1

Louis P.PojmanEthics: discovering right and

wrong

2

Ethical theories

ethical theory the locus of value

deontological the (kind) of act

teleological the outcome i.e. consequences

virtue the character

Pojman p 11-12

3

Normative subjects Subject Normative Disjuncts Sanctions

Ethics Right and wrong, as defined by conscience or reason

Conscience – praise and blame, reputation

Religion Right and wrong (sin), generally as defined by religious authority

Conscience – eternal reward and punishment, due to a supernatural agent or force

Law Legal and illegal, as defined by a judicial body

Punishments determined by the legislative body

Etiquette Proper and improper, as defined by the culture

Social disapprobation and approbationPojman p 6

4

Traits of Moral Principles

1. Prescriptivity

2. Universalizability

3. Overridingness

4. Publicity

5. PracticabilityPojman p 7

5

What and how do we evaluate

Domain Evaluative Terms

1.Action (the act) Right, wrong, obligatory, optional

2.Consequences Good, bad, indifferent

3.Character Virtuous, vicious, neutral

4.Motive Good will, evil will, neutralPojman p 9

6

Types of action

Right Wrong

(permissible) (not permissible)

Obligatory

Optional

Neutral SupererogatoryPojman p 10

7

The Purposes of Morality

1. To keep society from falling apart.

2. To ameliorate human suffering.

3. To promote human flourishing.

4. To resolve conflicts of interest in just ways.

5. To assign responsibility for actions.Pojman p 18

8

Ethical Relativism

1. The Diversity Thesis: there are no universal moral standards held by all societies

2. The Dependency Thesis:to act in a certain way is relative to the society

3. The Conclusion:there are no absolute or objective moral standards

Pojman p 28

9

Ethical Subjectivism

»Solipsism

»Atomism

»EscapismPojman p 33

10

Ethical Conventionalism

• Conservative

• Totalitarian

• IntolerantPojman p 41

11

The doctrine of natural law

1. Morality is a function of human nature.

2. Reason can discover valid moral principles by looking at the nature of humanity and society.

Pojman p 45

12

The key ideas of the natural law tradition

1. Human beings have an essential rational nature

2. Reason can discover the laws for human flourishing

3. The natural laws are universal and unchangeable

Pojman p 47

13

The doctrine of double effect

an act is morally permissible:

1. The Nature-of-the-Act Condition

2. The Means-End Condition

3. The Right-Intention Condition

4. The Proportionality ConditionPojman p 48

14

Moral absolutism and objectivism

moral absolu-tism

moral principles are nonover-ridable

moral norms are without exceptions

Kant, act utilitaria-nism

moral objecti-vism

moral principles are universally valid

no moral duty has absolute priority

Ross

Pojman p 45

15

Prima facie principles

valid rules of action

that one should generally adhere to

but that, in cases of moral conflict,

may be overridable by

another moral principle.Pojman p 51

16

Minimal principles of the core morality

1. Do not kill innocent people.2. Do not cause unnecessary pain or suffering.3. Do not steal or cheat.4. Keep your promises and honor your contracts.5. Do not deprive another person of his or her freedom.6. Do justice, treating equals equally and unequals

unequally.7. Reciprocate: Show gratitude for services rendered.8. Tell the truth, or, at least, do not lie.9. Help other people, at least when the cost to oneself is

minimal.10. Obey just laws. Pojman p 52

17

Justification of Moderate Objectivism

1. Human nature is relatively similar, having a common set of needs and interests.

2. Moral principles are functions of human needs and interests, instituted by reason.

3. Some moral principles will meet human needs and promote human interests better than others.

4. These principles can be said to be objectively valid principles.

5. Therefore an objectively valid set of moral principles is applicable to all humanity.

Pojman p 53-54

18

The attraction of ethical relativism

1. The option that absolutism and relativism are the only alternatives.

2. Objectiviam is confused with realism.

3. The move from descriptive cultural relativism to normative ethical relativism.

4. Drive to moral nihilism and relativism because of the decline of religion in Western society.

5. As metaethics so ought also ethics be morally neutral (amoral). Pojman p 56-58

19

Egoism

The doctrine that it is morally right

always to seek one's own self-interest without regard for others.

Pojman p 71

20

Four types of egoism1.Psychological egoism

We have no choice butto be selfish.

2.Personal egoism

The state of being selfish by choice

3.Individual ethical egoism

Everyone ought to serve my best interest

4.Universal ethical egoism

Everyone ought always to do those acts that will best serve own best self-interest Pojman p 65

21

Ethical egoism

1. The Economist Argumentindividual selfinterest in a competitive marketplace

produces a state of optimal goodness for society at large

2. The Argument for the Virtue of Selfishnessaltruism is suicidal3. The Hobbesian Argumentbecause we are predominantly psychological

egoists it is morally permissible to act entirely out of self-interest Pojman p 72-74

22

A critique of ethical egoism

1. The Inconsistent Outcomes Argumentmorality is not a guide to action2. The Publicity Argumentegoist must act alone, atomistically or solipsistically in

moral isolation3. The Paradox of Egoismin order to reach the goal of egoism on emust give up

egoism and become (to some extent) an altruist4. Counterintuitive Consequenceshelping others at one's own expense is morally wrong

Pojman p 76-78

23

Altruism

The theory that

we can and should

sometimes act

in favor of others' interests.Pojman p 66

24

Four types of altuism1.Psychological altruism

We have no choice butto be unselfish.

2.Personal altruism

The state of being unselfish by choice for reciprocal cooperation

3.Individual ethical altruism

I ought to serve everyone’s best interest

4.Universal ethical altruism

Everyone ought always to sacrifice own happiness for the good of others From Pojman chp 4 Noormägi

25

Reciprocal Altruism

No duty to serve those

who manipulate us,

but willing to share with those

willing to cooperate.Pojman p 80

26

Axiology

-10..........................0.........................+10

negative neutral positive

evil/disvalue (value neutral) highest value

Pojman p 85

27

Value (to be of worth)

intrinsic

worthy in itself

(because of its nature)

instrumental

creation of choosers

(because of its consequences)

Pojman p 86-87

28

Plato's question

Do we desire the Good

because it is good,

or is the Good good

because we desire it?Pojman p 85

29

Schema of the Moral Process ACTIONS

Failure: weakness of will leads to guiltDECISIONS

Failure: perverse will leads to guiltJUDGMENTS Weighing

Failure: error in applicationPRINCIPLES

Normative question: What ought I do?VALUES Objects of desire or objects existing independently of desires

FORMS Hierarchies of beliefs, values, OF LIFE and practices; cultures or ways of life

RATIONAL Of ethical theoriesJUSTIFI- 1. ImpartialityCATION . 2. Freedom

3. Knowledge Pojman p 95

30

The Relation of Value to Morality Values are rooted

in cultural constructs

(in whole forms of life)

and

are the foundation

for moral principles

upon which

moral reasoning is based. Pojman p 96

31

Views of happiness

Absolu-tists

A single ideal for human nature - harmony of the soul - is to live according to reason

Subjec-tivists

Happiness is in the eyes of the beholder -

if I feel happy, I am happy

Combina-tional (Objec-tivism)

There is a plurality of life plans open to each person - the person is the autonomous chooser of a plan, but there are primary goods and unless these goods are present, the life plan is not an authentic manifestation of an individual's own selfhood Pojman p 96-97

32

Plan-of-life

1. an integrated whole

2. freely chosen by the person

3. possible to realizePojman p 97

33

The happy life

Action Participation in our own destiny,

not being entirely passive

Freedom To make choices, not being determined

Character To be someone, have identity

Relationships To love and be lovedPojman p 99

34

Standard of happy life

exclude being

severely retarded,

a slave,

a drug addict

include being

a deeply fulfilled,

autonomous,

healthy personPojman p 100

35

Happiness

is a life in which existfree action

(including meaningful work),loving relations, and

moral character,and

in which the individual isnot plagued by guilt

and anxiety butis blessed with

peace and satisfaction. Pojman p 100

36

Traditional morality advise who criticism

Let your conscience be your guide

common sense

conscience is a function of upbringing

Do whatever is most loving

St. Augustine

no help in a conflict of interests

Do unto others as you would have them do unto you

the Golden Rule

we are different

Pojman p 105-106

37

Utilitarianism

“The Greatest happiness

for the greatest number”

Pojman p 107

38

Punishment

how why purpose

retribution justice defensive

proportional threat preventivePojman p 109

39

Hedonic calculus

make quantitative measurements

and

apply the principle impartiallyPojman p 110

40

Criteria of pleasure and pain

»intensity»duration»certainty»nearness»fruitfulness»purity»extent Pojman p 110

41

Moral experts

Those who have had

wide experience of

the lower and higher pleasures

almost all give

a decided preference

to the higher type.Pojman p 111

42

Act-Utilitarianism

An act is right

if and only if it

results in as much good

as any available alternative.Pojman p 112

43

Rule-Utilitarianism

An act is right

if and only if it is

required by a rule that is itself

a member of a set of rules

whose acceptance would lead to

greater utility for society than

any available alternative.Pojman p 113

44

Negative responsibility

we are responsible

not only

for the consequences

of our actions (doing),

but also

for the consequences

of our non-actions (allowing)Pojman p 114

45

3 kinds of consequences

consequence good, bad, indifferent

actual absolutely

expected objectively

intended subjectivelyPojman p 117

46

The strengths and weaknesses of utilitarianism

strengths:• an absolute system with a single priciple with a

potential answer for every situation;• morality has the substance: promoting human

flourishing.weaknesses:• there are two superlatives in one principle -

either the greatest pleasure or to the greatest number;

• the problem of knowing the comparative future consequences of actions. Pojman p 115-117

47

External objections to utilitarianism

1. no rest

2. absurd implications

3. violates integrity

4. neglects justice

5. contradicts notion of publicity Pojman p 118-120

48

Man and morality

Is morality

made for man,

or

is man

made for morality? Pojman p 124

49

Deontological systems

act- norm-

deontologism deontologismintuitionism decisionism

(illumination)(existentsialism)

norm- norm-

intuitionism rationalism

Pojman p 131-133

50

Weaknesses of act-deontologism

1. There is no way for any arguments with an intuitionist.

2. Rules are necessary also to moral reasoning.

3. Because different situations share common features, it is inconsistent to prescribe different moral actions. Pojman p 131-132

51

Prima facie

principles duties

conditional actual

self-evident the intuition

a plural set decides

not absolute in context Pojman p 1133/145

52

Prima facie duties

» Promise-keeping» Fidelity» Gratitude for favors» Beneficence» Justice» Self-improvement» Non-maleficence Pojman p 133-134

53

Intuition

is internal perception

that both

discovers

the correct moral principles

and

applies

them correctlyPojman p 133

54

Influences on Kant’s ethical thinking

• pietism:

the good will as the sole intrinsic good in life

• Rousseau:

human dignity as the primacy of freedom and autonomy

• rationalism versus empiricism

innate ideas versus tabula rasaPojman p 135-136

55

Kant on morality

Morality

is ground on our rational will -

reason

is sufficient for establishing

the moral law as transcendent and

universally

binding on all rational creatures.Pojman p 137

56

Empiricism

moral principles

feelings and desires

human nature

All knowledge and justified belief

is based in experience.Pojman p 136

57

The categorical imperative

Act only according

to that maxim

by which you can

at the same time will

that it would become

a universal law”.Pojman p 139

58

The Golden Rule

Do unto others

as you would have them

do unto youPojman p 106

59

The Principle of Ends

So act as to treat humanity,

whether in your own person

or in that of any other,

in every case as an end and

never as merely a means”.Pojman p 146

60

The Principle of Autonomy

Every rational being

is able to regard

oneself as a maker

of universal law.Pojman p 149

61

Kant and religion

the unconditional worth and equal dignity of humanity, and natural purposes in nature and human nature guarantees the ultimate justification of morality

but that presupposes the ideas of• God,who enforces the moral law and rewards moral persons in

proportion• immortality,since "ought" implies "can“ there must be an afterlife in

which we make progress. Pojman p 150-151

62

Mixed deontological ethics

the principle of beneficence

• One ought not to inflict evil or harm.

• One ought to prevent evil or harm.

• One ought to remove evil.

• One ought to do or promote good.

the principle of justice

• Treat every person with equal respectPojman p 152-153

63

Critique of Deontic ethical systems

1. they lack a motivational component

and morality is reactive.

2. they are founded on a theological-legal model that is no longer appropriate.

3. they ignore the spiritual dimension of life and morality is just calculation.

4. they overemphasize the principle of autonomy and neglect the communal context of morality.

Pojman p 159-162

64

The virtues

are

excellences of character,

trained behavioral dispositions

that

result in habitual actsPojman p 163

65

Virtue ethics

Realizing Imitating

the ideal type the ideal individual

Pojman p 163

66

Virtues by Aristotle

intellectual moral

(may be taught (must be lived directly) to be learned)

Pojman p 163

67

Happiness by Aristotle

Moral virtues

(education)

and

proper social institutions

(health, wealth, good fortune)Pojman p 164

68

the Golden Mean

virtues are a mean

between

excess and deficiency

at the right time,

toward the right objects,

for the right reason,

in the right mannerPojman p 164

69

Types of Relationships between Virtue Ethics and Deontic ethics

1. Pure Aretaic Ethics

2. The Standard Deontic View

3. Complementarity Ethics

Pojman p 166-167

70

The Paradox of Morality

Why should I be moral?1. For the harmony of your soul.2. God will reward or punish people.The Ultimate Question:Is the commitment to live by moral principles a decision grounded on reason or is it an arbitrary choice?

Pojman p 183-184

71

Morality and Self-Interest

When reason to be moral

is based on self-interest,

then the rational person

will be an egoist and

promote morality for everyone else

but will violate it

whenever he or she can

safely do so.Pojman p 184

72

The Prisoner's Dilemma

1. Both cooperate - both benefit

2. Both cheat - both loose

3. You cooperate and I cheat - I benefit

4. I cooperate and you cheat - you benefit Pojman p 186

73

The Entropy Principle

Because of limitations in resources, intelligence, knowledge, rationality and

sympathy, the social fabric tends to become chaos.

Morality is antientropic: it counters the set of limitations, expands our sympathies, and

contributes to the betterment of the human predicament

Pojman p 231

74

The benefits of the moral life

• friendship• mutual love• inner peace• moral self-esteem• freedom from moral guiltA human life without the benefits of morality

is not fulfilled life.The more just the political order, the more likely self-interest and morality will

converge.Pojman p 188-189

75

Religion and Ethics

1. Does morality depend on religion?

a. morality depends on divine will

b. reasons for action are independent

2. Is religious ethics essentially

different from secular ethics?

a. religion is irrelevant (Kant) or

inimical to morality (secularists)

b. religion enrich moralityPojman p 193

76

The Divine Command Theory

1. Morality originates with God.

2. Moral rightness means “willed by God”.

3. Therefore no further reasons

for action are necessary.

Pojman p 194

77

Criticism of religious morality

1. If good means "what God commands,"

then it is merely the tautology:

"God commands us to do what

God commands us to do."

2. Religious morality is arbitrary:

if there are no constraints on what

God can command, then

anything can become a moral duty.Pojman p 196

78

Humanistic Autonomy

is higher-order reflective control

over one’s life:

rational beings can discover

objective moral principles

which enable human beings to flourish

independently of God or revelation

by using reason and experience alone.Pojman p 198

79

Religion enrich morality

1. If God exists, then good will win out over evil. 2. If God exists, then cosmic justice reigns in the

universe.3. If theism is true, then moral reasons always

override nonmoral reasons.4. If theism is true, then God loves and cares for

us – his love inspires us. 5. If God created us in his image, then all

persons are of equal worth. Pojman p 202-204

80

Religion and motive

1. God is holy

2. God rewards

3. God loves us

81

Weaknesses of religious morality

1. Religion may be used as a powerful weapon for harming others.

2. The arguments for God's existence are not obviously compelling.

Pojman p 204-205

82

Civil religion

• scientism

• capitalism

• nationalismW. Beach

83

Is Ought Fact Value

refer to what refer to whatis signified is signifiedby empirically by anverifiable evaluativestatements sentence

(some object (we are evaluatingor state of affairs or apprisingexists) something)

Pojman p 208-209

84

The Naturalistic Fallacy

1. Fact

2. Therefore, value.

Pojman p 212

85

Moore’s intuitionism

1. The Humean Thesis(Ought statements cannot be derived from is statements)2. The Platonic Thesis(Basic value terms refer to nonnatural properties)3. The Cognitive Thesis(Moral statements are true or false; they are objective

claims about reality, which can be known)4. The Intuition Thesis(Moral truths are discovered by the intuition; they are self-evident upon reflection)

Pojman p 216

86

Logical Positivists

the meaning

of a sentence

is found in its method

of verification

Pojman p 216

87

Noncognitivism

moral statements

are without

cognitive content –

emotivism, prescirptivism.

Pojman p 218

88

Emotivism

1. Moral language is expressive of

emotions or feelings,

without cognitive content.

2. Moral language is imperative,

not descriptive.

3. Moral language aims at persuading – influencing another person’s actions.

Pojman p 218

89

Prescriptivism

• moral judgments

(1) are prescriptive judgments that

(2) exhibit logical relations and

(3) are universalizable -

• involve principles that

allow a rational procedure

in cases of conflict.Pojman p 220

90

The Logic of Moral Reasoning

A valid moral argument

must contain at least

one ought (imperatival) premise

in order to reach

a moral conclusion.Pojman p 222-223

91

Criticism of Prescriptivism

1. is too broad

2. permits the trivial

3. misses the point of morality

4. no constraints on altering one's principlesPojman p 227-230

92

Fact-Value Positions Problems of Meaning Problems of justification

Cognitivism [Ethical claims have truth-value and it is possible to know what it is]

A. Naturalism Ethical terms are defined in factual terms; they refer to natural properties.

Ethical judgments are disguised assertions of some kind of fact and thus can be justified empirically.

1. Subjective Their truth originates in individual or social decision.

2. Objective Their truth is independent of individual or social decision.

B. Nonnaturalism Ethical terms cannot be defined in factual terms; they refer to nonnatural properties.

Ethical conclusions cannot be derived from empirically confirmed propositions.

1. Intuitionism Intuition alone provides confirmation.

2. Religious revelation Some form of divine revelation provides confirmation.

Noncognitivism [Ethical claims do not have truth-value.]

A. Emotivism Ethical terms do not ascribe properties, and their meaning is not factual but, rather, emotive.

Ethical judgments are not factually, rationally, or intuitively justifiable.

B. Prescriptivism Ethical terms do not ascribe properties, and their meaning is not factual but, rather, signifies universal prescriptions.

Ethical judgments are not factually, intuitively, or rationally justifiable, but are existentially justified. Pojman p 228

93

Neonaturalism

values can sometimes

be derived from facts –

certain facts

entail values.Pojman p 227

94

Moral objectivism

moral judgments

are not truths about the world,

but judgments about

how we ought

to make the worldPojman p 235

95

Cognitivism versus Noncognitivism

Cognitivism Noncognitivism

Realism Naturalism Nonnaturalism (intuitionism) Supernaturalism

Error TheoryMoral Skepticism Antirealism Emotivism Prescriptivism Projectivism

Cognitivism: Moral principles (or judgments have truth values (they are propositions that are true or false)

Error theory: Realism is the correct analysis of moral principles, but we are in error about them. There are no moral truths. This is a form of moral nihilism.

Noncognitivism: Moral principles (or judgments) do not have truth values (they are pro attitudes or con attitudes, not essentially proportional).

Realism: Moral facts or properties exist, hence moral principles (or judgments) are proportional and true – part of the fabric of the universe. Examples of realism are naturalism, nonnaturalism, and supernaturalism.

Moral Skepticism: There may or may not be moral truths, but even if they exist, we cannot know them.

Pojman p 240

Antirealism: Moral principles (or judgments) do not have truth values. There are no moral facts. Examples of antirealism are emotivism, prescriptivism, and projectivism (the view that, in making moral judgments, we project our attitudes or emotions onto the world).

96

Direction of fit

A proposition is true word to world

A moral prescriptipon

is universally valid

world to word

Pojman p 251

97

Moral properties

are functional:

to fulfil the purpose of morality –

to promote human flourishing

and ameliorate sufferingPojman p 244

98

Moral realism

thought experiments

as well as

anthropological and sociological data

confirm

our moral theory

which principles

are objective guidelines

for our actionPojman p 252

99

A moral minimalism

calling us to adhere

to a core of necessary rules

in order for society to function

morality is

social control

and

defensivePojman p 255

100

Virtue ethics

The duty to growas a moral person

to take onmoral responsibility,

to increase competencein making moral choices

to develop moral capacities

to experience happiness.Pojman p 257

101

The moral hero

experiences a sense of aesthetic ecstasy

at accomplishing moral deeds

that are out of the realm of possibility

for the average moral person. Pojman p 258

102

Suggestions 1. Identify the problem you want to analyze.2. As clearly as possible, state the problem and what you intend to show.3. Set force your arguments in logical order, and support your premises with reasons. It helps to

illustrate your points with examples or to point out counterexamples to opposing points of view.4. Consider alternative points of view as well as objections to your own position. Try to meet these

charges and show why your position is more plausible.5. Apply the principle of charity to your opponent’s reasoning. That is, give his or her case the

strongest interpretation possible, for unless you can meet the strongest objections to your own position, you cannot be confident that your position is the best.

6. End your paper with a summary and a conclusion. That is, succinctly review your arguments and state what you think you’ve demonstrated. In the conclusion it is always helpful to show the implications of your conclusion for other issues. Answer the question “Why does it matter?”

7. Be prepared to write at least two drafts before you have a working copy. Make sure that your arguments are well constructed and that your paper as a whole is coherent.

8. Regarding style: write clearly, and in an active voice. Avoid ambiguous expressions, double negatives, and jargon. Put other people’s ideas in your own words as much as possible, and give credit in the text and in bibliographical notes whenever you have used someone else’s idea or quoted someone.

9. Include a bibliography at the end of your paper. In it list all the sources you used in writing your paper.

10. Put the paper aside for a day, then read it afresh. Chances are you will find things to change.

When you have a serious problem, do not hesitate to contact your teacher.Pojman p 269-270