Upload
others
View
2
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
!"
"
Maja Musi Department of History – Ghent University, Belgium
Tangled memories.
Sarajevo’s Vraca Memorial Park and the reconstruction of the past in Bosnia
and Herzegovina.
My aim in this paper is that of presenting the case of a memorial complex in the city
of Sarajevo, to explore how remembrance of different events is shaped around one
single site, implicitly or explicitly, and what implications these different layers of
memory have for the study of public discourses and practices of memory and identity
in post-war Bosnia and Herzegovina. Though limited to a specific case, the paper
tries to highlight some features from which the study of memory in a post-socialist
and post-war context can benefit.
Contextualization
In the framework of extreme (ethno)nationalist ideologies fostered by the
political elites of the parties involved in the war marking the end of Socialist
Yugoslavia, cultural heritage acquired a place within the list of targets for
destruction. While nationalist rhetoric juxtaposed ethnic affiliations within a logic of
mutually exclusive definitions of self and other based on blood purity, political
projects of ethnic homogenization on given territories were pursued with violent
means between 1992 and 1995 in the republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Efforts of
redrawing the territorial organization and demographic composition of the area were
carried out using systematic violence against the ethnic other through practices
ranging from harassment to deportation, torture, rape, detention in camps and mass
#"
"
killings, where the Serb faction assumed by and large the role of the perpetrator.
Within this context, narratives of the past were employed to stiffen ethnic affiliations
as well as justify current political and military goals. Cultural heritage was thus
directly invested with meaning as symbol of the historical presence of the ethnic
other on a contested soil, and targeted for deliberate destruction, in a process in
which narrowed notions of identity and belonging were associated most visibly and
immediately to tangible items of heritage, such as historical and religious buildings.
The strategy of so-called “ethnic cleansing” entailing coercive eradication and/or
elimination of people – and, with them, the intangible heritage of the area – was
complemented by the devastation of what was identified as physical marker of the
other’s identity, to the extent that investigations in the post-war period “found that
the entire heritage of Bosnia and Herzegovina is endangered”.1
Halting the conflict in 1995, the General Framework Agreement for Peace
(hereinafter: Dayton Agreement) provided for the establishment of a Commission to
Preserve National Monuments (hereinafter: the Commission). The creation of a
specific body concerned with monuments in this agreement represents the encounter
between an international tendency of growing interest and sense of shared
responsibility towards cultural heritage and a local experience of systematic
destruction of cultural memory. 2 Moreover, it testifies for the investment of cultural
heritage with a relevant role in contributing to political stability and economic
development in the process of post-war reconstruction, emphasized by the
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""!"$%&'&()*+',-',".#//01#234"#"567"!89:";<,=7,>(<,"?<@"567"A@<>7)>(<,"<B";%&>%@'&"A@<C7@>D"(,">67"E=7,>"<B"F@G7-";<,B&()>"H(I,7-"'>"567"+'I%7" (H"<,7" (GC<@>',>"H>7C" (,">6(H" @7HC7)>4"J<H,('"',-"+7@K7I<=(,'"@'>(B(7-" (>" (,"!88L".H77"MMM4%,7H)<4<@I34"
L"
"
positioning of the Annex establishing the Commission (Annex 8, following Annex 7
on the return of Refugees and Displaced Persons).
Vraca Memorial Park as National Monument
Vraca Memorial Park was inaugurated in 1981 as a complex dedicated to the
suffering and resistance of the citizens of Sarajevo during World War II. Originally
an Austro-Hungarian fortification (completed in 1898), the structure was used
between 1941 and 1945 by occupying forces as execution place. Plans for the
erection of a memorial in the Socialist period were drafted since 1965, but lack of
funds prevented its realization until 1980. When finally erected, the Memorial
comprised many individual elements, whose ensemble points in the direction of a
memory narrative that honoured victims and victors in one structured message: along
with the names of 2,013 fallen fighters and 9,091 victims of fascist terror, the Park
comprised a memorial to twenty-six national heroes, a sculpture to combatant
women, an eternal flame and messages by Tito.3 Between 1992 and 1995, the
location was used as a military position for snipers and heavy artillery of the forces
besieging the city, who, upon their withdrawal, left the site in damaged conditions
(subsequently aggravated by neglect and acts of vandalism – Illustrations 1 to 4).4
Nowadays, different “layers” of history can be traced in the space of Vraca Memorial
Park: the Habsburg presence (1878-WWI), the experience of war and “revolution”
(1941-45), the conflict that marked the end of Yugoslavia (1992-95).
In 2005, following the submission of a petition by the Council of
Associations of Fighters of the National Liberation War (SUBNOR – the partisan
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""L" ?<@" '" -7>'(&7-" &(H>" <B" '&&" >67" )<GC<,7,>H" ',-" -7H)@(C>(<," <B" >67" H(>7" H77" >67" M7NH(>7" <B" >67";<GG(HH(<,"><"A@7H7@=7"O'>(<,'&"$<,%G7,>H1"MMM4',7PHQP<G(H(R'4)<G4N'4":";%H><"#//Q4"
:"
"
veteran association created after WWII), Vraca Memorial Park was designated as
national monument by the Commission. As established in the Dayton Agreement, the
mandate of the Commission is to “receive and decide on petitions for the designation
of property having cultural, historic, religious or ethnic importance as National
Monuments” (Annex 8, Art. IV). A first glance at the items declared national
monuments until now, leads to two initial considerations on the Commission’s work:
first, decisions concerning religious buildings or historical/architectural properties
that might be associated with specific ethnic groups have been designated in
“balanced” proportions, i.e. properties that can be assumed to represent each of the
three “constituent peoples” of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosniac, Croat, Serb5) were
evenly designated. This suggests that the Commission’s efforts are dedicated to
positively build upon the so-called “ethnic key” informing the Dayton Agreement,
and that, without “privileging” any of the groups, its work is directed to reconstruct
the heritage of the country in its entirety, plurality, and heterogeneity.6 Secondly, it
can be noted that monuments purposely erected to mark historical events/persons
(items of heritage other than historical or religious buildings, bridges, tombstones,
archaeological sites) constitute a tiny minority of the decisions adopted by the
Commission, partly because of more limited destruction in the last conflict. In this
respect, the designation of Vraca Memorial Park as national monument constitutes an
“exception”.7
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""9"S77"T?FAU"F,,7V":4"2"S77"+'-K(G%6'G7-<=()"#//Q4"0"W>67@"H(G(&'@" (,H>',)7H"'@7">67"A'@>(H',"$7G<@('&*;7G7>7@D"(,"$<H>'@"',-">67"$7G<@('&")<GC&7V"<B">67"J'>>&7"<,">67"O7@7>='"(,"X'N&',()'4"S77"MMM4',7PHQP<G(H(R'4)<G4N'4"
9"
"
Around Vraca
The designation of Vraca Memorial Park introduces a central question. It
concerns the implications of designating a memorial erected during Socialist
Yugoslavia as “national monument” in 2005 independent Bosnia and Herzegovina.
The criteria applied by the Commission involve considerations on time frame,
historical and artistic/architectural value, and symbolic value8 of the monument
(besides technical documentation). The question, thus, concerns how we should
interpret and what we might deduce from the fact that a site commemorating the
victims of fascism and celebrating the resistance and victorious revolution of the
partisans of WWII has been declared to have a symbolic significance for the entire
nation of an independent Bosnia and Herzegovina emerged from the armed conflict
that brought the very existence of Socialist Yugoslavia to an end.
The decision of the Commission, while acknowledging the importance of the
monument as part of the Bosnian cultural heritage, simultaneously invests it with
new meanings, by putting it under special protection by the appropriate institutions
and urging them to proceed to its reconstruction. Ultimately, it gives the memorial a
formal recognition through an act that is final and binding, and does so publicly. In
this way, the Commission emerges as a new actor in the process of production and
shaping of national memory.
In reflecting on collective memory, I draw from Halbwachs’s (1992)
constructivist approach and understanding of remembering in relation to social
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""Q" ;@(>7@(<," !"#"" SDGN<&()" Y'&%71" H(I,(B()',)7" B<@" >67" (-7,>(>D" <B" '" I@<%C" <B" C7<C&74" 567" >7V>" <B" >67"Z7)(H(<,"(H"'))7HH(N&7"'>"MMM4',7PHQP<G(H(R'4)<G4N'4"
2"
"
frames, and Kansteiner’s identification of memory “makers” and “consumers” as
agents involved in memory production (2002:180). As Assmann (2008) remarks,
collective memory [...] depends on transitions from history into memory that involve the framing of historical events in the shape of affectively charged narratives and mobilizing symbols. If historic dates [...] are selected to be collectively and transgenerationally remembered, “fiction” in the sense of making, shaping, constructing is always implied in their narrative emplotment or visual encoding (pg.67).
In studying memory, thus, the focus lies on the process of its creation and the
relationships between the actors involved in this process. In this perspective, the
Commission functions as a ‘mediator’, evaluating proposals that any juridical or
natural person is allowed to submit, and issuing binding decisions that involve
institutions at various administrative and political levels. The petition concerning
Vraca Memorial Park was submitted in 2004 by another traditional ‘mediator’ of
remembrance: SUBNOR (see above).9 The drafting of the petition was completed in
SUBNOR’s premises, in collaboration with other associations, as the society “Tito”,
the association of independent intellectuals “Krug 99”, the Serbian Civic Council,
and the Croatian National Council.10
In the process of creation and transmission of memory, a crucial role is
played by practices and performances around specific sites (Connerton 1989). During
the 1980s, Vraca Memorial Park used to be the destination of frequent visits not only
in occasion of official celebrations of important dates, but also for organized trips for
students, with “history lessons” in loco, and excursions. After the 1992-1995 war,
security reasons precluded visits to the site, and nowadays its damaged conditions """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""8"W,">67"@<&7"<B"S[JOW\"(,"G7-('>(,I")<&&7)>(=7"G7G<@D"-%@(,I"S<)('&(H>"]%I<H&'=('"H77"^'@I7"#//8U";%H><"#//Q4"567">7@G"_G7-('><@`"(H">'P7,"B@<G"^'@I7`H"M<@P4"!/"A7@H<,'&")<GG%,()'>(<,U"S'@'R7=<U"FC@(&"#/!/4"567"&'H>">M<"'HH<)('>(<,H"G7,>(<,7-"'@7"&<)'&"OTWH")@7'>7-"(,">67"G(-*!88/HU"C@<G<>(,I"'"J<H,(',"C&%@'&(H>"(-7,>(>D" (,"<CC<H(>(<,"><",'>(<,'&(H>"C<&(>()H"B@<G">67(@"@7HC7)>(=7"7>6,()"I@<%CH4"
0"
"
and its specific location turned it into a place people would rather avoid.11 Practices
around the memorial have reduced to the formal laying of wreaths by authorities and
citizens on official days of remembrance. After the designation as national
monument by the Commission in 2005, a new petition has been signed to address the
lack of concrete measures for its reconstruction, and one “working activity” took
place to clean the site.12
A second question on Vraca Memorial Park concerns the events that took
place on its area between 1992 and 1995. In this respect, what is at stake is the
possibility for the memorial to acquire new significance, by being invested with
meanings that transcend the messages originally inscribed in the monument within
the official politics of memory of the apparatus that erected it. Ascription of new
meanings to the existing site might come from any of the actors involved, or might
inform the measures (or lack of measures) adopted by the institutions towards the
site. Investigating this topic is far beyond the aim of this paper. It is interesting to
note, however, that the 2005 Decision of the Commission does mention this part of
the history of the Memorial in its description of the site. Similarly, the internet-based
group Spasimo i obnovimo Spomen-Park Vraca reminds of the damage suffered by
the site during the last war, while suggesting that, because of its location,
reconstruction might offer the opportunity of collaboration between citizens and
institutions of the two Entities.13 Reference to this more recent use of the place
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""!!"Z%@(,I" >67" H(7I7U" >67" H(>7"M'H"G(,7-" .;%H><"#//Q34" 5<-'DU" (>" &'DH"<," >67"N<%,-'@D"N7>M77," >67"?7-7@'>(<,"<B"J<H,('"',-"+7@K7I<=(,'"',-"\7C%N&(P'" S@CHP'U" >67" >M<"E,>(>(7H" )<GC@(H(,IU" ><I7>67@"M(>6"J@)P<"Z(H>@()U">67"H>'>7"<B"J<H,('4"!#" a\'-,'" 'P)(R'" ,'" Y@')'G'b" .c<@P(,I" ')>(=(>D" '>" Y@')'3U" Z,7=,(" F='KU" #9d/9d#//Q4" 567" ')>(<," (H"@7C<@>7-"(,">67"B<@%G"<B">67"M7NH(>7"MMM4H'@'R7=<*V4)<G4"567"B')7N<<P"I@<%C"!"#$%&'(%(')*'+%&'(!"'&,*-.#/0(1/#2#".e7>`H"H'=7"',-"@7,7M"Y@')'"$7G<@('&"A'@P3"'--@7HH7-">67"C7>(>(<,"><">67"A@(G7"$(,(H>7@"<B">67"?7-7@'>(<,"<B"J<H,('"',-"+7@K7I<=(,'"(,"?7N@%'@D"#/!/4"!L"S77">67"I@<%C`H"C'I7"<,"B')7N<<PU"6>>C1ddMMM4B')7N<<P4)<GdI@<%C4C6CfI(-g#80Q:80/09:4"
Q"
"
appears limited to unbiased statements as in the two cases recalled above. Both
institutions and groups engaged with the memorial’s rehabilitation are committed to
restoration to its original look, and the idea of adding some sort of visible “marker”
referring to the 1992-95 events is seen as a measure that might encounter
resistance.14 Recently, Mayor Alija Behmen gathered a meeting with the directors of
two institutes for the preservation of heritage (the Cantonal and Federal institutes),
the president of the Jewish Community, the Mayor of Novo Sarajevo municipality
(comprising Vraca neighbourhood), and Pokop funeral services, for arrangements to
start the reconstruction works.15
In sum, the case of Vraca Memorial Park shows a relatively high level of
involvement on the part of various associations and groups of citizens, both in formal
communications with the institutions and through some activities on the site itself.
These groups comprise both individuals who experienced the 1941-45 events directly
and younger generations, and their involvement is motivated by distinct meanings
with which each group invests the site, on the basis of a shared perception of its
significance for Bosnian present identity. The Commission recognized the symbolic
value of the Memorial through its designation as national monument, while
authorities pay formal tribute to the site on official recurrences.
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""!:" A7@H<,'&" )<GG%,()'>(<," M(>6" '" C@(='>7" )(>(K7," 7,I'I7-" B<@" >67" @76'N(&(>'>(<," <B" >67"$7G<@('&U"S'@'R7=<U"FC@(&"#/!/4""!9"$'D"!!>6"#/!/4" aT@'-<,'h7&,(P" H'K='<" H'H>','P"<" H',')(R(" SC<G7,*C'@P'" Y@')'bU"M7NH(>7"<B" >67";(>D"<B"S'@'R7=<U"MMM4H'@'R7=<4N'"
8"
"
Conclusions
The implications of the relations between memory, power, and identity16 are
increasingly addressed in studies on the recent conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina,
as the (re)emergence or persistence of local memories is explored in relation to the
rise of (ethno)nationalist ideologies and their use and construction of narratives of
the past.17 This reflection is developing especially in relation to the recent armed
conflict and remembrances of previous episodes of (inter-ethnic) violence during
WWII. As such, the analysis is mainly focused on the role of memory in the context
of war and in relation to the rhetoric of reconciliation and post-war reconstruction,
and often concludes that ‘within a decade the modern Balkan wars [have] generated
their own powerful cycle of memories’ (Bet-El 2002:207).
This approach would need to integrate enhanced analyses of the articulation
of memory during Socialist Yugoslavia and with regard to regime change.18 The case
of Vraca Memorial Park hints at some elements of continuity with Bosnia’s socialist
past (official visits on important dates, the role of SUBNOR, the active involvement
of citizens, rhetorical reference to fascism and antifascism), drawing attention to
entanglements between actors and processes of production/contestation/mediation of
memory in post-war Bosnia and Socialist Yugoslavia.
The engagement around the Memorial points to a further consideration: that
one site is identified by distinct subjects and invested with a significance that is
understood as common, though variation in the meanings attached to it is present, as
is the awareness of possible situations of disagreement and tension over these
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""!2"$%&&7@"#//#4"!0"S77"X',H7,"#//#U"Z%(RK(,IH"#//04"!Q"S77"O'-P'@,("#//LU"J%)%@"#//#4"
!/"
"
meanings. This, in turn, hints at the fact that ‘we are always part of several
mnemonic communities’ (Kansteiner 2002:189). All these elements are important
variables in studies that understand memory ‘as an outcome of the relationship
between a distinct representation of the past and the full spectrum of symbolic
representations available in a given culture’ (Confino 1997:1391).
!!"
"
"
$%%&'()*(+,-./.0.1,)(2.3,#".4556.789,(,:.*&(9,);.
"
$%%&'()*(+,-.4.<.!(=)-*%.>%*?=.@+(9.>,&-(*+-2.3,#".4556.789,(,:.*&(9,);.
!#"
"
"
$%%&'()*(+,-.A.<.BC&%8(&)=.(,.@,?=-.C,?D*(*-(2.3,#".4556.789,(,:.*&(9,);.
"
$%%&'()*(+,-.E.<.F*-,)*?+C.#[email protected],#".4556.789,(,:.*&(9,);.
!L"
"
References:
Assmann, A. (2008) Transformations between History and Memory. Social
Research, 75(1), 49-73.
Bell, D. (2009) Introduction: Violence and Memory. Millennium - Journal of
International Studies, 38(2), 345-360.
Bet-El, I. R. (2004) Unimagined communities: the power of memory and the conflict
in the former Yugoslavia. In: J.-W. Muller, Memory and Power in post-war
Europe. Studies in the presence of the past. Cambridge, Cambridge University
Press, p. 206-222.
Booth, W. J. (1999) Communities of Memory: On Identity, Memory, and Debt. The
American Political Science Review, 93(2), 249-263.
Bucur, M. (2002) Treznea: Trauma, nationalism and the memory of World War II in
Romania. Rethinking History, 6(1), 35-55.
Confino, A. (1997) Collective Memory and Cultural History: Problems of Method.
The American historical review, 102(5), 1386.
Connerton, P. (1989) How Societies Remember. Cambridge, Cambridge University
Press.
!usto, A. (2008) Kolektivna memorija grada. Vjecna vatra i Spomen-park Vraca.
Historijska traganja, 1, 101-123.
Duijzings, G. (2007) Commemorating Srebrenica: histories of violence and the
politics of memory in Eastern Bosnia. In: X. Bougarel et al. (eds) The new
Bosnian mosaic : identities, memories and moral claims in a post-war society.
Aldershot, Hants, Ashgate, p. 141-166.
!:"
"
Had"imuhamedovi#, A. (2006) Reconstruct or forget? European history and Bosnian
reality. Forum Bosnae, 38, 222-244.
Had"imuhamedovi#, A. (2008) The heritage in post-war peacetime - the case of
Bosnia. Ba!tina/Heritage, IV, 25-72.
Halbwachs, M. (1992) On collective memory. Edited and translated by Lewis A.
Coser. Chicago, University of Chicago Press.
Huyssen, A. (2003) Present Pasts: Urban Palimpsests and the Politics of Memory.
Stanford University Press.
Jansen, S. (2002) The Violence of Memories: Local narratives of the past after ethnic
cleansing in Croatia. Rethinking History, 6(1), 77-93.
Jezernik, B. (1998) Monuments in the winds of change. International Journal of
Urban and Regional Research, 22(4), 582-588.
Kansteiner, W. (2002) Finding Meaning in Memory: A Methodological Critique of
Collective Memory Studies. History and Theory, 41(2), 179-197.
Karge, H. (2009) Mediated remembrance: local practices of remembering the Second
World War in Tito's Yugoslavia. European Review of History: Revue
europeenne d'histoire, 16(1), 49-62.
Mulali#-Handan, M. (2007) Implementation of Annex 8 of General Framework
Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Ba!tina/Heritage, III, 23-53.
Müller, J.-W. (eds) (2002) Memory and Power in Post-War Europe: Studies in the
Presence of the Past. Cambridge, Cambridge university press.
Nadkarni, M. (2003) The death of socialism and the afterlife of its monuments:
making and marketing the past in Budapest's Statue Park Museum. In: K.
!9"
"
Hodgkin and S. Radstone, Contested Pasts. The politics of memory. London
and New York, Routledge, p. 193-207.
Palmberger, M. (2007) Making and Breaking Boundaries: Memory Discourses and
Memory Politics in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In: M. Bufon, et al. The Western
Balkans – A European Challenge. Koper, Annales, p. 525-536.
Wik, T. (2005) Reflections after eight years of restoration work in Bosnia and
Herzegovina by Cultural Heritage without Borders. Ba!tina/Heritage, I, 195-
217.
Young, J. E. (1993) Introduction. The Texture of memory. Holocaust memorials and
meaning. New Haven and London, Yale University Press, p. 1-15.
"