Literacy terms & definitions

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Workbase: The New Zealand Centre for Workforce Literacy Development

Literacy terms& definitions

As the New Zealand foundation learning sector develops there is a need to

standardise the meaning and usage of literacy terms and definitions.

Literacy terms and definitions is designed for anyone interested in adult literacy.

Literacy terms and definitions is the first attempt in New Zealand to create

a common understanding of literacy terms.

Literacy terms and definitions represents a starting point in establishing the meaning

and usage of these terms.

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Literacy terms and definitions

Workbase: The New Zealand Centre for Workforce Literacy Development provides resources and professional development to support foundation learning for adults.

Workbase acknowledges and thanks Dr Helen Nicholls for her significant contribution to the writing of this resource.

Written by: Ginnie Denny and Susan Reid

Publication date: August 2003Reprint: November 2005

ISBN �-877352-��-XISSN ��76-5348

Workbase acknowledges funding from the Tertiary Education Commission for this resource.

L i t e r a c y @ W o r k S e r i e s

© Workbase: The New Zealand Centre for Workforce Literacy Development

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Literacy terms and definitions A tutor ’s guide:

Contents

Page

Introduction.......................................................................................................................................................................... 5

How to use this resource...................................................................................................................................................... 5

Literacy terms and definitions.............................................................................................................................................. 6

Foundation learning sector acronyms.................................................................................................................................63

Reference list......................................................................................................................................................................65

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Introduction

The foundation learning sector in New Zealand is growing rapidly. This growth has highlighted the need to provide a comprehensive list of literacy terms and definitions for use by people working in this sector.

This resource is the first attempt in New Zealand to create a common understanding of literacy terms. It represents a starting point in establishing the meanings and usages of these terms. It also supports discussion and debate to develop and expand ‘literacy vocabulary’.

The resource brings together literacy terms and definitions related to English-language literacy teaching. These include common language terms (such as full stops and capital letters) and more complex language terms (such as connectives and morphemes) as well as specific words that are widely used in the literacy sector (such as integrated literacy and context).

How to use this resource

A comprehensive list of key literacy terms and definitions is organised alphabetically. A meaning is provided for each term and where necessary an example is given. All examples are in italics with underlining where emphasis is required. Where an entry has more than one component (e.g. article—definite and indefinite), key words are in bold. Cross-references are bracketed in the definition where relevant or at the end of the entry.

In addition, a list of acronyms commonly used in the foundation learning sector is included on page 63 of this resource.

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abbreviation a shortened version of a word or phrase e.g. Rd for Road, TEC for Tertiary Education Commission.

abstract noun a concept or idea e.g. love, sadness. (See noun.)

acronym a word made up from the first letters of other words e.g. SCUBA Self-Contained Underwater

Breathing Apparatus.

acrostic a kind of puzzle sometimes used as a teaching tool in vocabulary development in which lines of

verse or prose are arranged so that words, phrases or sentences are formed when certain letters

from each line are used in a certain sequence e.g.

actual

strategy

sizing

essential

steps and

stages

making

evident

new

techniques.

activate prior knowledge help learners connect to concepts about to be taught by using activities that relate to or determine

the level of their existing knowledge.

active learning an approach that engages learners by matching instruction to the learners’ interests, understanding

and developmental levels. May include hands-on or authentic activities.

active listening process for obtaining auditory information by paying attention, concentrating on information and

responding using summarising, paraphrasing etc.

active reading model

(interactive)

teaching strategy to increase comprehension by encouraging readers to construct meaning from

text. Promotes and supports comprehension and critical thinking. Involves three phases of activity,

before, during and after reading activities. Also known as interactive reading model. (See before,

during and after reading strategies.)

active voice a sentence where the subject performs the action e.g. The dog bites Ben. Active forms are

common in instructions e.g. Put the lever into gear. (See passive voice.)

adjectival phrases a group of words that functions as an adjective to modify a noun e.g. hard as nails. (See

preposition.)

adjective a word that describes somebody or something. Adjectives add information to nouns.

• descriptive adjectives e.g. thin, black, cold.

• nominal adjectives e.g. six, eight.

adult learning principles philosophy that guides adult education. Includes learner-centred teaching, negotiated curriculum,

respect, building on prior knowledge and using relevant adult resources.


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adverb a word that gives extra meaning to a verb, an adjective, another adverb or a whole sentence e.g. I

really enjoyed the course, She’s really nice, He works really slowly, Really, he can do better work.

Many adverbs are formed by adding -ly to an adjective, for example quickly, dangerously, nicely,

but there are many adverbs that do not end in -ly. However, some -ly words are adjectives, not

adverbs e.g. lovely, silly, friendly.

In many cases, adverbs tell us how (manner), where (place), when (time) or how often (frequency)

something happens. Other adverbs show degree of intensity (e.g. very slowly) or connections in

meaning between sentences (e.g. however, finally), or are used to pose questions.

• Adverbs of manner (how) e.g. easily, quickly.

• Adverbs of frequency (how often) e.g. often, sometimes.

• Adverbs of time (when) e.g. early, tomorrow.

• Adverbs of degree (of intensity) e.g. very.

• Interrogative adverbs e.g. what, where, how, why.

• Adverbs of place (where) e.g. there, here, away, back.

adverbial phrase a group of words that functions in the same way as a single adverb e.g. by car, to work, last week,

three times a day, first of all, of course. (See preposition.)

affix any morpheme attached to a root word to extend or refine its meaning. Includes prefix or suffix.

after reading strategy third phase of active reading model; includes re-reading, responding and discussing, summarising,

organising and integrating information. (See before and during reading strategies.)

aggregated data quantitative information gathered and presented as a generalised statement e.g. 48 per cent of New

Zealanders aged between 16 and 65 years have difficulty with reading and writing for everyday

work and living.

agreement in some cases the form of a verb changes according to its subject, so the verb and subject need

to ‘agree’ e.g. I am/he is/they are; I was/you were; I like/she likes; I don’t/he doesn’t. Sometimes

known as verb/subject agreement. (See pronoun/antecedent agreement.)

aim (of a lesson) statement outlining the purpose of a lesson. May include the outcomes of a lesson i.e. what the

learner will be able to do/achieve by the end of the lesson.

alliteration repetition of the beginning sound (phoneme) in each word e.g. Harriet’s Hairdressing Heaven.

alphabet the set of letters that are used in a written language. In the English language there are 26 letters

including five vowels.


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alphabetical order putting letters or words in the order of the alphabet e.g. a b c. The process involves:

• ordering words by the first letter

• if the first letter is the same, ordering by the second letter

• if the first and second letters are the same, ordering by the third letter

• using the same method if the first, second and third letters are the same and continuing until

the letters don’t match.

alphabetics the process of using the written letters in an alphabet to represent meaningful, spoken words.

Alphabetics includes both phonemic awareness and word analysis.

alphabetise put words into alphabetical order.

alphanumeric text that contains both alphabetical and numerical symbols, as in some telephone numbers e.g.

0800 LEARN.

ambiguity the possibility of interpreting a word, phrase or statement in more than one way, sometimes arising

from unclear grammatical relationships e.g. Police shot man with crossbow. This may mean either

that a man who had a crossbow was hurt by the police, or that the police using a crossbow shot a

man.

ambiguous having more than one possible interpretation or meaning, sometimes because of sentence

structure. (See ambiguity.)

analogy phonics a form of systemic phonics instruction. Involves using parts of known words to identify new words.

analytic phonics instruction a form of systematic phonics instruction. Involves analysing letter sounds within identified words.

anecdotal based on informal, subjective stories about a real person or event, which may not be accurate

e.g. She got anecdotal reports that her learners could read better. (See data collection.)

antonym a word with a meaning opposite to another e.g. hot-cold, satisfaction-dissatisfaction.

apostrophe punctuation mark (’) used in contractions and possessives e.g.:

• it is = it’s (contraction)

• Bill’s computer (possession).

appropriate a text, word, utterance or style that is suitably phrased for its intended audience and form.

‘Appropriate’ accepts that different contexts require different treatments e.g. the word choice as an

informal term meaning something is good would not be used appropriately in a formal setting such

as an interview.

approximation a concept from Cambourne’s conditions of literacy learning. Providing learners with the opportunity

to approximate the desired outcome without fear of criticism is an important part of the learning

process. (See conditions of learning.)


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article a word used before nouns.

There are two types of article:

• definite article refers to specific person(s) or item(s) e.g. the house, the learners

• indefinite articles refers to an individual item e.g. a or an.

- a is used before words starting with a consonant e.g. a calculator.

- an is used before words starting with a vowel e.g. an apple.

articulation the production of different speech sounds through the use of the speech organs (voice box, tongue,

lips, jaw, soft and hard palate) and air. (See pronunciation.)

ascender part of a lower case letter that rises above the main body of the letter e.g. h, t, f. (See descender.)

assessment the collection and evaluation of evidence to establish the level of performance. (See diagnostic,

initial, formative, summative assessment.)

association the emotive or evaluative links people make with particular words or expressions. (See

connotation.)

association method a method of teaching vocabulary. Involves making a connection between what are known and

unfamiliar words.

assonance the use of the same vowel sound in words that are close together e.g. I lie here and cry, my eyes

like fires.

asterisk punctuation mark (*) appearing near a word or group of words informing the reader that there is

more information about the word or words at the bottom of page or elsewhere in the text.

audience the people addressed by a text. The term includes listeners, readers of print, film/TV audiences,

and users of information technology.

auditory learning style wherein the learner learns most effectively by receiving information through listening.

(See learning style, visual, kinaesthetic.)

auditory discrimination being able to distinguish between sounds.

auditory text any text that someone listens to e.g. sound effects, music, speech. (See text.)

aural connected with hearing and listening. (See oral.)

authentic instruction instruction that is meaningful to learners. Focuses on real-world contexts and applications.

authentic question question spontaneously asked by a learner without prompting by a tutor.

authentic text text used in the real world e.g. evacuation procedure, employee manual.

automaticity in reading, the ability to process print information at a subconscious level.

auxiliary verb a ‘helping’ verb, added to another verb – most commonly be, do or have e.g. Do you speak English?

Have you finished? Also covers modal verbs e.g. You should see a doctor. (See verb.)

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B

balanced approach a synthesis of meaning-emphasis approaches (whole word) to literacy instruction and skills-based

(phonic) approaches. Refers to not only what is taught (skills, concepts, strategies) but how it is

taught (explicit instruction, learner-centred discovery, guided practice, structured materials).

base word the basic part of the word that carries the main component of meaning e.g. read, reread, reader.

(See root word.)

basic sight words the common words that are basic to fluent reading and writing. (See DOLCH list, essential word list,

high-frequency word.)

before reading strategy first phase of active reading model that includes connecting, predicting and posing questions. (See

during and after reading strategy.)

bias slant or preference. Information has a bias when:

• either intentionally or unintentionally, it presents only one of several possible points of view

• its purpose is to influence its audience one way or another. (See persuasive language,

propaganda.)

blend (i) the process of combining letters to make larger elements such as clusters, syllables or words.

blend (ii) refers to a combination of two or more letters at the beginning, middle and end of words e.g. st, str,

nt, pl, nd. Each of the letters more or less keeps the sound it represents. (See clusters.)

body language conscious or unconscious physical positions, gestures and movements that communicate with or

without speech e.g. smiles, toe tapping, shrugging.

bound morpheme a prefix or suffix added to a free morpheme. (See morpheme.)

bracket punctuation mark ( ) used around additional or incidental information within a sentence or

paragraph. (See parenthesis, dash.)

brainstorming the collective gathering of ideas suggested by all members of a group without restriction or

judgement.

broad teaching programme a teaching programme that provides learners with a wide range of literacy skills, not just those

needed for a specific purpose.

bullet point punctuation mark (•) used in a series to list points in a written text.

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capacity method a method for teaching vocabulary. Involves emphasising practice to increase capacity through

making reading automatic.

capital letter a form used:

• in writing individual letters e.g. GFQJ

• at the start of every sentence

• at the start of proper nouns e.g. Rangitoto, Sione, Caltex

• for the title of a person e.g. Mr, Dr

• at the start of the title words of a book, play or film

• for headings

• for the personal pronoun ‘I’

• at the start of direct speech

• for some abbreviations e.g. TV

• for emphasis in electronic text messaging and e-mail.

(See lower case and upper case.)

checklist checklists can be used to satisfy many objectives, as a memory tool to encourage creativity,

directly as assessments, or as a review tool in preparing for assessments.

chronological in relation to text, presenting events in the order they happened e.g. chronological CV, reporting an

event.

chunking breaking words into syllables or smaller groups of letters. (See syllabification.)

clause A structural unit of several words that include a verb.

• A main (or principal) clause can form a complete sentence e.g. It was raining.

• A subordinate (sometimes called dependent) clause adds more to the main clause, but cannot

stand as an independent sentence e.g. when we went out. To form a complete sentence, a

subordinate clause must be attached to a main clause e.g. It was raining when we went out.

cliché an expression that has been overused and has become commonplace e.g. You can’t teach an old

dog new tricks.

close reading an intensive reading technique used for intensive study or close scrutiny of a text. The reader

seeks details, information and a thorough understanding of all aspects of the text. Also known

as thorough reading or reading for detail. Close reading is used when accuracy is important e.g.

reading an employment agreement. (See wide reading.)

closed question a question that is answered by yes or no or a short answer e.g. May I help you? (See open

question, questioning.)

cloze a comprehension exercise in which certain words are deleted from a text and gaps are left. The

learner’s task is to supply the missing words. Words can be deleted in a specific way (adjectives,

conjunctions, every sixth word), or randomly. If a learner completes less than 85 per cent of omitted

words correctly, the reading level of the text is deemed too difficult for the learner to comprehend.

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clustering graphic way of organising concepts proposed during brainstorming. (See concept map.)

clusters letters or sounds that commonly occur together at the start, middle or end of words or that make a

single sound e.g. ch, sh, tion, ble. (See digraph.)

coaching model a model of instruction where the tutor is a guide and collaborator in the learner’s learning, rather

than the sole director of the learning.

code-breaker a reader who can decode or encode text in order to make meaning. A reader role originally

developed by literacy theorists Freebody and Luke. (See meaning maker, text analyst, text user.)

coherence the underlying logical connectedness of a text, whereby concepts and relationships are relevant to

each other and it is possible to make plausible inferences about underlying meaning.

• grammatical cohesion: the ways that grammatical structures work to hold a text together and

help readers keep track of ideas e.g. pronouns that refer readers back to earlier parts of the

text: The Bone People is a good book. Have you read it?

• lexical cohesion: the ways that words, like synonyms, are used in a text to help achieve a

unified and consistent focus. Writers may repeat words or use synonyms throughout a text

to keep a continuous thread of meaning e.g. The black dog was guarding the building. This

dangerous beast was lying in front of the door.

collective noun name of a group e.g. crowd, flock. (See noun.)

collocations pairs or groups of words that commonly go together e.g. to get a job, to look for a job, bacon and

egg.

colloquial language informal language used in everyday speech but not usually in formal writing e.g. postie for postal

worker.

colloquialism a word or expression used in everyday writing or speech rather than formal speech or writing e.g.

Grab your togs, The All Blacks wasted the Wallabies.

colon punctuation mark (:) used to introduce an explanatory statement or a list e.g. She went to buy some

groceries: eggs, bread, cream and cheese.

comma punctuation mark (,) used to separate words, clauses or phrases in a sentence, to help give

meaning/make sense:

• in a list of adjectives e.g. This is a large, time-consuming, increasingly expensive project

• in a list of nouns e.g. We used a chainsaw, water-blaster, stepladder and brushes

• in a sentence, to separate a subordinate group of words from a main clause e.g. When it

stopped raining, the sun shone.

comma splicing use of a comma where a full stop is required, thus ‘splicing’ together two sentences that should be

separate e.g. It stopped raining, the sun shone. (See sentence separation.)

command an order for action e.g. Get the supervisor! (See imperative.)

common noun the name of a thing, a person, a creature e.g. chair, driver, cow. (See noun.)

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communicative methodology or

activity or task

a way of teaching that helps learners to develop language, literacy and numeracy skills through the

use of specific activities that are similar to communication the learners may encounter in everyday

life e.g. brainstorming, pair activities.

community literacy provision adult literacy programmes (groups or one to one) delivered in community settings by paid or

volunteer tutors.

comparative adjective an adjective expressing a relationship of difference between two objects e.g. taller, happier, more

secluded. Some adjectives use the ending -er; others, usually longer adjectives, use more. The

‘rule’ is that only one of these methods should be used at a time. (See superlative adjective.)

compare to observe or consider the characteristics of objects or concepts, looking for both similarities and

differences.

competency-based learning a learning programme where the intended outcome is for the learner to show they can perform

specific tasks according to predetermined standards e.g. Unit Standard based programme.

complex information materials containing complex information present a number of ideas, some of which may be

abstract, detailed or require learners to deal with sensitive issues. Specialised vocabulary and

complicated sentence structures may be used.

complex sentence a sentence with at least one main clause and one dependent (subordinate) clause e.g. However,

many subjects, both academic and vocational, change so rapidly that often motivated learners

know as much as or more than the tutor.

composition stage of the writing process where a writer translates their thoughts, ideas, intentions and

understandings into a written form.

compound sentence a sentence with two or more main clauses of equal importance joined together by conjunctions e.g.

Jason was late for his course and delayed the trip to the factory.

compound word a word made up of two other words e.g. headroom, railway.

comprehension a learner actively constructs meaning from a text drawing on their own experiences, the

characteristics of the text, the learning context and the reading strategies consciously applied by

the learner to obtain meaning. The level of understanding of a written text or spoken utterance.

(See literal, inferential, critical, creative and evaluative comprehension.)

computer literacy mode of literacy that involves using computer technology as a medium for generating and

responding to electronic texts.

concept map a graphic organiser that allows learners to perceive relationships between concepts through

diagramming key words representing those concepts. (See graphic organiser.)

conclusion an ending of a text, often involving a summary.

conditional adverb indicates that an action is dependent on something else e.g. perhaps, maybe, however.

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conditions of learning Cambourne’s eight conditions of literacy learning suggest a concrete and viable means to enhance

learner development in literacy learning through the following concepts: immersion, demonstration,

engagement, expectations, responsibility, employment, approximation, response.

conferencing an informal meeting between tutor and learner or between learners to discuss ideas and questions

about their writing and the writing process.

conjunction a word used to link clauses in a sentence; a type of connective. Co-ordinating conjunctions (e.g.

and, but, or, so) join two main clauses in a compound sentence. Subordinating conjunctions (e.g.

when, while, before, after, since, until, if, because, although, that) introduce a subordinate clause in

a complex sentence.

Conjunctions contribute different meanings in a sentence. They can:

• add information e.g. and, but, or

• show cause and effect e.g. because, since, if, so

• show time sequence e.g. after, since, until

• connect one piece of information with another e.g. unless, although.

connective a word or phrase that links different parts of a text (clauses, sentences, paragraphs). Connectives

can be:

• conjunctions e.g. but, when, because

• connecting adverbs e.g. however, then, therefore.

Connectives maintain the cohesion of a text by:

• addition e.g. and, also, furthermore

• opposition e.g. however, but, nevertheless, on the other hand

• cause e.g. because, this means, therefore

• time e.g. just then, immediately, as soon as possible

• pronouns e.g. A survey of adult learners will take place shortly. It will be the largest of its kind

to date.

• prepositional phrases e.g. in other words, after all that.

connotation the emotional or evaluative links people make with particular words or expressions e.g. ‘dog’ may

mean different things to different people: a faithful pet, a working dog, or a potentially dangerous

animal. (See association.)

consolidation the process of internalising what has been learnt. Used in relation to activities that aim to help

learners internalise what has been learnt/understand a deeper meaning. (See plateau.)

consonant any written letter of an alphabet that is not a vowel.

consonant blend two or more consonants together within a word e.g. bl in black, str in street or lt in halt. (See initial

blend.)

consonant cluster groups of consonants that form individual sounds e.g. ch, sh.

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constructing meaning actively engaging with text whilst using background knowledge and experience as a framework for

integrating new material.

constructivism a theory of learning and knowing that views learning as an active process of knowledge

construction: learners build on prior knowledge and experience within a particular context (their

conceptual network) in order to shape meaning and construct new knowledge.

context background information, such as historical, socio-cultural or political influences, that assist the

reader to make meaning from the text. Contexts may be broadly or narrowly considered:

• The environment in which the information is given e.g. workplace notice board.

• The topic being discussed e.g. the meaning of scroll in computing or in Egyptian history.

• The words before or after a piece of text that help to give meaning e.g. The ladder was

dangerous as it was not on a firm footing.

context clues using additional information from around or within the text to enhance or deduce meaning e.g. the

addition of pictures, the fact that the text is on a safety notice board or an application form.

contextualised approach used of teaching and learning that are situated in an authentic, real-life context with meaning

for the learner. Instruction is embedded in everyday activities to facilitate the acquisition and

application of knowledge, skills and learning processes.

contextualised literacy the development of literacy by drawing materials or content of learning from learners’ interests, e.g.

hobbies, work, community, family.

continuous text text that is longer than a single paragraph. (See extended text.)

contraction • a shortened form of two words where one or more letters are left out in making the new word,

and an apostrophe is used in place of the letters left out e.g. I’m (I am), you’re (you are), I’ll (I

will), I don’t (I do not), here’s (here is).

• a shortened form of a single word reduced to two or more letters, no apostrophes are needed

e.g. Rd (Road).

contrasting exploring or describing differences between objects or concepts.

co-ordinating conjunctions a word linking two main clauses in a compound sentence e.g. and, or, but, so. (See conjunction.)

COPS Capitalisation, Organisation, Punctuation, Spelling. Acronym is useful to help learners remember

which aspects of their writing they should check when editing. (See C-SOOPS, STOPS.)

countable noun a word that can be singular or plural e.g. pen/pens. (See noun.)

course overview a preview of course content and structure.

creative comprehension reader takes information or ideas from what has been read and develops new ideas from

them. Stimulates new and original thinking. (See literal, inferential, critical and evaluative

comprehension.)

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criterion-referenced

assessment

performance is compared with a set standard or objective. It is possible for all learners to earn

the highest possible mark if all meet the established criteria for that mark. (See norm-referenced

assessment.)

critical comprehension reader assesses the ‘good’ sense of what is read, its clarity, accuracy and any apparent

exaggeration or bias. (See literal, inferential, evaluative and creative comprehension.)

critical literacy analytic habits of thinking, reading, writing, speaking or discussing, which go beneath surface

impressions; ability to comment on the text, the author’s viewpoint and the wider context;

transferring what has been read outside the text to new situations. The ability to analyse, reflect

and act on a text’s knowledge or information. (See functional literacy.)

critical reflection process whereby an individual thinks critically and constructively about an action and uses this

analysis to inform future actions.

criticising a thinking skill involving judging or analysing.

C-SOOPS Capitalisation, Sentence structure, Organisation, Overall format, Punctuation. Acronym is useful to

help learners remember which aspects of their writing they should check when editing. (See COPS,

STOPS.)

cues areas of information that readers use to process and understand what they read e.g. language

patterns, text structure, syntax, conventions of print.

cultural literacy literacy that reflects the knowledge of significant ideas, events, values etc. of a society or culture.

curriculum the programme of studies offered by a learning institution; course or programme or set of standards

or objectives for learning on a particular subject.

customisation adapting or creating teaching material that reflects the context in which it is to be used e.g. using

agricultural examples for a dairy farming course. Customised material is of greater relevance and

interest to the learner, therefore it assists motivation and transfer to related contexts.

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DART Directed Activities Related to Text e.g. underlining, labelling, grouping.

dash punctuation (–) used like brackets or a pair of commas to enclose extra information within a

sentence or in place of a colon. (See bracket.)

data analysis having learners gather and analyse data to connect them to real-world problems and to develop

their critical thinking skills.

data collection the act of collecting anecdotal, qualitative or quantitative information in an organised way for the

purpose of research and enquiry.

data monitoring the act of analysing and reporting on data that has been collected e.g. using data gained from

observing a learner to make recommendations for a further programme of learning.

decode to translate the visual code of letters into a word. (See code-breaker.)

decoding using letter-sound relationships to sound out words in reading and to assist with spelling in writing.

deeper-level features a way of analysing and providing feedback on writing. Focus is on content, purpose and meaning.

(See surface-level features.)

defining any activity that requires learners or tutors to state the meaning of a word or phrase.

definite article word used before a noun to demonstrate specificity e.g. the woman, the course. (See article.)

definition an explanation of the meaning or meanings of a word or group of words.

demonstration a concept from Cambourne’s conditions of literacy learning. Stimulating demonstrations assist

learners to experience the desired learning outcomes. (See conditions of learning.)

denotation the referential meaning of a word. The meaning usually given in the dictionary.

derivation where a word or phrase has come from e.g. the word shampoo originates from the Hindi language.

derivational morpheme part of a word that provides an element of common meaning e.g. automobile, autograph. (See

morpheme.)

descender the part of a lower case letter that drops below the main body of the letter e.g. g, j, p. (See

ascender.)

descriptive text text that outlines an event, a process or a state without explicitly/overtly judging it, or explaining it.

Factual or scientific descriptive texts use the technical language of the subject area. Descriptive

texts often make greater use of adjectives and figurative language than other forms of writing,

largely to achieve accurate representation e.g. The tree had glossy green leaves that filtered the

sunlight, giving the forest floor a dappled appearance.

diagnostic assessment to identify what is known, what is almost known and what still remains to be taught.

diagnostic assessment process for establishing a learner’s skill level. May focus on identifying particular learning issues

such as physical disabilities e.g. hearing loss or learning disabilities e.g. dyslexia. (See formative,

initial, summative assessment.)

diagram a drawing or sketch showing the important parts of an object or how something works.

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D

dialect distinct style of language involving word pronunciation, accents or vocabulary items by people in a

geographic region e.g. The Southland dialect means people pronounce the letter ‘r’ very distinctly.

dialogue the co-operative, respectful discussion between individuals, mediated by the world and their

experience, in order to name and change the world (Friere).

dictionary a reference book that lists words alphabetically and explains the meaning, pronunciation and part

of speech of each word. It may give an example of the word used in a sentence.

digraph two letters representing one sound or phoneme: bath; ch/ur/ch. (See clusters.)

diminutive word or word ending that shows that something is small e.g. piglet. Or short, informal form of a

word e.g. Vicky for Victoria.

diphthong two vowels/sounds pronounced together quickly to represent one phoneme (sound) e.g. ou as in

house, ei as in rein, oa as in goal, ai as in train.

direct speech the exact words a person has spoken, usually contained within speech marks e.g. “I might do it if I

were offered the position”. (See indirect speech.)

directionality spatial orientation, knowing where you are and where you want to go. Directionality in English

literacy includes reading and writing from left to right, top to bottom.

discourse extended written or spoken text, viewed as interaction between speakers or reader and writer.

discourse analysis study of how spoken or written language is structured e.g. concerns about ‘turn-taking’ in

conversation.

discovery teaching learners engage in activities designed to lead them to particular concepts or conclusions. Learners

acquire basic and advanced knowledge in random order.

discussion focussed learning conversation on an identified topic. Discussions may begin with the tutor

describing the goal or purpose of the discussion. Sometimes discussions may be initiated by the

posing of an open-ended question. Many co-operative activities include a ‘small group’ discussion

as teams work together.

DOLCH list a selection of high-frequency words that need to be recognised by sight for fluent reading. These

words make up approximately 50 per cent of everything we read and write in English. (See basic

sight words, essential word list, high-frequency words.)

domain area of knowledge or activity.

draft learners complete writing or creative work in stages to facilitate progress from capturing ideas

quickly to the use of more detailed revision and editing skills. Includes work in progress, which may

contain errors or require revision or editing.

drill a way of learning something by means of repeated exercises e.g. times tables. (See rote learning.)

DRTA Directed Reading Thinking Activity. Throughout reading, questions are used to activate learners’

existing knowledge. Learners are encouraged to make predictions.

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during reading strategy second phase of active reading model; strategies include asking and answering questions,

identifying main ideas, paraphrasing and summarising. (See before and after reading strategy.)

dysarthria difficulty with pronunciation.

dysgraphia difficulty in producing legible handwriting with age-appropriate speed.

dyslexia language-related (speaking, reading, writing, spelling) specific learning difficulty.

dysnomia difficulty in remembering names or recalling appropriate words to use in a given context.

dyspraxia disorder of movement, impaired ability to carry out physically skilled activity.

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edit to review the content and organisation of a written work, revise as necessary to meet audience

need, and correct errors in content, grammar, spelling and punctuation. (See proof/proofread.)

electronic text text that is generated and read through an electronic medium e.g. text messages, email.

ellipsis (i) grammar term for words omitted from speech or writing and recoverable by understanding the

context e.g. (Are you) Coming?

ellipsis (ii) punctuation mark (…) used to mark that something has been left out of a text, especially in a

quotation e.g. A stitch in time...

email common electronic text form for sending and receiving everyday and workplace communication.

embedded literacy literacy activities that are central to task fulfilment but are not stated explicitly e.g. the literacy skills

needed for driving a car. (See integrated literacy.)

emoticon electronic text using punctuation marks to communicate emotion e.g. :-) for happiness.

employment a concept from Cambourne’s conditions of literacy learning. Tutors need to provide experiences

and opportunities for learners to use or employ the learning individually and socially. (See

conditions of learning.)

encode to convert from one system to another e.g. to put thoughts and ideas into written form.

engagement a concept from Cambourne’s conditions of literacy learning. Learners need to be engaged in the

learning process (experiencing, thinking, reflecting and creating). (See conditions of learning.)

environmental print texts (street signs/billboards/advertising/road signs etc.) found in the physical environment e.g. BP,

McDonald’s, EXIT.

epilogue a short summary at the end of a play, book or film that goes beyond the conclusion and may deal

with the future of the characters or with future events. (See prologue.)

essay a piece of writing of up to several thousand words; a composition expressing the author’s opinion.

essential word list high-frequency word list commonly used in spoken and written texts. (See DOLCH list, basic sight

words, high-frequency words.)

estimating proposing an approximate answer to a problem or question.

etymology the study of the origin and history of words.

euphemism (See polite expression.)

evaluating a critical thinking skill involving judging to place a value on ideas or work.

evaluation the process of judging the worth or value of something. May involve measurement, observation and

comparison with a stated objective.

evaluative comprehension reader evaluates or offers an opinion on the effectiveness of the text for its purpose. (See literal,

inferential, creative and critical comprehension.)

everyday an adjective used to describe text, language and situations that are the daily experience of most

people.

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evidence information that provides or adds weight to facts and has been collected for a particular purpose

such as assessment or evaluation.

exclamation mark punctuation mark (!) used after an exclamation to add emphasis or show emotion or humour, e.g.

Yes! Aha!

expectations a concept from Cambourne’s conditions of literacy learning. Tutors help learners to set learning

expectations high enough to challenge them yet without the risk of failure. (See conditions of

learning.)

explanation provides an answer to a question about how or why an action, process or event occurred.

‘Explanation’ can also be a synonym for ‘definition’.

explanatory text a piece of writing that analyses or explains how things work, an instructional manual such as How

to Start a Computer.

explicit clear, obvious, in detail, stated, not implied, direct.

explicit literacy the specific literacy aspects around a particular task or activity e.g. writing a business letter

requires particular formatting, structure, language and spelling. (See implicit literacy.)

explicit vocabulary instruction a method for teaching vocabulary. Involves providing definitions or other attributes of words to be

learned.

explicit/implicit knowledge native speakers of a language know implicitly how their language works through using it. Being

taught specifically about aspects of form, structure and usage makes implicit knowledge explicit,

enabling learners consciously to think and talk about how the language works, and how they use it

themselves.

expository text/exposition a text such as an essay that explains ideas critically or analytically. May involve argument

or persuasion to convince the reader/listener that something is the case or to take action on

something.

extended text text that is longer than a single paragraph. (See continuous text.)

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facilitative questioning open-ended questions are posed to allow learners to explore ideas that may be complex or

emotionally difficult. Facilitative questions allow the tutor to give assistance to the learners without

actually contributing new ideas to the work being written. Facilitative questioning is used most

often in situations where there is no right answer but the solution is dependent on what is best for

the individual.

fact a statement that can be proven to be true or false.

factual text text that refers to proven ideas, knowledge of materials. May include recount, explanation,

descriptive text, procedural text and report.

familiar describes contexts, situations, sources, topics or words of which the learner has some prior

knowledge or experience.

family literacy provision (See whanau literacy provision.)

FCE Functional Context Education. Developed in the ��70s by Sticht, it is based upon a theory of

cognitive development, learning and instruction. The approach is based on the premise that

literacy is developed while it is being applied. The most articulated of the functional literacy

approaches. (See functional context literacy.)

feedback information given to a learner on their learning achievement, based on tutor observation, collection

of evidence or other methods of assessment.

feedforward using feedback to direct, adapt or influence future actions or planning e.g. simplifying a future

teaching activity to create a better match between activity and learner skill level.

fiction a story or account that is imaginary.

field a subject or activity relating to a specific context.

figurative meaning metaphorical or imaginative meaning of text. May use idioms or images e.g. He kicked the bucket

(meaning He died). (See literal meaning, imagery.)

figure of speech any expression where the words are used metaphorically rather than literally, such as idiom, slang,

some clichés, and colloquial language.

final in a linguistic context, ‘final’ describes the letters at the end of a word, blend, consonant or digraph

that represent the final sound of a word. These are often common endings that can be learned e.g.

…tion, …able, /ope/ in hope.

finite verb a form of verb with a subject. (See verb.)

flash cards a teaching tool for among other things phonic instruction or building vocabulary. The word or

letter to be learned is placed on a small card. Learners may build their own bank of flashcards for

independent use.

flexibility a stage of reading development.

flow chart a graphical depiction of a process or relationship. Typically flow charts include specific processes

or steps, and arrows indicating paths.

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fluency the ability to read texts quickly and accurately. Requires fast, accurate decoding and prosody.

fluency indicator rhythm, innovation, expression, noticing and pausing for punctuation, speed.

formal a style of language where the choice of words, grammatical construction, syntax and address is

determined by the distance from the audience. The level of formality may be dictated by the context

or the result of a lack of knowledge of the audience e.g. a letter of application, official documents.

Formal language tends to have more elaborate grammatical structures, be longer and use more

complex vocabulary than informal language e.g. receive rather than get, automobile rather than

car. (See informal.)

format the way in which text is arranged or presented e.g. as a book, leaflet, essay, video, audiotape or the

way in which it is structured e.g. the use made of headings, sub-headings, diagrams, photographs

with captions.

formative assessment capturing changes to a learner’s literacy skill levels over time. Ongoing assessment for learning to

identify what learners need to learn, how and what they are learning and how much progress they

are making. The results of formative assessment, which includes diagnostic and initial assessment,

influence teaching direction and focus. Formative assessment is a process involving learner and

tutor working together to improve their teaching and learning. (See diagnostic, initial, summative

assessment.)

forming writing intentions the ‘preparing to write’ stage of the writing process. Writer clarifies and begins to develop and

identifies the intended audience.

fossilised error a repeated mistake that continues even though the learner may ‘know’ the correct way such as, in

spelling, continually reversing one diphthong e.g. huose, muose. (See habitual error.)

free morpheme a word that stands on its own e.g. write, play. (See morpheme.)

freewriting a timed activity to stimulate the flow of ideas and words through continuous writing.

front-loading teaching method whereby vocabulary, text features, concepts etc. are taught prior to main teaching

activity.

frustrational reading level the reading of text is below 8� per cent accurate and meaning is lost. Reader requires shared

reading activities in order to access meaning within texts. (See independent and instructional

reading levels.)

full stop punctuation mark (.) used to indicate the end of a sentence and sometimes in abbreviations for

example e.g.

functional context literacy using the context in which literacy is to be used to determine the material, resources and literacy

skills a learner is taught.

functional literacy to be able to read and write only at a sufficient level to cope with the minimal demands of daily

life. Literacy is seen as a set of discrete skills that are acquired regardless of language or applied

context, and measured by use in particular tasks. (See critical literacy.)

future form a form of verb tense showing that action will happen at some time in the future. (See verb tense.)

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genre originally an identifiable type of literature e.g. novel, drama, short story, poetry, autobiography,

crime fiction, fantasy, science fiction. Now used more widely to refer to different text types e.g.

explanation, description, procedure. Different genres have recognisable features of language and

structure. (See text types.)

gerund a verb with an -ing ending that functions as a noun, adjective or adverb e.g. Smoking is bad for your

health (noun), A smoking cigarette started the fire (adjective), They walked down the road smoking

(similar to an adverb).

gist the main point or idea of a text. Therefore reading for gist is reading for identification of the main

points only.

glossary a list of difficult, special or unusual words with their meanings, usually placed at the back of a book.

goal-setting making plans and setting objectives that involve taking a course of action to achieve them.

graded reading material graduated texts with limited and controlled vocabulary; often linked to phonic instruction or

curriculum in mainstream schooling. Limited availability for adults.

grammar the conventions that govern the structure and relationships between words in any language,

including word order and changes in words. Study of grammar enhances both reading and writing

skills and supports effective communication.

grapheme written representation of a sound; may consist of one or more letters e.g. the phoneme’s’ can be

represented by the graphemes s, se, c, sc and ce as in set, mouse, city, science.

graphic knowledge an understanding of the key features of a writing system, including the basic shapes of the letters,

the plural forms of nouns, spelling patterns in verb endings, the difference between upper and

lower case, etc.

graphic organiser visual framework to help the learner make connections between concepts. Useful tool for linking

reading and writing activities. (See concept map and mind map.)

graphic phonic information letter recognition, phonological awareness, word patterns, morphological roles.

grapho-phonic using knowledge of letter shape and sound in reading.

guided oral reading the tutor listens to learners reading aloud and provides support and advice as they read. Also

known as repeated reading, neurological impress, paired reading, shared reading, collaborative

oral reading and assisted reading.

guided practice a form of scaffolding that allows learners to attempt things of which they would not be capable

without assistance. Involves a combination of individual work, close observation by the tutor, and

short segments of individual or whole class instruction.

guided questioning a form of scaffolding for reading in which the tutor’s questions start out with many clues about what

is happening in the reading; as comprehension improves, the questions become less supportive.

guided reading structured reading where short passages are read, then learner interpretations are immediately

recorded, discussed and revised.

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guided writing guided writing can take many forms. It can consist of a tutor making suggestions to an individual

learner, or it may be whole class brainstorming followed by a question and answer session to clarify

specifically what will be written. In all forms of guided writing, the tutor’s role is to encourage

learner responses.

guidewords words printed in dark lettering at the top of each page of a dictionary or reference book.

Guidewords in a dictionary show the first and last words printed on the page.

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habitual error repeated mistake that is similar in nature such as, in spelling, continually reversing one diphthong

e.g. huose, muose. (See fossilised error.)

high-frequency word a word that appears many more times than most other words e.g. the, and, is, of. Someone who is

unable to recognise or use these words will therefore be at a disadvantage. (See DOLCH list, basic

sight words, essential word list.)

holistic the whole is different from and greater than its parts. Holistic teaching means treating a learner

as a whole person rather than someone who has a range of different skill gaps. Holistic learning

involves the use of problems or activities that are multi dimensional or multidisciplinary and may

include long-term and authentic activities.

homograph one or two words that are spelled the same way but have different meanings, origins and

sometimes different sounds e.g. Sometimes the speedo in a car is wound back, You need to cover a

wound to keep it clean.

homonym a word that has the same spelling or pronunciation as another, but a different meaning e.g. She

gave a wave to her friend surfing a wave.

homophone a word that has the same sound as another but a different meaning and different spelling e.g. read/

reed, pair/pear, right/write/rite.

hypertext a word coined in ��65 to describe electronic texts, where a collection of documents contains cross-

references or ‘links’ that allow the computer user to move easily from one document to another.

hyphen punctuation mark (-) used to:

• link two or more words to make compound words e.g. self-control, twenty-five, sister-in-law,

re-enter

• join morphemes at the end of one line and the beginning of the next line in handwritten texts.

Appropriate use of hyphens in this way demonstrates the maturity of the writer.

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ice-breaker initial teaching activity to build group rapport. (See warm-up.)

idiom an expression that does not mean what it literally says but whose meaning has been established by

use e.g. Give us a hand.

IEP Individual Education Plan. Also known as Individual Learning Plan (ILP). (See learning plan.)

ILP Individual Learning Plan. Also known as Individual Education Plan (IEP). (See learning plan.)

imagery forming mental images: a device to create an image in the mind of the reader. The image may be

visual (picture), auditory (sound), tactile (feel), olfactory (smell) or gustatory (taste). Imagery may

be combined with metaphors e.g. the sleek, oily-black pistons hissed musically. (See figurative

meaning.)

immersion a concept from Cambourne’s conditions of literacy learning. Learners need to be immersed in the

culture, knowledge and curriculum to find out how they learn best. (See conditions of learning.)

imperative a form of the verb used for a command or instruction e.g. Hold this! Take the second left. (See

command.)

implicit capable of being understood from something else although unexpressed, implied, indirect.

implicit literacy the literacy tasks that are assumed within a particular activity e.g. It is assumed that in knowing

about health and safety, the learner is aware of the legislative requirements. (See explicit literacy.)

implicit vocabulary instruction a method for teaching vocabulary. Involves exposing learners to words or providing many

opportunities to read extensively.

implicit/explicit knowledge native speakers of a language know implicitly how their language works through using it. Being

taught specifically about aspects of form, structure and usage makes implicit knowledge explicit,

enabling learners consciously to think and talk about how the language works, and how they use it

themselves.

impress strategy a formal version of the repeated reading strategy. Also known as neurological impress method

(NIM) or read along approach.

incidental phonics instruction includes whole word or whole language programmes where there is less emphasis on structured

phonics instruction.

indefinite article a word used before a noun referring to the individual item e.g. a, an. (See article.)

indefinite pronoun a word that stands in for a noun e.g. someone, anything. (See pronoun.)

independent reading level reading of text is meaningful and �5-�00 per cent accurate. Reader can read similar texts

independently and requires no support to access content and meaning. (See instructional and

frustrational reading level.)

indigenous literacy the cultural and social literacy practices used by people who are the original inhabitants of a

specific place.

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indirect speech speech that is reported without using the exact words e.g. He said that he might do it if he were

offered the position. (See direct speech.)

individual construction of text individual learners creating or using a particular text with little or no support.

inference (i) a conclusion or deduction usually based on facts or evidence e.g. What inference did you make

when your machine stopped working?

inference (ii) interpreting text information that is suggested rather than explicitly stated; reading ‘between the

lines’ e.g. ‘The family enjoyed their picnic on the beach.’ An inference may be that the weather

was fine.

inferential comprehension reader goes beyond what is written to add meaning or draw a conclusion, commonly called

‘reading between the lines’. (See literal, critical, evaluative and creative comprehension.)

inferring a thinking skill, demonstrated when a learner can make conclusions based on reading or prior

knowledge.

infinitive base form of a verb; a verb form that begins with the word ‘to’ e.g. to be, to sit (has no tense). (See

non-finite verb.)

inflection (grammatical) change in word endings to show grammatical meaning e.g. eat – eats.

inflection (oral) change in oral tone or voice pitch.

informal a style of language where the choice of words, grammatical construction, syntax and address is

determined by a connection with the audience that may be actual or sought. Informal language

tends to be more colloquial and familiar than formal language, to use less technical or complex

vocabulary and to have simple grammatical structures e.g. Hey bro! Wassup? (See formal.)

initial the first letter of a person’s first name, middle name or surname e.g. H. Clarke. Often requested on

forms e.g. Put your initials here.

initial assessment process for identifying a learner’s literacy skill levels in relation to the literacy demands of a

programme at the outset of that programme. (See formative, diagnostic, summative assessment.)

initial blend joining of two or more consonants at the beginning of a word e.g. bl in black. (See consonant

blend.)

initial sound the first letter or letters in a word gives the first sound of the word e.g. sh in ship or h in help.

instructional describes text written to help readers achieve certain goals e.g. recipes, vehicle repair manuals,

self-assembly instructions. Instructional texts tend to use imperative verbs, which are often placed

at the beginning of sentences to form a series of commands, and time-related connectives e.g. Sift

flour then add egg.

instructional reading level reading of text is meaningful and �0-�5 per cent accurate. Reader requires guided reading

activities to support their reading of the text in order to access the content and meaning. (See

independent and frustrational reading levels.)

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integrated literacy the development of specific literacy skills along with the development of skills and knowledge in

another area e.g. literacy within vocational training. (See embedded literacy.)

integrated task an activity that involves more than one aspect or mode of literacy e.g. Using the telephone is

an integrated literacy task as it includes the literacy modes of speaking and listening, writing

(messages) and reading (the White Pages).

integration the process of combining literacy teaching with skill instruction in other areas.

integrative a high-decoding/high-comprehension pattern of reading difficulty. Reader uses decoding and

comprehension skills in reading. Reader may still require assistance in developing and reinforcing

these skills further. (See non-integrative.)

interactive reading model also known as active reading model.

interactive writing collaboration between the tutor and the learner, with both writing parts of the final composition.

interjection words used to interrupt and express a strong feeling or attract the reader’s attention, usually

followed by an exclamation mark e.g. Stop! Hang on!

International Phonetic Alphabet

(IPA)

a series of written symbols denoting pronunciation of words.

interrogative (i) the key word in a question, pinpointing the nature of the question and the kind of information being

sought e.g. who, what, when, how, where, why.

interrogative (ii) a type of sentence that asks a question.

interrogative pronoun a word that stands in for a noun in a question e.g. Who? What? (See pronoun.)

intonation the way in which changes in the musical pitch or tune of the voice are used to structure speech and

to contribute to meaning. Intonation may distinguish questions from statements e.g. Sure? Sure!,

or indicate contrastive and emotive stress e.g. I said two, not three. I just hate that advertisement!

(See pitch.)

introduction a beginning of a text, introducing the subject and often involving an overview of the content.

inversion changing the order of words within a sentence, especially to create a question e.g. I was there;

Was I there? Or in literature to create a poetic effect e.g. Dark it was, and cold.

irregular something that does not follow an expected or usual pattern e.g. verb to be irregular present tense

— I am, you are, he is; irregular past tense — I was, you were, he was. (See regular.)

irregular verb a form of verb that does not keep the same morpheme or word in other forms e.g. I am, I was. (See

verb.)

italics a style of printing where the letters slant to the right, often used to draw special attention to certain

words or passages. In this resource italics is used to denote examples.

iterative the repetition of a cycle moving toward desired results e.g. redrafting and rewriting.

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jargon a word or words that relates to a particular job or subject not usually understood by outsiders e.g.

rumen (part of the stomach of a cow or other ruminant), mainsail (sailing).

joint construction of text tutor and learner or group of learners working together to analyse, use and develop texts.

journal a form of writing kept by a learner that is usually shared with the tutor. Journal entries may be open

entry, guided by the tutor, or capture literacy learning or achievement. Often used to encourage

reflection or exploration of ideas of interest to the learner.

judging a form of critical thinking that involves forming opinions about a topic.

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key words (i) the words that carry the substance of a phrase or the meaning of a sentence. Identifying the key

words of a text is therefore a means of understanding the gist.

key words (ii) those words in any subject that learners have to understand if they are to read, understand and

progress with learning.

kinaesthetic (i) related to voluntary bodily movement.

kinaesthetic (ii) a learning style where the learner learns most effectively by receiving information through doing or

watching demonstrations and then practising the same tasks. Some learners find that kinaesthetic

approaches e.g. tracing patterns of words with their finger on the page, or ‘drawing’ them in the air,

help to secure spelling patterns in the memory. (See learning style, auditory, visual.)

knowledge-based reader a low-decoding/high-comprehension pattern of reading difficulty. Reader relies on background

information and knowledge rather than focussing on text cues. (See text-based reader.)

KWLH Know/Want/Learn/How. A learning strategy to identify purposes for reading texts e.g. what I know,

what I want to learn, what I have learned, how I learned it.

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labelling a form of classification that includes categorising then naming a concept, object, action or event.

Language Experience Approach

(LEA)

an approach to learning that uses the learner’s own words and experiences to provide the basis

for language work. Typically, a tutor using a language experience approach will produce a written

version of a ‘spoken text’ given by the learner, so that there is a familiar written text that can be

used for further work in reading and writing.

language feature a feature that contributes to the written or spoken style and tone of a text e.g. tense, vocabulary,

punctuation.

layout format, ‘look’ and structure of a text. Features may include contents pages, chapter headings and

other sub-headings, bullet-point lists, captions to photographs and illustrations, text presented in

special display boxes, tables, footnotes and indexes.

learning intention teaching tool to make explicit the intended learning outcome of any activity.

learning log learners write responses to tutor questions as a summary of what they have learned or what they

do not understand. Used for reflection and to inform the tutor of learner progress.

learning outcome a descriptive statement outlining the knowledge, skills and understandings attained and measured

against predetermined criteria.

learning plan outline of action to reach an individual learner’s identified goals. Also called Individual Education

Plan (IEP) or Individual Learning Plan (ILP) or pathway plan.

learning style an individual way of learning that may be drawn on to increase teaching effectiveness e.g. basic

classification is often visual, auditory and kinaesthetic. (See visual, auditory, kinaesthetic.)

learning style inventory assessments taken by learners to learn about their learning styles and preferences.

left brain usually controls language and calculation and neuromuscular activity for the right side of the body.

(See right brain.)

legible capable of being read and understood.

letter a symbol used to represent a sound.

letter string a group of letters that together represent a phoneme (unit of sounds) or morpheme (unit of

meaning).

letter-sound relationship the linking of a letter or series of letters to a particular sound and from sound to letter(s).

level of text construction a useful way of analysing text in order to provide constructive feedback. Involves three levels,

word, sentence and paragraph or whole text. (See surface and deeper-level features.)

lexical of or relating to words or the vocabulary of a language as distinguished from its grammar and

construction.

limited vocabulary a person with a limited vocabulary is able to recognise and use only a restricted number of words,

but these words are important for that person to function effectively in their everyday life.

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linguistics the scientific study of language or particular languages.

list—group—label an activity to help learners activate prior knowledge before beginning a new topic. Learner teams

divide a list of key words into groups, then label each group.

listen to hear and pay attention to something. (See active listening.)

listening comprehension activities to promote active and critical listening. Activities often include reading passages aloud,

then assessing learner understanding through written or oral questions.

literacy common definition: the ability to read and write. There is no universal definition of literacy. Some

definitions are more inclusive than others and may include speaking, listening, numeracy, problem-

solving, creative and critical thinking or communication.

literacy acquisition the process of acquiring literacy skills and practices.

literacy components six components, phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, fluency, comprehension and critical

literacy, identified as essential to effective literacy teaching practice.

literacy demands the literacy tasks that are necessary to perform a particular activity or set of activities e.g. to

answer the telephone a learner needs to be able to: greet, answer correctly, hold meaningful

conversation, take a message and end conversation appropriately.

literacy task analysis a process to identify the literacy tasks required to perform a specific task e.g. answering the phone

(task) involves speaking and listening to callers, writing messages, passing messages on orally etc.

literal comprehension reader understands basic facts from information contained explicitly in the text. Learner is able

to answer basic questions directly from the text, locating information in the text. (See inferential,

critical, evaluative and creative comprehension.)

literal meaning the exact meaning of the words as they are spoken or written e.g. He kicked the bucket literally

means that someone kicked a bucket. (See figurative meaning.)

long vowel in English, the sound qualities of a e i o u as in make, concrete, site, home, cube. (See short vowel.)

look, say, spell, cover, write,

check

strategy for learning the spelling of words e.g. look closely at the word, say the word, spell the word

in your head and focus on any problem areas, cover the word, write the word and check the word.

If correct write three times from memory, if incorrect begin sequence again. (See spelling strategy.)

lower case small letters i.e. all letters that are not capital letters. In print, lower-case letters will be of varying

size, with some having ascenders (parts of the letter rising above the main body of the letter) e.g. h t

f, and some having descenders (parts of the letter dropping below the main body of the letter) e.g. p

q y, and some having neither e.g. o u s.

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main idea central concept of a paragraph or text. May be contained in a topic sentence.

making meaning developing and using knowledge, strategies and awareness in order to get and convey meaning

when reading and writing.

mass literacy campaign a national literacy strategy often aimed at mass education e.g. Cuba, Nicaragua.

mass or uncountable noun a word that denotes somebody or something that does not normally occur in the plural e.g. money,

butter. (See noun.)

matching linking pairs e.g. pictures or symbols with words or objects or terms and definitions.

Matthew effect adopted by Stanovich in research on reading and language disabilities. Describes how early

success in acquiring reading skills usually leads to later successes in reading as the learner

grows, while failing to read before the third or fourth year of schooling may be indicative of lifelong

problems in learning new skills.

maturity the final stage of reading development.

meaning maker a creator, interpreter and conveyor of meaning within text. Also known as text participant. One of

four reader roles originally developed by literacy theorists Freebody and Luke. (See code-breaker,

text analyst, text user.)

meaningful sentence given vocabulary terms, learners can be shown sentences in which the terms are used in a context

that helps them to understand the meaning of the terms, or as an assessment, learners can be

asked to write meaningful sentences containing key words.

medial the letters in the middle of a word give the medial sounds of the word and are often vowels or

combinations. This is often the hardest part of the word to sound out for learners e.g. mis as in

permission or sci as in discipline.

medium the way in which language is transmitted from one person, or an agency, to another. Denotes

the means of communication e.g. television, telephone, film, radio, computer, press, written text,

speech.

memorandum text format commonly used in workplaces to provide information. Layout includes the headings

From, To, Date and Subject. Often referred to as a memo.

memorisation actively organising and working with concepts or terminology to improve incorporating those

concepts into memory.

metacognition a person’s ability to reflect on their own thinking and monitor their own learning. Metacognition

is essential for a learner to participate actively in learning and to apply learning to other contexts.

Strategies include planning, monitoring, evaluating and revising own thinking and understanding.

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metalanguage the language we use when talking about language itself. It includes words like sentence, noun,

paragraph, preposition. Those who understand these concepts are able to talk about language

quite precisely. Therefore acquisition of metalanguage is seen as a crucial step in developing

awareness of and proficiency in communication, particularly in written language.

metaphoric use of words figurative way to create another meaning e.g. This course is a stepping stone to the future. (See

figurative meaning.)

migrant literacy programme to teach the main language of a country to people who have just arrived in a country. In

New Zealand this programme is likely to be English language.

mind map a graphic way of organising information visually to show the interrelationships between concepts

as they arise from thought, discussion, text or other stimuli.

miscue analysis copied by Goodman—analysis of reading errors. (See running record.)

mixed programme involves a combination of systemic phonics instruction within a programme or course.

mnemonic a device to aid memory, for instance to learn particular spelling patterns or spellings e.g. a ‘light’

spelling pattern mnemonic is I Go Home Tonight; a spelling mnemonic is ‘There is a rat in separate’.

modal verb a verb form presenting intention, possibility, ability or obligation, and which may affect mood of

statement e.g. could, should, would, must, can, may.

modality expressing the degree of belief, meaning or attitude the speaker or writer has towards their subject

e.g. possibly, may, could.

mode a particular way of doing something e.g. Literacy modes include reading, writing, speaking and

listening.

modelling a teaching strategy using practical demonstrations, thinking aloud practices and guided

questioning and discussion to make explicit implicit thinking or tasks within a particular activity.

moderation a process for ensuring the quality control of a product through external peer evaluation.

monitoring analysing, tracking and recording progress towards stated objectives, usually in relation to a

learner’s programme against stated goals.

monosyllabic a word with one beat (syllable) in it e.g. walk, run, cut.

morpheme the smallest unit of meaning. A word may consist of one morpheme (house), two morphemes

(house/s or hous/ing) or three or more morphemes (house/keep/ing; un/happi/ness). Free

morphemes are words that stand on their own e.g. work. Bound morphemes are prefixes or

suffixes added to a free morpheme e.g. works, worker, rework. Derivational morphemes provide

an element of common meaning to the words in which they occur e.g. automobile, automatic,

autograph, auto = self.

morphological analysis analysis of the meanings of words based on their sub-parts (morphemes).

morphological knowledge knowledge of the structure of words, forms and parts. Knowledge of prefixes and suffixes and what

they mean; knowledge of how words can be put together.

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morphology study of the structure of words, forms and parts of words.

multimedia text a text that uses more than one means of communication e.g. computer programs use a combination

of visual, auditory and written forms of communication.

multimedia vocabulary

instruction

a method for teaching vocabulary. Involves teaching vocabulary beyond a text including graphic

representations or hypertext.

multiple literacies the ability to interpret and communicate for a variety of purposes, in different settings, with a range

of texts and media. Through work, community and family life, people acquire different kinds of

literate abilities. This term refers to the multiplicity of literacy skills, tasks and concepts that are

required for daily life.

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narrative texts that tell a story and have a problem resolution. A narrative text may be fictional, or it may

include some factual information. It may be in prose or poetic form. (See recount.)

needs analysis in literacy, the process for assessing an individual’s literacy skill level in relation to the literacy

demands of a particular context e.g. the workplace.

nominalisation this is where a verb is turned into a noun. It is a feature of increasing abstraction and

generalisation of a process e.g. water evaporates becomes Evaporation occurs when…

non-finite verb a form of verb without a subject, usually has ‘to’ in front e.g. to run. (See infinitive verb.)

non-integrative a low-decoding/low-comprehension pattern of reading difficulty. Reader uses few decoding skills

and does not draw on background information and knowledge. (See integrative.)

non-print literacy literacies not based on the written word. These include oral, visual, cultural or sentient literacies

e.g. tukutuku panels, carvings, dance.

norm-referenced assessment learners are compared with each other for assessment purposes. The learners with the best

performance receive the highest marks. Not all learners can receive the highest marks. (See

criterion-referenced assessment.)

note-taking skill in summarising important ideas of a book/lecture/meeting or other source.

noun a word that denotes somebody or something e.g. My younger sister won some money in a

competition.

• Common nouns refer to things, people, creatures, etc. e.g. sister, money, competition, dog.

• Abstract nouns name a concept or idea e.g. happiness, love, justice, grief.

• Collective nouns refer to a group (e.g. crowd, flock, team). Although these are singular in

form, they can be plural in meaning and, in informal English, used with a plural verb and plural

pronouns e.g. The team have won all their games so far.

• Proper nouns are the specific names of people, places, organisations, etc. These normally

begin with a capital letter e.g. Maori, Wellington, Microsoft, Islam, November.

• Countable nouns can be singular (only one) or plural (more than one) e.g. sister/sisters,

problem/problems, party/parties.

• Mass or uncountable nouns do not normally occur in the plural e.g. butter, cotton, electricity,

money, happiness.

nutshelling a form of summary. Involves asking a learner to create a brief statement (oral or written) that

captures the essence of all that has been written or stated to that point.

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object part of the sentence that receives the action of the verb e.g. The boy hit the ball. (See subject.)

observation observation of a learner by a tutor for performance assessments, or simply to gather information

about an individual learner’s needs and achievements.

omitting reading behaviour where words are omitted when reading, often affecting understanding. (See

substitution.)

one sentence summary learners are asked to write a single summary sentence that answers the ‘who, what, where, when,

why, how’ questions about the topic.

ongoing assessment method of continually collecting and recording literacy skill gains over a period of time.

online communication

technologies

methods of communicating using electronic equipment e.g. email, texting, messaging.

onset the first sound in a word e.g. /k-/at/. (See rime.)

open question any question that does not require a yes/no or one accurate answer may be used to explore

a learner’s understanding e.g. How could this information help you? (See questioning, closed

question.)

opinion a statement of a person’s feelings or thoughts that is based on some facts relating to an issue.

oracy capacity to express oneself in and understand speech.

oral verbal or spoken.

oral vocabulary words used in speaking and listening. Often larger than reading vocabulary.

orthographic knowledge knowledge about spelling patterns e.g. rough, tough, enough versus scruff, buff, duff.

outcome what is to be achieved from a particular action or course of action.

outline a skeletal version of a larger presentation or text. May include phrases or sentences that are

critical to the topic and are arranged in the same order in which the concepts will be (or were)

presented in the final version.

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paragraph a section of a text dealing with one aspect of a subject. A new paragraph marks a change of focus

or time, or a change of speaker. A new paragraph begins on a new line, usually with a one-line gap

separating it from the previous paragraph, and sometimes indented. Paragraphing helps writers to

organise their thoughts, and helps readers to follow the storyline, argument or dialogue.

paragraph level text

construction

also known as whole text level. Involves considering the paragraph and/or whole text e.g. the

sequence and organisation of ideas, links between ideas, introduction and conclusion, impact

on audience, purpose etc. when analysing and providing feedback on writing. (See word and

sentence level text construction.)

paraphrase to express the main points or key ideas of a text in the words and style appropriate to a particular

audience without using the exact wording of the original text e.g. So what I think you are saying is

that the author is wrong in saying rugby is New Zealand’s top sport.

parenthesis punctuation mark. (See bracket.)

parts of speech the names of types of words that function in different ways e.g. nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives,

prepositions, conjunctions and interjections. Many words can be used as different parts of speech

depending on their role or function in the sentence e.g. The round ball (adjective); It’s my round

(noun); He went round the house (preposition).

passive voice where the subject is acted upon e.g. The boy was bitten by the dog.

Passive forms are common in impersonal formal styles e.g. Application forms may be obtained from

the address below. (See active voice, voice.)

past continuous a form of verb tense. (See verb tense.)

past perfect a form of verb tense. (See verb tense.)

past perfect continuous a form of verb tense. (See verb tense.)

past perfect simple a form of verb tense. (See verb tense.)

past simple a form of verb tense. (See verb tense.)

past tense a form of verb tense. (See verb tense.)

pattern in a literacy context, grammar and spelling that enable the learner to make accurate predictions

about the sound and the sense of words and constructions, and thus get meaning from text e.g.

spelling patterns, cat, mat, hat.

pattern of reading difficulty based on decoding/comprehension analysis. Identifies main strategies used when reading and can

inform ongoing teaching and learning.

The three main patterns include:

• low decoding/higher comprehension (knowledge based)

• high decoding/low comprehension (text based or print based)

• low decoding/low comprehension (also known as a non-integrative pattern).

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Pause, Prompt, Praise (PPP) teaching strategy for developing reading skills i.e. pause when learner makes an error, prompt to

give clue, praise for correct or good attempt.

peer editing learners read and give feedback on the work of their peers. Useful as a tool to improve analytical

skills, and to provide learners with an alternative audience for their work.

person a grammatical term referring to the use of pronouns and verbs to indicate direct reference to the

speaker:

• First person singular e.g. I said..., I am...

• First person plural e.g. We said..., we were...

• Second person e.g. you said..., you are...

• Third person singular e.g. she said..., he is...

• Third person plural e.g. they said..., they are...

personal dictionary a personal vocabulary resource developed by the learner, containing words they wish to learn to

spell and use.

personal key word a word that is important to a learner in terms of their daily life. No two people’s personal key words

will be exactly the same, since they will include, for example, a person’s address, the names of

family members, employer’s name and address.

personal pronoun a pronoun that indicates the speaker, the person spoken to, someone spoken about e.g. I, you, he,

she. (See pronoun.)

personal response a statement of a person’s feelings or thoughts about an issue or text. Personal response may be

grounded on beliefs and/or facts.

persuasive language language that is specifically selected to influence the reader, such as by appealing to human

desires and emotions, flattering the reader, or presenting a biased argument e.g. advertising. (See

bias, propaganda.)

persuasive text a text that aims to persuade the reader. Often consists of a statement of the viewpoint, arguments

and evidence for this viewpoint, some arguments and evidence supporting a different view, and a

final summary or recommendation.

phoneme the smallest meaningful unit of sound in a word. There are approximately 44 phonemes in English

(the number varies depending on the accent). A phoneme may have variant pronunciations in

different positions; but these do not affect meaning. Phonemes are usually written between / /

slashes e.g. the first and last sounds in the word ‘li/tt/le’ are variants of the phoneme l. A phoneme

may be represented by one, two, three or four letters. The following words end in the same

phoneme (with the corresponding letters underlined): t/o/, sh/oe/, thr/ough/. Phonemes within

words can be manipulated orally to blend, delete, isolate, segment and count, and substitute.

phonemic awareness the ability to hear, differentiate and attend to the individual sounds within words e.g. ‘dog’ is made

up of three sounds: ‘d’, ‘aw’, and ‘g’; a precursor to decoding.

phonetic referring to the nature, production and transcription of speech sounds.

phonetic analysis a way of describing how speech sounds are made.

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phonetics the study of speech sounds; how they are produced, and how to classify them.

phonic relating to vocal or speech sounds.

phonics a way of teaching reading and writing that is based on establishing the link between the sound of a

word or letter and the letter or letters that represents it. The correspondence between sound and

symbol in an alphabetic writing system. (See whole language.)

phonics-in-context a form of systemic phonics instruction. Involves using sound-letter correspondences along with

context cues to identify unfamiliar words.

phonics-through-spelling a form of systemic phonics instruction. Involves transforming sounds into letters to write words.

phonological awareness appreciation of the sound of language or the ability to attend to the sounds of language as distinct

from its meaning; the ability to notice, think about or manipulate the individual sounds within words

e.g. syllabification or blendings.

phonology the study of sounds in language.

phrase a group of two or more words, smaller than a clause, which forms part of a sentence. Phrases may

be:

• noun phrase e.g. her new red dress

• verb phrase e.g. has been talking, will be coming

• adverb phrase e.g. I will be home as soon as possible

• adjective phrase e.g. That house is larger than mine

• preposition phrase e.g. I saw a man in a raincoat.

picture book a book in which the illustrations are as important as the text, with both text and pictures

contributing to the telling of the story.

pitch the auditory sense that a sound is ‘higher’ or ‘lower’. The rise or fall of the voice on stressed

syllables when speaking. (See intonation.)

plan a purposeful, preconceived scheme of action to reach a specified goal.

plateau in learning, a period of little or no apparent change in performance that may, however, represent

periods of consolidation. (See consolidation.)

plural form of a noun, pronoun or verb that indicates there are more than one. In English, regular plural

nouns are usually formed by inflection, adding -s or -es. There are some irregular plurals e.g.

children, mice. Plural nouns and pronouns need their partner verbs to be plural. (See agreement.)

poem a form of text composition in which words are selected for their sound and suggestive power

to create powerful, often beautiful impressions for the reader. Imagery and techniques such as

alliteration, assonance, rhyme and rhythm are often used.

poetry the art of creating poems.

polite expression a socially acceptable word that is used to replace socially unacceptable language, a softer or

less direct way of saying something e.g. He passed away is a polite expression for He died (See

euphemism).

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portfolio a learner’s personal collection of literacy evidence and achievement.

portfolio assessment a method of assessment, a collection over time of a range of learner work (usually writing) that

allows both formative and summative assessments to take place.

portmanteau word a new word made by combining parts of two existing words e.g. brunch from breakfast and lunch.

possessive apostrophe a punctuation symbol (’) indicating possession by being placed directly after the noun that identifies

the owner (or owners) e.g. ‘The hat belonging to the boy’ becomes ‘The boy’s hat’, ‘The caps worn

by the jockeys’ becomes ’The jockeys’ caps’.

possessive pronoun a word that stands in for a noun that indicates ownership e.g. his hat. (See pronoun.)

praxis a cyclical interdependent process of reflection and action to create and transform one’s world.

Linking action with reflection is essential for critical thinking and operating. The iterative linking of

action and reflection within a critical framework.

precis (See summary.)

predict pre-reading strategy to link prior knowledge and knowledge of text types, visual clues or titles and

subtitles to make suggestions about the content of an unknown text. (See skim, scan, thorough

reading.)

prefix a morpheme that can be added to the beginning of a word to extend or refine its meaning e.g.

inedible, disappear, supermarket, unintentional.

pre-learning activities that bring existing knowledge to the surface e.g. brainstorming known words on a given

topic before the main teaching activity.

pre-literate those adults who are not literate in their own language and who come from a society where it is

common to be able to function without literacy skills e.g. rural Ethiopia.

preposition a word like at, over, by, with. Prepositions often indicate:

• time e.g. at midnight/during the film/on Friday

• position e.g. at the station/in a field

• direction e.g. to the station/over a fence

• possession e.g. of this street

• means e.g. by car

• accompaniment e.g. with me.

Prepositional phrases embed noun phrases. Prepositional phrases can be:

• adjectival phrases e.g. he married the girl in the park (i.e. the girl was from the park)

• adverbial phrases e.g. he married the girl in the park (i.e. he was married in the park).

pre-reading activity activities that connect the reading material content to what is already known.

present continuous a form of verb tense. (See verb tense.)

present perfect a form of verb tense. (See verb tense.)

present perfect continuous a form of verb tense. (See verb tense.)

present perfect simple a form of verb tense. (See verb tense.)

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present simple a form of verb tense. (See verb tense.)

present tense a form of verb tense. (See verb tense.)

pre-teaching strategy a way of introducing ideas and vocabulary that will be taught in the main body of the lesson.

pre-writing the initial creative stage of writing, prior to drafting, in which the writer formulates ideas, gathers

information and considers ways to organise them.

pre-writing strategy activities to encourage learners to prepare for writing e.g. brainstorming, mind mapping, note-

taking, summarising.

print (i) a medium of paper-based communication using the written word e.g. books, newspapers, a printed

publication.

print (ii) a way of writing using capital letters only.

prior knowledge the knowledge a person already has about a given topic.

procedural text a piece of writing outlining the steps to how something is to be done. An ordered sequence of

events or actions to achieve a specific purpose e.g. an evacuation procedure.

process the way in which writing is conceptualised and created from the outset. Involves forming intention,

clarifying ideas, drafting, correcting and editing.

product the end result or outcome of the writing process. The published product (or written text) effectively

communicates the writer’s intentions and matches audience and purpose. (See process.)

programme course of study and/or research activity.

prologue a speech or piece of text at the beginning of a play, book or film that introduces it. (See epilogue.)

pronoun a word that stands in for a noun or noun phrase. There are several kinds of pronoun:

• Personal pronouns e.g. I/me, you, he/him, she/her, we/us, they/them, it.

• Possessive pronouns e.g. mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs, its.

• Reflexive pronouns e.g. myself, herself, themselves.

• Indefinite pronouns e.g. someone, anything, nobody, everything.

• Interrogative pronouns e.g. who/whom, whose, which, what.

• Relative pronouns e.g. who/whom, whose, which, that.

pronoun/antecedent agreement the pronoun in a sentence needs to match or agree with its antecedent e.g. Kim brings her car to

work every day.

pronunciation the way in which language or a particular word sounds when someone speaks it. (See articulation.)

proof/proofread to check a piece of work thoroughly before final publication. Reviewing texts for spelling, grammar

and punctuation errors to suit audience does not usually revise content. (See edit.)

propaganda information that has been carefully selected to promote a particular doctrine or practice, such as to

develop loyalty to a country or political party, or to encourage a cultural or religious practice. (See

bias, persuasive language and text.)

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proper noun (see noun.)

prose extended written texts, not usually verse e.g. articles, editorials, short stories, novels, notes.

prosody an element of fluency in oral reading. Involves reading with appropriate rhythm, intonation and

expression. Includes being able to use punctuation to group words into natural units.

proverb a concise saying that expresses a generally accepted belief e.g. A bird in the hand is worth two in

the bush; Once bitten, twice shy.

pseudonym an assumed name used by an author in place of their real name.

pun the use of one word to suggest different meanings, a humorous play on words e.g. He wanted to be

a car racer but he didn’t have the drive.

punctuation system of symbols that add meaning to the written word; a way of marking text to help readers’

understanding. The most commonly used marks in English are full stop, comma, question mark,

exclamation mark, apostrophe, colon, semicolon, speech marks and hyphen.

purpose what the writer wants to achieve with their writing e.g. to describe, explain, instruct, narrate, argue.

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qualitative connected with describing the qualities of something rather than exact numerical measurement

e.g. All participants reported that they felt more confident after attending the programme. (See data

collection, quantitative.)

quantifier a word or phrase used with a noun, indicating quantity e.g. few, several, many.

quantitative connected with measuring the amount or number of something rather than describing its qualities

e.g. 65 per cent of learners passed the course. (See data collection, qualitative.)

question a phrase or sentence that is asked with the purpose of getting information.

question mark punctuation mark (?) used at the end of a sentence to show that a question has been asked.

questioning skill used to obtain answers on a particular topic. (See open and closed questions.)

quotation marks punctuation marks (“”) to denote some titles or direct speech e.g. He watched “The Lord of the

Rings” at the cinema. He said “It was a great representation of the book”. (See speech marks,

direct speech.)

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RAFT a writing exercise identifying Role/Audience/Format/Text. Assists learners to integrate new

concepts into their previous understandings by having them personalise their learning.

read aloud the tutor reads aloud to the class to improve comprehension, expose learners to correct

pronunciation, or to create positive feelings about reading or a particular book.

readability ease of comprehension because of style of writing. May take into account length of sentences

and numbers of multi-syllable words. Common readability formulae are Fry, SMOG, Gunning-Fog,

Flesch-Kincaid.

reader (i) a book used for instruction in reading vocabulary. The number of words may be limited, graded or

controlled; the subject matter may be familiar.

reader (ii) a person reading a text.

reading the ability to understand written forms that are required by society and/or valued by the individual.

reading ahead predicting the following chunk or chunks of a word or words in reading to increase speed and

comprehension.

reading assessment method observing, recording and analysing reading behaviour.

reading back reading back to the start of a sentence or paragraph to obtain/clarify meaning.

reading comprehension understanding a text that is read or the process of constructing meaning from a text; an interactive

process wherein readers think about what the author is saying and connect it to their prior

knowledge.

reading for information learners interact with text to collect information or to improve their understanding of specific topics.

reading inventory a checklist or questionnaire for noting/recording reading interests, habits, books read etc. (See

journal.)

reading level an estimation of a learner’s current level of reading achievement as compared with some criterion

or standard. Assessment of the ease with which a learner accesses the text in a meaningful way.

This is calculated by dividing the number of errors by the number of words read multiplied by �00 to

get a percentage.

(See independent, instructional and frustrational reading levels.)

reading on reading to the end of a sentence to use context in order to obtain the meaning of an individual word

or phrase.

reading process the act of reading taken as a whole; what happens when a reader processes text to obtain

meaning.

reading readiness the readiness of a learner to benefit from reading instruction.

reading vocabulary the number of different words a learner can recognise and understand in silent reading.

recall to bring back from memory.

reciprocal teaching (i) learners take turns being the tutor for a pair or small group. The tutor role may be to clarify, ask

questions, ask for predictions, etc.

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reciprocal teaching (ii) a teaching technique to develop comprehension of text. Involves a dialogue between tutors and

learners on a particular text, focussing on summarising, questioning, clarifying and predicting.

recording in relation to tuition and assessment, a method of capturing a learner’s skill development in written

form.

recount text type that retells or recounts actual events in time order. (See narrative.)

redundancy in language, a needless and possibly distracting repetition of words or words that may have the

same meaning e.g. From where did you get this from?

reference (i) a source of information or direction to such a source. The relationship between a pronoun and the

noun to which it refers to e.g. Is that your phone? May I borrow it?

reference (ii) a source document for information e.g. an encyclopaedia.

reflection a metacognitive activity. The learner pauses to think about and organise information gathered from

reading, discussions, or other activities to inform future events or activities.

reflective learning the process of thinking over experiences and adapting or changing plans for future action based on

this thinking.

reflexive pronoun a word that stands in for a noun that refers back to the subject e.g. herself, themselves. (See

pronoun.)

register a variety of language selected for use in a specific social situation. In particular, register

differentiates formal from informal use of language.

regular something that follows a pattern or set of rules. Describes words, typically verbs and nouns, that

conform to general rules.

• Regular noun e.g. tree (singular) trees (plural)

• Regular verb e.g. I walk. I walked. I was walking. (See irregular, verb.)

regular verb a form of verb that keeps that same morpheme or base word in other forms e.g. talk, talked. (See

verb.)

reinforcement the strengthening of something. In learning, this refers to knowledge and often occurs through

repeated practice. (See consolidation.)

relative pronoun a word that relates to a person and/or thing and that links information with them e.g. who, whom,

whose, which, that. (See pronoun.)

remedial reading specialised reading instruction adjusted to the needs of a learner who does not read well despite

regular reading instruction.

repeated language pattern a phrase to describe the repetition of vocabulary and the recurrence of structural features in

grammar and spelling that enable a learner to make accurate predictions about the sound and

sense of words and constructions, and thereby to obtain meaning from text.

repeated reading strategy strategy to increase fluency and improve comprehension; allows for automation and perfection of

taught skills and strategies. (See impress strategy.)

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report a text type that classifies, describes, locates and presents the dynamic aspects of an object e.g. A

kitten is a young cat. It has soft fur. It lives in the cat basket. It catches mice.

reporting in a teaching context, supplying information on the progress and achievements of a learner.

re-running reading behaviour.

response a concept from Cambourne’s conditions of literacy learning. The primary role of tutors is to provide

feedback and a response to the entire learning experience in order to help learners assess their

progress. (See conditions of learning.)

responsibility a concept from Cambourne’s conditions of literacy learning. Establishing learning expectations

allows learners to take responsibility for their learning. (See conditions of learning.)

review to look back on learning before moving on to new lessons/initiatives.

rhetorical question a question that is stated for effect but is not expected to be answered e.g. You are not going to do

that, are you? Why am I doing this?

rhyme identical or very similar recurring final sounds in words within or at the ends of lines of verse e.g.

stay/play, bright/right.

rhythm regular timing of stress syllables in speech.

right brain usually controls creativity and imagination and neuromuscular activity e.g. in music, poetry, left side

of body. (See left brain.)

rime all the sounds in a word (after the onset) from the vowel to the end of the word (e.g. at in cat). (See

onset.)

root word the basic part of a word that carries the main component of meaning.

Prefixes and suffixes may be added to the root word to make other words e.g. unclear, clearly,

cleared where the root word is clear. (See base word.)

rote learning the acquisition of information or behaviours by repetitive drill rather than by understanding. (See

drill.)

running record (i) a cumulative account of selected behaviour such as that of a learner noted by a tutor over time for

monitoring, recording and assessment purposes.

running record (ii) coined by Clay – involves observing learners as they read aloud, recording exactly what they do,

including the errors they make as they read, and analysing the record to target teaching activities

to improve reading. Process may include using graphic, phonemic and semantic analysis. (See

miscue analysis.)

running text a text that is held together by meaning. Each sentence links the information in the one before to the

one after it e.g. a narrative text.

running words number of words in a text, word count.

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scaffolding providing temporary support to assist learners to perform a task they cannot yet do independently,

until help is no longer needed. Involves the gradual withdrawal of tutor support. May take many

forms (examples, explanations, organisers, etc.) and needs to build on learners’ existing knowledge.

scan reading strategy where reader looks over a text, trying to find information by locating a key word,

phrase or specific information e.g. phone book, dictionary. (See skim, predict, thorough reading.)

SCOPE Spelling, Capitalisation, Order of words, Punctuation, Express complete thoughts. A proofreading

strategy.

script a text whether written, spoken or visual. (See text.)

segment to break a word or part of a word down into its component phonemes e.g. /c//a//t/, /ch//ar//t/.

segmenting words separating words into, for example, separate phonemes, syllables, beginning, middle and end

sound.

self-assessment a process in which a learner assesses their own achievements and progress.

self-correcting the process a learner uses to identify and correct errors in their reading, writing or speaking.

Frequent self-correcting in reading suggests the learner is reading for meaning.

self-correction reading strategy whereby the reader returns to a previously read word and corrects it on the basis

of appropriateness to content and context.

semantic associations making connections between words based on meaning and context.

semantic device a hint provided within a text to clarify meaning and aid understanding. May include direct

definitions and explanations, examples, restatements and comparisons or contrasts.

semantic information topic knowledge, background experiences, illustrations and graphics, meaning from text so far.

semantics the study of meanings in words and sentences in texts.

semicolon punctuation mark (;) that shows a separation in a sentence that is not as complete as a full stop, but

more complete than a comma e.g. It rained; we went out in our gumboots.

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sentence a group of words that together impart meaning. A sentence contains at least a subject and a verb

and sometimes an object.

Sentences are marked by using a capital letter at the beginning and a full stop (or question mark or

exclamation mark) at the end.

Sentences can be simple, compound or complex.

• A simple sentence consists of one clause e.g. It was late.

• A compound sentence has two or more main clauses of equal weight joined by and, or, but or

so e.g. It was late but I wasn’t tired.

• A complex sentence consists of a main clause that includes one or more subordinate clauses

e.g. Although it was late, I wasn’t tired.

Sentences can be classified by purpose.

• A statement is a sentence designed primarily to convey information e.g. I am happy.

• A question seeks to obtain information e.g. Are you happy?

• A command or imperative instructs someone to do something e.g. Cheer up!

• An exclamation is a sentence that conveys the speaker’s/writer’s reaction e.g. How happy you

look today!

sentence level text

construction

involves considering sentences within a text e.g. structure, sequence of words, agreements,

tenses, viewpoint, voice etc. when analysing and providing feedback on writing. (See word and

paragraph level text construction.)

sentence separation the creation of two or more sentences from one larger one. (See comma splicing.)

sequence the order in which one thing follows another.

session plan method for developing teaching plans, which may include timeframes for activities and resources

needed.

shared reading process whereby a learner reads with a peer or a tutor.

shared writing each learner contributes one or two sentences to a story written by a group.

short vowel in English, the sound qualities of /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/ as in b/a/t, b/e/t, b/i/t, b/o/b, b/u/t. (See long

vowel.)

sight vocabulary words that a learner automatically recognises on sight without having to decode them or work them

out. May be context-specific.

sight word a word that is immediately recognised as a whole and does not require word analysis for

identification e.g. it, and, of. Often phonetically irregular.

silent letter a vowel or consonant that is not sounded in a word e.g. knock, gnome, write.

simple a basic, uncomplicated structure. Simple sentence structure follows the standard pattern of

subject, verb and—optionally—object e.g. Lisa types a letter.

skill an acquired ability to perform well, proficiency.

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skim reading strategy aimed at getting an initial overview of the subject matter and the main ideas of a

passage. (See scan, predict, thorough reading.)

slang informal or popular speech words that are not accepted in ‘formal English’ e.g. crook for sick.

social sight vocabulary a selection of words and phrases commonly found in the environment e.g. toilets, exit, bus station,

push, pull. Also known as social sight words.

social word or phrase a commonly used word or phrase that serves a social, rather than communicative purpose when

speaking or writing e.g. Yours faithfully to end a formal letter.

sound blending combining a sequence of phonemes to the word they represent.

sounding out the application of phonic skills in reproducing the sound(s) represented by a letter or syllables in a

word e.g. /b/-/e/-/l/-/t/ or clusters e.g. /str/ea/m.

speaking communicating through speech.

speech a medium for transmitting spoken language.

speech marks punctuation marks (“”) or (‘’) indicating direct speech. (See quotation marks, direct speech.)

speed reading method for increasing how fast someone reads and accesses written text.

spellchecker electronic means for checking that spelling is correct. Spellcheck matches the misspelled word

to its closest equivalent. The user needs to decide whether the computer-generated alternative

is appropriate to use e.g. misspelled tril (trial) may be incorrectly changed to trail. Words that are

correctly spelled but incorrectly used e.g. there instead of their, are not corrected by spellchecker.

spelling the process of representing language by means of a writing system.

spelling notebook a self-generated list of words maintained by the learner to remind them of words they need more

work on. (See personal dictionary.)

spelling pattern sequence of letter rules that helps learners to predict spelling e.g. q is always followed with u, or

might, right, fight.

spelling rules and exceptions useful guidelines for learning English spelling e.g. an i before e except after c.

spelling strategy a system for learning new or unfamiliar words e.g. Look, say, spell, cover, write, check strategy or

tracing, word shape or words within words.

spider map a form of graphic organiser to help learners see the relationship between details and the main

topic. May include a structured way to organise or brainstorm ideas for a writing project.

split infinitive when an adverb is placed within an infinitive verb between ‘to’ and the verb e.g. to boldly go instead

of to go boldly.

spoken text includes conversation, speech, questions, lectures, live dramatic performance, poetry reading,

songs.

SQ3R Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review. A process for critically reading a text for study purposes.

An approach to studying and reading to improve comprehension and retention.

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SSR Silent Sustained Reading. A period of time during a session when everyone including the tutor

reads for a set period e.g. 20-30 minutes. (See USSR.)

stage of reading development progressively includes emergent, early, fluency and consolidation stages.

stakeholder an individual or organisation who is involved in or affected by a literacy intervention e.g. whanau,

union, employees, Industry Training Organisations.

standard English the variety of English vocabulary and grammar used in public communication, particularly in writing.

It is not limited to a particular region and can be spoken with any accent. It is generally considered

to represent ‘correct’ usage.

statement a sentence or clause that provides factual information e.g. The car was new.

STOPS Sentence structure, Tenses, Organisation, Punctuation, Spelling. Acronym to help learners

remember which aspects of their writing they should check when editing. (See COPS, C-SOOPS.)

stress emphasis (mostly loudness) on particular syllables within words or on words within sentences.

Each sentence has a stress pattern. Changes of stress can change meaning. Usually the

information words are stressed. Stress on initial or final syllable indicates the part of speech.

Nouns stress the first syllable being used e.g. refuse, information. Verbs stress the final syllable

e.g. refuse, inform.

structure the way in which letters are built up into words, words built up into sentences and sentences built

up into paragraphs, and so on. Learners may use structural features to process new words e.g. by

recognising that the suffix -ly usually indicates an adverb, or that the prefix re- means ‘again’.

study skills techniques for improving the effectiveness of individual learning around the handling and

organising of printed material e.g. filing, dictionary skills, reading tables.

style the selection of a set of linguistic features. Style can be defined in relation to context, purpose or

audience e.g. formal or informal, non-specialist or technical.

subject a grammatical term for the agent or actor in a sentence. The subject is the ‘who’ or ‘what’ that

the sentence is about. The subject of a sentence must ‘agree’ with its verb e.g. a singular subject

requires a singular verb. When the verb is in the active voice, the subject of the sentence is the

‘doer’ e.g. Dave met Lynette in the canteen. When the verb is in the passive voice, the subject is the

recipient of the action e.g. Lynette was met by Dave at the station. (See object, active and passive

voice.)

subject-verb agreement ensuring the verbs in a sentence are consistent in number with their subject e.g. That machine was

broken. Those machines were broken.

subjunctive verb form that expresses wishes, possibility or uncertainty e.g. I wish I were taller.

subordinate clause a clause that adds further information to a main clause but that cannot stand on its own as a

sentence e.g. We went outside after the rain had stopped. Although it was still drizzling, we walked

home.

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subordinating conjunction a word that introduces a subordinate clause in a complex sentence e.g. after, although. (See

conjunction.)

substitution (i) proform substitution—a way to avoid excessive repetition of a word or expression that has been

used before or when the meaning is clear from the context e.g. He got an ice cream. I want one (I

want an ice cream). Can you repair my car? I’ll do it next (repair it next).

substitution (ii) semantic substitution—a reading strategy whereby the learner substitutes other words in reading

that are not in the original text but that do not change the meaning or affect learner comprehension

e.g. The man went back to the house. The man went home. (See omitting.)

suffix a morpheme that is added to the end of a word. There are two main categories:

• An inflectional suffix changes the tense or grammatical status of a word e.g. from present to

past (worked) or from singular to plural (accidents).

• A derivational suffix changes the word class e.g. from verb to noun (worker) or from noun to

adjective (accidental).

summarise condensing material into a shorter form while still retaining the overall meaning and main points.

The written form is sometimes called a summary or precis.

summary the main points or key ideas of a text, sometimes in the words, order and style used by the writer.

(See precis.)

summative assessment assessment of learning – occurs at the end of a series of learning activities and teaching

interventions to find out whether a learner has reached a particular standard in their skill level or

their ability to perform certain tasks. Attempts to sum up what and how much learning has been

achieved. (See initial, diagnostic and formative assessment.)

superlative adjective a degree of comparison in adjectives applicable when there are more than two items being

compared e.g. the biggest, most accurate. (See comparative adjective.)

surface-level feature a way of analysing and providing feedback on writing. Focus is on spelling, punctuation and

grammar. (See transcription, deeper-level features.)

syllabification process for dividing longer words into syllables. This can help learners to understand word

structure, which in turn can help reading and spelling. (See chunking.)

syllable a beat in a word. Syllables always contain a vowel or ‘y’ e.g. tap – one syllable, ta ble – two

syllables, com pu ter – three syllables.

synonym a word that has the same meaning (in a particular context) as another word e.g. start/begin, worker/

employee.

synonymous term a word or phrase that shares a similar meaning but explains nuances and gradations in meaning

e.g. eat, consume, devour, feast.

syntactic clue using known sentence patterns to help decide what an unfamiliar word might be e.g. In an

emergency leave ________ the nearest exit.

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syntax the way words are put together to create sentences. Syntax is concerned with the relationship

between words, in phrases and clauses and within sentences.

synthesis chart example of graphic organiser – used for reflection on the comprehension strategies used when

reading. Includes the questions What I did? What I learnt? How can I use this?

synthetic phonics instruction a form of systematic phonics instruction. Involves converting letters to sounds before blending to

words.

system of notation system and set of symbols used for observing, recording and analysing reading behaviour.

systematic phonics instruction direct, explicit teaching of a comprehensive set of grapheme-phoneme (letter-sound)

correspondences. (See incidental, synthetic and analytic phonics instruction, phonics-through-

spelling, phonics-in-context, analogy phonics.)

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target group/audience the identified people for whom a resource or action is tailored and at whom it is directed.

teaching learning cycle a model for analysing teaching topics and systematically building literacy learning into each stage

i.e. building the context, modelling the text, joint negotiation, independent construction, linking to

other texts.

team teaching an instructional technique in which at least two tutors work together to plan and carry out an

integrated teaching approach.

technical vocabulary words that have a particular meaning that depends on the context in which they are used.

technical word a word with a specialised meaning in one or more content fields, disciplines or professions e.g.

beam (of steel) in construction context, or beam (of light) in automotive context.

tempo the rate of articulation of speech sounds (how fast or slow it occurs), especially syllables.

tense (See verb tense.)

text words (and images) that are organised to communicate and include written, visual, spoken and

electronic forms.

text analyst critical reader of text, exploring the author’s purpose and underlying assumptions behind the text

and developing a critical language awareness. One of four reader roles originally developed by

literacy theorists Freebody and Luke. (See code-breaker, meaning maker, text user.)

text convention the generally accepted use of particular practices in different written formats e.g. starting letters

with Dear… and ending with Yours faithfully or sincerely.

text format the way in which text is arranged and presented e.g. a letter, postcard, memo. Interpreting the

format often suggests to a learner the best way to read the text.

text message electronic text, usually transmitted through mobile telephones, that uses a shortened form of writing

and spelling e.g. See you later becomes CUL8A.

text modelling process of demonstrating text usage and analysis as learners are introduced to a new text type or

format.

text organisation the structure, format and styles of a piece of writing. (See layout.)

text participant (See meaning maker.)

text structure the way in which different text types are organised.

text types different types of text e.g. statements, recounts, reports, narrative, expositions, explanations,

procedurals. (See genre.)

text user someone who uses texts in a range of contexts. The learner understands the purpose of a text,

participating and responding appropriately e.g. following instructions. One of four reader roles

originally developed by literacy theorists Freebody and Luke. (See code-breaker, text analyst,

meaning maker.)

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text-based/print-based reader high-decoding/low-comprehension pattern of reading difficulty. Reader relies on grapho-phonic

and syntactic knowledge. May be a very literal reader. Does not draw on background information

and knowledge. (See knowledge-based reader.)

thesaurus a reference book of synonyms or words that have similar meanings.

think-aloud the tutor describes their own thoughts while reading aloud to a learner or learners to model

effective reading strategies.

thinking critically involves analysing meanings, responding critically to text when reading, and being critically aware

when composing texts.

thorough reading a reading strategy aimed at getting a deep understanding of the text by close reading of all text and

details. (See skim, scan, predict.)

tone (i) any sound of well defined pitch, quality and duration.

tone (ii) the author’s attitude reflected in the style of the spoken or written word.

tone (iii) the inflections that mark the speech of a person or region; accent.

topic a general category or class of ideas, often stated in a word or phrase, usually in the first paragraph

of a text or concisely in a heading.

topic sentence a sentence that expresses the main idea to be discussed. Usually the first sentence in a paragraph.

training all of the instructional procedures and circumstances used to induce learning.

transactional strategies

instruction

long-term, focussed work on explicit comprehension instruction involving a wide range of

comprehension strategies.

transactional writing writing that is intended to convey factual information or to present an argument based on facts e.g.

reports.

transcription the stage of the writing process where a draft text is formed into an accessible and readable

product. Includes correcting, revising, editing and proofing.

transfer of learning the ability to extend, adapt or apply what has been learned in one context to new problems and

settings.

turn-taking a recognised convention in conversation in English-speaking cultures, with people speaking one at

a time, taking turns to speak. Speakers develop (consciously or unconsciously) ways of signalling

the wish to speak and of indicating to another person that it is their turn. These signals can include

pausing or subtle body language e.g. eye contact.

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understanding the process or result of acquiring or constructing meaning and comprehension.

unstressed words or syllables that receive less emphasis in spoken language (i.e. not as loud or as long).

• Words are usually structural grammar words e.g. prepositions, conjunctions.

• Unstressed sounds in words e.g. woman, engineer, contractor. (See stress.)

upper case a term used to describe capital letters. In print, in any given font and font size, all upper case letters

will be the same height e.g. BP. (See capital letter, lower case.)

USSR Uninterrupted Silent Sustained Reading. A period of time during a session when everyone including

the tutor reads for a set period e.g. 20-30 minutes. (See SSR.)

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verb a word that expresses an action, a happening, a process or a state. It can be thought of as a ‘doing’

or ‘being’ word. In the sentence Mark is tired and wants to go to bed, ‘is’, ‘wants’ and ‘go’ are

verbs. Sometimes two or more words make up a verb phrase, such as are going, didn’t want, has

been waiting.

Verbs can be regular, irregular, finite, non-finite or auxiliary.

• Regular verbs keep the same morpheme or base word in other forms (different tenses) e.g. I

talk, I will talk, I talked.

• Irregular verbs do not keep the same morpheme in other forms e.g. I am, I will be, I was.

• Finite verbs have a subject e.g. He measured the room.

• Non-finite verbs don’t have a subject and usually have ‘to’ in front of them e.g. to run. (See

infinitive.)

• Auxiliary verbs join with other verbs. Common ones are had, has, have, do, does, did, will e.g.

I will go to the meeting.

verb group a group of words that indicate an action or state e.g. She was running the machine. She was going

to run the machine.

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verb tense the form of the verb that indicates time. English verbs have three forms:

• Present tense.

• Past tense.

• Future form.

Present and past tenses can be simple or continuous:

Present

• Present simple – verb tense showing that something happens regularly in the present, is true

now or generally exists, used for facts or habits e.g. I walk to work, I wait.

• Present continuous – verb tense used for action taking place at the time of speaking or of

short duration e.g. I am waiting.

Past

• Past simple – verb tense showing that action has already occurred and is completed e.g. I

moved to Whangarei last year.

• Past continuous – verb tense showing that a past ongoing action was interrupted by

something else in the past e.g. I was waiting (continuous).

Additionally these two verb tenses can be perfect (using the verb ‘have’):

Present perfect

• Present perfect simple – verb tense showing that an action happened in the past, at an

unspecified time, and the action is important for the present or future e.g. I have waited.

• Present perfect continuous – verb tense showing that an action happened in the past, at an

unspecified time, and the action is ongoing and important for the present or future. The action

has taken longer than expected. The action may have been repeated from some time in the

past e.g. I had been waiting.

Past perfect

• Past perfect simple – verb tense showing that action has been completed in the past before

another past action. Used when actions are told in a different order from how they happened.

Used in subordinate clauses e.g. He had read the book (also known as pluperfect).

• Past perfect continuous – verb tense showing that an action happened in the past, at an

unspecified time, and the action was ongoing in the past and was important for the present

or future. The action had taken longer than expected. The action may have been repeated

previously e.g. I had been waiting.

Future form – verb form showing that something will happen at some time in the future e.g. John will

arrive tomorrow, John will be arriving tomorrow, John is going to arrive tomorrow, John is arriving

tomorrow, John arrives tomorrow.

verbal having to do with words and speech.

verbal ability the ability to understand or reason with language.

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vernacular the native, spoken language or dialect of a speech community, not always considered ‘correct’.

visual learning style where the learner learns most effectively by receiving information through looking.

(See learning style, auditory, kinaesthetic.)

visual discrimination ability to see visual similarities and differences.

visual fatigue eyestrain, tiredness – presumably due to excessive use of the eyes.

visual literacy the ability to interpret and communicate through images/visual media e.g. video, graphics, icons,

tukutuku panels, signs.

visual text text that uses still or moving images to convey messages e.g. pictures, road signs, art, silent movies,

slide shows, cartoons, multimedia text.

visualisation the process, or result, of mentally picturing objects or events that are normally experienced directly.

vocabulary a list of words. Those words known or used by a person or group. Oral vocabulary – the words we

use in speaking or recognise when listening. Reading vocabulary – the words we recognise or use

in print.

vocabulary development the growth of a person’s word bank of known words and meanings.

vocabulary teaching method may include multimedia, explicit and implicit vocabulary instruction and capacity or association

methods, use of context clues, word banks.

vocational occupational or work-related.

vocational literacy provision literacy instruction usually for people who are learning a particular occupation or vocation where

the literacy instruction relates to that occupation or vocation.

voice the placing of focus on the ‘doer’ (active voice) or the receiver of the action (passive voice) e.g.

The beam trapped Ben (active). Ben was trapped by the beam (passive). (See subject, active and

passive voice.)

volume the amount of sound produced, its loudness or quietness.

volunteer literacy provision adult literacy classes taught by volunteer tutors.

vowel the letters a, e, i, o, u. Sometimes y acts as a vowel. e.g. my. All words and syllables must contain a

vowel.

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wait time how long a tutor waits after asking a question can influence the quality of responses provided by

learners. Increased ‘wait time’ can lead to increased confidence in learners.

warm-up activity to build rapport and group cohesion in training, or review previous learning, or introduce

new teaching material to learners e.g. a quiz. (See icebreaker.)

whanau literacy provision literacy programmes that provide adults with the ability to foster literacy in whanau members. May

also provide direct literacy instruction for children and/or adults, and may involve classes where

adults and children are working together. (See family literacy provision.)

whole language instructional approach to reading that deals with the learning of words as whole words within a

particular context rather than segmenting language into component skill categories. (See phonics.)

wide reading an extensive reading technique wherein the reader reads a wide range of texts, mainly for pleasure

or for non-critical information purposes. Attention to detail is not important. (See close reading.)

word a key language unit of meaning in reading, writing, speaking and listening.

word analysis also known as phonics instruction.

word attack strategies for figuring out word pronunciation, including decoding, morphological and orthographic

strategies.

word attack skill a strategy for reading unfamiliar words e.g. phonics, initial sounds, chunking. (See sounding out.)

word bank a file of words mastered or being studied by a learner. A personal dictionary. (See vocabulary.)

word class a category in which words can be used in language e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives.

word consciousness an aspect of effective vocabulary instruction that raises learner interest in words and develops an

understanding of the power of words and the enjoyment of learning new words.

word level text construction involves considering individual words e.g. spelling patterns, tense patterns, synonyms and

antonyms when analysing and providing feedback on writing. (See sentence and paragraph level

text construction.)

word recognition the process of fluently determining the pronunciation and some degree of meaning of a word in

written or printed form.

word study a vocabulary building exercise e.g. alphabetising, letter patterns, adding suffixes or prefixes.

word-processing the use of computers, with appropriate software programs and printers, to create, edit and print

text.

workforce literacy literacy instruction for people preparing for employment. Workforce literacy focuses on the literacy

demands of workplaces where those learners are likely to gain employment. In some countries

includes literacy instruction for people in employment.

workplace literacy literacy instruction for employees that takes place on-site, usually during work hours. Instructional

content focusses on the literacy demands of the specific workplace context.

worksheet a teaching sheet containing exercises and directions, that may contain space for learner

responses.

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writing the process or result of recording language graphically by hand or other means using letters and

other symbols.

writing frame a structured prompt used in literacy work to support writing. A writing frame may provide opening

phrases of paragraphs, and may include suggested vocabulary. It often provides a template for a

particular text type.

writing process the many aspects of the act of producing a written communication e.g. planning, drafting, revising,

editing, publishing.

written text includes all written or printed material e.g. newspaper reports, novels, screen text, instruction

manuals, diary entries, note-taking, charts, graphs, diagrams.

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Foundation learning sector acronyms

ABE Adult Basic Education

ADD ADHD

Attention Deficit Disorder or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Refers mostly to children who

are impulsive, unable to concentrate and work within rule-centred behaviours.

ALAF Adult Literacy Achievement Framework, a project undertaken in New Zealand in 2002-2003 as a

precursor to the development of learning progressions.

ALLS Adult Literacy and Life Skills survey. A comparative survey that seeks to profile the literacy skills of

adults in multiple countries including New Zealand. This survey, to be undertaken in New Zealand in

2006, supersedes IALS (International Adult Literacy Survey).

ALPA Adult Literacy Practitioners’ Association. New Zealand-based professional organisation for adult

literacy practitioners.

ALQM Adult Literacy Quality Mark. A New Zealand Qualifications Authority pilot project completed in 2004

that developed a draft quality standard for adult literacy provision. In 2006 this will be superseded by

the Foundation Learning Quality arrangements.

EAL English as an Additional Language.

EFL English as a Foreign Language.

IALS International Adult Literacy Survey. Undertaken in New Zealand in ��6, the survey provided an

indication of national literacy proficiency. (See ALLS.)

ICT Information and Communication Technology.

IELTS International English Language Testing System. Designed to assess the language ability of individuals

who need to study or work where English is used as the language of communication.

LLN Language, Literacy and Numeracy.

SLD Specific Learning Difficulties.

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Reference list

Some of these words and definitions have been reproduced with permission from:

Department for Education and Skills, United Kingdom.

Equipped for the Future: Glossary of related terms (accessed November 2002)www.nifl.gov/lincs/collections/eff/eff_glossary

Moore, L & Sutton, A (2002) Adult Literacy Achievement Framework, Ministry of Education, New Zealand.

NZQA Services: Glossary (accessed December 2002)www.nzqa.govt.nz/services/glossary.html

Peterson, Patricia R (��8) The Know-It-All. A Resource for kids and grown-ups, Longman, Australia.

The following references were also used:

Anderson, M & K (��8) Text Types in English Bk 3, MacMillan, Australia.

http://glossary.plasmalink.com/glossary.html

www.sarasota.usf.edu/COE/rushton/documents/cambourne.pdf

Teaching reading to adults – the readings (2005) Workbase, New Zealand

Teaching reading to adults – the workbook (2005) Workbase, New Zealand

Teaching writing to adults (2005) Workbase, New Zealand

Assessing reading (2005) Workbase, New Zealand

Assessing writing (2005) Workbase, New Zealand

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Workbase: The New Zealand Centre for Workforce Literacy Development

Literacy terms& definitions

As the New Zealand foundation learning sector develops there is a need to

standardise the meaning and usage of literacy terms and definitions.

Literacy terms and definitions is designed for anyone interested in adult literacy.

Literacy terms and definitions is the first attempt in New Zealand to create

a common understanding of literacy terms.

Literacy terms and definitions represents a starting point in establishing the meaning

and usage of these terms.

Documents

Literacy terms & definitions