and joint relationships. These concepts also re-flect the Marine Corps’ understanding of andcommitment to maneuver warfare.

All of these concepts rely heavily on seabasing.The Marine Corps and the Navy currently con-duct OMFTS and seabasing operations, but not tothe degree outlined in recent concept papers. Al-though Marine aviation has a long tradition ofship-based operations, future, large-scale sea-based Marine aviation operations will be far morecomplex and demanding. If the Marine Corps andNavy are to conduct OMFTS as it is now envi-sioned, they will require substantial advances inaircraft, ships, command and control systems, andlogistic capabilities, as well as organizational anddoctrinal refinements to meet the proposed capa-bilities. This chapter explores the key new con-cepts and their implications for Marine aviation.

8001. Operational Maneuver From the Sea

The Marine Corps’ capstone operational conceptof OMFTS was published in January 1996. It was

built on the foundation provided in . . . From theSea” and “Forward . . . From the Sea. This con-cept encompasses more than how Marines willconduct power projection operations in the 21stcentury, it is a naval concept developed by theMarine Corps and designed to be executed in con-cert with the Navy. OMFTS places unprecedentedemphasis on operations in the world’s littorals,demands greater integration of naval operations inmaneuver warfare, and capitalizes on a navalforces’ ability to use the sea as a maneuver space.It is, in fact, a marriage between maneuver war-fare and naval warfare. The philosophy of maneu-ver warfare provides an understanding of thedynamic nature of military conflict and the re-quirement for skillful operations at a high tempo.The underlying ideas of naval warfare reflect theadvantages inherent in seaborne movement andseabased logistics. OMFTS requires enhancedbattlespace mobility, intelligence, command andcontrol, fire support, and sustainment. It enablesforward-deployed forces to provide the appropri-ate response to events throughout the range ofmilitary operations.

A key element in OMFTS is the seabasing ofcommand and control, logistics, and most firesupport functions. The seabasing of command andcontrol greatly reduces the force’s vulnerabilityand footprint ashore. By reducing logistic require-ments ashore and relying heavily on naval surfacefires and aviation fires, ground forces are permit-ted greater mobility. Seabased fire support en-hances and complements the effectiveness ofground-based fire support. Seabased forces enablecommanders to providing CSS assets to fightingunits without being distracted by the rear area se-curity concerns inherent in shore-based logistic

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operations. Seabasing thus allows the ATF to putthe “teeth” ashore while leaving the support “tail”afloat, significantly enhancing the flexibility andtempo of land maneuver operations.

Marine aviation plays a vital part in OMFTS.From staging areas over the horizon, aviation willprovide responsive and sustained fires and logis-tic support directly into objective areas ashore.The concept of seabased aviation is not a newone. Marines have used helicopters to resupplyground forces since fielding the helicopter in theearly 1950’s. ACE aircraft have always beenbased on and supported by the ships of the am-phibious ready group. In OMFTS, however, ACEaircraft will depart from over the horizon, with theassault support forces embarked, and proceed toobjective area landing zones deep inland. Themain differences are the sizes of the assault forcesto be lifted, the distances to be transited, and themagnitude of the operations to be executed. TheMV-22 tilt-rotor will provide the speed, endur-ance, combat radius, payload, and survivabilityneeded to permit true maneuver warfare from thesea on a scale that supports the OMFTS concept.

8002. Ship-to-Objective Maneuver

OMFTS requires new tactical concepts for am-phibious operations. Historically, amphibious op-erations have been constrained by the requirementto establish a lodgment ashore and by reliance onNavy command and control during the assault.Although amphibious-based vertical assault hasbeen a MAGTF maneuver technique for morethan 30 years, amphibious operations have not ex-ploited the full potential of maneuver warfare.STOM takes advantage of emerging mobility andcommand and control systems to maneuver land-ing forces in their tactical array from the momentthey depart their ships in order to project a com-bined-arms force by air and surface means direct-ly against inland objectives. True STOM is notaimed at seizing a beach. Its goal is to thrust com-bat units ashore at their decisive place, in theirfighting formations, and in sufficient strength toensure mission accomplishment. Landing forces

will engage enemy units only as necessary toachieve the freedom of action required to accom-plish operational objectives. STOM replaces thepreponderous ship-to-shore movement of currentamphibious warfare with true amphibious maneu-ver.

Although STOM’s focus is on the operational ob-jectives ashore, the sea becomes an essential ma-neuver space for the landing force to generate thetempo it needs to exploit enemy weaknesses.STOM provides the opportunity to achieve tacti-cal as well as operational surprise, which has beenhard to obtain in past amphibious operations. Op-erations will progress with a speed and flexibilityof maneuver that will deny the enemy warningand reaction time. Vulnerabilities will be exploit-ed before they are corrected, opportunities seizedbefore they vanish, and traps sprung before theyare discovered. Tactical flexibility that is com-bined with reliable intelligence will allow thelanding force to bypass, render irrelevant, or un-hinge and collapse the enemy’s defensive meas-ures. Opposing forces will not be able to react ef-fectively or in time.

STOM operations will rely on highly capablemulti-role aircraft with assault support assets thatare capable of much longer ranges and greatercombat payloads. These operations will also re-quire a substantially improved aviation commandand control system. Control of aircraft and mis-siles in this environment will require greatly en-hanced information integration, coordination, andexecution.

Command, control, communications, computers,and intelligence will become even more critical astraditional lines of coordination become less dis-tinct and/or overlap in the widely dispersed, dy-namic, and fluid operations of tomorrow. In anonlinear battlespace, advanced command andcontrol and information systems and the sharedsituational awareness that they create amongMarine leaders will have an increasingly pro-found impact on all operations. Accurate, real-time information will enhance weapon accuracy,aircraft survivability, friendly maneuver, and all


aspects of force protection. It will also reduce thepossibility of fratricide.

The Common Aviation Command and ControlSystem (CAC2S) will integrate the functions ofaviation command and control into an interopera-ble naval system that supports OMFTS. In con-junction with organic sensors and weaponssystems, CAC2S will bring Marine aviation com-mand and control fully on line with other jointcommand and control systems and supportMACCS missions with a suite of scalable mod-ules. CAC2S components are specifically de-signed to be operated in an expeditionary mode,thereby providing the equipment to support anyoperational contingency.

8003. Sustained Operations Ashore

Although the MAGTF will continue to possessthe capability to conduct initial forcible entrythrough OMFTS, the MAGTF’s full potential liesin its capability to function as an operational ma-neuver element for the JFC in sustained opera-tions ashore. The employment, organization, andbasing of the MAGTF will be responsive to therequirements of the JFC and to specific circum-stances within the area of operations. TheMAGTF of the future will provide the JFC withan agile, versatile, and responsive force that isable to strike directly at operational centers ofgravity or critical vulnerabilities. Therefore, theMAGTF will be one of the JFC’s principal toolsfor conducting decisive maneuver. In sustainedoperations ashore, the MAGTF will be primarilyseabased, but some elements of the MAGTF willgo ashore to create or exploit an operational ad-vantage, achieve greater integration with Army orAir Force components, or provide increased depthin aviation support or sustainment.

Future basing options during sustained operationsashore must support both fixed-wing and rotary-wing tactical aircraft with a mobile, self-deploy-ing capability. This will significantly reduce deckcycles and transit time from amphibious shipping

to an inland objective area. Reduction of refuelingand rearming times is as critical as minimizingflight time from bases to the objective area. Thetime that ground personnel can save refueling andrearming will equate to greater responsivenessand increased aircraft time on station, which sup-ports the MAGTF over the entire objective area.

To support OMFTS, the MAGTF must continueto use FOBs to increase its depth of support andsustainment of aviation forces ashore. The pur-pose of the FOB is to decrease response time andto minimize turnaround time in support of sus-tained operations ashore. EAF operations are keyto the Marine Corps’ ability to establish FOBs inaustere locations ashore. FARP operations canfurther extend the reach and responsiveness ofaviation forces and can be run from an expedi-tionary FOB. The introduction of short takeoffand vertical landing aircraft, with their ability tooperate from shorter runways, will reduce theneed for conventional runways and their associat-ed arresting equipment. These aircraft must be de-signed to operate from any combination ofexpeditionary fields, existing runways, hard sur-face roads, or sea based.

8004. MPF 2010 and Beyond

OMFTS requires a more robust ability to conductin-stream offloading and to accommodate variouslevels of combat loading than currently exist. Ex-isting technologies must be exploited and newtechnologies pursued that will permit the nextgeneration MPF to contribute to operational em-ployment of MAGTFs across the full range of op-erations, including the rapid reinforcement offorward-deployed amphibious forces. MPF 2010and Beyond is the concept under which the nextgeneration MPFs will contribute to forward pres-ence and power projection. These capabilities willremain central to U.S. deterrence and conflict res-olution strategies. MPF 2010 and Beyond willprovide indefinite sustainment by serving as aseabased conduit for logistic support. This sup-port will flow from bases located in the UnitedStates or overseas via the seabase provided byMPF 2010 and Beyond then on to Marine unitsconducting operations at sea or ashore. This may

8-4 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-2

be accomplished as part of a larger, seabased lo-gistic effort that includes not only MPSs, but alsoTAVBs, hospital ships, and offshore petroleumdistribution systems.

Future MPSs will not have a true forcible entrycapability, but they will be able to reinforce thestriking power of an ATF. Future MPFs will par-ticipate in OMFTS by using selective offloadingcapabilities to reinforce the assault echelon of an

ATF. MPSs will be multipurpose and will providefacilities for the tactical employment of assaultsupport aircraft, surface assault craft, advancedassault amphibious vehicle, and the ships’ ownorganic lighterage. The ships’ communicationssystems will be fully compatible with the tacticalcommand and control architecture of the ATF.This will allow access to the advanced capabili-ties and shared situational awareness of futurecommand and control systems.

Appendix A

Marine Aviation Organization

Figure A-1. 1st Marine Aircraft Wing.

Figure A-2. 2d Marine Aircraft Wing.

A-2 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-2

Figure A-3. 3d Marine Aircraft Wing.

Figure A-4. 4th Marine Aircraft Wing.

Appendix B

Glossary

Section I. Acronyms and Abbreviations

AADC .......................area air defense commanderAAW.............................................. antiair warfareACA ..............................airspace control authorityACE ............................... aviation combat elementACP...................................... airspace control planADCON ............................. administrative controlAIMD.................................... aircraft intermediate

maintenance departmentALD ............................. aviation logistics divisionAOC ...............................airfield operations centerARG ................................amphibious ready groupASC(A) ..........................................assault support

coordinator (airborne)ASE.........................................air support elementATARS ........................advanced tactical airborne

reconnaissance systemATC ........................................... air traffic controlATF.................................... amphibious task forceATO ............................................ air tasking order

BDA ............................. battle damage assessment

CAC2S ............ Common Aviation Command andControl System

CAS............................................. close air supportCE ............................................ command elementCOA ............................................. course of actionCOC .............................. combat operations centerCONUS......................... continental United StatesCSAR ............................combat search and rescueCSP .........................contingency support packageCSS .................................. combat service supportCSSE...................combat service support elementCTAPS .............. Contingency Theater Automated

Planning SystemCVBG .....................................carrier battle group

DAS .............................................deep air supportDASC.............................. direct air support centerDCA ...................................... defensive counterair

EA ............................................... electronic attackEAF..................................... expeditionary airfieldEP..........................................electronic protectionES.................................electronic warfare supportEW ............................................electronic warfareEW/C .................................. early warning/control

FAC..................................... forward air controllerFAC(A) .............. forward air controller (airborne)FARP ............ forward arming and refueling pointFFCC..................... force fires coordination centerFIE .................................................. fly-in echelonFISP ...................................fly-in support packageFMF ....................................... .Fleet Marine ForceFOB...................................forward operating baseFOSP...........................follow-on support packageFRAGO.....................................fragmentary orderFREST ...................................... Fleet replacement

enlisted student trainingFSCC................... fire support coordination centerFSSG..........................force service support group

GCE .................................ground combat element

HMH ...............Marine heavy helicopter squadronHMLA..................................... Marine light/attack

helicopter squadronHMM .......... Marine medium helicopter squadronHST..................................helicopter support team

JAOC ............................joint air operations centerJCSAR ................. joint combat search and rescueJFACC ............................................. joint force air

component commanderJFC .................................... joint force commanderJFLCC........................................... joint force land

component commanderJFMCC................ joint force maritime component

commander

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JP................................................. joint publicationJSTARS ............... joint surveillance, target attack

radar systemJTF .................................................joint task force

LAAD ..............................low-altitude air defenseLAN ......................................... local area networkLHA ......................... general purpose amphibious

assault shipLHD ..............................multipurpose amphibious

assault ship (with internal dock)

MACCS ...............................Marine air commandand control system

MACG ........................... Marine air control groupMACS .......................Marine air control squadronMAG ................................... Marine aircraft groupMAGTF .................. Marine air-ground task forceMAG VF/VA .............................fixed-wing MAGMAG VH ................................. rotary-wing MAGMALS ............ Marine aviation logistics squadronMALSP .........................Marine Aviation Logistic

Support ProgramMASS....................... Marine air support squadronMATCD ..... Marine air traffic control detachmentMAW ................................... Marine aircraft wingMCDP ........... Marine Corps doctrinal publicationMCPP..................Marine Corps Planning ProcessMCRP ...........Marine Corps reference publicationMCWP ......Marine Corps warfighting publicationMEF ...........................Marine expeditionary forceMETT-T.................... mission, enemy, terrain and

weather, troops and support available—time available

MEU.............................Marine expeditionary unitMEU(SOC) Marine expeditionary unit

(special operations capable)MOOTW......... military operations other than warMPF .......................maritime prepositioning forceMPS .......................maritime prepositioning shipsMTACS.................................... Marine tactical air

command squadronMWCS ..............................................Marine wing

communications squadronMWHS ..............................................Marine wing

headquarters squadronMWSG .......................Marine wing support groupMWSS.................. Marine wing support squadron

NATO ........... North Atlantic Treaty OrganizationNDP .............................naval doctrine publicationNEO ..............noncombatant evacuation operationNGF ................................................. naval gunfireOAAW ........................... offensive antiair warfareOAS ..................................... offensive air supportOCA.......................................offensive counterairOMFTS .......... operational maneuver from the seaOPCON................................... operational controlOPLAN ...........................................operation planPDE&A..................planning, decision, execution,

and assessment

SAAWC ........... sector antiair warfare coordinatorSAM.....................................surface-to-air missileSEAD..............suppression of enemy air defensesSPMAGTF.....................special purpose MAGTFSTOM ........................ship-to-objective maneuver

TAC(A)............ tactical air coordinator (airborne)TACC........................ tactical air command centerTACON..........................................tactical controlTACP .............................. tactical air control partyTAOC....................... tactical air operations centerTAVB.....................aviation logistics support shipTBMCS...........................................Theater Battle

Management Core SystemTOC ...............................tactical operations center

UAV................................unmanned aerial vehicleUNAAF..................Unified Action Armed Forces

VMA ................................Marine attack squadronVMAQ ..........................Marine tactical electronic

warfare squadronVMAT................ Marine attack training squadronVMFA.... ..............Marine fighter/attack squadronVMFA(AW).........................Marine fighter/attack

(all weather) squadronVMFAT ................................Marine figher/attack

training squadronVMGR ................................Marine aerial refueler

transport squadronVMGRT...............Marine aerial refueler transport

training squadronVMM .............Marine medium tilt-rotor squadronVMMT.......................... Marine medium tilt-rotor

training squadron

Aviation Operations ______________________________________________________________________________________ B-3

VMO-6.................. Marine Observation Squadron(Fixed-Wing)-6

VMU .............................. Marine unmanned aerialvehicle squadron

V/STOL ........... vertical/short takeoff and landing

WAN........................................ wide area network

Section II. Definitions

aviation combat element—The core element ofa Marine air-ground task force that is task-orga-nized to conduct aviation operations. The aviationcombat element provides all or a portion of the sixfunctions of Marine aviation necessary to accom-plish the Marine air-ground task force’s mission.These functions are antiair warfare, offensive airsupport, assault support, electronic warfare, air re-connaissance, and control of aircraft and missiles.The aviation combat element is usually composedof an aviation unit headquarters and various otheraviation units or their detachments. It can vary insize from a small aviation detachment of specifi-cally required aircraft to one or more Marine air-craft wings. The aviation combat element maycontain other Service or foreign military forcesassigned or attached to the Marine air-ground taskforce. The aviation combat element itself is not aformal command. Also called ACE. (approvedfor next edition of MCRP 5-12C)

air board—In Navy/Marine Corps operations, allsquadron flight schedules are consolidated withthe needs of the MAGTF/ship/ARG/CVBG at anair board. The air board meets every day in theSACC. It works on current and future plans for airsupport. The results are published as the ship/ARG/CVBG air plan. The air board also providesthe input for the joint ATO. (proposed definitionfor MCRP 5-12C)

air superiority—That degree of dominance inthe air battle of one force over another which per-mits the conduct of operations by the former andits related land, sea and air forces at a given timeand place without prohibitive interference by theopposing force. (JP 1-02)

air tasking cycle—The cyclical planning processthat Marine aviation planners use to plan air oper-ations in support of the MAGTF mission and toproduce the MAGTF ATO or air plan. The sixphases of the MAGTF air tasking cycle are com-mand aviation guidance, target/air support mis-sion development, allocation and allotment,tasking, force execution, and combat assessment.(The parallel six-phase joint air tasking cycle isdescribed in JP 3-56.1.) (proposed definition forMCRP 5-12C)

allocation (air)—The translation of the air appor-tionment decision into total numbers of sorties byaircraft type available for each operation or task.(JP 1-02)

allotment—The temporary change of assignmentof tactical air forces between subordinate com-mands. The authority to allot is vested in the com-mander having combatant command (commandauthority).

apportionment—In the general sense, distribu-tion for planning of limited resources amongcompeting requirements. Specific apportionments(e.g., air sorties and forces for planning) are de-scribed as apportionment of air sorties and forcesfor planning, etc. (JP 1-02) See also allocation(air); apportionment (air). (JP 1-02)

apportionment (air)—The determination and as-signment of the total expected air effort by per-centage and/or by priority that should be devotedto the various air operations and/or geographic ar-eas for a given period of time. (JP 1-02)

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base defense zone—An air defense zone estab-lished around an air base and limited to the en-gagement envelope of short-range air defenseweapons systems defending that base. Base de-fense zones have specific entry, exit, and identi-fication, friend or foe procedures established. (JP1-02)

battlespace—All aspects of air, surface, subsur-face, land, space, and electromagnetic spectrumwhich encompass the area of influence and areaof interest. (MCRP 5-12C)

battlespace dominance—The degree of controlover the dimensions of the battlespace which en-sures friendly freedom of action and denies ene-my f r eedom o f ac t i on . I t pe rmi t s fo r cesustainment and application of power projectionto accomplish the full range of potential opera-tional and tactical missions. It includes all actionsconducted against enemy capabilities to influencefuture operations. (MCRP 5-12C)

carrier battle group—A standing naval taskgroup consisting of a battle group command andcontrol element organized and trained to com-mand naval, joint and combined operations. Itconsists of an aircraft carrier with embarked airwing, surface combatants, submarines, and otherassigned forces with organic combat logistics, op-erating as a cohesive, task-organized unit toachieve battlespace dominance over designatedareas both ashore and afloat and to project powerashore. Also called a CVBG. (Navy proposal forrevision of JP 1-02)

centers of gravity—Those characteristics, capa-bilities, or localities from which a military forcederives its freedom of action, physical strength, orwill to fight. (JP 1-02)

close operations—Military actions conducted toproject power decisively against enemy forceswhich pose an immediate or near term threat tothe success of current battles or engagements.These military actions are conducted by commit-ted forces and their readily available tactical re-serves, using maneuver and combined arms.(MCRP 5-12C)

coalition force—A force composed of militaryelements of nations that have formed a temporaryalliance for some specific purpose. (JP 1-02)

combined arms—The full integration of combatarms in such a way that to counteract one, the en-emy must become more vulnerable to another.(MCRP 5-12C)

critical vulnerability—An aspect of a center ofgravity that if exploited will do the most signifi-cant damage to an adversary’s ability to resist. Avulnerability cannot be critical unless it under-mines a key strength. (MCRP 5-12C)

deep operations—Military actions conductedagainst enemy capabilities which pose a potentialthreat to friendly forces. These military actionsare designed to isolate, shape, and dominate thebattlespace and influence future operations.(MCRP 5-12C)

flight ferry—The self-deployment of aircraftfrom one station to another. Although conduct ofthe movement is administrative in character, itspurpose may be operational.

force sustainment—Capabilities, equipment, andoperations that ensure continuity, freedom of ac-tion, logistic support, and command and control.(MCRP 5-12C)

joint force—A general term applied to a forcecomposed of significant elements, assigned or at-tached, of two or more Military Departments, op-erating under a single commander authorized toexercise operational control. (JP 1-02)

joint force air component commander—Thejoint force air component commander derives au-thority from the joint force commander who hasthe authority to exercise operational control, as-sign missions, direct coordination among subordi-nate commanders, redirect and organize forces toensure unity of effort in the accomplishment ofthe overall mission. The joint force commanderwill normally designate a joint force air compo-nent commander. The joint force air componentcommander’s responsibilities will be assigned by

Aviation Operations ______________________________________________________________________________________ B-5

the joint force commander (normally these wouldinclude, but not be limited to, planning, coordina-tion, allocation, and tasking based on the jointforce commander’s apportionment decision). Us-ing the joint force commander’s guidance and au-thority, and in coordination with other Servicecomponent commanders and other assigned orsupporting commanders, the joint force air com-ponent commander will recommend to the jointforce commander apportionment of air sorties tovarious missions or geographic areas. Also calledJFACC. (JP 1-02)

main effort—The designated subordinate unitwhose mission at a given point in time is mostcritical to overall mission success. It is usuallyweighted with the preponderance of combat pow-er and is directed against a center of gravitythrough a critical vulnerability. (MCRP 5-12C)

maneuver warfare—A warfighting philosophythat seeks to shatter the enemy’s cohesion througha variety of rapid, focused, and unexpected ac-tions which create a turbulent and rapidly deterio-rating situation with which the enemy cannotcope. (MCRP 5-12C)

Marine air-ground task force—The MarineCorps principal organization for all missionsacross the range of military operations, composedof forces task-organized under a single command-er capable of responding rapidly to a contingencyanywhere in the world. The types of forces in theMarine air-ground task force (MAGTF) are func-tionally grouped into four core elements: a com-mand element, an aviation combat element, aground combat element, and a combat servicesupport element. The four core elements are cate-gories of forces, not formal commands. The basicstructure of the Marine air-ground task force nev-er varies, though the number, size, and type ofMarine Corps units comprising each of its four el-ements will always be mission dependent. Theflexibility of the organizational structure allowsfor one or more subordinate MAGTFs, other Ser-vice and/or foreign military forces, to be assignedor attached. Also called MAGTF. (approved fornext edition of MCRP 5-12C)

operational level of war—The level of war atwhich campaigns and major operations areplanned, conducted, and sustained to accomplishstrategic objectives within theaters or areas of op-erations. Activities at this level link tactics andstrategy by establishing operational objectivesneeded to accomplish the strategic objectives, se-quencing events to achieve the operational objec-tives, initiating actions, and applying resources tobring about and sustain these events. These activi-ties imply a broader dimension of time or spacethan do tactics; they ensure the logistic and ad-ministrative support of tactical forces, and pro-vide the means by which tactical successes areexploited to achieve strategic objectives. (JP 1-02)

power projection—The application of measured,precise offensive military force at a chosen timeand place, using maneuver and combined armsagainst enemy forces. (MCRP 5-12C)

rear operations—Military actions conducted tosupport and permit force sustainment and to pro-vide security for such actions. (MCRP 5-12C)

rules of engagement—Directives issued by com-petent military authority which delineate the cir-cumstances and limitations under which UnitedStates forces will initiate and/or continue combatengagement with other forces encountered. Alsocalled ROE. (JP 1-02)

sortie—In air operations, an operational flight byone aircraft. (JP 1-02)

special purpose Marine air-ground taskforce—A Marine air-ground task force organized,trained and equipped with narrowly focused capa-bilities. It is designed to accomplish a specificmission, often of limited scope and duration. Itmay be any size, but normally it is a relativelysmall force—the size of a Marine expeditionaryunit or smaller. It may contain other Service orforeign military forces assigned or attached to theMarine air-ground task force. Also calledSPMAGTF.

B-6 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-2

strategic level of war—The level of war at whicha nation, often as a member of a group of nations,determines national or multinational (alliance orcoalition) security objectives and guidance, anddevelops and uses national resources to accom-plish these objectives. Activities at this level es-tablish national and multinational militaryobjectives; sequence initiatives; define limits andassess risks for the use of military and other in-struments of national power; develop global plansor theater war plans to achieve these objectives;

and provide military forces and other capabilitiesin accordance with strategic plans. (JP 1-02)

tactical level of war—The level of war at whichbattles and engagements are planned and executedto accomplish military objectives assigned to tac-tical units or task forces. Activities at this level fo-cus on the ordered arrangement and maneuver ofcombat elements in relation to each other and tothe enemy to achieve combat objectives. (JP 1-02)

Appendix C

References and Related Publications

Joint Publications (JPs)

0-2 Unified Action Armed Forces (UNAAF)1-02 Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms2-0 Doctrine for Intelligence Support to Joint Operations2-01.1 Joint Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Intelligence Support to

Targeting (under development)3-0 Doctrine for Joint Operations3-01.5 Doctrine for Joint Theater Missile Defense3-04.1 Joint Tactics, Techniques and Procedures for Shipboard Helicopter Operations3-07 Joint Doctrine for Military Operations Other Than War3-09 Doctrine for Joint Fire Support3-09.3 JTTP for Close Air Support (CAS) 3-50.2 Doctrine for Joint Combat Search and Rescue3-52 Doctrine for Joint Airspace Control in a Combat Zone3-56.1 Command and Control for Joint Air Operations5-0 Doctrine for Planning Joint Operations

Naval Doctrinal Publications (NDPs)

1 Naval Warfare3 Naval Operations4 Naval Logistics

Marine Corps Publications

Marine Corps Doctrinal Publications (MCDPs)1 Warfighting1-1 Strategy1-2 Campaigning1-3 Tactics2 Intelligence3 Expeditionary Operations4 Logistics5 Planning6 Command and Control

C-2 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ MCWP 3-2

Marine Corps Warfighting Publications (MCWPs)0-1 Marine Corps Operations (under development)0-1.1 Componency2-1 Intelligence Operations2-11 MAGTF Intelligence Collection (under development)2-15.4 Imagery Intelligence (under development)3-16 Fire Support Coordination (under development)3-21.1 Aviation Ground Support (under development)3-22 Anitair Warfare3-22.1 Multi-Service Procedure for Antiradiation Missile Employment in a Joint

Environment (ARM-J)3-23.1 Close Air Support3-24 Assault Support 3-24.1 Helicopter Operating Procedures for Air-Capable Ships3-25 Control of Aircraft and Missiles3-25.1 Integrated Combat Airspace C2 (ICAC 2) Manual (under development)3-25.2 Multi-Service Procedures for Theater Air-Ground Systems (TAGS)3-25.3 Marine Air Command and Control System Handbook3-25.4 Marine Tactical Air Command Center Handbook3-25.5 Direct Air Support Center Handbook3-25.6 Marine Sector Antiair Warfare Coordinator Handbook3-25.7 Tactical Air Operations Center Handbook3-25.8 Marine Air Traffic Control Detachment Handbook3-25.9 Marine Air Command and Control Systems Communications Handbook (under development)3-25.10 Low Altitude Air Defense Handbook 3-25.11 Low Altitude Air Defense (LAAD) Gunner's Handbook (under development)3-35.7 MAGTF Meteorology and Oceanography (METOC) Support4-11.7 MAGTF Supply Operations5-1 Marine Corps Planning Process5-11.1 MAGTF Aviation Planning (under development)6-2 MAGTF Command and Control (under development)

Marine Corps Reference Publications (MCRPs)3-22A Multi-Service Procedures for EA-6B Employment in the Joint Environment

(J-PROWLER) 3-23A Multi-Service Procedures for Joint Air Attack Team Operations 3-25A Multi-Service Procedures for Joint Air Traffic Control (JATC) 3-25B Multi-Service Air-Air, Air-Surface, and Surface-Air Brevity Codes5-11.1A Aviation Planning Documents (under development)5-12A Operational Terms and Graphics5-12C Marine Corps Supplement to the Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and

Associated Terms5-12D Organization of Marine Corps Forces

Marine Corps Bulletin (MCBul)3501 Maritime Prepositioning Force (MPF) Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF) Force List

Aviation Operations ______________________________________________________________________________________ C-3

Miscellaneous. . . From the SeaForward . . . From the SeaMAGTF Aviation and Operational Maneuver From the Sea