DESCRIPTIVEDICTIONARY FOR 500 YEARS OFSPANISH-TRADITION CERAMICS[13th Through 18th Centuries]

by Florence C. Lister and Robert H. Lister

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Special Publication Series, Number 1published by

The Society for Historical Archaeology

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/

A DESCRIPTIVE DICTION ARY

FOR 500 YEARS OF

SPANISH-TRADITION CERAMICS

[ 13th Through 18th Centuries}

Florence C. Listerand

Robert H. Lister

1976

Special Publication Series, Number 1published by

The Society for Historical Archaeology

John D. Combes, editor

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ULAVERADE LA REINA

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Introduction

AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGISTS finding His­panic pottery in the debris of «presidio alongsome northern frontier of Spain's colonialempire may be interested solely in assigningto it a date and probable place of manufac­ture, thus establishing a temporal frameworkof reference and placement of the site withinformer communication networks. Art histo­rians look at the same pottery in terms ofform, decoration, or color to ascertain theaesthetic matrix from which it sprang. Stu­dents of technology interest themselves inthe motor processes and tools which pro­duced the vessel, while other potters criti­cally judge its weight and engineered parts.Chemists, physicists, or geologists mayanalyze interactions of clays or mineralscomposing the ware. All these approaches tothe pottery are important legitimate areas forstudy, yet none can be satisfactorily under­stood without knowledge of the underlyingcultural background of the makers. Withoutsuch historical ground work, the study ofSpanish-tradition pottery, emerging as itdoes from a complicated layered welter ofRoman, Byzantine, Gothic, Near Eastern,Oriental, and Renaissance forces, becomes ahopeless quagmire.

The r yth century was chosen as a begin­ning date for the work to follow because thatperiod was a watershed in Spanish history,dividing a Moresque past from a European­ized future. During that time two rulinghouses of Christian Spain reconquered thepeninsula to the southern Atlantic shoresand to the Mediterranean. The fabulous eraof Muslim political control and culturaldomination thus was directed toward an in­evitable conclusion. Under Ferdinand IIIof Castile and Leon, all of Andalusia, theseat of the highest Spanish Muslim achieve­ments, was wrested back into the Christiancamp when Sevilla fell in 1248. James I ofAragon-Catalufia similarly had pushed

through the Levante, taking Valencia fromthe Almohades just ten year earlier in 1238.Only the wedge of hilly Granada remainedbetween these two arms of Christendom.There the Nasrid dynasty, with tenuous re­ligious and cultural ties to the Marinids rulingin Morocco, was allowed to exist for two anda half centuries because ofits practical impor­tance to these Christian neighbors. Heavytribute was extracted from it, and a conve­nient haven was provided for Muslims ex­pelled from other parts of Spain (Burckhardt1972: 182; Jackson 1972: 85).

These political events had a direct bearingupon the history of Spanish ceramics, as wellas other decorative arts, and serve to explaindevelopments during the next 250 years,when another decisive junction was reached.Prior to the r yrh century all pottery so farknown in Christian Spain was from a Ro­mano-Visigothic heritage-wheel turned,heavy walled, generally undecorated, utilita­rian objects meant to be used in an every­day life which can best be described as primi­tive (Llubia 1967: 27-32). In the IslamicGuadalquivir River valley, however, therehad been a notable advancement in ceramicsover the preceeding five centuries stemmingfrom cultural importance placed upon all de­corative crafts, which drew upon both theeclectic background of Arab culture-an as­similation of Graeco-Rornan, Byzantine, andOriental art grammars-and the RomanizedVisigothic roots of the local inhabitants. Theuse of the potter's wheel; two chambered,updraft kilns; lead and tin glazes; lusterover-glazing; slip, glaze, impressed, or re­lief designs; cuerda seca techniques; and awide range of small and large forms usefulin an elaborated mode of life were usual(Gomez-Moreno 1951: 311-23; Llubia1967: 33-81). Furthermore, there was a cul­tural attitude which permitted the creation ofpottery solely as objects to be admired. Thenin that fateful r yth century came the end ofMuslim Andalusia and an abrupt downgrad­ing ofwhat had been an important subsidizedindustry.

2

Sevilla had become the Andalusian pro­vincial capital under the Almohades, and itwas there that craftsmen had set up theirvarious workshops in order to producegoods which gradually seduced the puritani­cal Moroccan nomads to a life of luxury.Most of the potteries were located outsidethe city on the opposite bank of the Guadal­quivir (Ainaud de Lasarte 1952: 197). In theeight month siege ofSevilla by the Castilians,it is probable that they were abandoned, se­verely damaged, or destroyed. Nor couldthey have been put back into operation soonbecause, for security reasons and in order toprovide his soldiers with rewards in the formof real estate, Ferdinand ordered Sevillaemptied of her Muslim inhabitants, most ofwhom were artisans and merchants. Theserefugees, who fled to the uncertain securityof Granada where they were to prosper againunder royal patronage, in time were replacedby local Christians or Christianized Muslimsand other artisans moving down from thenorth. This displacement of craftsmencaused a sharp decline in the quality and kindof all decorative materials produced inSevilla (Jackson 1972: 87). Those Muslimswho remained under the pretext of conver­sion not only faced harsh personal treatment,but a demoralization which likewise affectedtheir Christian co-workers. Much of the so­cial and financial support necessary to createluxury goods vanished, and contacts withwellsprings of inspiration in the Muslim Eastended. Some of the ceramic forms and pro­cesses used in caliphate and tai/a regimes forspecialized wares continued without changein Sevillian ateliers and those of Toledo, hernew political and commercial associate inCastile. They also continued at Granada,which has made exact provenience now im­possible to determine. But almost nothing isknown of more ordinary Andalusian ear­thenware made during the 250 years be­tween the Reconquest and the Columbusvoyages to America (Gestoso y Perez 1903:133-4; Llubia 1967: 124). It is assumed thatproduction continued of simple unglazed,

Introduction

lead glazed, or tin glazed functional vesselsby then characteristic of most all Spanishhomes. In the passages to follow several ex­planations for the absence at Sevilla of thesekinds of ceramics, as yet untested ar­chaeologically, are offered. For the present,this interim appears as the Dark Ages ofSevillian domestic pottery.

The post-Reconquest situation in Ara­gon-Cataluiia was quite different. First, Mus­lims in that part of Spain were tolerated andincorporated into all craft activities, includ­ing pottery-making in which they shared theskills and styles evolved during the entireMuslim occupation of the peninsula. Sec­ondly, there were many ties to otherMediterranean lands, traditionally throughsouthern France and subsequently as a resultof political control of Sicily and Naples andfarflung trading activities from North Africaaround the whole eastern Mediterranean(Jackson 1972: 89, 93). Barcelona devel­oped as a major maritime force in thistrade, at the same time creating a bourgeoisieincorporating many Frenchmen. The end re­sult, so far as ceramics is concerned, was therise of a number of thriving industries whoseworks mirrored many diverse streams ofinfluence.

In the northern Aragon town of Teruel,established originally as an outpost to protectthe road ofconquest to the south and famousfor tile decorated Italian-style towers, Chris­tians, peaceful Moors, and ChristianizedMuslims together produced a rich array ofwares based upon an old Cordoban schemeof copper green and manganese purple­brown decoration laid over a white groundwhich originally was slip and later was tinglaze. Forms and motifs upon them were afusion of Islamic and Gothic patterns, includ­ing quaint depictions of the Teruel towerswith their bands of colored tile and the citywalls, a synthesis usually called mudejar­romdnico or mudejar-gotico (Ainaud de Lasarte1952: 166-76; Gonzalez-Marti 1944, Vol. I:549-98; Llubia 1967: 129-35). This paletteand hybrid mode of design became charac-

Introduction

terisric of most of eastern Spain and someplaces in Italy, principally Orvieto andFaenza, during the r yth and rarh centuries(Charleston 1968: 146; Gaiger-Smith 1973:83; Gonzalez-Marti 1944, Vol. I: 175-85;Liverani 1960, PI. I -4). Barcelona andPaterna, a small town near Valencia, weretwo of the most important Spanish potteryproducing centers to share these characteris­tics, making hollow ware and a number oftypes of ceiling and floor tile. By the r ythcentury another Muslim introduction, cobaltblue, largely had replaced the copper greenand manganese purple-brown, though atTeruel blue was sometimes combined withgreen. Although altered in some details, de­signs continued to reflect the multiculturalheritage of the region.

The Valencian area was one ofparticularlyfine potting clays, a circumstance which, to­gether with amorisco artisan base, allowed thecapital to prosper through the activities ofone and then another ceramic industry. Herpotters grew to be the most skilled in Chris­tian Spain, and many traveled to southernFrance and Barcelona to practice their craft.As Paterna began to show signs ofexhaustionin the late rarh century, a neighboring villageof Manises thereupon embraced a special­ized process perfected in the Muslim king­dom of Granada and continued to dominateproduction of fine wares through the t ythcentury (Ainaud de Lasarte 1952: 32-77;Charleston 1968: 140-2; Frothingham1951: 79-209; Gaiger-Smith 1973: 65-80;Gonzalez Marti 1944, Vol. I: 363-510).

Meanwhile back at Granada during thesame 250 year period between the mid r ythto the beginning of the roth centuries, therehad been an impressive ceramic develop­ment far outstripping that occurring con­temporaneously among Christian neighborswho were building Gothic cathedrals andlavish castles but were not concerned withpottery-making. It had been made possibleby the arrival of skilled craftsmen driventhere from other parts of Spain, a motivatingencouragement and support from official-

3

dom, an intensification of artistic identitywhich sometimes occurs under pressure, andopen channels ofcommunication with SeljukTurks and other outstanding Muslim pools ofinspiration and raw materials. Because ofthese factors, plus a cultural orientation to­ward luxurious, materialistic court life,ceramics made primarily in Malaga, Granada,and Almeria became important not only forlocal consumption but as commodities in in­ternational trade. Vast sweeps of brilliantcolor achieved through mosaics of tile frag­ments decorated new palaces. In hollow waremany of the old Muslim forms knownfrom Cordoba were continued or revamped,but other exotic shapes were fashionedusing new processes involving molds and jig­gers combined with advanced throwingtechniques. Intricate designs were derivedfrom varied combinations of molded relieffriezes, impressed patterns, and passagespainted in costly cobalt blue and oxides ofsilver and copper, the latter two requiring athird firing in specially constructed mufflekilns (Frothingham 1951: 15-78; Gaiger­Smith 1973: 55-64; Llubia 1967: 82-110;Torres Balbas 1949: 212-19).

These ornate N asrid ceramics, no doubtmade contemporaneously with unknownhumbler wares suitable for ordinary homes(Torres Balbas 1949: 210-12), had almostincalculable impact upon Christian pottersdwelling on either side of the enclave ofGranada but with very different end results.Religious or political differences did not pre­vent Christian nobility from admiring Mus­lim craftsmanship and commissioning Nasridembellishments for public buildings and pri­vate homes. In the eastern part of Spain itwas the display vessels coated with metallicpigments which were most coveted. Onesuspects a Granada-to-Valencia flow of pot­ters, gathering momentum in the rath cen­tury and becoming intensified after the fall ofthe Nasrids in 1492, purposefully was nothalted because of an economically importantindustry evolving at Manises. This enterpriseabsorbed Granadine artisans and put their

4

talents in making lusterware to use (TorresBalbas 1949: 214). With the aid of Christiannavy blockades mounted off the Malagacoast, by the end of the r sth century Maniseshad become the prime lusterware center ofSpain. As with earlier Levantine wares, theluster forms and designs were a combinationofMuslim and European themes, the formerbecoming less important as time passed andthe latter taking new directions as the MiddleAges drew to a close. An extensive com­merce carried shipments from the Manisesfactories to Majorca, where they were re­routed to Italy and other Mediterraneanbazaars. This practice led to the corruptedItalian term ofmaiolica, now applied to all tinglazed pottery of the Mediterranean area.

Although under the Catholic Kings east­ern Iberian provinces shared the Spanishthrone at the time of the discovery ofAmerica and some men from these regionswere aboard during Columbus's first voyages,Aragonese and Catalurians were prohibitedfrom participating in those early overseasactivities. It is ironic, then, that the bestpottery made in Spain at the beginningof the 16th century seldom, if ever, got to thecolonies (Goggin 1968: 207). Moreover, Ius­terware was too fragile, too expensive, tooEastern. It was a ceramic legacy from the lastHispano-Moorish kingdom to have no fu­ture in the New World. Indeed, its future inSpain was limited. By 1500 craft standards atManises were slipping; nor were they excep­tional at other places, such as Teruel, whereluster was then becoming a provincial prod­uct (Frothingham 1951: 210-36). A cen­tury later saw the final expulsion of the moris­cos who for 200 years had furnished most ofthe lusterware expertise, and added to thatwas the fact that Italianate polychromes weregaining on Iusterware in the popularity polls.Other eastern Spanish maiolicas also did notget to the New World in appreciable quan­tity. Given the Mediterranean orientation ofAragon-Catalufia, the prevailing miserablecondition of what few roads then existed inSpain, and an excessive tax on all goods

Introduction

shipped overland from a production pointto a market, it was totally impractical to shipAragonese or Catalufian blue on white table­ware to the export docks at Sevilla. In viewof growing Italian and Sevillian competi­tion, there also was not much profit to begained in sending it by sea to Sevilla forreshipment abroad.

Thus because of historical and geographi­cal circumstances, at the beginning of the16th century, it was Sevilla who was destinedto ship first her ceramic wares, all of whichwere earthenware categories, and then herceramic technology to the Spanish overseasempire. Of further significance was to beher role as a diffusionary agent in transmit­ting to America a long sequence of ceramicstyles and usages which had their originselsewhere.

The first of these emanated fromneighboring Granada and involved the manu­facture and employment of a luxury cera­mics, tile. Occasional tile had been used inAlmohade Sevilla, the Giralda Tower andthe Torre del Oro retaining a few examples.But through later commissions given bymunicipal officials to Nasrid artisans, forexample the alicatado embellishment of theAlcazar (Burckhardt 1972, PI. 42-4; Cop­plestone and Myers 1970: 57;]ackson 1972,Fig. 75; Torres Balbas 1949: 314-7, Fig.357), a palace modeled after the Alhambra,there emerged a new fascination with thisform of architectural ceramics meant pri­marily to be wall mounted rather than usedon ceilings or floors. Alicatado and cuerd« secatiles made in Sevillian factories in imitationof those in Granada soon rivalled the origi­nals and produced a general revitalization ofthe entire local potting craft (Ainaud deLasarte 1952: 198-207). This was anachievement which bore fruit in subsequentrestoration projects at the Alhambra palaceof N asrid rulers. The mesquita of the Cor­doba cathedral still exhibits such a Sevillianpanel dated 137 I. Expectedly, Sevillian pot­ters appear to have used luster overglazingonly on tiles (Frothingham 1951: 272-7). In

Introduction

the r yth century these types of tile came tobe regarded as old fashioned and were re­placed by an intaglio process called arista orcuenca which was still in common use whenthe American adventure began. Such tileswere exported to the Caribbean colonies andearly colonial Mexico (Goggin 1968: 144-6;Lister and Lister 197 5b: 21, 24; 197 5C: 31).They were, however, the last vestiges of oldMoorish Spain and within fifty years gaveway to an entirely new concept based uponsmooth surfaced tile decorated in elementspainted in polychrome colors.

Some significant pieces of glazed statuarywere modeled in Sevilla about the middle ofthe r yth century, the most well known beingthe twelve apostles for the Sevilla cathedralthen under construction (Ainaud de Lasarte1952; 208; Llubia 1967: 124). These figures,while not comparable in spirit nor in finish tolater sculpture in other media, do representthe first rays of imported Italian influencewhich were to direct the course of r orh cen­tury ceramic development in all Spain. Alsothey were the first major ceramic objectswith a thoroughly Christian theme to bemade in Sevilla. It would be interesting toknow if morisco or Jewish converso artisans hada hand in their production.

In regard to hollow ware, Sevillian pottersmust have continued throwing, and occa­sionally lead glazing, the same range of func­tional wares they had known for centuries.They are known to have continued the samelarge pedestal based church bowls and theheavy, moldmade, relief adorned fountainmouths. From the Nasrids, they adopted theuse of jiggering and by this mechanizedmeans formed plates which, after bisquing,were treated in cuerda seca devices inheritedfrom former Muslim occupants (Ainaud deLasarte 1952: 233-8).

Like their contemporaries in the rest ofr yth century Spain, Sevillian potters also set­tled on the maiolica technique for produc­tion of most routine tableware, which stillconsisted largely of communal rather thanindividual pieces. The all-purpose basic plate

5

form was identical to many older plates pre­viously covered with cuerda seca patterns, butwhich, for more general use, at the close ofthe century were merely immersed in a whitetin glaze solution, partially redipped in agreen lead bath, or were painted with oneor two encircling lines in cobalt blue or afew calligraphic-like swipes of manganesepurple-brown. There are some indicationsthat the same sort of low level pottery was indomestic use at Granada just before its fall(Torres Balbas 1934: 387-8). Only a limitednumber of other vessel shapes were tinglazed, all similar in general contours andlack of refinement to common ceramics usedelsewhere in Medieval Europe. It was a mod­est sort of ordinary pottery meant to servethe needs ofcommon folk, and it was the firstmaiolica earthenware brought to America,probably as part of the few belongings ofcolonists coming with Columbus on his Sec­ond Voyage of 1493-4 (Goggin 1968:117-44, 207-8; Lister and Lister 1975b:19-23).

As with the tile, this kind of simple stan­niferous ware belonged to a past which wassoon to be forgotten in the remarkable trans­formation about to occur in Sevillian life. Bythe middle of the 16th century it graduallywas supplanted by a new complex of stylesfor the first time having their roots totallyembedded in European soil.

Spanish ceramics stood at another divideat the arrival of the 16th century, the end ofone era and the beginning of another. In justone astounding year shortly earlier, or 1492,three far reaching historical events occurredwhich had varied results on pottery-making:the Jews were expelled from Spain, the Mus­lims were defeated, the Christian Spaniardsarrived in the New World.

The Jewish population of Spain, heavilyconcentrated in Andalusia, traditionally hadshared the same occupations as the Mus­lims (Jackson 1972: 104). They were busi­nessmen or artisans, and over the centurieshad contributed their cultural resources toSpanish life. The number of Spanish Jewish

6

potters is unknown, nor, because of a com­mon artistic background with the Arabs, canspecific modes be assigned to them. It isbelieved, however, that their influence musthave been considerable, although probablyJewish potters would have been required tobreak their vessels each year at Passover.Their departure from the Spanish craft scenewas no less unfortunate than the status of theremaining conoersos, who had become thetarget of the Spanish Inquisition which heldits first autode Ie in Sevilla in 1481 and whichduring the next decade burned 2000 hereticsat the stake (Marie jol 1961: 45). Conversoproperties, which were confiscated to helpdefray the cost of the ten year campaignagainst Granada, might well have includedpotteries. At any rate, the prejudicial climateof Sevilla at this period for the unconvertedand converted alike has been compared toNazi Germany and certainly could not havepromoted artistic creativity (Highfield 1972:265; Jackson 1972: 147).

When the Nasrids fell, there was a similarmass exodus of all groups of Muslim society.The ceramic richness of these last SpanishMuslims quickly dissipated, though with thenoted exceptions of the lusterware traditionin Valencia and the cult of the tile in Sevilla.Nevertheless, the basic pottery-makingtechnology of the Muslims and the Jews re­mained the basic pottery-making technologyof Christian Spain.

The Spaniards brought their necessary tinglazed ceramics from Sevilla with their colo­nies planted in the Caribbean during the firstfew decades of the 16th century. Likelymanycommon utility vessels were produced inHispaniola. However, with the first stableSpanish colony established on the Americanmainland came the introduction of the entirepottery-making tradition (minus lusterwareand some specialized forms) as it had evolvedin Spain up to that time, both the tangibleand the intangible accumulation of knowl­edge and lore derived from centuries of ap­prenticeship, from the preparation of claysand the chemical formulary necessary for

Introduction

certain glazes to the patron saints whowatched over potters' labors. The emphasisin early Mexico necessarily was upon stoutfunctional vessels which primarily had to beuseful and only secondarily attractive. Innearly all urban centers Spanish potters andnative proteges made wheel thrown, un­glazed or lead glazed, kiln fired earthenwaresfor household and commercial use-thewheels, the glazes, and the kilns all being newto the Americas. Some of the forms theymade in colonial Mexico originally had beenaboriginal culinary utensils, but the Span­iards had had long experience in puttingother people's ideas to their own uses. One,or possibly two, maiolica industries soonwere begun to supply finer tablewares. Localmaterials produced some slight differences,but generally the forms and limited decora­tions on these tin glazed types were much thesame as they had been in Sevilla, as thoughthe potters had hardly paused while beingtransplanted from the banks of the Guadal­quivir to the shore of Texcoco (Lister andLister 1975C: 31-3).

But styles were beginning to changerapidly back home as the pace of interna­tionallife quickened and Sevilla became richon the American trade. In Spanish ceramicarts, aswell as in all other artistic expressions,the 16th century actually belonged to theItalians. Italian artisans moved into Sevilla(though many Italian merchants had beenthere for centuries) (Pike 1966: 1-2), bring­ing with them Renaissance techniques anddecorative themes for tile and hollow ware,and in some instances, actual pots to be re­sold overseas (Ainaud de Lasarte 1952:208-15; Frothingham 1969: 1-36; Gaiger­Smith 1973: 106-07; Gestoso y Perez 1917:6-1 I; Gonzalez Marti 1954: 134-47; Listerand Lister 1975C: 33-5). Ceramics assumednew importance which by mid century sup­ported some fifty Sevillian work yardsoperating, as they had since Almohade days,in the extramural quarter across the riverfrom the town (Gestoso y Perez 1919: 2-3).As new styles were perfected, a sudden pas-

Introduction

sion for pottery seems to have engulfed all ofSpain. The arrival of lealo-Flemings and leal­ians at factories in Castile resulted in anothergreat burst of activity (Hispanic Society ofAmerica 1944: 8- I 6; Martinez Caviro 1969:13-6; Vaca Gonzalez 1943: 36-7). Thenduring the course of the next two centuriespan-Europeanization unfolded as successivewaves of stylistic vogues from Flanders, Hol­land, France, lealy, and even China sweptthrough busy Spanish locerias. There theywere digested and reworked, finally toemerge as regional expressions which be­came identifiable as typical Spanish styles.The most productive and influential pottingtown was Talavera de la Reina in Castile, heirto Toledan craftsmanship but without therestrictions of mudejarismo (Ainaud deLasarte 1952: 25 I -8 I; Hispanic Society ofAmerica 1944: 3). Sevilla gradually assumedthe role ofan adaptor, not an innovator. Herimportance in funneling these many artisticforces to the Americas remained significant,though often it was through the actual prod­ucts of other potteries. Once in the envi­ronment of the colony, these modes wereeither accepted, usually with indigenousmodifications, or were rejected. Throughtime the differences between Iberian workand colonial work became wider as tradewith the motherland dwindled and increasedwith the Orient. But nonetheless, an intrigu­ing parallelism existed between Spanishceramic design in Espana and Hispanicceramic design in Nueva Espana.

The offshoot industry devoted to makingmaiolica was active in Mexico for the entireviceregal era. Its products went in tradethroughout the Caribbean, to northernSouth America, to all northern frontiers asthey were colonized, and south to Guatemala(Lister and Lister 1975b: 35-38). Remainingfragments of these ceramics often now arethe only clues to the passage in another dayand time of men from the Spanish world.

Elsewhere in Spanish colonial Americautility potteries sprang up where local de­mand was sufficient. Only two enterprises

7

making tin glazed hollow ware important inintercolonial trade presently are knownsouth ofMexico. The apparent earlier opera­tion, probably dating from the late r orh orearly r zrh century, was located on the Pacificshore of the Isthmus of Panama (Lister andLister 1975b: 43-46; Long 1967: 12-22). Itsupplied colonists on the west coast of SouthAmerica with sturdy tableware decorated incolors and patterns reminiscent of worksfrom contemporary Andalusia, particularlyGranada. This Nasrid kingdom had been in­corporated into the province of Andalusiaafter Ferdinand and Isabela celebrated theirvictory there just months before Columbusset forth to bring new lands to the Spanishcrown. Even though their luxury produc­tions ceased immediately, Granada moriscocraftsmen, working in many small kiln siteson the Alhambra grounds and in the townbelow, Valencian Christians who establishedshops at Malaga (Ainaud de Lasarte 1952:222, Figs. 620-3; Temboury Alvarez 1939:432-3), as well as Granadine moriscos ab­sorbed into the Sevillian operations un­doubtedly continued to make contributionsto the pool of less elaborate design modesmutually shared by all decorators.

By the r rrh century maiolica potteries alsofunctioned in the capital of the Audiencia ofGuatemala. Designs and colors in use thereseem derived from Sevillian prototypeswhich had settled into a predominatelygreen-yellow scheme of monteria or repeti­tious animal stylizations (Lister and Lister1975b: 38-43)·

During the colonial period maiolica tiles ofthe sort first introduced to Spain at the be­ginning of the 16th century also were madein Mexico, Guatemala, and Peru. In the caseof the latter two productions, the designswere almost undiluted Renaissance Sevillian(Frothingham 1969: 79-84), for example inPeru being used frequently to repair panelsof imported tiles damaged in earthquakes.However, because colonial Mexico sat at acrossroads between East and West and herAmerindic core was irrepressible, her tile

8

patterns were more variable in content andexecution. Yet the pervading presence theretoo of Renaissance Sevilla cannot be denied(Cervantes 1939, Vol. II).

The above telescoped review of historico­technological growth and diffusion of Span­ish-tradition ceramics should underscorethe importance to American archaeolo­gists of a familiarity with this multifacetedcomplex in the Old World in order to com­prehend what evolved in the New. Theglossary presented below is intended as onemeans to this end. Beside the undeniablenecessity of defining terminology, it is antici­pated that a perusal of such a descriptivedictionary will provide a reader, motivatedenough to pursue it to a conclusion, with aconcise idea of some procedural, stylistic,and chronologie developments within thelarger scope of the total tradition.

Obviously, over a period of time everycraft inspires a special set of terms to desig­nate localities, tools, and materials of manu­facture; methods customarily observed;functions anticipated for articles created; anddecorative treatments popular at variousperiods or for particular objects. Such a vo­cabulary is, of course, part of the language ofSpanish ceramics.

But beyond this basic set of words, inSpain there was a further etymologic en­richment resulting from the Arabicizing cen­turies undergone by the craft. Even thoughRomance vernaculars remained the commonlanguages throughout the various Muslimoccupations, it is noteworthy that manywords used around the potteries had theirorigin in Arabic. It is also observed, but can­not be explained at present, that most of thisArabic terminology did not diffuse across theAtlantic with the remainder of the complexof ceramic traits. The reason cannot entirelybe that by the mid 16th century the craft hadbecome so Hispanicized as to make Arabicterms obsolete because many were still in usein Sevilla at the beginning of this century andothers continue to the present (Gestoso yPerez 1903: 64). Nevertheless, it was the

Introduction

Italo-Spanish vocabulary which passed to theAmericas. Among other non-Arabic addi­tions to the language of Iberian ceramics arethose seated in gross specializations imposedby the Medieval European guild structureand regional preferences which absorbedvaried Occidental and Oriental concepts.

For the modern student there are prob­lems in understanding old source materialsarising from usage of words not now gener­ally understood. Furthermore, the delight ofCastilian speakers in use of diminutives,augmentatives, and compounded words hasled to shaded interpretations not alwayssimi­larly present in English, and the inter­changeability of certain phonetic letters hasconfused spellings. In archival materialsthere is a frustrating lack of concern for capi­tal letters, short sentences, and punctuation.As in English, a lamentable inconsistencyin descriptive words exists, wherein oneman's brasero may be another man's lebrillo.Added to these troublesome considerationsis the mentioned distribution of the Iberianpottery tradition to Spain's huge overseasempire where, with the development of de­rivative colonial activities, there was inevi­tably a concurrent growth of colloquialisms.Thus, for example, there are arabismos, his­panismos, and mejicanismos, which whenreduced to their ultimate base meaningsmayor may not be identical.

This listing of terms, plus brief commentsabout some of them, is not intended to beexhaustive with a full gamut of derivatives orsynonyms. Nor are illustrations of forms in­tended to exhibit the full range ofvariations.Furthermore, this glossary contains refer­ences to objects or institutions that are notpottery per se but were connected in someway with the manufacture or distribution ofpottery and hence appear in descriptive ac­counts. In short, this dictionary is a compila­tion of pottery-related terms based upondocumentary sources describing pots and ar­tistic climate, archaeological analyses, exten­sive firsthand museum, field, and workshopobservations, and long term personal experi-

Introduction

ence with the joy and pitfalls ofpotting. Mostkey words considered useful for understand­ing r yth through rSth century Spanishceramics and the environment in which theywere created are included, whether the pot­tery is found in an excavation, on a museumshelf, or in a cluttered dank workroom,whether it is native or diffused, and some­times whether it is past or present, the latterseveral distinctions often arbitrary in this liv­ing craft. Many of the words have multiplemeanings, but only those of significance in

9

ceramics are noted. For historical interest, afew prominent geographical place names,personages, and institutions are included.Duplication of information is unavoidable ina work such as this, but an effort has beenmade to restrict pertinent data to one, ratherthan many, related entries. In the interest ofbrevity and readability, bibliographic refer­ences are omitted from entries, but aselected list of source materials will guideresearchers to most needed information.

LANDMARKS OF SPANISH HISTORY

Moorish invasions 7 I I -9 I 2

Cordoban Caliphate 912-1031Taifas (Almoravid, Almohade) 1010-1266Nasrid Kingdom of Granada 1238-1492

Isabela of Castile-Leon and Ferdinand of Aragon-Catalufia married,Spain united 1469- 15 16 Discovery of America 1492

Hapsburgs 15 I 6- I 702 Conquest and colonizationof America

Bourbons 1702-1804 Push to Northern frontiersof Nueva Espana

Wars of Independence 1804-14

Ferdinand VII 1814-33 Independence of American colonies

10ablandar

mablandarTo smooth or soften with thefA] h,"d~,,, in wedging day to pre­pare It for use

aborrandoDecorative style using outlining of elements by adarker color

Such a technique was used on Spanish ceramicsof the r yth through r yth centuries, when darkpurple-brown manganese lines outlined motifsfilled with copper green. In the 16th century thistreatment appeared as part of a Renaissancemethod of tile painting introduced to Sevilla byItalians. Later in the century such definition ofelements became common on hollow ware aspictorial representations increased in popularityand the palette became multicolored. The outlineand fill method. of painting first appears on Mexi­can maiolica at the beginning of the r rrh centuryon a type with obvious Italianate derivation and isreferred to in guild ordinances defining methodsfor fine wares.

The term also means a preliminary sketch of adesign in carbon, which burned out during firing,filled in with more permanent colors.borronear: to outline, sketchSynonym: en silueta

abrazaderaGallery or ring of clay attached to certain flatforms, such as the mancerina, to steady a secondvessel carried on its surfaceabrazar: to embrace or clasp

acampandoBell-like

This descriptive term was applied to the soundemitted when a well fired vessel was struck. Theproper sound told the craftsmen that a bisquedpot was suitable for glazing.campana: bell

acanaladoFluted or channeled

In pottery such surface treatment may be ac­complished by pressure on body walls of either atool or a finger after throwing. For more precisechannels a mold generally was used to form thinwalls.

Fluted vessel walls are characteristic ofManisesbaroque lusterware vessels made in copy ofmetalservices. This treatment also occurs on someSpanish polychrome maiolicas of the 16th andearly r rrh centuries, but it is a technique more

achinada

associated with rSth century tin glazed and porce­lain wares of Alcora and Buen Retiro, Flutedvessels first appear in Mexican ceramics of ther zth century but are more frequent in the rSrhcentury styles, though in neither instance are theynumerous.canal: a channelSynonym, in part: gal/onado, ovalado

aceiteraOil cruet

Generally this was a small jug withglobular body, narrow neck, smallorifice, and a single handle. In orderto be impervious, such a vessel al­ways was glazed on the interior andusually also on the exterior. This form occurs inlead and tin glazed variations.aceite: oilSynonym, in part: botell«, frasco ; uinagrera

acercoValencian term for lead oxide

acicateTwo short parallel lines connected at one end by ahandled V

A series of such elements to form encirclingbands or dividers was a design treatment commonon r yth century Manises lusterware,Literal meaning: Moorish pointed spur

acbinadaIn Chinese style

The motifs, design layouts, and vessel forms ofChinese porcelain dramatically influenced allEuropean ceramics of the 16th through r Sth cen­turies. Spanish potters were exposed to Orientalceramics through Portugal, incorporated into theSpanish empire for sixty years, which dominatedthe Far Eastern trade during the 16th century.However, it is more likely that chinoiserie ap­pearing on Spanish ceramics came indirectly viaDelft copies ofMing products, the Low Countriesalso being part of the Spanish empire. Chineseinfluence on Spanish maiolica is more subtle thanthat on Mexican maiolica and is mainly reflectedin use of a blue on white palette, division of fieldof design, and a few isolated motifs.

Chinese style design and forms were muchmore important in Mexican maiolica productionas a direct result of the Manila trade begun in1573 which brought thousands of pieces ofporce­lain to Nueva Espana. Forthright stylistic borrow­ing by Mexican potters and decorators began in

11achocolatado

the late r rrh century and dominated the output offine grade ceramics at Puebla for the first half ofthe rSth century. Little comparable influence isseen on lesser grade wares, other than a markedpreference for the blue on white scheme.

achocolatadoChocolate colored

This term appears in the literature in referenceto the tone of some luster overfired overglazecolors on Manises vessels, but it is of furtheretymological interest.

Chocolate is from the Nahuatl word, chocolatl.A bitter beverage made from ground roastedcacao beans was introduced to Spain shortly afterthe conquest of Mexico, though Columbus is re­ported to have taken some beans back with him in1502. The drink did not appeal to Europeantastes until sugar, vanilla, and occasionally cin­namon were added. During the rrth and rSthcenturies the drinking of chocolate became sofashionable that a thriving cacao bean commercewith southern Nueva Espana developed. Thischocolate vogue led to the evolution of spe­cialized pottery vessel forms in which to serve thedrink.

Adarvejo de los MorosSector of San Pedro parish of Sevilla inhabited bya number of Muslim or morisco potters during the15th and 16th centuriesLiteral meaning: Narrow Lane of the Moors

adefer«Small tile used in friezes or in pavements

adobeUnfired brick

adormideraOpium poppy

A motif consisting of an open flower on acurved stem with leaves went by this name inSpanish ceramics. It was widely used in both bor­ders and focal areas and was particularly popularin rSth century Talaveran and Puente del Ar­zobispo works. Some Mexican maiolicas have thesame general kind of motif.

adornistaClass of ceramic decorators in Spanish guildhierarchy whose duties included painting suchmotifs as escutcheons, laces, and the insignia ofreligious ordersadorno: decoration

aguila bicefala

agarraderoLug; handle

Handles were not generally important oneither Moorish or Christian pottery in Spain,though they were present when functionallynecessary on pouring vessels or porringers. Anexception is the large winged appendage, servingno utilitarian purpose, attached to either side ofcertain Nasrid amphorae. In the rSth centuryTalavera potters made similar decorative use ofpaired heavy, Solomonic handles on bulbous jars.

Mexican potters also tended to use few han­dles, preferring cups without such devices, thoughhandled cups modeled after English tea or coffeecups were made in lesser grades of pottery.agarrar: to grasp, catch hold of

agrietado accidentalCrazing

The formation of networks of surface cracks inglaze due to tensile stresses between clay andglaze was common in Spanish-tradition ceramics,more so on Mexican maiolica than on Spanish.Had less soda ash been added to the glaze solu­tions or light clays with appreciable lime contentmaking them susceptible to higher shrinkagebeen used, this defect would have been at leastpartially corrected.grieta: a crackSynonym: cuarteado

agrietado intencionalCrackling

The intentional crazing for effect, used onsome Chinese wares, was not copied by Spanishpotters.Synonym: estriado

aguamanilWater container

The usual Spanishaguamanileswere tall necked jars, with orwithout handles, and with drainspouts near the base or were ahorizontal barrel with spout.Common forms were unglazedto permit evaporation for cool­ing the contents, but fancy ves­sels were glazed on both surfaces. The term alsomeans a wash bowl.agua: waterSynonym, in part: jarro, jofaina, pila

aguila bicefalaDesign of a two-headed eagle under a crown

12ala

The motif, symbol of the Hapsburgs, appearson some Spanish decorated pottery, usually drugjars meant for royal apothecaries. It was a motif tosee some use on ceramics in Mexico andGuatemala. It was not common, however, norwas the motif restricted to use during theHapsburg reigns, which ended in Spain in 1702.

ala (Arabic deriv.)Brim of plate form

In 16th century Spanish and Mexican maiolicathis was an important part of plates, being sharplydefined by the angular contours of the vessel andcarrying a prominent band design.Synonym: aletaLiteral meaning: wing

alabanza (Arabic deriv.)Praise or commendation

Such statements in cursive or foliated Kuficscript comprise decoration on many Spanish Is­lamic works of art, including ceramics.

alabeado (Arabic deriv.)Warped

One of the frequent imperfections seen inSpanish-tradition ceramics is the warping of ves­sels so that curvature is deformed. This defectresults from uneven drying or improper stackingwithin the kiln.

alafia (Arabic deriv.)Arabic inscription meaning mercy or pardon

In Spanish ceramics this term refers to a de­based Kufic pattern, calligraphic in nature, arisingfrom an inscription. The pattern was used fre­quently on luster pieces from the last decades ofthe 14th century. It carried over in a much weakerrendition on some of the earliest Spanish maio­lica, presumably made by morisco potters in Se­villa or Granada, to be shipped to the WestIndies.

alambique (Arabic deriv.)A still in which earthenware vessels were used

Although such devices are known to have beenused for distilling water, perhaps in Andalusiathey also were employed for the making of conac,for which the area is still famous, In Mexico alam­biques distilled water and made tequilaand mescal.

alamina (Arabic deriv.)Inspector or tax collector

Spanish potters, as other tax-ridden craftsmen,had to pay special fees on raw materials, finishedproducts, kiln firings, and on export and import.

albahaquero

al Andalus (Arabic deriv.)Arabic name for Andalusia

The area of the Guadalquivir and ]Ucar valleysin the southwestern part of Iberia was occupiedby Islamic invaders from 71 I to 1492. It was theregion with closest cultural and commercial tiesto the Americas.

alarca (Arabic deriv.)Mexican term for tin glaze

Stanniferous glaze as made in Mexico consistedof one part fritted lead and tin to three parts ofmassicot, or calcined soda ash and very fine quartzsand. All these ingredients were dissolved in wa­ter. The proportions of tin to lead were variableaccording to the type of maiolica to be finished,but they were comparable to Spanish and Italianstandards.

alargado (Arabic deriv.)Oblong tile

These tiles, with pointed ends, were made inValencia during the middle of the r yth century.Their usual decoration was figuralor emblematic.Literal meaning: elongated, extended

alaria (Arabic deriv.)Sevillian potter's tool used for fettling

alarife (Arabic deriv.)Master builder, architect

Men of this group served as overseers of thehumbler albafiiles and were responsible for carry­ing out the many construction projects under­taken in Spain and the New World as wealth fromAmerican mines and agriculture poured forth.They dealt with architectural ceramics, tiles andsculptures, on a day to day basis, having to ob­serve many government regulations regardingusage and placement. Partly because of the suc­cess of the alsrifes in putting Sevillian tile ondisplay in such monumental structures as thecathedral and the Alcazar, there was a 16th cen­tury boom in tile manufacture which took localproducts throughout Spain and overseas. Simi­larly the Pueblan alarifes popularized poblanotiles.

albahaquero (Arabic deriv.)Jardiniere

Arab pleasure in leafy patios and gardens waswell cultivated in temperate Andalusia and led tothe production of many vessels for potted plants.Some were meant to stand on floors or balconyrailings, and others were fastened to walls.

albarial 13 alcazar

Spaniards, and then Mexicans, continued thetradition.Synonym, in part: alfabreguer, florero, maceta

albanal (Arabic deriv.)Vessel used to contain water to be used by pottersdoing hand modeling; sewer pipe

albanil (Arabic deriv.)Mason

These were among the first craftsmen to cometo the New World, being included in the 1500persons brought to Hispaniola by Columbus onhis Second Voyage of 1493-4. They were of alower social and economic class than potters,even though part of their skills included the mak­ing of fired brick and roof tile, and were excludedfrom potters' guilds. Utilitarian constructionitems such as water pipes and drain spouts, how­ever, were fashioned by potters because generallythe use of the wheel or large molds was required.

The style of architecture evolved in Andalusia,incorporating the use of quantities of maiolicatile, reflected the Muslim background of many ofthe masons.

albarelo (Arabic deriv.)Drug jar

The Arabs absorbed the phar­macological lore of the Orient, andthey soon created a vessel form toaccomodate their drugs which intime diffused to all of westernEurope, including Spain. The shapeis believed to have been copied frombamboo sections utilized by theChinese for the same purpose andhad the advantage of being slightlywasp-waisted to permit easy with­drawal from cabinets.

In Spain drug jars of the albareloshape, which first became commonin the Manises wares of the r ythcentury, tended to becylinders with­out a ceramic lid. Taller ones werefor powders and balsams, shorterones for unguents. One seriesfrom the Escorial and another from La Granjapalace, probably made at Talavera de la Reina,have domed lids topped with a small knob. Han­dled or spouted jar; were not as typical in Spain asin contemporary Italy. The name of the intendedcontents or the insignia of the monastery to whicha particular pharmacy pertained frequently com­prised the surface decoration.

The drug jar in Middle Ages Europe, and usedin Christian Spain, was a long necked, taperedbase jar of inelegant contours when compared tothe Muslim form. Such jars were mounted up­right in supporting wooden racks.

Lidless Muslim-type drug jars, in large andsmall sizes, became part of the repertoire ofcolo­nial maiolists, but in Mexico they often were usedas spice containers in grocery stores or as vases.Synonym, in part: bote, pate, tarro de botica

albornia, albtirnia (Arabic deriv.)Variously described as glazed cup-shaped vesselor large ovoid jar

The albornia is said to have been a commontype of vessel in pharmacies where it was used to

store grains or flour, as well as liquids. In Mexicanguild documents the word is written as burnia.Synonym, in part: bernegal, bote, taza

alcabile (Arabic deriv.)Sevillian term for a patty of clay on which vesselswere placed to be sun dried

alcaiceria de la loza (Arabic deriv.)Market area or bazaar in 16th century Salvadorsector of Triana (Sevilla) where many stores soldlocal pottery

alcalde (Arabic deriv.)Mexican potters' guild official, elected fromamong the master potters of the groupalcarraza (Arabic deriv.)Water cooler

Specifically vessels of this category were madeof a white porous clay, and they were a specialtyof the Andalusian village of Andujar. In use to­day, it is uncertain just how many centuries theyhave been in production.Synonym, in part: cdntaro, carraco (Aragonesevernacular), olla, tinaja

alcatifa (Arabic deriv.)Sevillian connotations of the word are: under­ground storeroom for fuel used in kilns; the spacebetween walls of house construction and the backwall of a kiln; the bedding of cinders or earthupon which tile were laid

alcazar (Arabic deriv.)Ruler's palace; citadel

Such structures were identified originally withthe taifa period in Spain (10IO-I266) when thecaliphate centralized at Cordoba disintegratedinto a number of lesser principalities, each pro­tected by a dominant castle-fortification. Suchalcdzares extend from Segovia to Sevilla, the

alcobe 14 Alhambra vases

former of elegant Gothic European design andthe latter mudejar with expansive tile dados ofseveral styles. The remaining Sevillian archivesindicate that Granadine tilers were first commis­sioned to execute elaborated alicatados there andthat Sevillian potters into the 16th centurysupplied cuerd« seca, cuenca, and pisano tiles forfloors and wainscoting.

alcobe (Arabic deriv.)Interior arch of roof of upper chamber of Valen­cian kiln

alcohol (Arabic deriv.)Galena

Powdered galena, sulfide of lead, sprinkledover green ware and then fired produces a crudelead glaze. In the lower Middle Ages Spanishutility vessels often were treated in this way, andthe practice may have continued even after moreformally made lead solutions were being em­ployed for better quality work. A 1541 notationby a Spaniard in Oaxaca, Mexico, of his search inthe mountains for "alcohol" indicates thatrudimentary practice to have been carried intothe Western Hemisphere.

There are two additional connotations in Spainfor the word alcohol. One means a fine powder, orkohl, applied as a cosmetic to the eyelids; theother is rectified spirits. The Arabic meaning wasgalena.Synonym: alcofoll (Valencian vernacular), alcoholde alfarero

Alcora (Arabic deriv.)A ceramic factory established about 1727 near

Valencia at the town of Alcora at first producedmaiolica. The Count of Aranda, under whosepatronage the factory operated, promoted theproduction of porcelain in the second half of thecentury. When the factory ceased to functionabout 1800, the output had become mainlycreamware. Throughout its activity, at peak pro­duction about 300,000 pieces annually, Alcoraforms and decorations were French because na­tional interest in those styles was stimulated bythe Bourbons then on the Spanish throne. Mastercraftsmen imported from Moustiers and Marseil­les produced such fine, popular wares andsculptures that the demise of Talaveran maiolicawas hastened. Delicately colored overglaze deco­ration on moldmade Rococo forms was charac­teristic of Alcora at its best.

Alcora interpretations of French design in-

fluenced Mexican maiolica made at Puebla dur­ing the last half of the rSth century.

alcuza (Arabic deriv.)Small jar for olive oil; unglazed earthenware jarused on a water wheel or in a well, as alctsza paranonaSynonym, in part: aceitera, arcaduz,cetrill(Valen­cian vernacular)

alfabia (Arabic deriv.)Ovoid jar without a handle

alfabreguer (Arabic deriv.)Planter

This was a Moorish decora­tive vessel form, probably usedfor plants, which was either avery large hemispherical bowlon a pedestal base or a tall flaredcylinder which was characteris­tically adorned at the rim with a vertical border ofalternating modeled heads, circles, or merlons. Itwas either lead or tin glazed, the latter occasion­ally with luster overglaze decoration. It is said inthe Valencian area to have been filled in summerwith sweet basil. Not common, it is a form knownin collections from Spain and Morocco.Synonym, in part: albahaquero, florero, maceta

alfar, alfahar (Arabic deriv.)Potter; pottery workshop; can also mean clayalfahareria: potteryalfareria: pottery workshopalfarero, alfaharero: potter

alfard6n (Arabic deriv.)Long hexagonal glazed tile

Four of these tiles were arranged around onesquare central tile in a manner typical of the Val­encia area of the r yth and 14th centuries.

Alhambra vasesThree very large (4 feet 6 inch height) elabo­

rately impressed and painted lusterware wingedamphorae were recovered during the 16th cen­tury in the ruins of the Alhambra palace and arebelieved to have been made in Malaga between1380 and 1400. They are masterpieces of thepotter's art, both in terms of size and designs inarabesque foliage, interlacements, and inscrip­tions, and exemplify the rich Nasrid court life.Legend said that one of the jars found in a vault inthe Comares Tower was filled with gold coinswhen discovered. By the early rorh century two

15alhami

of the amphorae had disappeared, and the thirdwas partly damaged. At least nine similar Nasridvessels now are known, indicating that this mighthave been a relatively common, though special,product. Known examples date from the end ofthe r yrh century to about A.D. 1400.

alhami (Arabic deriv.)Tile-covered stone seat or bench, usually placedagainst a wall which provided a back

alicatado (Arabic deriv.)Panel of tile fragments

Blue, green, black, purple, or yellow mono­chrome tile fragments were cut from larger piecesand placed together with others into mosaic com­positions which were mounted on walls. Thiskind of tiling was introduced into Spain by its lastMuslim kingdom, the best remaining examplesbeing at the Alhambra in Granada and the con­temporary Alcazar of Sevilla dating in the rathand r yth centuries. The laborious process, basedupon Persian stellar or interlaced patterns, wasmodified into molded imitations and sub­sequently discontinued in Spain before the colo­nization of the New World, but it is still thetypical tile work of modern Morocco. Molds tocreate uniform pieces for the mosaics have beentried unsuccessfully.alicatar: to tileslicer: a wainscoting of tile; the individual tilefragment which also was used to border plaques

alizar (Arabic deriv.)Rectangular tile used in corner angles of walls

aljama (Arabic deriv.)Moorish quarters

The aljama grande of Sevilla dates from theAlmohade period of the t zrh century and in­cluded old Roman walls, new aqueducts, newwater channels through the city, docks andwarehouses by the river side, a pontoon bridgeto Triana, and the minaret known now as theGiralda.

aljebana (Arabic deriv.)Wash basinSynonym: aljofaina, jofaina, lavamanos

allule (Arabic deriv.)Opening in Valencian kiln roof

almagra, almagre, almazarron (Arabic deriv.)Red ochre

This mineral was mixed with silver and copper

alpetije

oxides to produce the metallic sheen of luster­wares. The ochre was impermanent and rubbedoff after firing; the metallic oxides remained per­manently fixed to the vessel surface.

almdjena (Arabic deriv.)Earthenware vat used in preparing glaze solutions

almajo (Arabic deriv.)Salrwort

This was a marsh grass which grew extensivelyin the Coto Doriana through which the Guadal­quivir winds between Sevilla and its mouth at SanLucar de Barrameda. it was gathered and burnedto obtain salts or soda ash (sodium carbonate)which were added to maiolica glaze mixtures, theresidue product also being called almajo. Theavailability of this material also led to the estab­lishment of one of Sevilla's major industries, asoap factory, located in Triana near the potteries.Synonym, in part: atincar, barrilla, borax, borica

almalluque (Arabic deriv.)Damaged pottery; wastersalmalluquera: one who buys damaged pottery forresale to the poor

almdrtaga(Arabic deriv.)Litharge

almela (Arabic deriv.)Sevillian term for small kiln used specifically forthe calcination of metal oxides used in decorativepigments and glaze ingredients

almenilla (Arabic deriv.)Merlon-shaped decorative ceramic object

almijarra (Arabic deriv.)Sevillian term for long handled iron ladle in whichoxides were placed during calcination

almojarifazgo (Arabic deriv.)Ancient import-export duty assessed by SpanishMuslim rulers against all artisans engaged in trade

This tax survived all conquests and flourishedwith new vigor under the Spanish kings.almojarife: royal tax collector

alpaiiata (Arabic deriv.)Piece of chamois or leather used to smooth andcompact rims of freshly thrown vessels

alpeti]« (Arabic deriv.)Small piece ofwood used to trim excess clay awayfrom the base ofa thrown vessel before removingit from the potter's wheelSynonym, in part: cucbillo

16altabaque

a/tabaque (Arabic deriv.)Horizontal, heavy kick wheel at foot level whichisattached to the vertical rod of the potter's wheelmechanism and whose rotation provides the cen­trifugal force necessary to throw clay placed onthe upper wheel, or head

a/ trazoDrawn in outline

alumina (Arabic deriv.)Alumina

This is an important ingredient in all claysusedfor potting because it provides added bodystrength. Its addition to glazes increases viscosity.

amarilloYellow

Antimony calcined with lead produces a lemonyellow color after firing. Popularized by Italianmaiolists, it was used to tint background glazesfound on some Niculoso tile panels in early 16thcentury Sevilla and was prepared also for a dec­orative pigment. Yellow became a prominentcolor on Talavera and Puente del Arzobispopolychromes of the 17th and rSth centuries andwas adopted by all pottery made in imitation ofthose types.

Likewise yellow was used in Mexican poly­chromes from the late 16th century. Not until thelate rSth century, however, were yellow glazegrounds created there. These generally were re­stricted to sculptures or tile. In the 19th centuryyellow ground maiolicas became more commonfor fine wares of Puebla and coarser types pro­duced elsewhere, such as in Oaxaca.

The Guatemalan maiolicas, which closely fol­lowed Sevillian styles which in turn copiedTalaveran styles, relied heavily upon yellow as adesign filler.

amasadoWedged or prepared clay

After a long process ofbreaking up raw chunks,mixing them with other ingredients necessary tomake agood pottery clay, soaking, deflocculating,and ripening the mixture, the clay was formedinto balls of a size convenient to handle. Theseballs then were kneaded to remove air bubblesand increase plasticity, aprocess called wedging inEnglish.amasador: a person who wedges clay, in Spanish

andarnio

workshops usually an apprentice or slave to theowneramasar: to kneadSynonym: macerar

amauraoreHeavy stick used in Valencian workshops tostrike leather-hard tile blanks to release anytrapped air bubbles

amo/darTo create in a mold

Moldmade pottery in Spain dates from lateIslamic times when molds were employed exten­sively to form vessels with non-circular contoursor with relief decoration. Baptismal fonts withelaborate raised patterning (a specialty of Sevillaand Toledo) and lusterware plates which copiedthe bosses and diagonal fluting ofmetal vessels (aspecialty of Malaga and Manises) are notableexamples. A further elaboration was the use of amold attached to a wheel head over which claywas compressed to form a plate interior, the ex­terior being shaped by the potter's fingers or ametal template. Such a technique was followed inmaking Sevillian and Toledan plates of the rathand r yth centuries which were to be decorated inthe cuerda seca method. Apparently the same pro­cess continued in the production of the first tinglazed plates shipped to the Americas and theirsubsequent imitations made in Mexico.

ampolla (Latin deriv.)Flask

Spanish form copied Graeco-Roman form inthis instance with a globular body, a singlehandle, and a well defined foot. These vesselsgenerally were small and were used as containersfor wine and water in religious ceremonialism.Diminutive: ampolletaSynonym, in part: bote/la, vinajera

andamioScaffold

Every pottery needed various kinds ofwoodenscaffoldingor armatures in order to harness mulesto grinding wheels. Such equipment appears inproperty inventories.andar: to walkSynonym, in part: armazon de la dispense

17anfora

an/ora (Latin deriv.)Amphora

This form is a large, highshouldered jar, with or withouthandles, usually with a base ta­pered to fit into a rack or softdirt. It often was made in sizesover 3 feet in height. The an/orahas the longest known historyofcontinuous production ofanyceramic vessel, dating fromGraeco-Roman periods to thepresent and has been the uni­versal shipping cask of theMediterranean world. In Muslim Spain the formserved both functional and nonfunctional pur­poses, the lustered winged amphorae of the Nas­rids representing the ultimate development ofthe latter. In Christian Spain the amphora mergesinto modifications variously called botijas , can­taros, jarras, or tinajas.

antillaSevillian term for clay dug from meadow landnear Triana which was used primarily in the mak­ing of tiles

antimonicAntimony

Mines near Savona perhaps supplied both Ital­ian and Spanish maiolists with this mineral used inmaking yellow pigment. Antimony occurs inmost parts of the Mexican republic. It was notworked commercially until this century but prob­ably was available in the small amounts needed bycolonial potters,

antocheraTorch holder; sconce

Frequently these forms weremade ofclay, often in a combinationof thrown and molded parts. Theywere used in castles and other build­ings with large rooms having highceilings.

Such a form has not been iden­tified in Mexican ceramics.antorcha: torch

anversoPrincipal surface of a vessel, generally the area tobear decoration when usedSynonym: anterior

aprendiz

aperladoPearl colored

In the last third of the r Srh and into the earlyroth centuries Mexican maiolists at Puebla madefrequent use ofa light blue ground, created by theaddition of a small percentage of cobalt to thebase tin glaze, which they called aperlado. Eitherdarker blue or polychromed delicate Rococo pat­terns were typical on these wares. Probably theuse of such a background color was inspired atthis time by similarly tinted r Sth century Chineseporcelain.

The color locally also is called puncbe, after afavorite Puebla sweet.Synonym: aperlado azulina, azul aperlado ; color deperla,perlado

aperosTools found around a pottery workshop, gener­ally other than those used in actual pottery­making

aprendizApprentice

The apprentice system was an integral part ofthe Spanish guild corporation which permitted amaster potter to train a limited number of maleapprentices in various aspects of the pottery mak­ing process. The usual number ofsuch learners ofanyone master seems to have been limited byeconomic factors to one or two persons, but onemaster decorator at Puebla is on record as havinghad sixteen apprentices during a twelve yearperiod. A formal contract was agreed to in whichthe master was required to provide lodging,board, clothes, medical aid, religious guidance,and craft training in return for the apprentice'sefforts. Most apprentices were from thirteen toeighteen years of age, many were sons of potterswho traditionally continued in their fathers' oc­cupation, some were orphans. The apprentice­ship averaged three to seven years, during whichtime the young men lived as members of themaster's family and divided their work time be­tween throwing and decorating unless one or theother aspect was specifically indicated in the con­tract. Although abuses appear to have occurred, itwas a viable method for perpetuating the craft.There were complaints as the guild system slowlydisintegrated that there was no remaining meansfor training new craftsmen.aprendizaje: apprenticeship

arabizar 18 armado

arabizarTo adopt Arabian customs

Much of the pottery from the south of Spaincan be said to be arabizado in technology, forms,and decoration. The same Arabic technology dif­fused to the Spanish overseas empire; the formsand decoration, however, were more European.

AranjuezIn accord with contemporary western Euro­

pean fashion, a porcelain room was incorporatedinto this late Bourbon r Sth century residence inCastile. Soft paste porcelain objects in over­loaded Rococo style decorated all walls and ceil­ings. They were made in Spain by workmenbrought from the Bourbon Naples factory ofCa­podimonte.

arbotVertical axle of the potter's wheel which con­nected the kick wheel to the head wheelSynonym: ejeLiteral meaning: tree

arcaduz (Arabic deriv.)Jar on water wheel; conduit

Spanish Muslims became knownas successful agriculturalists, intro­ducing into southern Spainan enor­mous variety of grains and fruits,many of which still are economi­callyimportant. Coming out of aridlands to the East, the Arabs had anintimate knowledge of irrigation methods whichthey applied in Spain, its Mediterranean climatemaking summer irrigation necessary. Amongthem was the use of the vertical water wheel, orazud, perhaps of original Persian origin, whichhad large ceramic jars mounted around its cir­cumference and held secure by a ceramic knob atthe base. Other vertical wheels had scoops at­tached to the outer perimeters to lift water from acurrent to a higher field.

Until modern times the water holding or carry­ing devices necessary to irrigation were madefrom fired clay and hence were the responsibilityof potters. At one time the same craftsmen whomade these objects also made the full range ofhollow wares typical of the group. As shop opera­tions became more structured and divisions oflabor sharper, pipe or water jar makers assumed alower status. Under Spanish guild situations, theynormally could not aspire to also being producersof fancier tableware unless they first passed strict

examinations which allowed them an advance­ment in grade.

The water wheel with ceramic jars attached isnot known to have been used in Mexico. How­ever, the word arcaduz or its synonym, alcuza,might have been applied to water containers usedat wells.

arcillaRaw clayarcilla figulina: potter's claySynonym: barro

arenaSand

Quartz sand is added to most potting clay toopen it up and allow steam to escape during firing,thereby preventing cracks. Sand also gives addedstrength to body walls. However, the larger theamount ofsand added, the less plastic the claywillbe. In Mexico very fine sand, arenilla, was addedto glaze mixtures to aid in fluxing. A sprinkling ofsuch fine sand on the kiln floor prevented vesselsfrom adhering to it if glazes ran. A similar sprink­ling of fine sand also prevented tiles from stick­ing to forms or work tables.

Arenilla also was the word for a pounce mate­rial which was sprinkled on unsized paper orparchment to prevent ink from spreading.

aristaArris, or the salient angle where two edges meet

In Spanish ceramics this word refers to thepronounced angle in some bowl or plate profilesbetween concave interior wells and flared hori­zontal rims. It likewise means the sharp ridgescreated when a mold was impressed on soft clayslabs to make cuenca, or intaglio, tile, as cuenca dearista.

armadoGimp lines in a lace motif

In lace the gimp is a coarser thread than any ofthe others used in the same textile and serves as askeleton upon which the other threads areworked. Lace patterns, which were popular inTalavera, Sevilla, and Portugal during the late16th and r rth centuries and diffused during thelatter to Mexico, made use of these two kinds ofthreads. However, in Mexico the gimp lines wereemphasized far more than they had been in theOld World and usually dominated the total pat­tern because they were drawn in wide widths and

arrnazon de la dispensa 19 ataurique

were of a different color than the filament lines.Literal meaning: armed

armazon de la dispenseFramework or scaffolding used in dispensing cer­tain raw materials needed in the pottery-makingprocessSynonym, in part: andamio

armelaReverberatory kiln used to oxidize lead

arquetd (Arabic deriv.)Long handled iron fork used to put fuel into thefiring chamber of a kiln; in Mexico, a moldedround top ceramic box (written without an ac­cent)

arquitecturaArchitecture

The use of architectural themes was one of theChristian contributions to Spanish ceramic de­sign. About the r yth or rath centuries Paternaand Teruel decorators displayed a fondness forcastles, towers, parapets, fountains, and city wallsin pottery decoration. Although castle silhouettesappear on ceramic heraldic crests, the vogue fellinto general disuse until, under the stimulation ofItalianate styling, r rrh century Talaverans incor­porated constructions of several varieties, includ­ing Alrnohade towers, into their work. Oftendetailing of such features was quite exact,though sometimes the buildings sat in distant ha­ziness.

In Mexico, with churches bulking on almost allhorizons, it was expectable that such buildingswould appear on pottery in imitation of Spanishmodels. On many 17th century multicolored tilesa frontal view ofa domed and towered chapel canbe seen in backgrounds. Particularly during therSth century on blue on white types anotherhastily executed figure composed of two boldvertical lines, topped by an inverted V and asweeping pinnate, seems to suggest a verystylized rendition of a church tower, though thisidentification is open to question. Another ver­sion shows a church in side-view with front belltower and dome over the crossing. None of thesebuildings appears to be capped with a cross. InChinese themes pagodas or pyramidal erectionsare seen on Mexican rSth century blue on whites.Mexican treatment of all these variations issuggestive rather than exact.

arrobaSpanish unit of measurement. Dry: 25 pounds;liquid: 2.6 to 3.6 gallons

The term also came to be used as a roughindication of vessel size, as in dos arroba basin ormediaarroba lebrillo.

artificeArtisan or craftsman

asaHandleSynonym: mango

asador de castanasRoaster for nuts

In northern Spain, where oak trees are com­mon and chestnuts a favorite treat, potters madeunglazed earthenware jars with wide mouths andbodies perforated with large holes. The nuts wereput in the jar which was then placed in an oven,the baking steam escaping through the holes.

Similar jars are known in modern Mexico,where they usually are described as colanders.

asolearTo sun dry prior to bisque firing

This was a very necessary step to avoid crackingduring firing. It required from a few days up toseveral weeks, depending on the climate.sol: sun

aspaMotif of x-shaped figures

Crossed lines or St. Andrew's cross figureswere used as a border filler alternating withS-scrolls on a late 16th century Talavera poly­chrome of dark blue, orange, and purple-brown.

atai/orDeep dishSynonym, in pan: plato

atanorCeramic water duct

Such pipes were made from unglazed earthen­ware, thrown or moldmade in sections luted to­gether. In Spain atanores date from the Romanperiod and assumed great importance during theIslamic occupation because ofthe fondness of theMuslims for running water in gardens, fountains,and baths.

atauriqueDecorative device characteristic ofNasrid ceram­ics and plaster work consisting of a heavy scroll

artifle 20 azul delgado

with lobed borders, sometimes regarded as a con­ventionalized flower.

It was a motif adopted by later designers inSpain and possibly in Mexico.

atifteCockspur

Cockspurs, made of a tripod shaped piece offired clay, were used to separate glazed vesselsduring glost firing. Three scars were left on thesurfaces by these stilts.

atincarBorax

This was a substance used to toughen glazes. Italso helped the glaze to melt and become smooth,and it promoted the formation of certain colorssuch as oranges and yellows. Too much borax in aglaze solution causes pinholing, a common defectof both Spanish and Mexican maiolicas.Synonym: borax, bOrica

atmosfera de coaisnFiring atmosphere within a kiln

The atmosphere created during firing may beeither oxidizing, when fuels are freely burning, orreducing, when they are smoking.

Oxidizing atmospheres were desirable for mostSpanish earthenwares because carbon clouds re­sulting from incomplete combustion of fuels areabsorbed quickly by hot clay bodies, causing dis­colorations. It was difficult to maintain cleanflames throughout all cycles of the firing opera­tion when, as in parts of Spain and Morocco, oilrich olive residues were utilized as fuel. Appar­ently potters were especially careful to end thefiring without excessive smoldering, because sag­gars, which would have protected glazed vesselsfrom reduction accidents, were not universallyused.

Spanish potters did desire a reduction atmo­sphere for a third firing of lusterware whichchemically reduced metallic oxides to metals thatwere left as a film upon vessel surfaces. This rep­resented a specialized process developed by Mus­lim artisans which deviated from their normalpractice.

Because oxidizing atmospheres are essentialfor proper firing of tin glazes, many modern in­dustries in Spain and Mexico producing thesewares now operate electric kilns. Firing clouds aretotally eliminated and therefore saggars are notneeded to protect vessels from them. However,the persistence of custom is shown by the con-

tinued use ofsaggars in many seemingly unneces­sary instances.

atobonThick brick used to disperse heat entering upperchamber of kiln used for luster firing

Ave MariaRim design composed of Gothic script repeatingpart of the Latin Ave Maria prayer which appearson r yth century Manises lusterware

aveneradaScallop edged

Under the influence of Aleoran maiolica andporcelain, Talaveran potters in the rSth centuryturned to Rococo shell-like forms. The scallopedge of these shells was popular for such vesselshapes as bacias. They were moldmade. The samescallop treatment was duplicated in Mexico,though was not as elaborate as in Spain.venera: scallop shell

azarcon (Arabic deriv.)Red colored oxide of lead

This mineral was used in combination withother oxides to help produce orange, yellow, andlight blue colors for decorative pigments. Thesame word was applied to a bright orange color.Synonym, in part: minio

azul (Arabic deriv.)Blue

Derived from cobalt oxide obtained fromcobaltite, blues in one or several tones, came intouse in the r yth century in Nasrid Spain. By the16th century, from Italian and Chinese influence,blue decorations dominated Spanish maiolicasand continued to be important, though in lesserdegree, through the rSth century.

In Mexico blue decorations appeared on thefirst known maiolicas made there. During therSth century the popularity of blues continuedunabashed and became thoroughly identifiedwith Puebla pottery. By the roth century thevogue seems to have worn itself out, giving rise tonew interest in other colors or combinations.Blue was never important in Guatemalan maio­licas, perhaps because of lack of resources, orperhaps because of the domination of Sevillianstyling on local types.

azul delgadoLight blue

This tone at Puebla was made from a combina-

21azul fuerte

tion of fine sand, common salt, red lead, andcobalt oxide. It was used for minor decorativedetailing, such as lines and small backgroundareas, overlaid with darker blue elements on awhite ground.

azul fuerteDark blue

Dark blue was used, often with light blue, inthe most characteristic ceramic work at Puebla. Itwassaid to have been formulated from a combina­tion of massicot and cobalt oxide.Synonym: azul obscuro

azul musulmdnMohammedan blue

Cobalt oxide, which was traded over the greatcaravan routes of central Asia from Persia toChina, was called by this name. It led to theconcentration upon blue decorations on whitegrounds which typified Ming (r368-r643) workand was continued into Ch'ing patterns where itwas often combined with other colors. The ab­sence of manganese impurities in Persian cobaltin use in China during the 14th century hasenabled scholars to distinguish pottery of thisperiod from later works painted with less pureChinese cobalt, which usually contained man­ganese.

The Ming blue on white palette influencedWestern maiolica decorations, including those ofthe Spanish tradition, for some three centuries.

azulejo (Arabic deriv.)Most commonly the term refers to smooth

surfaced 4 by 4 inch or slightly larger tiles deco­rated with maiolica glaze and polychrome colors,generally meant to be mounted on walls, whichgained great popularity in Spain after r sao. Largesmooth surfaced glazed tiles designed for place­ment between ceiling beams were known insteadas ladrillo por tabla. Azulejo does not include thevaried types of tile characteristic of Muslimperiods with surface manipulations or slip or leadglazed patterns. One exception is the phraseazulejo de cetreria which refers specifically tocuerda seca and cuenca tiles with falconry motifsmade in r6th century Toledo.

The technique for producing smooth poly­chrome decorated tile was brought to Sevilla atthe end of the r 5rh century by a coterie of Italiancraftsmen working with artistic conventionspromulgated by the Renaissance. Their greatskillsgenerated the immense interest in tin glazed

azulejo

polychrome ceramics which quickly led to therise of maiolica hollow ware in Sevilla and then inTalavera.

During the r6th century Sevilla remained theleading Spanish azulejo center, the Casa de Pilatosand many other structures still retaining numer­ous examples of that period. Talavera supercededSevilla as the outstanding tile producer in Spainduring the r 7th century, and Barcelona tiles be­came the most popular of the r8th century.

Because Sevilla maintained the strictest mo­nopoly on trade with the colonies throughout herperiod of greatest tile production, she shippedhuge quantities of her product to the Canaries,the Caribbean, and both mainland viceroyaltiesfor use in public buildings, churches, and finehomes. This tile export trade continued through­out the colonial period, even while export ofSevillian hollow ware was declining or eventuallyceasing altogether, with little evidence that eitherTalavera or Barcelona tile industries ever wereable to participate in that commerce to any ex­tent.

Perhaps more important for Spanish ceramicdevelopment in the New World was the diffusionvia Sevilla of the Andalusian appreciation for tilewhich promoted colonial tile factories. Tile mak­ing was begun at Puebla by the end of the r6thcentury and during the nth and r8th centuriesassumed great commercial importance. Tiles in­terspersed with brick or laid contiguously in greatbands to cover wainscotings, stair risers, facades,fountains, and church domes made the Pueblaarea ablaze with color and, in terms of quantity,unique in the New World. Some tiles usingPuebla design repertoire, which in turn wasdrawn from both Spanish and Chinese sources,appear to have been made in Mexico City dur­ing the r8th century. The vigorous tradition con­tinues today at Puebla and Dolores Hidalgo,where in some workshops tiles are cut and paintedby hand in exactly the same way as in colonialtimes.

Colonial period tiles also were made inGuatemala and Peru, in both areas utilizing wellknown Sevillian Renaissance patterns. At thepresent time tiles are made commercially in mostcountries of Latin America still using many ofthese same patterns. There is little sign that thisaspect of architectural ceramics-inherited fromSpanish Muslims, revamped by Renaissance Ital­ians, and diffused by Andalusian Spaniards-is inany way expiring.

azumbre 22 bandeja

azulejo liso: smooth surfaced polychromed tileDiminutive: azulejito

azumbre (Arabic deriv.)Vinegar

This liquid was used as a medium in paintingmetallic oxide mixtures upon warm vessels priorto a reduction firing to produce luster overglazedesigns.Synonym: vinagre

..- . - .

mJ] baeta ~

B Shaving or bleeding bowlA specialized flattened bowl

form with a semicircular sectionremoved from one side to permit

the vessel to be placed directly under the chin wasused by barbers and surgeons in Medieval Spain.This is not odd because these occupations wereclassed together in the socio-economic hierarchyof the times. Blood letting, or phlebotomy, wasthe most common medical treatment for manydifferent illnesses.

In Mexico bacias were most common in therSth century when they were moldmade, oftenwith foliated rims or fluted walls.

bacin,basinStraight-sided, large, cylindri­cal chamber pot with widehorizontal brim

Known in Spain from the14th century, the chamber pot,usually with four prominentstrap handles from just below the rim to lowerbody, appeared with elaborate luster or maiolicapatterns on exteriors. Flattened rims generallywere decorated. However, unglazed conicallyshaped chamber pots represent economy ver­sions. There are none of the caricatures on theseforms such as occurred on contemporary Englishchamber pots.

In Mexico bacines tended to be taller thanSpanish models and had only two small handles

directly beneath the rim. In the rSth centurysquat round bodied forms in plain white maiolicawere copied from English examples.Diminutive: bacinejo, bacinica, bacinillaSynonym: beque, borcelana, vasa de nocbe

bacini (Italian)Plates set as decorative adjuncts onto facades ofimportant buildings or interior screens ofchurches in Italy

Early examples of such decoration are knownin Pavia, Ravello, Pisa, and Rome, where they arethought to represent trophies brought back byCrusaders. Later pieces, which were either platesor shallow bowls, were made for this architecturalpurpose in Italy and in Spain. Spanish examplesgenerally are the prized lusterware.

balanzaScale

In order to make the glaze and pigment solu­tions properly, it was necessary to weigh outthe ingredients, though considerable variationswithin any sequence of vessels suggests the mea­surements often were casual. Probably the scaleswere of the balance type with two pans suspendedfrom a horizontal bar.

baldosaMonochrome glaze tile pieces from which alicereswere cut; floor tile

The fragments for mosaics were common inAndalusia in the rath and r sth centuries andcontinue in use in modern Morocco. Usual colorswere blue, white, green, and black.Diminutive: baldosinAugmentative: baldos6nbaldosador: one who lays baldosas

balsaPit where clay was worked or allowed to ripen

balsotSieve used in Valencian shops for clay prepara­tion

bandeja ~Tray ~

In Spanish-tradition ceramics this form usuallyis a molded ovoid, rectangular, or square vessel,flat bottomed, on occasion with a number of at­tached galleries or clay rings on the obverse withwhich to steady small cups or jars. It appearsderived from metal prototypes which wereprompted by the arrival into r rrh century Europe

bariera 23 barrilejo

of exotic Oriental condiments or the contempor­ary adoption of foreign beverages such as tea,coffee, and chocolate.Diminutive: bandejitaAugmentative: bandej6nSynonym, in part: mancerina, platel

baiieraBathtub

A few maiolica tubssurvive in Puebla,either plain white ordecorated with cobaltblue. They are moldmade in ovoid shape and areapproximately 2 feet deep. Some bear modeledanimal heads as side handles.baiiar: to bathebaiio: bathSynonym, in part: barreiio, pila

barbotinaSlip used for applying appendages to leather-hardbody walls

BarcelonaLocated on the Mediterranean at the eastern

extremity of Spain, Barcelona historically hasbeen tied to Franco-Italian culture and to amaritime commerce. Since the Middle Ages theBarcelona citizenry has expressed a vigorousmercantile orientation, and predictably there wasan early development of craft guilds.

In pottery an archaic green and purple-brownwas supplanted in the r yth century by theubiquitous cobalt blue on white tin glaze, withships in full sail being a favorite decorative fancy,as well as morisco patterns introduced by potterswho moved there from Valencia. A civil war inmid century destroyed many of the extramuralpotteries, and recovery from this disaster wasslow.

Barcelona was prohibited from sharing in theAmerican enterprises, even though the CatholicKings greeted Columbus there after his returnfrom the First Voyage, until late in the rSrh cen­tury. Hence maiolicas or other ceramics madethere quite likely never got to the colonies untilthe end of the century.

barillaCrushed or concentrated ore, such as tin or lead,used in glaze formulation

barnizGlaze

barnizar: to glazeSynonym: alarea,brillo (usually refers to transpar­ent lead glaze only), esmalte

barraletValencian name for a pedestal based, roundbodied pitcher with a very tall flared neck, a singlehandle, and a curved tubular pouring spout

barreal, barrera, barreroPit where clay was either extracted or where itwas placed to cure after processing

In Christian Spain clay sources were controlledby municipal authorities who granted a guild ex­clusive rights to their use. Those persons who tookfrom a restricted source were liable to prosecu­tion. In some places these sources for raw clay,rather than being shallow pits near ground sur­faces, actually were caves with extensive side gal­leries or deep wells whose collapse is known tohave caused changes in production.

barreiioLarge earthenware tub or crucible

This functional form was used for washingclothes, washing dishes, in making sausages, or inthe calcination of glaze materials.Synonym, in part: baiiera, jofaina

barrilBarrel

A typically Chinese formadopted by Mexican potterswas a large cylinder with wallspushed outward to achieve acentrally rounded profile. Itwas a vessel meant to standerect, in contrast to the bar­rilejo which was meant to liehorizontally.Synonym: tonel

bsrrilejoCostral

This was a small barrel formintroduced to the Mediterra­nean community by the Ro­mans. It was made from twomatching cylinders luted together and laid hori­zontally, then topped with a pouring spout andfilling spout and loop or strap handles. Often thespouts took animal head forms. Presumably inSpain it was used as a water or wine container andmay be the refredador (cooler) of the documents.In Morocco it has been described as a butter

barrilla 24 barro

churn. There it was suspended by the handles andgently rocked back and forth.Synonym, in part: tonelete

barrill«Salrwort

This marsh grass was burned to obtain soda ashto be used in glaze preparation.barrillar: place where salrwort grows; pit where itwas burned to extract soda ashSynonym: a/majo

barreClay; clay body

Clay is decomposed granite rock oftwo generaltypes. Residual, or primary, clay is that formed atthe site of the original rock formation. Sedimen­tary, or secondary, clay is that transported bywater or wind from the original location. It is finergrained and more plastic than residual clay.

In ceramic terms, clay body is often a mixtureof several clays, usually but not always plus grog.Red-burning clay bodies, which mature at about10000 c., usually have more strength and henceare easier to throw in large vessel forms. Alsosince red clays are more commonly found, theyare used for tiles required in great numbers andutility objects which need frequent replacement.Buff-burning clays mature at slightly highertemperatures, tend to be finer textured and there­fore less abrasive, and are considered more suit­able for thin small vessels either thrown ormolded. Light colored marly clays containinglime are desired for maiolica because their highrate of shrinkage reduces the crazing of coveringglaze. Length of firing times and temperaturesachieved affect the colors of clay bodies. How­ever, a clay with high iron content will alwaysremain red in oxidizing atmospheres and in factwill melt at about 1200° C.

In Spain red-burning clays typically were usedfor utility vessels and tiles. Tile makers of Sevillaand those who fashioned ducts, downspouts, andother humble construction objects are thought tohave obtained their red-burning clay from pits inthe meadow land near Triana.

Andalusia also has considerable deposits oflighter clays which were used formerly, as today,for much utility hollow ware. Many light coloredSevillian jars of various types dating from the16th and 17th centuries are known. The sameclay appears to have been used for tin glazedwares which usually do not have the red cores

noted in contemporary utility vessels. Thissuggests that the maiolicas were fired to a some­what higher temperature for more complete oxi­dation. Light colored clay deposits near thevillage of Cuesta de Castilleja supplied Sevillianfactories for a long period of time, clods of rawclay being hauled to the city by mule trains.

Some time about the mid 16th century thefired pastes of Sevillian maiolica became notice­ably pinker and harder, suggesting either a newclay source or a mixture of clay types to allowartisans to take advantage of the individual prop­erties of each. Such mixing is known to havebecome standard practice in the Paterna, Ma­nises, and Talavera industries as they evolved,and it is likely to have been the case also in Se­villa.

In the earliest Mexican rnaiolicas, the firststyles made in imitation of early 16th centurySevillian types exhibit a comparable buff-firingpaste. Such clay was not used by the aboriginalpotters ofcentral Mexico, and so it is obvious thatthe Spaniards initiated an immediate search formaterials which would give them results at leastsimilar to those with which they had familiarity inSpain. The common unglazed or lead glazed ves­sels were fashioned with red-burning clays,perhaps from the same deposits utilized by theIndians.

As the 16th century wore on, there occurredthe same change in clay body used for maiolica asin Spain, that is, a shift to a harder redder paste.There either was a tapping of new beds, as wouldhave resulted in the establishment of an industryat Puebla as opposed to one in Mexico City, orlocalpotters began to adopt the practice ofmixingclays, in which case even smallpercentages ofironwould alter the fired color of the body. At theturn of the r rth century very light colored bodiesbecame universal in Mexican tin glazed types andcontinued typical for fine wares into the rorhcentury. This development appears first to havebeen a response to white bodied Chinese porce­lain which was much admired, and also may havebeen an attempt to reduce unsightly crazing andprovide a paste easier to conceal beneath a glazecovering. Later, in the second half of the rSthcentury, there was a growing demand for thinwalled molded forms in the European manner forwhich buff-burning clays were most suitable.Red-burning clay continued to be standard forutility and lead glazed types but was only used in

bebedero 25 boceto

classic Puebla work for large vessels whichneeded great body strength. Lesser grades ofmaiolica at Puebla and Mexico City also made useof a higher percentage of red-burning clays in anygiven mixture. Modern Mexican maiolica isknown to be composed of two types ofclays, yetthe end result is a very red paste. Neither thebuff-burning nor red-burning clays traditionallyused in Mexico have high enough shrinkage ratesto eliminate crazing of glazes.

Only red-burning clayswere utilized in makingmaiolica in Guatemala and Panama Viejo,perhaps as much a clue to the absence there ofeasily available lighter clays as any grade distinc­tion in the pottery itself. In both areas the sameclays were used for utility as for finer vessels.barro blanco: potter's claybarro colada: prepared or washed claybarro vidriado: glazed clay or glazed ceramicsbarroso: terra cotta coloredSynonym: arcilla

bebederoWater trough

A vessel serving this function was made inSevilla,according to ceramic inventories. It prob­ably was unglazed earthenware, but its exactshape is unknown.beber: to drink

benditeraHoly water stoupSynonym: pila de agua bendita

bequeChamber potSynonym: bacin, dompedro ; orinal, vasa de nocbe

berettino (Italian)Light blue to blue grey tin glaze adopted in partsof Italy about the middle of the rSrh cenrury

Decorations on this glaze, which wascreated byadding a smallpercentage ofcobalt or smalt to theusual tin opacified lead bath, usually were inwhite. However, blue ground glazed vessels witha darker blue decoration of tiny arabesques weretypical of 16th cenrury potteries ofGenoa on theLigurian coast of Italy and were copied by otherindustries in nearby Albisola and Savona duringthe 17th century. They were shipped to Genoesemerchants in Sevilla, who in rurn exported someof them to the West Indies and Mexico. Similarstyles may have been made in Sevilla by Genoese

potters resident there, and may in turn have in­spired Spanish derivations.

After the 16th century similar blue glaze wasused only rarely in Spain and did not recur inMexico until the late rSrh or early roth century.Synonym, in part: smaltino (Italian)

Berain, Jeanr Srh century French court designer

Berain's work, which emphasized balance,lightness, and movement, marked the transitionbetween Baroque and Rococo in France. Hisinfluence was considerable on French decorativeart and was felt in neighboring Spain after 17 27,when the French-operated factory of Alcora wasfounded.

bernegalCup with scalloped rim; in the Canary Islands andVenezuela a large earthenware jar used to collectfiltered waterSynonym, in part: cantaril!o, taza

biberonSpouted drinking vessel, the forerunner of thecdntaro; in modern vernacular, refers to a babybottle

biselBevelled or chamfered edge typical of mostSpanish tile of the IS th through rSth cenruries topermit a smoother more secure fit when laid

bizcocho, bizcochadaBisqued pottery

This is pottery fired once but not glazed andtherefore still porous.bizcochar: to fire biscuit potterySynonym: cocida, escalda, juaguete, socarrat

blancoWhite

White was a background color in Spanishceramics achieved either through application ofaslip of pipeclay or kaolin or of a lead fluxed glazewith tin oxide added. The degrees ofwhiteness inthe latter instance depended upon the amount oftin used. White was not employed as a decorativepigment in the manner of Italian bianco soprab­bianco.blancuzco: whitish

bocetoSketch; outline

The word appears in ceramic literarure to de-

hal 26 brasero

scribe a pattern used in the execution ofelaboratedesigns painted on pottery.

bolBowl; punch bowl

bollo de relieveBoss

An embossment of the central zones of r srhcentury display lusterware plates derived frommetal prototypes. Less pronounced protuber­ances are noted on some simple plain maiolicavessels exported to the Indies at the end of ther yth century. Both likely were created throughthe use of molds to form vessel interiors.Augmentative: boll6n

bombonaDemijohn

In Spain this form usually was a small, neckedjar with a single handle and no pouring spout.Synonym, in part: botella, garraJa

borcelanaMexican term for chamber pot; wash basinSynonym: bacin, beque, orinal

bordeRim or finished edge of vessel

adelgazado: taperedentrante: invertedfestoneado: scallopedondulado: foliatedpellizcado: pinchedrecto: directsaliente: everted

borujoResidue left from process of extraction of oilfrom olives

This material was used in old Sevilla for firingkilns. It continues to be the principal fuel forcountry potteries of Andalusia and for those atFez, Morocco. The fire produced is very hot but,because of the oil content, is also smoky.

boteDrug jarDiminutive: botecitoSynonym: albarelo, pote, tarro de botica

botellaBottle

The usual shape was a tall, thrownbulbous cylinder with a short neck.Smaller versions also occur. Somesquare moldmade bottles came fromTalavera, apparently in imitation ofChinese forms.Augmentative: botellonSynonym, in part: ampoll«, damajuana,frasco,gar­raJa, redoma

botijaShort necked jug; ewerSynonym: perulero

botijoSpouted earthenware jar withhandle; pilgrim bottle; spoutedhorizontal barrel bottle

The term is variously usedbut generally seems to refer to aform designed to hold and pourliquids. It, or the diminutivebotijuela, has been used to de­scribe the usual Spanish jars reaching colonialAmerica, the form in English with the misnomer"olive jar." However, botijuela now has no conno­tation in ceramics. Tinaja appears a more correctname for that form because, at least in modernparlance, botijos are small to medium sized, flatbottomed, closed jars, characterized by smallpointed pouring spouts located high on the jarshoulder and looped, stirrup, or strap handles atthe closed top of the jar.botijeria: place where botijos are madebotijero: maker or seller of botijosSynonym, in part: biber6n, cdntaro ;porron

botonKnob

Knobs on vessel lids received little attention inSpanish-tradition ceramics. Generally they werelow, round topped, and not well designed for easygrasping.

brasero ~Flat bottomed bowl; brazier _

In Spain this form was a flat bottomed, straightsided, large bowl with a horizontal rim similar to alebrillo in general profile. They were tin glazed,often at Manises overlaid with luster pigments,and may be considered representative of finer

brinquiiio 27 cacerola

grade ceramics. They are said to have been usedfor washing hands prior to dining.

In Mexico the flat bottomed bowl form wasmade, but brasero also means a brazier which usu­allywas a large unglazed earthenware bowl with aperforated base, attached to a hollow pedestalstand. The pedestal was opened on one side toaccornodate a few pieces of charcoal. Serving assmall stoves, these were strictly functional ves­sels.

brinquiiioGeneralized term for a ware made of red clay

Small scented objects of clay were made inTalavera from the 16th century in imitation ofbucaro ware from Mexico. They were either worn,used as rosaries, or were eaten.

brocal de pozoMouth of well or fountain

With the great Moorish plea­sure in running water and foun­tains came the development ofthis form which was especiallytypical of mudejar shops inSevilla and Toledo. It was a largeornamental circular or hexa­gonal moldmade tube with a heavy-lippedceramic collar designed to regulate and enhance awater source. Usually covered with lead glaze,decoration consisted ofelaborately worked reliefpatterns. Their strong stylistic resemblance tocontemporary baptismal fonts of Sevilla and To­ledo suggests their having been made in the sameworkshops. Dating is considered to be the 14ththrough 16th centuries.

bucaroFragrant, red slipped, and polished earthenware

Bucaro ware was made in the Guadalajara re­gion ofMexico and was exported to Spain, whereas early as the late 16th century it was copied atTalavera. It was notable for reputedly havingbeen eaten by ladies as a complexion aid.

Buen ReriroSoft paste porcelain factory, founded by CharlesIV in 1759, located in a royal garden at BuenRetire, near Madrid

Until 1788 the production of this factory,based entirely upon Capodimonte styles atNaples, was limited to court use only. The samechief modeller who was responsible for the con-

temporary porcelain room at Aranjuez was incharge at Buen Retiro. The factory was destroyedby war early in the rorh century and was notrebuilt.

burladorTrick cup which wet the user

These were forms common among Englishceramics but did not appear to enjoy much popu­larity in the Spanish tradition.burlar: to deceive

II c II cabaliito i caballoMexican term for cockspurC Literal meaning: little horse

cabezuela, Head ofpotter's wheel upon whichclay was placed for workingcabeza: headSynonym: cabecera, planellet (Valencian vernacu­lar), rodal

caceriaHunt or act of hunting

The term in Spanish literature on ceramics re­fers to a hunting motif which included hunters,horses, and occasionally other animals. It wasvery popular with customers of r rth and rSthcentury Talaveran maiolica because hunting itselfwas considered a princely pastime. The Haps­burgs, for example, maintained royal huntingpreserves and a stock ofexotic animals. The hunt­ing motif was adopted on occasion by Mexicanmaiolists, though much simplified, for both tileand vessel decoration.

cacerola ~Casserole or stew pot

These were utilitarianearthenware vessels of large round bottomedbowl shape, occasionally with small side handles,

cacharreria 28 cajuela

and were sometimes casually decorated in ironoxide covered with a simple transparent leadglaze. Many pots of this type still are made in mostof Latin America, often without the benefit of awheel. Their form and style has changed little inthe 400 years since the Spaniards first introducedglazes to the New World.

cacharreriaCheap crockery; shop selling cheap crockerycacharrero: one who sells crockscacharro: an ordinary pot or crock

cadeneteChain stitch motif

A decorative mode of the late rSth and rorhcenturies consisting of a simple chain pattern en­circling either exteriors of cups or interiors ofopen forms just below the rims. The usual rendi­tions were a series of connected small lozenges,two interlaced lines, or an undulating line withalternating dots within loops.cadena: chain

cafeteraCoffee server

Coffee was introduced to Europe from Turkeyduring the 17th century and was widely adoptedas a social drink. However, coffee houses did nothave the popularity in Spain which they enjoyedin England.

In Spain coffee was served in spouted pitchersand small cups, with and without handles, set ondeep bowl-like saucers. In Mexico, where coffeewas raised, pitchers seem to have been surpris­ingly uncommon, although they were made.Most decorated maiolica cups remained handle­less, probably because of the considerableinfluence of Oriental forms on Mexican produc­tion during the 17th and rSth centuries, andsaucers were not typical. But after Englishcreamwares began flooding Mexican markets inthe late rSth and into the rorh centuries, localproduction included more plain white maiolicacups which copied the angled or curved handlescharacteristic of English coffee cups.

cajon, caxonRough wooden box used for shipment of pottery

cajuelaMexican term for a complete saggar

Saggars are round, ovoid, or rectangular firedclay boxes used to protect vessels during glazefiring from smoke clouds, bits of floating ash or

soot, and fumes of molten materials, all of whichcan cause color damage or change. They alsoenable the stacking of a kiln without the use ofshelves, though they have the obvious drawbackof taking up valuable space within the kiln.

Saggars are not known to have been used inSpain by Muslim potters, although some largeearthenware jars have been suggested as havingserved that purpose. Saggars appear to have beenintroduced to Spain from Italy in the mid 16thcentury, along with a complex of maiolica traits.At the same period their use also spread northfrom Italy to Flanders and southern France, asItalian artists moved away from their homepeninsula. Although present research is ham­pered by lack of scientific excavation of Spanishkiln sites of this period, it appears likely that thesaggar form used in Spain until the end of the16th century had perforated side walls, as did theItalian prototypes. Some may have had additionalperforations in their bases. Furthermore, al­though no excavation has been made of a provenMexican ceramic kiln, it is quite possible the per­forated saggar was diffused to workshops there.

An interesting sequence of development insaggar use can be deduced from Mexican ar­chaeological materials. The first Mexican maio­licas, faithfully made after Sevillian models of thefirst half of the 16th century, seem to have beenfired in stacks, each vessel being separated bycockspurs which left unsightly triads of scars onplate obverses. Saggars might not have been inuse at all in that initial development. It is possibleto proceed without them though the results areless predictable. Modern Moroccan maiolists, forexample, make no use of saggars. They do usespurs, but most of the large flat pieces are firedvertically on edge, just as they were in the moriscoManises lusterware shops of the r yth century.

With pottery types which are believed toreflect strong 16th century Italian stylistic in­fluence as diffused to Nueva Espana via Sevilla,a significant change is noticeable. Vessel obverseslack spur scars but do have lateral scars on re­verses beneath rims, indicating that stacks ofplates were supported horizontally in a saggar byprisms of fired clay projected through perforatedsaggar walls. This was the known 16th centuryItalian method, well illustrated in the New Worldby Italian trade wares with under-rim scars recov­ered in the Caribbean and Mexico and believed todate from the last half of the rSth century.

29calado

Present evidence suggests that the perforatedsaggar and pin support system was abandonedearly in the rzrh century as both the Mexican andSpanish crafts reached a stage of maturity. Theuse of individual saggars for special piecesavoided all marring. The return of the cockspur issignaled by stacks of lesser vessels having beenseparated in communal saggars solely by thismeans without the additional rim pinning. Sur­face scars were nearly obliterated by reducing thetips of the spurs to their minimum and by post­firing retouching; there are no identifiableunder-rim pin scars. A back-sliding of techniquethen occurred as the Puebla industry moved intorSrh century mass production. Finest vessels con­tinued to be loaded into individual saggars inaccord with guild standards. But more commontableware, which was turned out in tremendousvolume as population and wealth increased andnow comprises the greatest percentage of ar­chaeological tin glazed ceramics recovered incolonial Mexico and along all former frontiers,continued to be separated during firing, but thescars visible on both obverse and reverse surfaceswere large and seldom retouched. No under-rimpin scars are seen. The guild ordinances wereamended in 1721 so that saggars, which the pot­ters protested were costly and time consuming,were no longer required. They well might havecontinued in use for finer vessels, however.

In summary, the Mexican sequence, andperhaps the Spanish sequence as well, would ap­pear to be as follows: first half of 16th century,cockspurs and possibly no saggars; second half of16th century, support pins and perforated sag­gars, no cockspurs; 17th century, individual un­perforated saggars for fine wares, communalunperforated saggars and cockspurs for lesserwares, no pins; rSth century, abandonment ofun­perforated saggars, cockspurs used, no pins.

To substantiate the hypothesis of the diffusionto the New World of the Italian perforated saggarsome time in the second half of the r Srh century,the one colonial kiln yet excavated in the WesternHemisphere, that in Panama Viejo, producedsuch furniture. The Panama industry is thought todate in the late 16th or early r zrh centuries. Tothe north, all known later saggars have unperfo­rated walls.

A complete saggar consists of a deep bottomsection and a shallower lid which is not flangedbut merely sits on top the rim of the bottom

Calatrava

container. The lid is superfluous except for thetop saggar in a stack or for one placed separately.Nowadays saggars are made from refractorymaterials, but that precaution is unnecessary forearthenware ranges of temperature.caja: bottom portion of saggar; literal meaning:boxpedaiio: upper section of saggarcaja de bencbir: phrase used in Mexican archiveswhich is translated either as a saggar or packingbox used for the shipment of finished ware.

caladoFretwork

Such openwork appears on 17th centuryTalavera inkwells. Most often when exterior wallsencasing the ink container were cut while in theleather hard stage into lattice patterns, the firedground was left plain white or was overlaid with adelicate colored floral pattern. Such calado alsoappears on late rSth century Mexican tinteros,often with white grounds enhanced only by a darkblue band at the upper edge of the vessel.

Calado may be regarded as a Baroque orienrali­zation.calador: maker of calado

CalatayudA Moorish center in Aragon, Calatayud be­

came well known for mudejar pottery whichfound its greatest market in the Zaragoza region.The technique for producing lusterware appar­ently had been known there during Islamiccontrol but became important in the mid 16thcentury in the wake ofManises's decline. It was oflower quality than the Valencian examples andwas sold to a less affluent clientele.

CalatravaOne of three Spanish Christian military-religiousorders

Established by Sancho III and confirmed by thePope in I 164, the Order was founded on theborderlands where fighting between Christiansand Moors was a way of life. As the Christiansgradually pushed their Muslim adversariessouthward, the Calatrava Order became sowealthy that by the r yth century it owned a largepart of the grazing land of La Mancha.

The emblem of Calatrava appears on someSpanish ceramics as a potent cross, or one witharms ending in crutch-like figures. The traditionalcolor of the cross was red but, because that color

calda 30 candil, candelero

was impossible to achieve by the known maiolicamethods, ochre was substituted.

Insignia of this Spanish Order do not appear onNew World maiolicas.

caldaAct of stoking a kiln; the unit of fuel used at onetime

Caida dealabaradios, the phrase applied to thelast unit of fuel placed within a kiln during firing,results from the customarily uttered words, "Ben­dito y alabado sea ..... or Blessed and praised be

calderaFront section of fuel chamber in Valencian kilnLiteral meaning: caldron

calderetaHoly water bowlDiminutive: calderetitaSynonym: pita de agua bendita

calientamanosHandwarmer

A rare form of the rSrh cen­tury, the handwarmer consistedof a small plate topped by adomed cover with holes encir­cling it at various heights. Pre­sumably charcoal would haverested on the saucer.caliente: hotmanos: hands

camaie« (French)Painting in a monochrome

During the' last half of the rSth century therewas a development at Sevilla of a blue groundmaiolica pottery decorated in darker blue de­signs, apparently in copy of similarly decoratedGenoese pottery being received in the marketsthere. The type did not persist for long, nor wassuch monochrome treatment ever very popular inSpain. Sixteenth century maiolists of Talavera at­tempted a similar treatment on some pharmacyjars, sponging blue over a white ground and thenapplying decoration in the form of drug labels indarker blue lettering on a reserved white panel.

In the late rSth century Puebla potters washedsome vessel interiors with blue and then laiddarker blue designs over that background, theexterior of the pots remaining white. Anothervariation which was practiced in the early r othcentury at Puebla was a true blue glaze decorated

with darker blue designs, but these were moreoften than not converted into a polychromepalette with the addition of orange, yellow, andgreen.

camara de coccionBaking chamber of typical Spanish two cham­bered kiln

cdmara de combuscionFuel chamber of typical Spanish two chamberedkiln

cameraChamber potSynonym: dompedro ; orinal, seroicio

camtsaLayer of relatively porous adobe bricks coveringinner surface of upper kiln chamber at Valencia

Bricks were formed with straw incorporatedwhich burned out in the first use, leaving airspaces.Literal meaning: shirt, cover

campo de colorField or Zone of color in a design

canalEarthenware tube, pipe, or downspout

In middle class homes and public buildingsthese construction adjuncts were of unglazedearthenware, formed in sections luted togetheras necessary. In Guatemala there was a regionaldevelopment of such downspouts being coatedwith brilliant green lead glaze.

In more humble homes and on frontiers thecanales were of wood; in finer homes, churches,and government buildings they were of workedstone.Diminutive: canalejaSynonym, in part: desague

candil, candeleroCandleholder

When tallow candles came intogeneral use the old Roman-style oillamp, which had been made in Spainas elsewhere in the Mediterraneanarea, was replaced in homes by a sim­ple ceramic holder consisting of atubular shaft above a flared base forstability and a collar to catch wax drippings. Theold lamp continued in use in church buildings, acombination of olive oil and beeswax being thepreferred fuel. Common candleholders remained

31cangilon

unglazed or lead glazed, fancier ones being ofmaiolica. Baluster-shaped tall holders were pro­duced in lusterware.

The candil was ubiquitous in Spanish Americaand made its way to all frontiers. In New Mexicosome Pueblo Indians ofthe 17th century missionscopied the form using hand modeling methods.Diminutive: candilejoAugmentative: candilonSynonym, in part: ldmpara

cangil6nLarge pitcher or jar such as those used in wells, ascangilon de noriaSynonym, in part: alcuza

caniliaMexican term for drug jarLiteral meaning: long bone

cdntaraLarge pitcher of about 32 pint capacitycantarada: pitcherfulcantarera: shelf for pitchers

cantaroVariously defined as spouteddrinking vessels, pitchers, large­mouthed jars, or wine measur­ers of varied sizes

The most typical variant ap­pears to have been a flat bot­tomed, wide mouthed jar ofapproximately 3 gallon capacity,with opposing strap handles. Itwas functionally and stylisticallyakin to the tinaja. This variant and one with aclosed top, sharply angled spouts for filling andpouring, and a loop handle over the top usuallyare unglazed and served, as they do today, aswater coolers. Glazed spouted versions are said tohave been containers for medicinal syrups inMuslim Spain.

In modern Spanish towns lacking householdwater systems the cantaro continues to have greatuse, as it no doubt had in the past. Its spouted,looped, handled form is seen only rarely in LatinAmerica.cantarero: maker or seller of cantarosDiminutive: cantarilloSynonym: alcarraza; cdntara, tinaja

canterValencian term for two handled jar with tall, widemouthed neck

capuchino

Diminutive: canterelle; specialized use for confec­tions: canterellSynonym, in part: [arra

canteraQuarry or pit where raw clay was securedSynonym: barrero, terrero

cantimplora (Latin) •Canteen or pilgrim's bottle; jar inwhich to cool water

The canteen was a typical EasternMediterranean form which foundgreat use for transporting water dur-ing various religious pilgrimages or Crusadescharacteristic of the Middle Ages. In Spain it wasa form most typical of Christian groups. It wasfashioned from two thrown bowls luted together,topped with a neck which could be easily stop­pered, and two small loop handles to permit sus­pension from a pack or saddle. One side was flatfor better hanging position.Synonym, in part: barrilete, botijo, garra/a

canaPotter's wooden toolLiteral meaning: reed, cane

Canada de los AlfaresPotters' quater in r zth and rSrh century Talaverade la Reina, Castile

canoTube, conduit, or ceramic drain pipe

Dating from Roman times, these constructionceramics were either thrown or molded in sec­tions, luted together. Pedro de la Vega, a potter ofTriana, is credited in 1554 with having supplied7 34canosfor thecaneria, main pipe line, that wentto the Sevilla Alcazar.

Caiio may also be a tubular pouring spout on apitcher.

capelaMotif of a cardinal's hat around which was sus­pended two sets of graduated tassels

This was used as a frame for the escutcheon ofthe Escorial monastery and appears on numerousTalaveran vessels made for the edifice. The hatwas placed above the crest, the tassels passingdown on either side.

capucbinoMexican name for an rSth century style of

Chinese porcelain which had white designs on abrown background

32carchata

A few examples of a similar brown ground onexteriors of cups are known for late rSth or earlyroth century Puebla maiolica, probably made inimitation of capucbino pieces.

carchataVery thick walls of upper chamber of Valenciankiln

cargaLoad

The old documents of Sevilla commonly usethis term asa measure of various materials boughtor sold. Its exact quantity is unknown because itmight refer to a wagonload (carretada) or to acarga menor, the load suitable for a donkey.

The term also appears in ceramic literature inthe sense of loading or stacking a kiln, carga delhorno, or the number of pots a kiln held; discargadel horno refers to unloading or drawing a kiln.cargador: one who carries a load

carrellValencian term for a lot of 1800 tiles; also a stackof 12 vessels within a kiln

carrera de IndiasShipping lanes to the Indies

On his First Voyage Columbus sailed southfrom Palos on the Spanish south Atlantic coast tothe Canary Islands, then continued southwest tobe caught up in the equatorial current whichswept his ships westward to their eventual landfallin the Bahamas. Going southerly from theCanaries on the Second Voyage the currentflowed more rapidly and brought him to theLesser Antilles from where he entered the Carib­bean. This became the outbound route to be usedby the Spaniards for the next 300 years.

The return passage to Spain from America wasmore difficult until, in 1 52 1 the commandingpilot of the ships carrying Aztec loot back toSpain charted the course through the FloridaStraits between Cuba and the mainland and hitthe rush of the Gulf Stream which carried shipsnortheasterly to the latitude of North Carolinaand out across the Atlantic. Returning shipsthereafter either made for the PortugueseMadeiras or preferably for the Spanish Canariesand then back to Cadiz. In times when a navalescort was provided for protection, the Azoreswere the rendezvous point.

This circular route out and back was the carrerade Indies, a name which was applied also to the

castizo

trade between Andalusia and the colonies carriedon by ships plying the route.

Most of the sailors participating in the carrera deIndias lived in the barrio of Triana, also the lead­ing potters' quarter in the Sevilla area.

carretadaCartful; wagonload

In Mexico this was a measure used in colonialtimes for the buying and selling of lime or clay,estimated at approximately 3,042 pounds.

cartelaLabel; card

On Spanish albarelos frequently a framed areaknown as a cartela was placed either diagonally orhorizontally across a central zone which con­tained the pharmaceutical name for the intendedcontents. The same word, cartela, also was usedfor an area reserved on a vessel for an inscription.cartela enblanco: a framed blank space meant to befilled in by the user of the vessel

cascajo, cascoPotsherdSynonym: cacbarra, fragmento, tepalcate (Mex.),tiesto

caspa de cobreScales or scurf of copper

To produce green colors for lead glaze or deco­rative pigments to be applied over tin glaze, thepottery makers of the Iberian world made use ofscraps of wire or wastes from copper pot shops.These bits of metal were heated in a small kilnuntil scales formed on their surfaces. These werethen scraped off. Some dissolved coins also wereutilized.

casp« de lataScales of tin plate

In modern Puebla workshops scales obtainedfrom heating the waste materials from the manu­facture of tin fixtures, hojalata, are used, in com­bination with pulverized dry glaze, to make ablack decorative pigment. Formerly black wasobtained from iron oxide, manganese, or a mix­ture of these with copper.

cassoleteValencian name for shallow bowl or casserole

castizoPure or typical style

catavino 33 cobalto

catavinoSmall cup or plate used in wine cellars

Such vessels were made in rSth century Man­ises and were decorated in luster pigments.

cavetto (Italian)Area between the well of a plate or bowl and therIm

The cauetto did not assume any visual impor­tance in Spanish ceramic design until the influ­ence of Chinese porcelain was felt. Then it oftenwas left undecorated to provide a contrast be­tween central pattern and rim band. The sharplyangled brim common on Sevillian types reachingthe New World helped to define the cavetto.

cazuelaCasserole or stewing pot

One notation in Sevillian archives of cazuelaspara iluminaciones ordered for the cathedral indi­cates this bowl form also may have served as an oillamp.Diminutive: cazoleja, cazoleta, cazuelitaSynonym: cacerola, pucbero

celeminCastilian measure

In glaze solutions for tin glaze made at ManisesI arroba of lead (25 pounds) to 6 pounds 12

ounces of tin and Y2 ecelemin of salt were custom­ary proportions. This formula would imply that acelemin was a very small unit. However, the termalso is defined as a measurement for land and thegrain produced on it.

cenefaRim or borderSynonym, in part: cerco

cerdmicaCeramicsceramista: maker of ceramics

ceramtfiloStudent or devotee of ceramics

cercoRim, border, or marlySynonym: cenefa

cerraderoMaker of closed vessel forms

Such objects as jars, bottles, flowerpots, vases,and pitchers are in this category, all evolved inthrowing from a basic cylinder form. In the ex­treme specialization of Spanish guild structure,

certain men made only vessels of this type. Oneadvantage of such concentration of effort wouldbe increased speed of production.

cestaBasket or hamper in which pottery was shipped

cetrillValencian term for spouted phar­macy pitcher

Probably an Iranian shape whichcame to Spain via Italy, this form istypified by a tubular spout from thevessel shoulder held to the neck byan encircling strip of clay. A single handle facili­tated pouring. The form was used for medicinaloils and syrups.

Claperos, AntonA potter in r yth century Barcelona who, with twosons, is known to have made twelve large bisquedfigures of the Apostles which were to be mountedin the Gothic entrance to the cathedral of Gerona

claroscuroMonochromatic designSynonym: monocromo

cobaltoCobalt

Cobalt, which in firing produces a blue color, isof particular value to ceramists because it is ableto mature at a wide range of temperatures fromthose suitable for earthenware to those for porce­lain. It is a strong stable colorant, therefore re­quired only in very small amounts. However,contamination of glaze color is a threat because involatilization cobalt easily causes an undesirableblue speckling, or salpicadura.

Beginning about the r yth or rarh centuries,cobalt was introduced to Spanish Muslim ceram­ics by the N asrids who may have obtained theoxides from Morocco, where it occurs in com­mercial quantities, or from Islamic western Asia.Because it was a rare and expensive commodity,cobalt blue at first was restricted to use with lusterpigments, the cobalt being drawn upon bisquedsurfaces which were subsequently dipped in tinglaze. The cobalt was strong enough to penetratethe molten glaze from below. However, in timecobalt became common enough to supercede inpart the use of copper green and manganesepurple-brown which had been characteristic ofthe first Spanish maiolicas. Christian potters alsoadopted the use of blue and found a sizeable

cobija 34 coccion

deposit in Castellon which supplied the Manisesshops, where lusterware was combined with bluedecorations as at Malaga. By this period the bluewas applied over a dry unfired tin glaze in thetypical maiolica method. Venetian merchantsbrought cobalt to Sevilla and Barcelona from asource in the Near Eastern Levante.

By the beginning of the 16th century all maio­lists in Europe were falling under the spell ofMing blue on white porcelain. This caused a seri­ous search for deposits of cobalt, one of whichwas encountered in Saxony. There a process forits purification was worked out, allowing forclearer, stronger tones than had been possiblepreviously. Genoese and other traders carriedthis material to England, Spain, and Italy. OtherSpanish deposits were worked to obtain lowergrades of cobalt. One such source was in theQuistan valley of the Pyrenees, which suppliedthe workshops of Puente del Arzobispo.

Mexican maiolica copied Sevillian maiolica inthe use of blue decorations. The quality and tonesof the blues obtained changed through time,suggesting different sources. A special focus oncobalt design occurred in Mexico which enduredalmost unchallenged for a century and a half, andto a degree continues today. The great volume ofChinese porcelain imported by Manila galleonssustained this vogue.

Cobalt blue was used also by the potters atPanama, where it was combined with coppergreen and manganese purple-brown. Inasmuch astilers in Lima likewise drew blue decorations, itmay be assumed that similar sources for rawmaterial were utilized by both industries. Blue isfound only rarely on colonial Guatemalanmaiolica, however. Apparently potters therewere cut off from a supply of the oxide, and socontented themselves with colorants provided bycopper, antimony, manganese, and iron.

cobijaSpanish term for saggarcobijador: one who makes saggarsLiteral meaning: a cover

cobreCopper

In the Mediterranean copper oxides used toprovide transparent lead glazes with a green colorhad a history going back to the Romans. Suchgreen glazes were common in the Cordobanperiod pottery shops. Also at that period copperoxide began to be used as a decorative pigment to

fill design elements defined by a darker line pro­duced by manganese, both at first placed onbisqued surfaces, then coated with a tin glazewhich they penetrated from below. The use ofcopper continued throughout the long history ofSpanish tradition ceramics, after the mid t ythcentury being applied on top of unfired glaze.Copper deposits are known in both Spain andMexico, in the latter region being one of the firstminerals mined by the Spaniards.

cocci6nFiring process

At approximately 600 0 C dehydration of claycauses chemical change from earth to pottery.Higher temperatures are necessary, however, tomake vessels more durable and less porous. Atemperature of 900-9500 C is sufficient forearthenware clays. Lead glazes will mature in thesame range, but the addition of tin requires atemperature up to 10600 C for maturation. Lus­ter painting must be fired only to 860-8950 C,just sufficient to flux the metal oxides but not thepreviously fired tin glaze. Firing times naturallyvary, depending on size of kiln, fuel utilized, andkind of pottery being produced. A single firing ina wood burning primitive kiln can last anywherefrom one to five or six days. In tax ridden Spain,each firing of a kiln wascause for an assessment offees by municipal authorities.

Firing a kiln load of pots, which represents daysoflabor for a number of people, is a risky, uncer­tain affair because many mishaps can ruin part orall the load. Hence in the Spanish realm it alwayshas been an event surrounded by a mixture ofreligion and superstition. Colonial accounts saythe sign of the cross was made before the sealeddoor of the kiln by the first ignited torch, theprayer, "Alabado sea por siempre el Santisimo Sac­ramento" (Praise be forever the Holy Sacrament)wassaid, breasts were crossed. A candle burned ata nearby home shrine. If a shower occurred dur­ing firing, that was considered a good omen. Thesame prayer ritual and making the sign of thecross was followed before the kiln was openedafter firing. And in spite of all these precautions,the number ofwasters from any firingis known tohave been considerable. Vessels bloated from airbubbles, warped out of shape, or cracked. Glazesran unduly, crawled, or became excessivelypinholed.Synonym: cocbura, cocimientoLiteral meaning: cooking

cocida 35 contorno

cocidaBisqued pottery

If a vessel were not to have a glaze, one firingwas sufficient for completion. In finer wares thebisque firing was necessary to drive all remainingmoisture from the clay and make vessels moredurable for further processing.cocer: to cookSynonym: bizcocho, [uaguete, loza cruda

COCtO

Valencian term for a large bisqued wide-mouthedjar, frequently used as a packing case for morefragile pottery nested within in beds of rice straw,a horse drinking trough, a chamber pot, a washtub for laundry

These jars also have been reported to haveserved as saggars prior to the r orh century.

cocos amarillosMexican expression for small hemisphericalbowls made in lead glazed modeLiteral meaning: yellow coconuts

cogederoHandle

cojita •Small molded box

These were rwo-piece, a base withlid. The rwo main varieties of boxes were a smallround top trunk shape and a rectangular base withflat lid. Both were typical of the 18th century.Synonym, in part: arqueta, caja

coladeroColander; filter

In pottery workrooms large utilitarian earth­enware vessels were used as colanders to aid inextraction of foreign materials from the clay dur­ing the initial processing.

Another filtering vessel was a small jar with aperforated clay disk at the throat. These wereused as an aid in clearing drinking water. Typicalof Spanish Muslim pottery, this form is still com­monly made in Moroccan country wares.Synonym: filtro, pasador, pila de colar

coloristaCeramic decorator

In the Spanish guild organization this group ofpersons filled in larger details ofdesign drafted bymore skilled artisans or drew small elements suchas letters, insignia, or flowers. In modern Spainand Mexico women now often do this work. In

times past, however, only men were so employed,as they still are in Muslim Morocco.colarar, colorear: to color

compendiaro (I talian)A decorative style using short brush strokes ona restricted amount of decoration in dark blue,orange-yellow, and occasionally manganesepurple-brown laid on a heavy white ground

It was developed by decorators at 16th centuryFaenza, who spread it widely as a result of theirmigrations to other countries.

The influence of the style appears possibly tohave reached Mexican rnaiolists by the late 16thcentury, bringing about a radical change in formand decoration from the copies of Sevillian waresmade in Mexico earlier in the century. Suchinfluence may have been transmitted via Sevillianceramics which were also reflecting similarchange, or it may have come in combination withtrade goods from Italy.

conejeraEarthenware rabbit hutch

This vessel, of uncertain shape, is known tohave been made as early as the 16th century andillustrates the great variety of uses to which pot­tery was put. Today there continues an importantproduction of similar vessels such as chickenfeeders, pigeon houses, and so on. However, in­expensive plastic containers are taking the placeof these wares.conejo: rabbit

conserveraDish to contain preserves or candied fruit

Such sweets always have been a part of Spanishdiet, particularly in temperate Andalusia wherefruit trees abound. Candied fruits and conserveswere among the foodstuffs sent out to the earlycolonies, and fruit trees of all kinds were quicklyintroduced from Spain and the Canary Islands.

In Spain it was not until the elaboration of r zrhcentury maiolica, caused in part by royal restric­tions against the use ofvessels ofprecious metals,that special forms in pottery were identified withthese particular items. Generally conserueras weremerely small shallow bowls elaborated with un­dulating rims and colorful decoration.

contornoArea berween the interior bottom of a bowl formand the rim; contourSynonym, in part: cavetto (Italian)

contrahecho 36 cuenca

contrabecboImitation, counterfeit

This term was used in old documents concern­ing pottery to describe imitations ofstyles, such asSevillian copies ofTalaveran or Chinese types. InMexico the word also was used for cobalt re­garded as of lower quality than that reserved forfine grade wares, or styles theoretically restrictedfor use on finegrades being drawn on lower gradewares.

Contrafet was the Valencian term for copiedstyles.

contrahecho azulIn this context in some Mexican records it prob­ably refers to a secondary meaning: humpbackedor deformed

At certain periods of Mexican productioncobalt designs clearly stand in relief, or impasto,above the glaze, hence are humpbacked.

Contrahecho azul also might indicate a weakblue possible to achieve by copper oxide, plusnative zinc contaminants, on a glaze with sodiumadditives such as the massicot used by Mexicanmaiolists which put alkali compounds into themixture. But this is by no means certain as suchblues are tinges of color rather than stable color­ants. Generally speaking, copper oxides produceshades of green on a lead glaze fired in oxidizingatmospheres. Most likely the reference is eitherto cobalts with more impurities than those pre­ferred for finer wares or to reduced (contraido)amounts of the mineral in the pigment base.

d:blet YA few cups made in Spain

have short stems, but this wasnot a common vogue. Nor was it in Mexico,where the limited number ofexamples known arethought to have been copies of Chinese models.The typical Mexican cup was a small handlelesscylinder without a stemmed base, also believedderived from Chinese sources.Diminutive: copilla, copitaAugmentative: copaza, copon

coperta (Italian)Colorless lead glaze

In Italy, prior to the glost firing, a transparentlead glaze was applied over maiolica surfaces.This added coating gave a depth and gloss to thesurface finish which is lacking in Spanishceramics.

crespinaMolded, fluted walled bowlLiteral meaning: hair cap

crisolCrucible

Mortar forms of heavy earthenware or metalwere employed in grinding small amounts offritted materials to be used in glaze prepara­tions.

cuadaleroMaster potterSynonym: maestro

cuadroPicture

Pictorial scenes executed on contiguous tilesbecame popular in rSth century Sevilla and haveremained so in Spain and Latin America. Often ofa religious nature, they also were figural or werelandscapes.

cuarteadoCrazed surfaceSynonym: agrietado accidental

cuarteleraLarge jug described as having a 9 cantarocapacity

cubiertoCovered; liddedcubrir: to cover

cuboVat; tank; pail

All these variations of the cubo were foundaround pottery work yards.

cuelloNeck of vessel

From the beginning of pottery making it hasbeen customary to describe vessel parts in termsof human anatomy. Hence such forms as bottles,flasks, or tinajas have a restricted zone above themain body called a neck. On exaggerated or ex­otic forms these frequently were fashioned sepa­rately and luted to the body.Synonym, in part: gollete

cuencaSpecialized type of mudejar tile

In Sevilla intaglio tile replaced the older cuerdaseca tile in popularity during the r yth century. Apattern was impressed on soft clay blanks whoseridges kept glazes separated during firing. Usuallycolors of glaze were amber, green, and brown.

cuenco 37 chinita

A few cuenca tile got to the Indies where theygenerally are found in pre-1540 contexts. Thecuenca was a style in process of being replaced atSevilla during the period of the American con­quests.Synonym: azulejo de arista; azulejo de labor (ascontrasted to azulejo de pintar)

cuenca •Large conical bowl

The cuenca bowl is one with awidely flaring mouth edged with a keeled rimand walls tapering to a heavy, narrow ring base.Perhaps originally copied after Chinese forms,it became a Spanish Muslim shape associatedwith special ceramics such as lusterware. Theconsiderable expanse of obverse, often 2 feet indiameter, provided a good field for elaboratedecoration. A notable example of such a cuenco isthe famous lusterware bowl in the Victoria andAlbert Museum, displaying a decoration of a Por­tuguese carrack and said to have been made inrath century Malaga.

After the reconquest of Spain from the Mus­lims,cuencas appear to have remained a part of theform repertoire of the Granada area, where moris­cos continued to ply the potter's trade until theirfinal expulsion in 1609, but it was not a shape tofind general favor elsewhere in Spain or in theNew World. It was a form, however, to be used invirtuosity pieces of extraordinary size and richdesign in Morocco. There it typically is describedas a vessel for the serving of couscous.

cuerda secaSpecialized Moorish ceramic decoration

Introduced during the Cordoban Caliphate butmore identified with rarh and r yth centurySevilla and Puente del Arzobispo, this techniqueinvolved the light engraving of a pattern on moistclay, the furrows then being filled with greasymaterial which burned out during firing but keptglaze motifs separate. The process was employedprincipally for decorating tile, but a few vesselsbearing such patterning are known. These aremostly small ornamental plates and albarelos. Bythe late r yrh century cuerda seca was outmodedand was being replaced by cuenca tile and smoothsurfaced polychrome hollow ware. Cuerda secaformerly was known as lozadePuente delArzobispothrough an incorrect attribution of the last cen­tury.Literal meaning: dry cord

cuerpoVessel body

cilindrico: cylindricalglobular: globularovoide: ovoid

Cuesta de Castillejo(also Castilleje de la Cuesta)Village in the province of Sevilla which suppliedlight colored pottery clay; also known as the townwhere Hernan Cortes died

I'(HII ~;::~':ood used for kiln fuelThe kilns of Sevilla and otherareas in southern Spain were firedwith the residue from the olive oil

extraction process and with pine, as well as brush,but all were called chamiza. Other fuels used inSpain were pine needles, furze, oak, cork,Spanish broom, thyme, almond shells, and grapevine shoots. Dried rosemary is said to have beenused in Manises kilns in firing lusterware. InMexico usual fuels were ocote, zacate, or brush ofvarious kinds. Some of these materials burnrapidly and therefore would have to be re­plenished constantly in order to maintain andincrease kiln temperatures.chamicero: one who sells chamiza

charolaMexican term for traySynonym, in part: bandeja, platon

cbineroCupboard or "china" cabinet used in Spain todisplay imported porcelain objects or other spe­cial pottery

chinitaMexican term for ground or shaped disks madefrom potsherds

chuiquiguite 38 desecho

In some regions of colonial Mexico such disks,shaped from porcelain or maiolica fragments,were used as coins. They also may have served asgaming pieces in a society which was fond ofgambling. The name is assumed to have stemmedfrom the use of porcelain sherds.

chuiquigiiiteMexican term for large willow basket used In

shipping pottery and other goods

II DII ~~?;as a luge earthenwarebottle, generally with a narrowneck and a wicker covering.

Synonym, in part: botella, frasco; redoma

damascadoDamask-like

Arabesque design motifs, of the sort used ondamasks, appear in Spanish decorative art, includ­ing ceramics, as a result of the diffusion ofMoorish concepts. Blue on blue Genoese pot­tery which was sold in Sevilla and exported tothe colonies also was notable for its use of ara­besques, or damascado.

damascene, damasqutnoPertaining to Damascus, taken from Italiandamaschino

In the literature of Spanish ceramics, this wordusually refers to zaire blue.

de cantoSaid of a vessel fired on edge, or vertically

Such a firing position induces warping, but wasnevertheless common for bisque firing. Verticalfiring was the usual custom for Manises luster­ware plates and continues typical in Moroccanworkshops.

decoraci6nDecoration

Spanish Muslim artists of all media were in-

reresred in surface modification or enrichment tothe point where underlying materials were almosttotally disguised. This convention extended toceramics and was expressed through elaboratestamping or relief ornamentation. It also wasshown in intricate painted patterns and, of course,in the use of metal oxides which made ceramicsappear like precious metals. Christian craftsmen,in contrast, preferred graphic over plastic decora­tion, as was shown by r yth through r yrh centuryceramics at Teruel, Paterna, and Manises. UnderItalian influence this inclination toward painteddecoration led to the rise of the various maiolicaindustries which characterized the 16th throughrBth centuries of the Spanish-tradition. They toobecame guilty of over decorating or using designwhich was not suited to clay vessels.

Ceramic decoration has provided a basis fordistinguishing regional modes. However, suchmodes diffused rapidly under proper conditions.During the three centuries when Europeanmaiolicas were at their zenith, the widespreadsharing of styles has made decoration a question­able attribute, when used alone, for identificationof ceramics.

decoradorDecorator; designer

Persons of this guild category were masterpainters who were responsible for decorating thefinest ceramics. It was largely their efforts thatmade identification of regional styles possible.Sometimes they were also capable potters butoften this was not the case.

desecboWaster

Around colonial workshops or kilns broken ordefective pottery accumulated rapidly because anestimated fifty percent of all pieces did not sur­vive the entire production cycle due to lack ofnecessary controls on all processes. It was sold forroad construction as at Talavera, carted off to aconvenient river such as the Guadalquivir atSevilla, placed over grave mounds as at Fez, orperhaps used as roofing for kilns, topping forwalls, or as drinking vessels for animals in thecompound corrals. Some wasters or seconds alsowere sold cut-rate for general use by the poor, asshown by property inventories which invariablyput a price on vessels described as malo,quebrado,inferior, or desecbo.

deshidratacion 39 drago

During the Spanish Civil War in the 1930s, afew churches in various parts of Spain regrettablywere destroyed or severely damaged, thus reveal­ing another use for great masses of wasters. Theyhad served as construction fill in the spaces leftberween the stone arch of a boveda, or vault, andthe flat roof or floor above. In some instancesthese reused sherds, as well as complete tinajas orjarros placed in the same fills, have provided theonly evidence for ceramic types formerly made atparticular localities. The practice probably wasvery widespread.

The year 1467 must have seen the constructionof the enormous cathedral of Sevilla nearing thepoint of closing the main vaults because recordsfor that year indicate the frequent gift or sale bylocal potters oflozaquebrada, broken pottery, andtinajas or jarros for that purpose. Other docu­ments record such gifts of many eargas, or wagon­loads, being made about 1498 and 1513-15 forside chapels. Since this building is one of theworld's largest churches, ranking near St. Peters,the amount of wasters required must have beenstaggering and perhaps partially explains why solittle pre-r yyo hollow ware is known from thecity. Much of it probably rests in the cathedralsuperstructure.

In the New World no such utilization forsherds has been noted, in part because of lack ofopportunity to examine inner construction ofchurch vaulting. The builders ofearly churches inthe Western Hemisphere also would not havehad these resources provided by such lengthyperiods of waster accumulation such as had pre­vailed at Sevilla and other pottery producingSpanish towns. However, similar secondary useof tinajas has been noted, such vessels havingcome to the New World by the thousands as wineand olive oil containers.

Archaeologists generally deal with loza que­brada which often forms the bulk of recoveredmaterials at a site. Such artifacts have the obviousadvantage of being in greater volume than com­plete vessels, easier to analyze by visual andphysio-chemical means, and representative ofutensils in common use. If they can be furtheridentified as desecbos at a kiln or workshop loca­tion, their importance is enhanced by affordingmore positive associations berween types andlocales of manufacture.deseehar: to discardSynonym, in part: desperdicio, loza quebrada

desbidratacionDehydration

At about 3000 C. the water which is part of themolecular structure of the clay begins to bedriven off in the form of steam, a process knownas water smoking. When 5000 C. is reached, astate of dehydration is achieved, after which theclay will no longer dissolve in water.

desperdicioMass of wastersSynonym, in part: desecbo, loza quebrada

dibujanteDraftsman

The draftsman in the ceramic craft was a deco­rator.dibujo: sketch or design

diezmoTax; tithe

Taxation almost strangled Spanish commercialenterprise during the Middle Ages and laterperiods. One such tax was the diezmo, which wasan assessment by the Crown of 10% on the sale ofall crops and manufactured goods, including pot­tery. This revenue went to support ecclesiasticalbodies. In Manises for three centuries a similartithe, or one tenth ofall pottery made, went to theBuyl family, overlords of the area, who ne­gotiated sales for themselves.

dtputadoGuild deputy

In Mexico the deputy and inspector wereelected by the master potters of the guild organi­zation for terms of one year.Synonym: alcalde

dompedr»Chamber potSynonym: bacin, beque, orinal, vasa de noehe

doradoGolden

This term refers to lusterware, a specialty of theMoorish potters of Malaga and the hybridcraftsmen of Manises. Its best periods were therarh and r yth centuries, though it continued tobe made into the rSth century.Synonym: reflejo metalico

dragoLadle used in Valencian area to remove moltenminerals from calcination kiln

40 encogimiento

I[F: I) tnbl shaft of me potter', wheelwhich connected the throwinghead with the kicking wheelSynonym: arbot

El SecanoThis wasan area near the Alhambra in Granada

where 16th century morisco potters worked, theirproducts in imitation of the old Moorishalicatados and contemporaneous Sevillian wares.The name came from the fact that the area wasvery dry because of the destruction of Islamicirrigation works during the Napoleonic battles ofthe early roth century.seco: dry

embarradoThis is taken to refer to a frequent Mexican

decoration utilized in the last half of the rSthcentury for some entrefino vessels which consistedof a random sprinkling of fine cobalt blue pig­ment, probably in dry state, on the interior bot­toms of cups and small bowlsembarrar: to splash or stain

emborronadaDotted decorative style

A method of decoration which characterizedmuch late r rth century blue on white Pueblamaiolica was composed of thickly applied dotsfilling most of the background. Typically in­terspersed in this dotting were rapidly executedrabbits or birds. The total effect was a densepatterning which has suggestions of some Ligu­rian work, in turn derived from Chinese sources.Some call this style mudejar. The heavy dotting,however, was characteristically Mexican.emborronar: to cover with blots

embudoFunnel

Such a form is listed in a 17th century inventoryof ceramics at Sevilla. No examples are known,

but they probably were earthenware, eitherglazed or unglazed, and considered expendible.

emplanilldValencian term for layer of vessels within a kiln

encaje de bolillosBobbin lace

Lace was a luxury item for which Sevilla andTalavera both were famous during Medievaltimes. Expectedly lace provided a source of inspi­ration there for decorators ofother media, includ­ing pottery. A number ofmaiolica vessels made inPortugal and Talavera during the 17th centuryexhibit such patterns; examples definitely iden­tified with Sevilla are not known as yet. Usuallythese designs formed a scalloped border to frameanother design or were used as parallel bandsencircling a pot. Most often lace was drawn inblack or dark blue over white or more rarelyyellow grounds.

The lace patterns were adopted by contempo­rary Mexican maiolists who preferred to indicategimp lines in bright blue, or occasionally in greenor yellow, with lesser webbing in black and inter­secting knots emphasized by black dots. Whitegrounds were traditional, but a few examples ofyellow grounds are known which may be prod­ucts of some later maverick artisan. Lace patternswere utilized as borders as in Spain, or they com­prised all-over patterns covering the entire ob­verse. They were reserved for fine and middlingfine grades of ware.

encogimientoShrinkage

The volume of vessels decreases in drying andin both firings as moisture escapes from the clay.Generally speaking, the more plastic the clay, themore the degree of shrinkage. From 15 to 20%

shrinkage is expected in most clay bodies. A claywith a high rate of shrinkage, such as marly clay,was desired by Renaissance maiolists so thatstress between cooling clay and cooling glazewould be reduced and crazing defects minimized.

The amount of shrinkage was one aspect ofproduction learned by the potter only throughexperience, but it was an important bit of knowl­edge for him to gain so that his judgment ofsizeoftiles needed to fit a prescribed space or lids tosecure a jar, for example, would be correct.meoger: to shrink, contract

enfriamiento 41 escudilla

enfriamientoPost-firing cooling period prior to unloading akiln

This period was a necessary precaution in orderto prevent cracking of vessels as a result of ther­mal shock, particularly important after glazefirings. Most kilns fired to temperatures suitablefor maturing earthenware and lead glazes re­quired at least a day to cool down.enfriar: to cool, chillSynonym: caldas pasadas

en fundaTo fire vessels within a saggar

engalbaEngobe

This is a potter's term for a solution, or slip, offine clay, silica, flux, and occasionally colorants,which was brushed over leather hard vessels asdecoration or in order to create a smooth surfaceor one of contrasting color.

Engobe decoration in a dark color over a lighterbody, sometimes incised to reveal the body color,was typical of Cordoban Caliphate and taifawares, such styling also being typical of potterymade contemporaneously in Morocco.

As glazes became more common in Spain dur­ing later Muslim dynasties, the use of engobeceased. Slipping under maiolica glaze, thoughsuch a method would have allowed use of a solu­tion containing less tin, was not practiced com­monly either in Spain or the Americas.

ensaladeraSalad bowl

This is a modern descriptive word referring tosmall bowls of diverse contours. Salads were notcustomary foods during the ages in question.ensalada: salad

en sueltoTo fire in the open, or without use of saggars

entrefinoMiddling fine

A grade of Mexican maiolica ranked betweenthe fine grade and the common grade was calledentrefino. It was made by the same potters whoproduced fine wares, was decorated with the sameglazes and pigments, but was not painted in aselaborate patterns as those on fine pieces. En­trefino grades appear to have been the tableware,and as such were made in large lots without theuse of saggars.

Entrefino maiolica is the usual variety found inarchaeological situations, particularly in frontierlocations.

entrelazadoThe entrelazado custom was one of interspers­

ing glazed tiles among unglazed brick or tileBegun on a few Almohade towers of the r arh

century, in Spain the technique carried throughthe centuries as a method of enrichment forfloors.

The mode achieved new emphasis in the envi­rons ofPuebla with interspersion of brick facadesby brilliant tiles. The use of scattered tiles in floorsurfaces with terra cotta tiles also continued inthe New World.entrelazar: to interweave

en vasaGroup of vessels sold as a unit

Fancy decorated vessels were priced individu­ally, but common pieces or sometimes those ofsmall size were sold in a group. In Sevilla, forexample, inventories list botijos in sets of six oreight, tazas in sets of eight, alcuzas in sets of six,and so on.

escalddBisqued pottery at ManisesSynonym: bizcocho, juaguete, socarrat

escobetaSmall brush

Bisqued vessels often lay in stacks of jumbledpiles around a workshop waiting until some latertime to be finished. Before being submerged intothe vats of liquid glaze, it was necessary to cleanthem with an escobeta dipped in water so that anydust particles, chicken droppings, grime, and thelike would not cause the glaze to crawl.

escotaduraOpening on side of a barber's bowlescotar: to cut or shape

escudillaVariously defined as wide bowl, •large coffee cup, or small bowl withfluted or straight rims and lug handles

The latter version was among the first forms tohave been sent to the Indies where it appears tohave been low grade individual serving bowls orporringers. However, a number of small lughandled escudillas made at Manises and Barcelonaand decorated in luster pigments shows that the

escudilla doble 42 esmalte

form likewise was produced in finer gradeceramics.Synonym, in part: escudelle (Valencian vernacular),taza

escudilla dobleLarge lidded bowI

A typical Muslim form was composed of twobowls, one a conical base and the other a conicallid. The lid had a round projecting knob. Thesame form continued into Christian work. It hasbeen described as a baptismal font or a souptureen.Synonym, in part: pi/a bautismal, sopero

escudoEscutcheon

Large maiolica, lead glazed, or cuerda seca tilesin shield shape bearing family crests, which be­came common in Spain in the late Middle Ages,adorned the exteriors of private and publicpalaces. Inasmuch as no underglaze red pigmentwas known, areas requiring heraldic gules wereleft unglazed and were painted after firing withvermillion. This substance weathered off in time,leaving bisqued areas exposed. Often also an ironproduced ochre color was substituted for red, thispigment withstanding firing.

Escudos were used as a painted design onceramics dating from the Nasrid period, wherethey frequently appeared on lusterware. The useof escudos carried into Manises Iusterware fromPaterna polychrome, the insignias being those ofpurchasers and thus indirectly providing histo­rians with a means of dating specimens and trac­ing commercial routes. Heraldic shields andcartouches were important decorative elementson r rrh and rSth century Spanishalbarelos, wherethey usually were those of the, religious orderwhich operated the hospital or pharmacy wherethe jars were in use. The cardinal's hat with sus­pended tassels was a favorite device, a popularitypossibly now exaggerated by the preservation ofalarge number ofvessels which had been the prop­erty of ecclesiastical groups.

Mexican maiolica evolved in a somewhat moredemocratic environment where escudos were notas common as in Spain and where there wereproportionately fewer religious establishments.Insignia do appear but with less frequency. It wasconsidered more suitable for wealthy persons toorder their crests on Chinese porcelain. Afterindependence, cartouches often contained na­tional heroes within a bannered frame.

escupideraSpittoon; urinal

These were round bodied, wide mouthed jarsof plain white maiolica, perhaps copied from En­glish vessels used for the same purpose. Nowa­days in Spain they sometimes are called "waters."

esfumarTo tone down colors

Shading of decorative colors was practiced bySpanish ceramic designers, principally at Tala­vera, in imitation of Italian methods. Effects ofdistance and perspective for their pictorial rendi­tions were achieved by this means. Combinationsof green and yellow produced softer tones forbackgrounds, with other blends affording a widerchromatic spectrum.

Shading was not practiced widely by Mexicanmaiolists, although there were two gradations ofblue used throughout the rSth century.esgrafiadaIncised

A very typical Muslim style of ceramic decora­tion consisted of cutting lines through a dark slipto reveal the lighter body color, the entire surfaceoften being covered with a transparent lead glaze.Occasionally blotches of amber and green color­ants were dabbed over the incised pattern beforeglazing. Common throughout Moorish periods,incising ceased to be a usual technique of Chris­tian Spain.

However, incising did evolve as a major style inparts ofItaly. Perhaps as a result of influence fromthat source, one incised type developed in colo­nial Mexico. It was made from a red-firing pastecovered in part with white slip through whichwere executed simple floral or geometric patternslater irregularly splotched with yellow and greenand covered on decorated surfaces with a clearlead glaze. In early 19th century types made atGuanajuato incising was combined with poly­chromes on mezza-maiolica.

esmalteGlaze

Glaze is a thin glassy coat, or silicate mixture,fired on surfaces of vessels. It provides an attrac­tive, usually lustrous, surface, and makes vesselwalls impermeable.

Lead glaze, invented several thousand yearsago in the Near East, composed oflead oxides orgalena crushed with pulverized quartz sand andsome clay, was typical of Islamic ceramics in Spainbeginning about the loth century. At first used

especiero 43 estario

only to create designs on an otherwise untreatedbackground, glaze gradually began to cover entirevessels. Beside the advantage of maturing at lowtemperatures, lead mixtures offered a shinytransparent coating which appears colored due tothe hue of the clay body. The addition of copperoxide to the solution caused a green coloredglaze, iron oxide or manganese an amber coloredone, both being strong fluxes. Lead likewise is anactive flux which melts between 32SO C. and S10°c., and so lead glazes were a coating more suitablefor impressed or relief decoration, both of whichwere practiced by Moorish artisans in Spain.

At some point it was realized that lead waspoisonous, especially if used to cover vesselswhich might contain fruit juices. The acid of thejuices were apt to attack the glaze and slightlysoften it, allowing lead to penetrate the liquid. Toreduce the danger of such lead poisoning, a pro­cess of fritting was developed whereby prelimi­nary calcination and melting of lead with otheroxides, rapid cooling and repeated pulverizationsof the residue made it nontoxic.

Lead glaze continued to be applied to utilityvessels needing to be impervious to liquids, butafter the rzrh century finer vessels were treateddifferently. The addition of tin oxide to the glazesolutions made for an opaque, white, and morestable background appropriate for painted decora­tion. This was the maiolica method begun inSpain by the 12th century and continued as thedominant decorated pottery style through therSth century.

Lead and tin glazes came to America withSpanish-tradition ceramics. The former wasadopted shortly after Cortes's triumph by Aztecsin the immediate vicinity of their fallen capitalwho covered some of their usual tripod formswith the new glaze.

The word enamel appears incorrectly in En­glish descriptive ceramic literature as a synonymfor glaze. However, enamels are overglaze colorsformed from combinations of glaze and mineraloxides. Because they are compositions which willnot withstand a high temperature, most red pig­ments for example, they are painted over a firedglaze ground. The vessel is then returned to amuffle kiln for a third firing at a lower tempera­ture. It should be noted that the Spanish languagedoes not make this distinction between glaze andenamel, the word for both being esmalte.esmaltar: to glazeSynonym, in part: alarca, barniz, brillo

especieroSpice box or tray

The East Indies trade of Spain's neighbors orsister empire members, mainly Italy, Portugal,and the Low Countries, brought the addition ofmany exotic condiments to the diets of theSpanish elite. In the rSrh century spice trays forservice of these delicacies were made in maiolica.In both Spain and rSth century Mexico mold­made flatware outfitted with attached ceramicrings, or galleries, to steady small bowls or jarscomprised a spice service.

esponjadoSponged

This was a kind of decoration achieved by dip­ping a sponge into pigment and then dabbing itover a glazed, but unfired, vessel surface to pro­duce manchas , or splotches. In firing, the pigmentfused into the glaze. Another way to producesimilar results was to randomly flip or splatterpigment from a heavily charged brush on to thevessel surface. These methods were employed atTalavera in the last of the 16th century, perhaps atthe suggestion of Jeronimo Montero from Se­villa, as a means ofobtaining a blue ground such aswas then popular in Ligurian and ocher Italianpotteries. Most of the known vessels with thistype of surface treatment seem to have beenmade for the royal pharmacy at the Escorial.esponja: sponge

estampadoStamped

Stamped designs were common in late Islamicperiods in Spain, particularly on large mouths offountains and baptismal fonts. Surface manipula­tion of this sort was not typical of Spanish Chris­tian workmanship, nor did it become commonin the Spanish colonies.Synonym: impronta

estaiioTin

Ten to 20% tin oxide to lead is usually consi­dered necessary for opacity, although as little asS% may be satisfactory under certain conditions.Delft maiolists used equal amounts oflead and tinin their better products. The amounts used inSpanish-tradition maiolica production variesaccording to the place of manufacture and thequality of pottery being made, the finest oftenhaving up to 2S% tin to lead.

The Phoenicians and Romans placered tin

estario 44 estario

from gravels in Galicia and Portugal. However,foreign tin was needed by Spanish potters by theMiddle Ages. It became a valuable item of tradefor Italian merchants who sailed out of theMediterranean up to England and Flanders onlong expeditions, using Sevilla as a main way sta­tion. The stanneries of Cornwall made South­hampton their shipping outlet, where the TinHouse traded the mineral necessary for bronze,stanniferous glazes, and other uses to these Ital­ians, who sold it in Sevilla, Barcelona, or Italianports on their return voyages. It was called "Flan­ders tin" in Italy, but it actually came from En­gland though often overland via Flanders. Onoccasion the blocks of English tin, each weighingabout 180 pounds, were taken to Majorca, wherethey were made into rods, bound together with atie rod, and then were sold in that form.

Tin was one of the first minerals sought inMexico by Cortes's men as a principal ingredientfor the manufacture of bronze cannons. Accord­ing to the Fourth Letter from Cortes to Charles V,by 1524 tin, in the form of cassiterite or tinbioxide, was being mined at diggings called Soca­von del Rio in Guerrero not far from Taxco. TheSpaniards were drawn to that place by the fact thatthe local Indians had sent tin from there as tributeto the Aztecs, had sold it in the great market atTlalteloco, and themselves had made use of thinsheets of the metal as a form of currency. By theend of the 16th century placer operations in theregions up the dry central corridor to the north ofMexico City and small veins found north of Chil­pancingo and at Ixmiquilpan yielded tin. At theinitiation of the rorh century Humboldt notedthat tin was being exported from Mexico to Spainand to other parts of the Americas. It is alsoknown that the making of bronze had becomeimportant in colonial Mexico, fine cannons, bells,grilles, railings, and works of art such as theequestrian statue of Charles IV by Tolsa attestingto this. At the same time, however, tin plate, hojasdelata, was being imported from Spain. Interest­ing also, for the story of Mexican maiolica, is thattin is now found in the state ofPuebla near Tetela.Whether it might have been known from there inthe colonial period is an intriguing, but as yetunanswered, question.

The Viceroyalty of Peru sat over one of theworld's largest tin reserves, with some deposits atthe surface and others hundreds of feet beneaththe ground. Prehispanic occupants of the

Carabusco region had placered tin, which led theSpaniards to do likewise to gain raw material forbronze cannons. Bernabe Cobo, a priest living inPeru during the first half of the r rrh century,wrote there was only one tin mine there at thattime which was located in the province ofCaracollo. Later writers speak of r rrh century tinmining at Chayanta in the province of Charcas, atCollquiri, and at San Bernardo. Peruvian tin usu­allywas found as a fine sand mixed with silver, butit also occurred in more solid form associatedwith silver ore deposits, such as those of Potosi.Tin was not regarded by colonial Spaniards asvaluable, at least in comparison with gold andsilver, and often it was used in Peru as fill forcrevices in the soil. Only at the end of the lastcentury did Bolivian tin deposits assume greatcommercial significance.

Cobo also noted that native tin was unknown inNueva Espana and was imported there fromPeru. He was wrong on the first point and mayhave been wrong on the second, though anotherauthor at the end of the 17th century mentionedtin from Peru passing through Nueva Espana en­route to Spain. This seems unlikely, the moredirect and authorized route across Panama havingbeen the usual path from the southern viceroyaltyto Iberia. In view of the recurrent bans uponlegitimate trade between the viceroyalties, as wellas extremely difficult sailing conditions whenmoving north from Peru to Mexico along theAmerican west coasts due to calms, winds, andcurrents which drove ships on to land, it would bemore reasonable to assume sufficient quantitiesof tin having been found locally in Mexico.Nevertheless, there is one known document,dated in the mid r rrh century, which tells ofboxes of Puebla pottery being sold to a militaryofficer in Peru in return for cash and 900 poundsof tin. After 1774, when maiolica production atPuebla was rapidly drifting toward a state of de­cline, shipments of tin and other products of Peruwere permitted. Even so, the quantities of Boli­vian tin reaching Mexico are unknown.

The maiolica made at Panama Viejo generallyhas a glaze which appears to have a satisfactory tincontent in keeping with Sevillian standards. Thisprobably reflects Panama's position on the com­mercial route from Peru back to Spain. On theother hand, the maiolica made at Santiago de losCaballeros in Guatemala generally has a glazewith a very low tin content. This probably re-

45estany

sulted from Guatemala's isolated geographical 10­cation far from the source of supply in centralMexico, with connecting roads frequently im­passable.bamiz estaiiifero: tin glaze

estanyValencian term for plastered walls on which ballsof moist clay were slapped and left overnight tofirm

estarcidoStencil

Stencils were used to form outlines of motifs tobe repeated often, as in making tile. A heavilycharged brush drawn over a stencil openingwould leave a colored pattern against a back­ground which might or might not have beenglazed. Large or complicated designs most oftenwere drawn with the aid of pounced patternsrather than with stencils.

estiloStyle

In ceramics a style is considered a characteristicmode of expression using a combination of ele­ments or shapes repeated so often as to becomeidentifiable as a unit.estilizada: stylized

estiraoraIn Valencia a wooden cylinder used to pound airbubbles from clay during wedging

estriboPlace on the frame of a potter's wheel where theartisan's left foot rested during throwingSynonym: estrel (Valencian vernacular)Literal meaning: stirrup

[lJ][[]fdbricaFactory; workshop

In the Hispanic world suchworkshops were within housecompounds. The living quarters of

the artisan, his family, and his apprentices were

ferroneries

located at the street entrance; work rooms laybehind. If it were a pottery, there would havebeen space for potters at work on several wheels,as well as several decorators. And there wouldhave been drying sheds, clay pits, calcination andvessel kilns, and assorted piles of paraphernalia,fuel, wasters, and packing materials sharing spacewith corrals for animals, a well, trash, and a toilet.

Most of the fdbrica houses in Sevilla-Trianawere Church owned and rented to potters, al­though buying and selling of such homes by thepotters themselves did occur. In Puebla theknown archives do not indicate ownership ofpot­tery buildings by the Church. Most potteriesthere appear to have been clustered near theSanto Domingo parish church but were privatelyowned.

fajaBanded decoration

A simple encircling straight or pinnate band ofcolor, usually blue, green, or yellow, used at rimline of entrefino wares made in the last third of therSth century at Puebla and Mexico City is indi­cated in inventories by this term.

Banded designs of more elaborate combina­tions of motifs also are calledfaja. Such a layoutbecame common as a result of interest in Chinesedesign. Rim areas in such bands usually weredecorated with a series of repeated encirclingelements unlike those used in central patterns.

FajalauzaThis barrio of Granada became the potters'

quarter. Nearby an ancient gate known in Muslimtimes as the Bab-al-fajjarim, in Christian periodswas known as the Puerta de los Alfareros. Thealbaicin, a hilly sector outside the gate, alsohoused r yth and 16th century potters, the de­scendants of whom still carry on the old craftusing many inherited methods including the pitwheel. They are especially known for maiolicawith blue, green, and purple-brown motifs offronds, flowers, birds, and pomegranates, boththe colors and styles dating back to the 16thcentury.

faldaFly wheel at base of potter's wheelLiteral meaning: skirt

ferroneries (French)A ceramic design introduced to Castile in the last

Fez 46 figuras

third of the 16th century from Flanders by potterswho moved into Talavera and set up shops

Specifically, it was a broad lined strapwork pat­tern surrounding a crest, similar to Flemish metalwork. At Talaveraftrroneries usually ornamentedbulbous pharmacy jars. It is a style not known tohave been copied at Sevilla.ferreo: ironftrron: ironworker

FezFez has always been the artistic and cultural

capital of Morocco. Inasmuch as beginning in theorh century Spanish Muslims continually movedin and out of this area, a close similarity of someart styles emerged, which was especially evidentduring the r yth through r srh centuries whenMarinid rulers, who made Fez their capital, hadpolitical and religious contact with the kingdomofGranada. After the fall of the N asrids and againafter the final expulsion of the Spanish moriscos in1609-12, Fez absorbed Andalusian refugees.

No archaeology has been conducted at Fez, butfrom surviving museum collections, it appearsthat for a number of centuries the ceramics ofMorocco and the ceramics of Spain ran parallelroutes of development. Only at Fez was there asubstantial Moroccan maiolica industry, althoughlead and unglazed types presumably were madeelsewhere, and an offshoot maiolica activity wasshort-lived at Meknes. There is no evidence atpresent that lusterware was made at Fez, butforms and other modes of decoration of hollowware and alicatados were nearly identical to con­temporary Spanish examples. One minor point ofinterest at Fez is the continued use, until the lastcentury, of a balanced radial pattern known as apomegranate motif, granada being the name ofthat fruit and post r yrh century Granadine warebearing modifications of the same element.Another is the close similarity of a small collec­tion of sherds from Medina Sidonia in Andalusiato another collection from Sijilmassa, a vast sub­Saharan ruin in Morocco which was once thecaravanserai for sultans residing at Meknes, just30 miles from Fez.

After the r yrh century, Morocco became in­creasingly isolated from the impact of Mediterra­nean culture despite waging largescale piracyalong her northern shores. Her modes ofceramicdecoration froze into repetitious geometric styli­zations, in contrast to the constant changes taking

place in Spanish ceramics under the impetus ofthe Italian Renaissance.

figurasFigural representations

Even though representational art was forbid­den to Islamic craftsmen at various times, animaland human figures were used frequently on ivory,wooden, textile, and ceramic objects made bySpanish Muslims. Some of these motifs seem tohave been borrowed by Nasrid ceramic deco­rators from their Christian neighbors, but othersderived from the Near East. These were incorpo­rated with more usual geometric and calligraphicelements to embellish lusterware vessels.

The use of animal and human forms was moreobviously enjoyed by Old Christian and moriscopotters of r j th through 15 th century Teruel andPaterna and was continued in the later lusterwareenterprises at Manises. The animals were bothreal and fancied, purely ornamental or with sym­bolic implications. Long eared rabbits, rampantlions, wide eyed fish, sharp beaked crows,chimeric beasts, and griffins bounded across ordominated decorative fields. Human figuresdrawn in stiff frontal views likewise graced vesselsurfaces, their costumes of high crowned veiledheaddresses or full puffed trousers identifyingthem as from a Medieval horizon.

As the Middle Ages waned and ItalianateRenaissance influenced maiolicas became theprincipal decorated types, a noticeable changeoccurred in kinds of animals depicted and in at­titudes and dress of human figures portrayed.Rampant lions were relegated to escutcheons,griffins were abandoned, and most animals wereless exotic. Crows, rabbits, fish, and gazelles re­mained part of the artists' grammar, but morefrequent were the horses, bulls, and dogs as­sociated with hunting and bullfighting. Peoplewere drawn in bust profiles a fa romano but oftenappeared as full figures actively engaged in somesport, or on Caraluiia rajoles , performing workdaytasks. Details of costumes and hair arrangementswere accurately indicated.

The use of figural decoration was introducedon Mexican maiolica of the last half of the rorhcentury with boldly brushed rabbits and birdsvery reminiscent of contemporary Spanish ex­amples. In the r rth century further use ofanimalsemerged with dogs, eagles, and ponies typicallydefined in black or brown and filled with multi­colored dots. Under Chinese influence in the late

47flamenquilla

r7th and first half of the r8th centuries, Ming­type spotted deer with mouths full of fungusbranches, swooping long tailed birds, and longlegged cranes joined the complex of animalmotifs. Particularly on tiles the racial heteroge­neity ofMexico was reproduced with a delightfulparade of human figures which, because of acommon Mongoloid background of some strains,could only be distinguished by an identifiable setof props, such as hair in queues and umbrellas forChinese figures or nude upper torsos and flatbaskets carried on the head for Indians. Longhaired priests in brown robes; ladies wearing bus­tled skirts and ruffled sleeves; officials sportingcurled wigs, large plumed hats, and stuffed kneebreeches; or Negro servants in waistcoats, longhose, and buckled shoes permit an intimate viewof Mexican colonial life. The actual detailing ofcostumes was suggestive rather than exact.

Figures of animals executed in the Sevillian­Talaveran colors and style of animation appearedon Guatemalan maiolica of the r7th and r8thcenturies. No animals drawn from the Chinesevocabulary and no human figures from any sourceseem to have been used. Sun faces did enjoy aspecial popularity.

Panamanian maiolists seem not to have usedeither animal or human figures. Their designswere restricted to floral and geometrical styliza­tions, another clue to possible Granadine connec­tions.

flamenquillaSmall platterSynonym, in part: bandeja, platon

flor de patataDesign motif

The potato flower motif, which became verypopular at Talavera in the last part of the r 7thcentury and the first of the r8th century, exhib­ited a curved stem line off which were alternat­ing petals and an occasional roundish flower.Most frequently it was drawn in polychrome col­ors and was used incorporated into or aroundlandscape or figural scenes.

A very similar flor de patata vogue began toappear on Mexican maiolicas of the same periodbut usually in blue on a white background, andwith dense application which dominated, orframed, other motifs used on the same vessel.At times the motif deteriorated into heavylozenge-shaped dotting.

forn de cremar

floreroFlowerpot

The Arab love of flowers was at least matchedby Aztec love of flowers. So expectedly a largenumber of vessel shapes, derived from a basiccylinder, were identified in Spain and in NuevaEspana as having been made especially for flow­ers, which were abundant in temperate sectors ofboth lands. Quite possibly other ceramic formswere put to similar use.Synonym, in part: maceta, ramilletero, vaso

Flores, JuanThis man, as a master tiler for Philip II, was a

Flemish artisan who is credited with the introduc­tion of Italian Renaissance styling to Talaveranpotteries in the middle of the r6th century. Pos­sibly vessels with Flemish strapwork executed inblue and bright yellow, the ferroneries, knownfrom Talavera during the last third of the centurywere either his work or made under hisguidance.

flotaFleets of trading ships sailing between Sevilla orCadiz and Spanish America

Convoy sailings across the Atlantic were or­dered early in the colonial period because of pi­racy by other Europeans. Two fleets a year wereauthorized, under ideal conditions the one boundfor Nueva Espana departed Cadiz in May and theone for Tierra Firme left in August. These twoflotas joined late in the fall for departure fromCuba on the return voyage. Because ofCaribbeanhurricanes, treacherous reefs, piracy, and un­trained seamen, few flotas made both legs of thevoyage without loss of ships and lives. However,these disasters have provided underwater ar­chaeologists working off American shores withmany interesting artifacts, including pottery.

fondaUnderside or interior bottom of a vessel;background color of glaze or field to be decorated

loguerIn Valencia, a small cylinder, usually glazed inwhite, in which to burn incense or to use as awarmer for a beverage pot

lorn de cremarCatalonian term for a calcination oven

Such an oven was used for the preparation ofmetals used in glaze formulation. In Barcelona itis reported that after the initial heating in theoven, the metals were taken to a public mill for

Fortuny tile 48 ga1linero

grinding rather than being hand ground in a cru­cible.

Fortuny tileThis is a large r jth century N asrid architectural

panel, used as a door jamb or plaque, found in ahouse in Granada. It represents one of the finestexamples ofSpanish Islamic expert craftsmanshipin ceramics. Its polychromed design containsNasrid crests, alabanzas to Yusuf III (ruler ofGranada 1408- I 7), and elaborate floral imbrica­tions.

frascoFlask; vial

A bottle in form, the flask generally is of smallsize and may have been either thrown or mold­made.Synonym, in part: botella, damajuana, redoma

frisoFrieze; wainscoting

fritaFrit

A frit is a ceramic composition fused and granu­lated which renders any soluble or toxic compo­nents insoluble and nontoxic by causing them tocombine with silica or oxides. Frits are necessaryin the preparation oflead fluxed glazes in order tomake them safe for use.

front»Back wall of fuel chamber in Valencian kiln

fruteroFruit dish or plate

No specific shape is consistently identified withthis term, though some writers use the word todescribe a hemispherical handled bowl on a tallpedestal supporting base. Fruit baskets filled withartificial fruits were popular table centerpieces inrich rSrh century dining rooms. It is likely somesort of fancy container in pottery intended for asimilar purpose is meant.

fuenteVariously defined asbaptismal font, platter,fountain, serving bowl

Many types of foun­tains grace all areaswhere ceramics of the Spanish-tradition weremade, the enjoyment and sensual use of waterhaving been an enduring legacy from the Arabicpast. Moorish interpretations were usually a small

jet ofwater spilling into a ground level tiled catchbasin. Spanish artisans raised the outlets throughtubular pedestal shafts to empty into largeceramic bowls which overflowed and dripped intotiled or ceramic basins. Another fountain varia­tion, which may have been borrowed from theItalians, was a large flattened mask or human facemeant to be affixed to a wall through whose roundopen mouth water was emitted to fall into a lowerchamber. The same mask, or mascaron, appears inlow relief surrounding the opening in agua­maniles.

In the New World the mask type fountain en­joyed a special popularity with colonial Guate­malan maiolists. More common is the pedestalfountain flowing into tiled pools.

fundenteFlux

A flux is a substance added to a glaze solution tolower the temperature at which melting occurs.Lead oxides, such as litharge or red lead, or al­kaline compounds, such as borax or soda ash,usually serve as fluxes for pottery fired to lowtemperatures. All these materials were employedin the maiolica industries of Mexico and probablythose of Spain as well.

~gabelaMold used in forming bricks

The same term is used in parts ofG Larin America for the form utilizedto make adobes (unfired bricks).

Synonym: ladrilleria

gallineroEarthenware chicken housegallina: hen

49gallipot

gallipotEnglish drug jar

This word is said to have originated about 1465in England to describe ceramic drug jars broughtthere on Spanish galleons. The jar in questionappears to be a round bodied version called anorza in Spain.

Galleyware was the first English term formaiolica.

garbellValencian term for perforated floor betweenupper and lower chambers of pottery kiln

garrafaCarafeSynonym: botella,frasco, redoma

gerrerCatalan term for makers of tinajas

GiraldaAlmohade tower, now serving as the Sevillacathedral tower

A landmark of Sevilla constructed in the rzrhcentury (1176-96) by one of the Berber dynas­ties from Morocco who also built a similarminaret at their southern capital of Marrakesh, itsoutline was said to have been used as a mark onpottery made in Sevilla during the r yth century.Probably because of lack of excavated materialsof this period, no such ceramic marks are knownat present. However, the potters' patron saints,Justa and Rufina, have been illustrated by Zurba­ran and others standing with their pots before theGiralda. Such a stamped Giralda mark might havebeen inspired by Genoese use of their harborlighthouse silhouette for the same purpose.

gplleteVessel neck

grabaduraEngraving

Engravings of human figures set against land­scapes which circulated in Europe in the wake ofthe Renaissance provided many themes forTalaveran decorators. They were used for princi­pal interest on a number of decorative modes­the punteada, the blue-orange-purple poly­chromes, and the polychromes of the r rth andrSth centuries dominated by yellows and greens.In the first two earlier styles only isolated figuresfrom the engravings were copied. As decoratorsbecame more accomplished, complete scenes

gremio

were rendered on later polychrome vessels. Theworks of Jan van der Straert, Tempesta, Cort,Claesz, and other European engravers served asmodels.

gradal, great, grealietValencian term for goblet

The etymologic similarity to the Holy Grail isobvious. According to Medieval legends, theHoly Grail was the wine cup from which Christdrank at the Last Supper. It was an object forwhich many knights diligently searched duringthe Middle Ages, particularly in England.

gremioGuild

Because Barcelona looked to France during theMiddle Ages and early developed a mercantileattitude, over two hundred craft guilds similar toothers in central Europe came to play an impor­tant role in local government. A potter from theceramics guild at one time held a seat on theayuntamiento council. Guilds had not evolved inCastile, however, and in fact the Crown opposedthem. This position was reversed once Ferdinandthe Catholic assumed the throne because of hisdetermination to develop the industrial economyof Castile. In 1470 Sevilla, along with the mer­chant cities to the north, was authorized to grantguild ordinances. The interest in such brother­hoods increased further after the Inquisitionbegan to drive Jewish and converso artisans fromthe country, causing severe disruptions in trade.Although a date for the organization in Sevillaof a potters' guild is not known, it likely occurredsome time in the decade of the 1480s. A similarguild probably was operating in Talavera by themid 16th century, after pottery making there be­came commercially important.

Guild corporations were established for thelowliest workers in Castile from tanners and ma­sons to the most gifted painters who worked forthe Court. Carpenters had special considerationin this religiously oriented culture inasmuch asChrist had participated in that trade. After metalspoured in from the Americas, silver and gold­smiths comprised another powerful group. Eventhough pottery came to be appreciated by no­bility and commoners alike, there is no indicationthat potters' guilds had much status nor that anymember had a voice in local government.

Undoubtedly potters were organized alonghierarchial lines established for all crafts. There

greta so hachurado

were special rules setting not only the allowableprogression through the levels within the guild,standards of workmanship, and particular kindsof ceramics which could be made and by whom,but they regulated such seemingly irrelevant as­pects of life as dress and social behavior, all of thisoccurring in Spain at the very time when the restof Europe was beginning to break away from therestrictions imposed by the guild system. No pot­ter, for example, could wear silks or ride in acarriage through the city streets. Potters, like allmanual laborers, had to wear brown coarse shorttunics, soft soled shoes or laced sandals, and abrimless hat. No attempt on the part of the work­ing classes to emulate the hidalguia would betolerated, and there was an inspector who wouldsee to that. Nor was the guild to be open toanyone but Old Christians-no conoersos, nomoriscos. As a group, the guild had to meet certainreligious, military, and social requirements. Anumber of Sevillian potters saw service in thebattles against Granada, but it is not knownwhether this was a natural result of Andalusianinvolvement in the Crusade or because of guildobligations. It is known that a co/radia in the nameof Santas Justa and Rufina was established whichcommitted the potter members to make tithepayments to the Santa Ana parish church ofTriana, to provide for orphans, widows, or needymembers of the fraternity, and on Corpus Christiday parade with costumes and banners throughthe streets.

When the Spanish pottery making traditionwas transferred to America, the guild organiza­tion also went overseas though probably not untila sufficiently large number of potters were ac­tively at work. Potters' guilds were in operation inLima by the end of the 16th century. The earliestknown records for a Mexican potters' guild, forloceros at Parzcuaro, are dated 1583. In neithercase was the making of maiolica involved, not­withstanding that references to loza vidriada arenoted. Organizations to protect and promote tinglazed as well as ordinary wares were in effect inPuebla and Mexico City in the second half of therrth century. Men of the Puebla guild served inthe local militia, and Puebla and Mexico Citymembers belonged to theco/radia ofSantasJustaand Rufina. In theory guilds excluded non­Spaniards, but circumstances of life in the colonyforced amendments of such ordinances to permitthe participation of mixed bloods.

The guild as an institution was a valuable means

of establishing and maintaining standards of op­eration, controlling abuses of trade and prices,assessing taxes, and giving members an oppor­tunity to be a part of the civic life of the com­munity, as well as offering them the security ofnoncompetitive status. But it also stifled indi­vidual enterprise and probably was an importantfactor in short circuiting the industrialization ofSpain. When a regulated way of life disappearedunder stresses of the rSth century, so did theguild. Even though virtually defunct, Mexicanguilds were formally outlawed by the Juarez re­gime in the middle roth century.

gretaMexican term for an oxide of impure lead, orlitharge

This mineral oxide was included in the formu­lation of orange and yellow decorative pigmentsused on maiolica. It was obtained from near thevillage of Ixmiquilpan, 75 miles east of Quere­taro.

grietaCrack or flaw

In ceramics such defects can occur at anyone ofthe various stages of production as a result of toorapid irregular drying, firing while still too wet,exposing to drafts while hot, among other things.

gruesaGross unit of measurement

In colonial period documents, pottery wasoften inventoried by the gross, or lots of 12

dozen.en grueso: wholesale

guacalMexican term for a portable crate made of lashedwillow branches used in the shipment of potteryand other goods

[El hachuradoHarchure

This is a means of decorationH consisting oflines placed in parallelposition, either vertical, horizon­

tal, or diagonal. Hatchure appears on some Man-

hechura 51 hombro

ises lusterware in units of lines in opposingdirections. Hatchure was used on common grademaiolica made in the rSrh century in Mexico Citywhere it formed rim patterns.Synonym, in part: rasgueo ; sombrear con lineas

becburaWorkmanship; a form or shapehecho: done, finished

belecboFern motif

A motif composed of short straight or curvedlines off a stem line has been called a fern pattern.It was a common design utilized on r yth centurylusterware at Manises and green and brown waresat Teruel. During the r rth century a modificationin blue was used by Talaveran designers in a styleimitating certain Chinese wares.

herramienta de henchirMexican phrase for saggarLiteral meaning: cool of packing

hierroIron

Most earthenware clays contain some form ofiron. Hematite is present in red clays, limonite inyellow clays, and ferrous irons in grey, green, orblack clays. But all will produce warm reddish totan pastes under oxidizing firing conditions. Inorder for a clay to be suitable for higher thanearthenware temperatures, it must have less thana 2 % iron content.

Iron oxides are among the most importantceramic colorants. They will impart a range ofcolors from amber to mahogany to an oxidizedlead glaze. It is likely they were first added toMuslim lead glaze solutions in the form of rediron-bearing clay. If they had been added to tinmaiolica glaze, a mottled cream rather than whitecoating would have been produced.

Reduction firings, which were not practiced byHispanic maiolists other than for the third firingfor lusterware, cause iron oxides to produce theceladon grey-green and blue-green admired bythe Chinese.

The iron deposits ofVizcaya have been workedsince an early period, but it is not known at pres­ent if this was the source ofiron used by potters ofsouthern Spain.

hierro para perfilarTemplate

Such tools were used In shaping vessel ex-

reriors being formed upside down on a revolvingmold attached co a wheel head, or a jigger. Theywere not used in routine production throwing ofasingle form, the potters apparently being dexter­ous enough to duplicate shape and size visually.Literal meaning: iron for profiling

hiloStrip of string or wire used by a potter to cut afreshly thrown vessel from the wheel head

bispalenseSevillian, either the province or the citySynonym: bispalioHispalis: Roman name for town on site ofmodernSevillaHispania: ancient name for Iberian Peninsula

Hispano-MoresqueSpanish Moorish

In ceramics, this is a term which refers co theblend of the rwo decorative strains present insouthern Spain, the Spanish and the Moorish.Most often it is used specifically for the luxuriouspottery decorated in metallic oxides over a tinglaze created by the Muslim artisans of the Nasriddynasty and diffused to Christian-Moorish pot­ters of Manises. In the former instance, designswere mostly standard Islamic themes, although afew figural elements are seen; in the latter theywere a unique synthesis of Islamic and ChristianGothic conventions. However, the term His­pano-Moresque also is used in connection withIslamic non-luster wares such as the cuerda secas ofSevilla and the green and purple-brown types ofPaterna and Teruel.

hogarFuel chamber of kiln used in Valencian areaLiteral meaning: hearth, bonfire

bojaLeaf motif

Leaves of many different kinds were used onManises lusterware as repeated elements.

cardo: thistleparra: grape or figperejil: parsley

bojafior: an open flower

homTree of Life motif, extremely common on r ythand rath century Paterna wares

hombroShoulder ofa vessel, berween maximum diameterand the neck or mouth

horma 52 importar

hormaMold; form

hornoKiln

The earliest known kilns for firing pottery arein the Near East, and their use, with improve­ments in structure, passed down through all thecultures occupying that area at various periods.By the time of the rise of Arabic potters, th~y

were fairly standard in size and shape. In MuslimSpain such kilns must have been part of each orevery several workshops. However, kilns previ­ously had been introduced there by the Romans.

The Mediterranean type kiln, in Spain calledhorno arabe or horno moruno, which is also the stylepassed on to Spain's overseas empire, was a two­chambered, updraft type, built of fired bricks oroccasionally of stone, probably roofed by inter­secting arches or a b6veda, and had roof openingsbut no chimney. Generally it was rectangular inshape and large enough to accomodate severalhundred or more vessels. Cylindrical kilns, hornosredondos, which had a long history in the MiddleEast, were used in the Spanish Levante. Largerkilns may have been used cooperatively as theyare today. The lower chamber, with a wide open­ing on one side and sometimes partially subterra­nean was for fuel. It was vented to the upper unitwhich contained the vessels to be fired. This topchamber also had a large opening (boca, mouth)directly above the lower chamber door to facili­tate loading. It had to be bricked and mudded, orin some cases sealed with large fragments of bro­ken pots, before each use. In modern Moroccanpractice occasionally green ware to be bisqued isput directly into the fuel box, and it is suggestedthat at Manises a raised tier at the rear of thechamber was for the bisque firing of vessels.

Each vessel underwent two firings, one calledthe pequeno fuego for bisque, and a second, or granfuego, for glaze. The latter usually was of longerduration in order to reach higher temperatures.Often a separate kiln of the same style was usedfor this firing. Lusterware required a third firing ina muffle kiln. This was of smaller construction, inthe Manises-Paterna area often was circular orbeehive in shape, and was outfitted with somekind of a baffle which caused a reduction, orsmoky, atmosphere within the kiln. No saggarswere used.

Some Sevillian records indicate that a tax wasimposed by the authorities on each kiln firing. A

similar tax also was imposed on Valencian potters.Oxidation atmospheres resulting from freely

burning fires were essential for maiolica glazedware. Even so, the clouds of black smoke causedby oils still in the olive residue and incompletecombustion, as well as unavoidable clutter of pot­teries, were objectionable in finer residential orchurch areas. Therefore, kilns and potters' quar­ters usually were located on the fringes of a set­tlement or outside the walls, where raw materialscould be delivered more easily.

Kilns had not been used in prehispanicAmerica but were quickly adopted after Spanishoccupation, even by persons who did not alsotake over the use of the potter's wheel. Neverthe­less, firing in the open under a mound of brushcontinues today for much Latin American coun­try pottery.

Presently in both Latin America and Moroccokilns used for firing bricks or common utilityearthenwares often are constructed of unfiredbricks or adobes which, quite obviously, becomefired through use. Possibly the same practice wasfollowed in arid parts of Spain.

It should be noted that the phrase horno castel­lano refers to smelting furnaces for the processingof ores.hornador: a kiln stoker

buecoPeep hole in wall of kiln through which stage ordegree of firing could be judged; also the depres­sions in certain molded forms for containing salt,ink, or spices

III ~ ~:::k:il:;",meable throughglazing

importerTo be valued at; to import

Because of variations in meaning, this is a termfrequent in pottery inventories and price listswhich must be read in context.

53irnpronta

improntaImpressed or stamped design

Such decorative modes were common in Is­lamic periods on hollow ware and bricks. Thecuenca tiles of the r yth century are examples ofthe use of impronta. After polychrome paintingon tin glazed pottery became common, there wasless interest in stamped patterns under lead glaze.lmpronta ceased to be practiced.

. .tncensartoCenser

Incense had an ancient use in religious cere­monials of the Middle East. Frankincense andmyrrh were among the gifts brought to the ChristChild, and such materials became part of Chris­tian ritualism after the 4th century. Through bothCatholicism and Mohammedanism the custom ofburning incense diffused to Spain. In Mexico,too, incense in the form of copal had been anintegral part of aborginal religion.

Spanish-tradition vessels in which to burn in­cense exhibited another point of interest duringthe 18th century when potters took to modelingthem after large Chinese sculptures in the form ofdogs and lions, white Foukien figures having beenimported by the thousands into Mexico.incensar: to perfume with incenseSynonym: !oguer (Valencian vernacular), sabu­mador

jarra

Islas CanariasThe Canary Islands, situated just 65 miles off

the Atlantic coast of Morocco, were conqueredby Castile between 1479 and 1496. Their occupa­tion and continued ties to the mainland werethrough Andalusia. For 300 years beginning withthe First Voyage of Columbus, the Canaries werea vital victualing station for Spaniards enroute toAmerica. It is known that tiles and baptismal fontswere exported from Sevilla to the Canaries, and itseems certain that whenever archaeological exca­vations are conducted along this life line, exactlythe same kinds of hollow ware will be found thereas are known from the two terminals-Andalusiaand the Caribbean islands.

istoriato (Italian)Mode of decoration

This was a narrative style ofdecoration used onItalian ceramics, developed in RenaissanceFaenza in the late r yth century and passed toother Italian centers, including Urbina. Fromthere it is thought to have diffused to Talavera dela Reina, Castile, in the r yrh century, where itbecame the most well known style of that indus­try. The usual Spanish interpretations includedlandscapes, human figures, animals, and architec­tural features drawn with considerable realism,movement, and perspective. The mode, how­ever, was not well suited to ceramics.

IsabelaIn January, 1494, colonists coming to America

on the Second Voyage of Columbus establishedthemselves on the north shore of the island ofHispaniola, now Santo Domingo, and dutifullynamed their town after the queen. In the group atthis first Spanish settlement in the New Worldwere masons who must have constructed the firstkiln in the Western Hemisphere, made to fireroof tile and possibly brick. Among householdgoods were ceramics from Sevilla, which whenbroken were reported to have been traded to theIndians for gold and provisions. These were un­glazed or lead glazed utility vessels and three orfour styles of maiolica which are identical to waresfound in Spanish sites about the Caribbean basinsettled during the subsequent half century. It wasthese types of maiolica which were copied in thefirst locerias put into operation in the Valley ofMexico, probably within the first decade of thecolony.

[[J] Jarra

J Jug; pit~her; jarThe jarra usu­

ally refers to aspecialized Moor­

ish form of tall necked, roundbodied, footed jar with widelyflaring, slab, paired handles.Such a form, more decorative

jarro 54 juguete

than functional, gave rise to a namefor an ancient order of chivalry pres­ent in Aragon, a region once domi­nated by Islamic rulers. It was calledCon Los Brazos de larras, or "Withthe arms of jars."

Another small version, jarra depico, or jar with bird beak, is astraight sided pitcher on a tall pedes­tal base, a single handle, and asharply pointed pouring spout.

Both of these forms recall NearEastern models, and both frequentlyappear with luster pigments as deco­ration.Synonym, in part: picbel, terraza

jarroJug; pitcher; jar

[arras were most typical of Chris­tian potteries and presumably wereput to more functional use. The highbird beak spout of the jarra was re­tained on pitchers, but the tallpedestal base was abandoned. Otherjarros had no spouts, but sometimeshad a single handle on the side indi­cating their continued use for pour­ing. Some had paired handles. Theyoften served in measuring grainssold in the markets. Jars for the stor­ing of gunpowder are men­tioned in Sevilla ceramic inven­tories.Diminutive: jarreta, jarritoAugmentative:' jarrazo, jarr6njarrero: maker or seller of[arrosjarrear: to draw water or wine with a jugSynonym, in part: piche/

jaspeadoMottled

In the late 16th century Talaveran potters occa­sionally created a mottled background for drugjars by dipping a sponge into blue pigment andapplying this color over a dry, but unfired, whitetin ground. Perhaps this style was in imitation ofthe blue ground maiolicas then being made in theLigurian area of Italy, which at that time hadcultural and political ties to Spain.

The same sponged technique was used in rothcentury Puebla, but it was not common.jaspe: jasper; mottled marble

jaspear: to mottleSynonym: esponjado

jicaraCup

In Mexico and Central Americajicara was thename of a calabash gourd which served manypurposes, including the drinking of chocolate.The same word also came to be applied on bothsides of the Atlantic to small handleless cups usedfor the same purpose. This provides a fascinatingexample of diffusion back to the motherland of aNew World product and the name of its as­sociated ceramic form, the name itself taken froma plant and the form copied from Chinese models.Augmentative: jicaronjicarazco: cupfuljicaro: tree which produces jicarasSynonym, in part: pocillo

jofaina (also aljofaina, a/mofia-Arabic deriv.)Basin; washbowlSynonym: a/jebana, /avamanos, zafa

jornaleroDay laborer

Beside the master, the journeymen, and theapprentices, most workshops must have had a fewlaborers to do the unskilled manual tasks ofhaul­ing and working the clay and other raw materials,firing the kilns, or packing finished products forsale. Some masters owned mora, Negro, Indian,Chinese, or gypsy slaves who would have sup­plied such a labor force, but most probably de­pended upon the free market.jornada: day's work

juaguete, juagueteadaIn Mexico and Andalusia, the term for bisquedpottery; kiln reserved for bisque firingjuagar: to rinse, in reference to the cleaning pro­cess required of most bisqued pieces prior toglazing

jugueteToy; plaything

Mexican colonial inventories include manyreferences to ceramic toys whose forms remainuncertain. Perhaps miniatures of animals or ves­sels, which have been recovered occasionallyfrom archaeological deposits, would come in thiscategory.

There is no confusion with the word juaguetebecause toys are mentioned in lists of paintedwares.

juntar 55 lampara

[ugar: to playjugaeteri«: the production of toys

juntarTo join or lute together

Many exotic or exceptionally large vesselsmade by Moorish and Christian potters alike hadto be created from several thrown or moldedpieces joined together while in the leather hardstage. Examples are the huge, flatwinged, moldedhandles added to large amphorae, themselvesmade up of several thrown sections, or the botijosmade of large bowl forms put together rim to rimand topped with a neck and handles.

~ ~J)~:~[ed glazed vesselsSuch vessels with defects were

said to have been broken up,ground to powder, and reused in

the preparation of yellow decorative pigment.Probably the glaze or clay body contained ironoxide which would have aided in securing yellowto orange tones.

labioLip or rim edge of vessel

aftlado: pointedfestoneado: piecrust or pinchedplano: flatredondeado: rounded

laborCollection of 1000 bricks or tile

laboratorioUpper chamber of typical Valencian kiln

ladrilloBrick; tile

Terra cotta rectangular fired bricks were famil­iar construction materials of the Mediterraneanbasin. Almohade builders of the Sevilla Giraldatower used such brick ornamented with in-

terspersed glazed tile, and equally famous are thebrick horseshoe arches of the mosque at Cor­doba. Another type of ladrillo in Muslim Spainwas a large flat unglazed slab decorated all over orin a border band with relief motifs, usually calli­graphic in nature. These were mounted into wallsor used between ceiling beams. Large smoothsurfaced glazed tiles for ceilings, more properlyknown asazulejos, also are called lsdrillos portabla.Two of these tiles were needed to complete apattern.

The making of ordinary brick was the task ofmasons, not potters. Such artisans went to His­paniola with Columbus's Second Voyage, estab­lished work yards in an arroyo near the firstSpanish colony of Isabela, and made brick androof tile to be utilized in the first permanentbuildings.

Notwithstanding this beginning of brick mak­ing in America, thousands of ladrillos are re­corded as having been sent from Sevilla to theIndies during the first thirty years of occupation.They probably served as ballast for the galleons.To date, however, the only bricks known to havebeen salvaged by underwater archaeologistsworking on Spanish shipwrecks off Americanshores seem to have been parts of ovens built onship deck for use by the sailors.

Unfired adobes, common in parts of Spain,Morocco, and Latin America do not fit into thiscategory.ladrillado: brick yardladrillador: bricklayerladrillero: brick makerladrilleria: brick mold

lamparaLamp

Metal vessels provided light fixtures for castlesand churches, but there also were specializedceramic vessels used for the same purpose. Usu­ally these consisted of a basic bowl shape, or agroup of attached bowls, to hold oils to beburned. A loop handle for suspension was pro­vided. These were augmented by more portableceramic candleholders and metal wall and floorsconces.Diminutive: lamparillaAugmentative: lamparonlampareria: place where lamparas are madelamparero: maker or seller of ldmparasSynonym: lucerna

lavadero 56 losa

lavaderoWash basin; lavatorylavar: to washSynonym: lavamanos, lavatorio

lebrillo _Basin

The most typical shape of thiscategory is a steep sided, flatbottomed large bowl which may have served onoccasion as a vessel in which to wash hands at thetable. In fact, one known Mexican example bearsan inscription on the rim reading, "I am to washthe purifiers and no more." In Spain earliestexamples were ofPaterna polychrome or Maniseslusterware and have been called librells or braseros.Later Talavera polychrome versions used greensand yellows extensively, with pinched rims bear­ing parallel hatching in blue. In Mexico lebrillosare especially typical of the 17th century in sev­eral polychromed styles of fine grade wares. Theexpanse of the flat surfaces of interior bottomsprovided an excellent area for a figural scene, theabrupt sides serving as a frame treated with dif­ferent but comparable elements.

The term appears as librell in some documentsand is confused with cuenca, bacin, and brasero.lebrillero: one who makes or sells lebrillos

lechadaSlurry

This term was applied to the lubricant, a com­bination of clay and water, used to keep the pot­ter's hands moist while throwing a vessel. Lessliquid slurry was used to lute attached portions,such as handles, appliques, or knobs to bodywalls.Literal meaning: milky

lecberonMilk vessel

The exact form intended is undetermined. Pre­sumably it could have been a large jar or pitcher.leche: milk

lechoLayer of vessels in a bisque firing

Inasmuch as no glaze was involved, it was notimportant to keep vessels from touching eachother during the first firing. Similar shapes nestedtogether or supporting each other were more aptto withstand the firing stresses without becomingmisshapen.

legumbrer«Bowl or casserole for vegetableslegumbre: vegetable

levigaci6nLevigation

This is the process of cleaning and preparingclay for use in pottery-making.

lezdaTax assessed on merchandise, including pottery;known to have been levied in various parts ofSpain as early as the r yrh century

libraPound weight

Tin, for example, was a mineral purchased bythe libra. The metric system, which was origi­nated in France about 1790, was not adopted inSpain until the roth century.

librellValencian term for straight sided, flat bottomedbasinSynonym: lebrillo

lisoSmooth; unpatterned

The word with these two distinct meanings isused in Spanish-tradition ceramics to refer toazulejo tile or those with a monochrome glaze.

litargirioLitharge or white lead

Litharge is a mineral oxide derived as a by­product from the separation of silver from leadore. It remains in suspension better than someother materials and so is used in compoundingcertain pigment solutions, particularly those tocreate oranges or yellows. One disadvantage to itsuse is that gases from its decomposition duringfiring sometimes lead to excessive pinholing ofthe finished product.

loncbaSlabs of clay, or blanks, used for making tiles

losaTile

Large rectangular tiles with onescalloped or eared edge and onestraight edge on the narrower pro­portions suggests they were meantto be placed in an upright position.They were grave markers, whoseuse dated from the Visigothic period of the yth

loseta 57 lumbrera

through 7th centuries. During Islamic horizons inSpain, they generally bore relief decorations;thereafter they were treated with maiolica glazeand designs.

One example is known from the maiolica in­dustry in Guatemala, bearing a date in the rSthcentury.

losetaSmall tiles

Apparently there were two distinct applica­tions of this word. One kind of losetas were small,square tiles, four of which set contiguously wereneeded to complete a pattern. Another use refersto a small square tile designed to be the centralpiece of a pattern requiring four hexagonal tilesplaced around it to form a pattern. Both versionswere typical of the Valencia area.Diminutive: losetillaSynonym: losilla

lozaGeneric term for pottery

Within this category may be earthenware,glazed or unglazed, and even porcelain. Earthen­ware was more typical of the Spanish world.Stoneware, another major grouping of pottery,was not made.

In the Mexican guild ordinances, for example, anumber of grades of locally made loza are indi­cated. Fino was the top quality whose fashioningwas solely in the hands of craftsmen who hadqualified as masters. These were virtuoso vesselsand are the ones now comprising most museumand private collections. At the time oftheir manu­facture, they were special items and have beenwell cared for ever since. A further refinement ofthis category were refino ceramics, especiallythose made in imitation of Chinese ceramics. En­trefino was the service grade, the tableware of thegeneral Hispanicised public. It was decorated lesselaborately, and its forms were those functional inmost upper to middle class homes. However,even though mass produced often in simplified ordiscontinued styles used earlier oti fino wares, itwas glazed with the same solutions and paintedwith the same pigments as higher quality vessels,and in fact, probably was produced by the sameartisans. The distinction between this grade andthe comlin, corriente, or ordinaria grade is notsharp, the latter usually including types bearinggreen-yellow-brown decorations over a glazedground having less opacity due to lower tin con-

tent. Comtin also referred to tin glazed vesselswithout any additional decoration, such as uten­sils to be used in hospitals and convents. Personswho made such common wares were not per­mitted under guild regulations to make fino pot­tery. Entrefino and comtin are the two kinds ofmaiolica now most frequently recovered archaeo­logically.

Lozaamarilla, loza roja,and lozaprieta were thesimple lead glazed or unglazed utilitarian vessels,made by potters lowest on the guild rosters. Thecolors were either those of the body paste or atransparent glaze coating which might or mightnot have colorants added.loza basta, loza tosca: coarse potteryloza blanca: maiolicalozapoblana, lozasevillana,loza talaverana: potteryof Puebla, Sevilla, or Talaveraloceria: pottery workshoplocero: potter

loza de JalapaJalapa ceramics

Although common utility types probably weremade at Jalapa, Mexico, there is no evidence forcolonial maiolica having been made there. Thephrase, which occurs in connection with colonialcommerce, probably results not only from sale oflocally produced utility types but maiolicas fromPuebla which were brought there during the trad­ing fairs which took place at the arrival of theSpanishjlotas to Vera Cruz. Merchants from Gua­temala, Venezuela, and Caribbean ports boughtthe goods of Mexico as well as that of Spainduring these activities.

lumbreraOpening in kiln roof

Such openings may have numbered from threeto five, depending on the size of the kiln, andwere necessary to assure a proper draw and essen­tial oxidizing atmosphere.lumbre: light

maceta 58 Manises

[[BJNI;~=:<p01Forms in-cluded in thisgroup varied

from urns reminiscent ofGreek vessels to round bar­rel shapes derived fromChinese sources. Pinched or piecrusr rims weretypical of Mexican macetas.Diminutive: macetitaAugmentative: maceton

maduradoMatured

When clay body develops its maximum hard­ness or glaze, ingredients are completely fusedand have proper surface texture, they are said tohave matured. Earthenware clays mature atapproximately 950-9900 C. and tin glazes at1060

0 C.

maestro indieroMaster potter

This person usually operated his own work­shop and was required by guild regulations to passa competency examination in order to obtain thisrank. He was the maker of fine grades of waresand had to demonstrate proficiency in throwingall sorts of vessel forms. He might also be calledmaestro locero or merely maestro, the latter oftenbeing used as a title. In some Mexican archivesthe word is abbreviated to mxos or mtros.

MajorcaThe largest of the Balearic group of islands in

the Mediterranean, part of the Kingdom of Ara­gon, Majorca was a shipping point for the Valen­cian lusterware to Italy and came to be associatedwith tin glazed ware, i.e. maiolica.

mancerina ~Plateau; server~

This rather ingenious form, said to have beennamed in the 17 th century for the Marques deMancera, consisted of a flat plate with a galleryaround the central obverse zone and occasionallyalso around the outer perimeter. The obviousassumption is that the attached rings steadiedanother vessel carried upon it, probably a pitcheror cup of some sort. The use of mancerinas mayhave stemmed originally from Italian influences.They appear in Manises lusterware, Talaveran

maiolica, and Alcora porcelain, and probably alsowere duplicated in silver.

The form diffused to the New World where itwas associated with the serving of chocolate. Itwas especially popular in Guatemala, the Pacificcoast of that part of the Viceroyalty of NuevaEspana having been a principal area of cacaoexploitation during the colonial era. There theusual drinking vessel served on a mancerina was ajicara.

The Spanish or Italian plateau may have in­spired an 18th century English form called amazarine, described asa small bowl or cup set on alarge plate and used for serving ragouts or soups.

manganeseManganese

Bioxide of manganese was one of the first min­erals used to produce decorative pigments forpainting designs on maiolica. It was combinedwith soda ash and pulverized dry glaze, dissolvedin water, and fired. Over a lead glaze manganeseproduced a purple-brown color. Outlines of ele­ments were defined with this color, green beingused as a filler, in archaic types of the 13ththrough r yth centuries at Paterna, aswell as in theCordoban-Sevilla and Teruel regions. Later it wasused with blue fillers, when that color becameavailable.morada: the fired color ofmanganese; also used asa term for royal purple, a richer hue obtainedfrom a mollusknegruzco: the fired color of manganese

maniobraAll processes or handling necessary to producepottery

ManisesLocated next to Valencia, in the late Middle

Ages Manises was under the control of the pow­erful Buyl family which encouraged its develop­ment as a ceramics center. One family member issaid to have made a trip to Islamic Malaga, wherehe noted new use of cobalt blue in ceramic deco­ration. This was a vogue which he quickly intro­duced upon his return to Valencia. However,from the i yth through rSth centuries Manisesbecame known for its manufacture oflusterware,which only rarely made use of blue motifs. Thisspecialized technique was inspired by Muslimwork at Granada and Malaga and was furtheredby the migration to Manises of Muslim artisansfrom there. An interesting blend of motifs on

mano de Fatima 59 Martinez Guijarro, Fernan

lusrerware resulted from a combination of Islamicdesign mannerisms native to most of the deco­rators and Christian elements, such as familycrests, ordered by clients in all parts of Europe.

In 1780 Manises was described as a village offour streets occupied almost entirely by potters.Nevertheless, this was the period of almost totaldecline of the industry due to artistic retrogres­sion, boredom with a worn our style, and therising importance of porcelain.

mano de FatimaIslamic design motif

Fatima was a favorite daughter ofMohammed.In art, this term is applied to a stylized hand-likeelement of Islamic design considered to repre­sent a talisman rather than any religious sym­bolism. It is often associated with a pattern of thetwo keys to Paradise. The motif appears on muchSpanish Muslim pottery, including types ofPaterna and Manises, where Christian pottersalso were at work. In 1525 the use of the motifwas prohibited by Charles V, Holy Roman Em­peror.Literal meaning: hand of Fatima

ManresaLocated near Barcelona, Manresa produced

lusterware as well as typical blue on whitemaiolicas during the r yth and roth centuries.Earlier pottery was found when a church, con­structed in the first half of the 14th century, wasdestroyed in the 1936 Spanish Civil War, reveal­ing tinajas used in the fill of bOveda vaulting.

marcaMaker's mark

Marks identifying places of manufacture or in­dividual potters were not used typically onSpanish ceramics. However, Barcelona andPaterna potters of the late Middle Ages im­pressed soft vessels with clay stamps assigned tospecific potters, and producers of Manises lus­terware drew what appear to be initials on re­verses ofmany pieces. A symbol of the Giralda issaid to have identified some Sevillian ceramics.There also 16th century tile panels and altar fron­tals were signed in the same way as contemporarypaintings.

The Mexican guild ordinances published in thesecond half of the r rrh century specifically re­quired the marking ofall products ofpotters, withthe exception ofceramic toys. The symbols wereto be entered into a ledger to prevent frauds. It is

to be noted that the greatest percentage ofknownMexican marks appear on the two fine ware stylesassigned to this century. In fact, the same markappears on both styles, making it probable thatthey came from the same potter or same loceria.Usually an iron oxide initial was painted beforefiring on reverses of fine wares, bur occasionally acobalt blue letter was incorporated into an ob­verse design. Such marking of vessels continuedinto the rSrh century, but at no period was theordinance observed conscientiously. Not onlyare there relatively few known examples ofmarks, but those that do appear cannot be as­signed to specific artisans.

The term hallmark is more correctly reservedfor the marking of metal objects.

In Spanish Levantine ceramicsmarcaalso refersto the coating of unfired glaze on a bisqued vesselbeing prepared for glosr firing.Synonym: seiial

margaMarl

Marl is impure calcareous clay which has onoccasion been used for utility ceramics. It cannotbe fired to a high temperature because the cal­cium easily decomposes under heat.

mariposa:Design motif

This motif consisted of a "body" with spreadwings ending in numerous filament curved lines,and was alwaysexecuted in dark blue on flattenedrims of plates whose centers contained figures ofbirds, rabbits, and other animals. The motif wasused on some of the earliest vessels identifiedwith the new mid 16th century industry at Tala­vera, but it is not known to have been copied atSevilla or in Mexico.

In the 17th and rSrh centuries a derivativepattern, called aranboes , typified Portuguesemaiolica. It drew from Dutch sources.Literal meaning: butterflies

Martinez Guijarro, Fernan (1424-1508)Martinez Guijarro was one of the leading pot­

ters of Sevilla at the very period of the discoveryof the West Indies. He is known to have filledorders coming to him from many parts of Spainand Portugal and was so esteemed a craftsmanthat Ferdinand and Isabela, in appreciation of hiswork, granted him an exemption (jranquesa)from taxes. In archival records he is called anollero, but that was merely a general name applied

rnasa 60 rnedallon

to potters ofall kinds. Actually he was famous fortile, and he also may have made some lusterware,In addition to fame, Martinez Guijarro acquiredconsiderable wealth for one of the artesanadogroup. Documents preserved include his real es­tate dealings, the endowment of a benefice andperpetual masses, and refer to slaves for whosechildren he served as godfather. During part ofhis life, he lived on Santo Domingo Street inTriana. His potter son, Pedro de Herrera, was acontemporary of Niculoso and copied some ofthe Pisano's Italianate innovations.

masaClay body prepared for use

masicote, mazacoteMassicot

This was a silicate ofpotash made by fusing finesand with salt and calcined wine lees (Italy, Spain),sea salt or sea weed (France), calcined salrwort(Spain), or raw sodium carbonate (Mexico). Thisstep made the soda insoluble. These materialswere ground before being combined with frittedlead and tin to form the stanniferous glaze solu­tions. Soda ash was an important addition becauseit imparted a high coefficient of expansion to theglaze.

At present it is unknown if massicot was a Mus­lim contribution to ceramic technology whichspread to both Italy and Spain, or whether its usemight have been diffused to Spain from Italy,together with formulas for ratios of tin to lead,perforated saggars, yellow pigments, designstyles, and so on. Italy seems a likely source forthese refinements because non-lustered maiolicawas more advanced there at an earlier date than inSpain.

mateMatte

A lusterless or dull glaze surface was not typicalof maio liea because lead fluxed glazes tend to beglossy unless improperly prepared or fired, or aresubjected to destructive weathering conditions.However, there was an obvious latitude in degreeof flatness of Spanish maiolica glazes, those oflater yth century Sevilla being duller than either laterlocal types or Mexican copies. It is possible thatan excess of tin was used at this period whichwould account in part for such dulled surfaces. InSpain there was no use of two distinct kinds of tinglaze, one semi-matte and one glossy, as at Delft,

nor the lustrous lead overcoat as in Italy and theNetherlands.

In regard to unglazed ceramics, in Spain mattesurfaces were typical. Hand polishing was notpracticed, except for occasional decorative pat­terns.

materialre/ractarioGrog

Known to archaeologists as temper, such re­fractory additives were incorporated by manypeoples into clays used for pottery. They servedto separate the clay particles, thus allowing steamto escape during firing. This was important inkeeping vessels from cracking through stress.The addition of grog was not necessary for mostSpanish-tradition ceramics because available claysappear to have contained sufficient amounts ofnative sand to serve this purpose.

matrizMold; die

The term was used in Spain to indicate thestamp employed to impress patterns on cuencatiles. During earlier times the mold was madefrom wood or iron; later it was of bronze.

It also refers to clay stamps used to mark greenvessels.

mazoWooden mallet used in the manufacture ofcuerdaseca and cuenca tiles

In order to obtain a sharp, deep pattern, it wasnecessary to firmly impress the matriz into thesoft clay, while at the same time making sure thatthe clay slab was not pushed out of shape. Amallet, gently but precisely tapped, was used forthis purpose.

meaderoUrinalSynonym: orinal, tasa meadero

medal/onMedallion

Lobed medallions, in direct or reserve treat­ment, were taken by Mexican decorators fromChinese examples and were extensively used onlarge fine grade jars of the t Sth century. It ispossible these medallions might have diffused toMexico as part of a complex of mudejar conven­tions, Islamic artists also having utilized Chinese­style medallions or cloud collar points in theirworks in other media. A direct transference fromChinese porcelain coming to Mexico on the Ma-

media anata 61 minio

nila galleons seems more probable, inasmuch ascontemporary Spanish maiolica did not make useof this motif.

media anataSemiannual tax imposed in 1625 on allguilds andartisans in Mexico to provide a stipend for tem­poral and secular officials, paid in part by a feeassessed for competency examinations

media naranjaDesign motif

Taking its name, orange half, from a similarityto that fruit, this motif was used commonly on aseries of lusterware vessels made in r yrh centuryManises. It consisted of a segmented circle.

In Mexican art the phrase usually denoteschurch domes set without pediments upon thecrossing.

medidaVessel size

Lists of colonial period ceramics most oftenindicate size of vessels by general terms such asgrande or mayor (large), mediano or medianita(medium), or pequeiio; chico, or cbiquito (small).Somewhat more specific references used mea­surements based upon the arroba, such as cuar­tilla , for one-fourth, or tercero ; for one-third. Inother cases, form names were applied to vesselsof certain capacities, i.e. cdntara.Synonym: tamaiio

Medina az-ZahraIn the roth century Medina az-Zahra was

erected in the Guadalquivir River valley nearCordoba as a dazzling home for a favorite wife ofthe caliph. Now in ruins which were excavated in1912, the site is important in the history ofSpanish ceramics because most of the potterytypes later to be produced in quantity-reliefandpainted styles, lusterware, cuerda seca-have beenfound there as testimony to the many earlyachievements of Spanish Muslim potters.

Restoration of the structure continues at thistime.

meladoAmber colored transparent lead glazed ware;treacle

Islamic craftsmen, or those continuing to workunder that influence, commonly added iron ormanganese to lead glazes to create a honey col­ored coating on both smooth surfaced domestic

vessels and those with relief or impressed pat­terns meant for more special purposes.

Melado types are relatively common in 16thcentury archaeological contexts in the Caribbean,perhaps locally made as well as imported fromSpain.

In its usual non-ceramic connotation, meladowas either a thick molasses from sugar refiningmolds or it was treacle. The latter was a cordialmade from cooking plant roots, flower roots andjuices, and wines, then distilling the liquid, and itwas an important drug during the Middle Ages. Itis interesting to speculate upon several possibleconnections between both these products­molasses and treacle-the Sevillian Genoese, andcertain blue ground albarelos which have beenrecovered from 16th century archaeological de­posits in the Caribbean. On one hand, Genoeseentrepreneurs first introduced sugar cane to His­paniola from the Canary Islands, where they hadonly a quarter of a century earlier first planted it,and they were the first to establish sugar refineriesin the Indies. Secondly, they also had a traditionalmonopoly in the Mediterranean on the manufac­ture and sale of treacle. It is quite possible thatplain blue drug jars, known thus far in greatestnumber from Puerto Rico, were used specificallyto contain these Genoese me/ado substances.

Mexico CityThe capital of what became the Viceroyalty of

Nueva Espana probably was the locale of the firstSpanish-tradition pottery kilns on the Americanmainland, at first for the production of utilityunglazed and lead glazed wares and later formaiolicas. Sherd collections resulting from sub­way excavations beneath the city reveal a localcopying of Sevillian types characteristic of thefirst half of the 16th century, followed later in thecentury by types distinctive from, yet comparableto, contemporary Spanish modes.

Although Puebla became the better knownMexican center for ceramics, wares and tiles oflower qualities for use in the Valley of Mexicoappear to have been made concurrently in or nearthe capital. A potters' guild was on the records bythe latter decades of the r rth century with stan­dards for three grades of ceramics. Some time latein the next century production of tin glazed pot­tery appears to have ceased.

mintoMinium

This is red lead which has a high oxygen con-

modelar en un torno 62 monocromo

tent and therefore tends to restrict the likelihoodof reduction of the desired yellow and orangetones achieved through oxidation. Spanish de­posits of minium have been known since the timeof the Romans.Synonym: azarcon

modeler en un tornoTo throw vessels by means of a potter's wheel

The use of this mechanism requires dexterity,coordination, control, judgment, and consider­able physical strength which can be learned onlythrough concentrated practice. Thus it was a toolfor commercial, rather than home use, and sobecame identified with male artisans.

Once mastered, the throwing process becomesalmost mechanical. It is not unusual to see a His­panic potter turn out several hundred vessels aday allofsuch uniform size and shape as to appearnearly factory made. In fact, a 16th ~entury Sevil­lian apprentice contract called for this beginner toproduce 255 vessels per day! ..

In addition to the more advanced jigger-and­jolly techniques, there are several.metho~s us~d

in such production throwing. One IS to begin wI~h

a ball of clay suitable for a single vessel placed 10

the middle of the wheel head exactly positionedby being pressed down with the right h~d andpushed in toward the axis with the left, while thewheel is revolved by kicking the lower flywheelwith a forward movement of the right foot. (Ori­ental motor habits cause those potters to revolvethe wheel in the opposite direction.) The potter'sthumbs deliberately push a hole into the center ofthe clayand then pull the clayoutward toward theperimeter of the wheel. With a steadying lefthand inside the open form and the fingers of theright pressing against the exterior surface, thepotter slowly pulls the revolving clay up while ~t

the same time maintaining a steady momentum 10

the wheel with his foot. Once a basic cylinder isachieved, it can be modified through pressureinto most contours. It is essential to have walls ofeven thickness, a condition obtained automati­cally if the clay has been properly centered at thebeginning and a matter mentioned in 17th cen­tury Puebla guild ordinances.

Another method, which is suitable for thethrowing of a number of identical small vessels,calls for the centering of a large ball of clay,pulling the top into a conical shape, ~d the~

fashioning the desired form only on the tip. This

object is cut by a wire from the unworked lowermass which is again pulled into a cone ready for asecond object. Such a technique in English iscalled "throwing off the hump" and, although aprecise Spanish term is not used, the method h~s

been observed among all Hispanic potters and ISpresumed to be old.

moldeMold

Molds made of fired clay or plaster came intofrequent use during the r yrh through. t yth cen­turies in Nasrid workshops, as well as 10 those ofMoorish craftsmen in Sevilla and Toledo. Theywere used primarily for large objects or for exoticappendages. Also many Hispano-Moresque re­pousse decorations probably .result~d. fr~mmolds as did angled shapes obviously trmtanngmetal prototypes. To judge from interior ridgesand convexities, a mold attached upside down to awheel head is believed to have been utilized at theend of the r yth century for forming plate in­teriors to be decorated in cuerda seca patterns or ata somewhat later date merely coated with plainwhite stanniferous glaze. Exteriors were formedeither by throwing against the mold or by atemplate which trimmed off excess clay. Angularfaceting on exteriors suggests the latter. In the16th century molds continued important in pro­ducing utility vessels which were either too largeto be thrown or were non-circular. Beginning inthe late rzth century and through the 18th cen­tury, molds were commonplace for flatware, su.chas platters and serving trays, and for pieces Withfoliated rims or fluted walls.

In Mexico during the first half of the 16thcentury, similar interior ridging and conv~xities

of white maiolica plates point to the adoption ofthe mold-on-the-wheel, or jiggering method, atechnique which was short lived because of theintroduction soon ofdifferent European styles. Inthe late r Srh century there was a marked shift tomoldmade forms as a result of Rococo fashionsbeing diffused to Mexico via Spain.

monocromoMonochrome

The use of a single decorative color typifiesboth Spanish and colonial maiolica work at vari­ous periods. Usually it was blue, but green, yel­low black or brown are seen used alone. Therewas'a more wholehearted concentration on bluemonochrome in Mexico than in Spain, undoubt-

rnonteria 63 mortero

edly the result of continued strong contact withOriental porcelains.Synonym: claroscuro

monteriaCoarsening of designs into the realm of folk art

Mass production achieved in Spain by themiddle of the rSrh century caused a decline intechniques of painting. In Talavera, Puente delArzobispo, and Sevilla there was a rapidlyapplied, highly repetitious set of patterns paintedon vessels meant for a cheaper market. Usuallysuch designs were hunting scenes, with people onhorseback drawn in a much larger scale than thebackground of architectural features or trees.Literal meaning: hunting

Montero, JeronimoMontero was a 16th century Sevillian potter

who, under commission from Philip II, went toTalavera in order to help potters there improvetheir glazes, decorative pigments, and modes ofproduction and design. His efforts, added toknown Talaveran styles copied at Sevilla, under­score the stylistic unity of these two centers ofproduction, both under the Crown of Castile andboth able to export their products to the Ameri­can colonies.

morberValencian wedging or work table

mortscoThe term originally meant Muslims who be­

came Christian converts, but it came to signify allpersons of Arabic-Berber descent, regardless ofavowed religious affiliation, who lived underChristian rulers. It also became a synonym for"Moorish."

People of this mixed racial and religiousbackground made up much of the artesanado ofsouthern Spain. Even after the r yth century Re­conquest of Valencia and Sevilla and finallyin ther yth century of Granada, some moriscos con­tinued to work side by side with Christian fellowpotters, especially in the Levante and Aragon.The pressure for their conversion steadily in­creased. There are frequent records of SevillianOld Christian potters having served as godpa­rents for baptised morisco potters who assumednew Christianized names. The same situationmust have prevailed elsewhere. After the fall ofGranada, there were forced mass baptisms.

Morisco skill in crafts demanding manual dex-

terity and arnsnc judgment was so great thatwhen they finally were expelled from Spain earlyin the r rth century, regardless of nominal con­version, the loss was tremendous, even though bythen most external artistic influence was filteringdirectly or indirectly from Renaissance Italy. InSevilla in 1609 there were some 2000 moriscos,certainly a fair number of them being potters. Afew moriscos remained in small pockets of Spain associal outcasts, ignoring officialedicts and endur­ing scorn and harsh treatment. Other morisco pot­ters fled to Narbonne, France, where they wereaccepted into the local ceramic industries. Most,however, drifted off to North Africa, perhapseven to other occupations.

moraMoor; Spanish Muslim

Generally speaking, Moors are taken to besynonymous with Berbers who comprised mostof the invading forces coming into Spain in the8th century and who returned with ruling dynas­ties at least three different times. But in use theword moro also denotes all Spanish Muslims,whether of Arab, Egyptian, Syrian, Persian, orBerber background, who dwelt for eight cen­turies in Spain.

morrellValencian name for solid cylinders of fired clayabout 8 cm. in diameter by 40 cm. in length usedin the spacing of vessels within a kiln

These objects appear to be a Muslim develop­ment at Manises and Granada. They have beenfound there reused for paving or as potter'sstamps.

morteroMortar

A deep, thick walled, heavy footedbowl form was extensively used as areceptacle in which to grind mate­rials to be used in kitchen and phar­macy. It often had a pouring spoutcalled a rostro, or bird bill, and lug handles with asmall loop at the top and basal attachments car­ried as ribs down the body wall. The most fre­quent examples are those made in r yrh throughrSrh centuries in Teruel, Aragon, which bear awhite glaze over only the upper two thirds of theexteriors and decoration in green and purple­brown heavy brushwork.

The Mexican counterpart was taken from In-

motivo 64 naranjado

dian rather than Spanish ceramics. It was essen­tially a small bowl with grid work cut into interiorbottoms while the clay was still soft. This is calleda molcajete.

Almirez was the Arabic word for mortar, usu­ally defined as a metal vessel, though occasionallythe word appears to apply to pottery.Synonym: mamelot (Aragonese vernacular)

motivoMotif

The motif is an individual unit, or salient ele­ment, of a composition. Several motifs form apattern.

mudejarSpanish Mohammedan living under a Chris­tian king

In art, the term refers to Islamic conventionsmaking themselves apparent in the products ofChristians, who generally assimilated their cul­tural background from the classical world. Suchinfluence can be detected in woodworking,stucco, architecture, and ceramics in areas onceunder Islamic domination, such as Toledo, Zara­goza, and Sevilla.

Mudejar decorations appear on some of theearliest ceramics reaching the New World, as il­lustrated by a few cuenca tile, cuerd« seca plates,and pseudocalligraphic designs on maiolica. Theywere on the wane in Sevilla by the end of the r sthcentury, however, and therefore never becameimportant in colonial ceramics.

Mudejares also refers to the various tile stylesproduced during Muslim periods by Muslimcraftsmen, i.e, cuenca, cuerda seca, and alicatados, inthe same way that pisanos refers to flat surfacedpolychrome azulejos because of that styling hav­ing been introduced to Spain by an Italian.mudejarg6tico: combination ofmudejarand Gothicideas, as is seen in the products of Valenciamudejarromanico: combination of mudejar andRoman concepts, as is seen in products ofTeruelin Aragon

MuelThe small Aragonese town of Muel, located

south of Zaragoza, was a pottery center activefrom the end of the r yth century through therSth century. Most of the potters were moriscos.Luster and maiolica were made in imitation oftypes better executed at Manises and Barcelona.

A waster dump was excavated there in the

1930S providing a rare cross section of the de­velopment of pottery types in a Spanish village.Unfortunately the results are unpublished.

muestraTest piece, decorated in same glaze and colors asthe kiln load, withdrawn from time to time todetermine stage of firing

muiiequillaPounce bag

Loosely woven cloth bags filled with carbonmaterials were dabbed over hole pricked patternsto leave a faint dotted outline to guide ceramicdecorators. The carbon burned out during firing.

[S] nao de la chinaManila galleonN In 1565 the first galleon crossedthe Pacific from Manila to Aca­pulco, thereby establishing a trade

route to be followed for two and a half centuriesby an annual sailing, the only navigational line inthe history of the world to provide such lengthyuninterrupted service. The impact of the flood ofOriental goods which came to the Spanish col­onies was tremendous-culturally, economically,and artistically.

In regard to ceramics, not only was the Chineseand Japanese porcelain brought on the nao avail­able through legal and illegal means on all levelsof Spanish or mestizo society and on all frontiers,but it importantly contributed to Mexicanmaiolica grammar of form and decorative style.

naranjadoOrange

Iron rust combined with antimony was theprincipal source of orange pigment for maiolicas.Its use seems to have come to Spain from Italy.

negro 65 oliera

Orange was prominent in a late 16th and earlyrzrh century Talaveran and Puente del Arzobispostyle, where it was drawn in hatchured fashion asan element filler or to alternate in bands of classicS-curves drawn in agrey blue. In Mexico a limitedorange splash accented a grey blue palmette typi­cal of a type perhaps produced somewhat con­temporaneously to the above Castilian mode. Inboth Spain and Mexico orange continued to beemployed through the next two centuries but wasalways of minor importance.Synonym, in part: ocre

negroBlack

Manganese, iron oxide, or combinations ofthose two ingredients plus a little copper oxidewere used to create a pigment which fired black todark brown or purple-brown. These dark toneswere used to outline elements, add detailing,form lesser motifs, or delineate insignia.

Niculoso, FranciscoIn the last decade of the r yth century Niculoso

moved to Sevilla from Italy, bringing with himRenaissance methods and decorative themeswhich were new to Spanish ceramics. He workedthere until his death in 1529, during which periodhe almost singlehandedly set Spanish ceramics ona new course.

Essentially an artist schooled in humanistic pat­terns and a Faventine way of painting, Niculosocovered large panels of smooth surfaced, con­tiguous, tin glazed tiles with vibrant oranges, yel­lows, blues, greens, violets, roses, and black tocreate lustrous pictures which had the added ad­vantage ofpermanency. His style was referred toby the Spaniards aspolocromado a fa romano. Mostof his works were commissioned by religiousgroups and were used to cover fronts of altars,doors, and tomb facades, the best examples ofwhich are at the Alcazar in Sevilla and the monas­tery of Santa Maria de Tentudia in Badajoz.

The real effect of Niculoso's work was notrealized until fifty years later in the century whenother Italian potters moved into Andalusia andCastile. Under their influence, Spanish artisansmaking both tile and hollow ware eagerly turnedto maioliea painting such as he first demonstratedto them in Sevilla.

nucleoCore of a vessel between outer and inner surfaces

[I 0 II t':::·~:e or unfired potteryobra de MaNchaMalaga ceramic work

Most commonly the phraseconveyed the idea of lusterware, the so-calledgolden pottery of Malaga. During the r yrhthrough r yth centuries actual individual exam­ples might have been produced at Malaga orsome other town in the kingdom ofGranada, butafter the rath century they might also have beenmade at Christian Manises.

obradorWorkshop; workmanobra: workobrar: to workSynonym, in part: fdbric«, loceria, taller

oficialde abiertoOne who had been examined and found compe­tent to make open forms, such as plates, basins,bowls

oficialde becbur«One who had been examined and found compe­tent to make vessels, exact kinds unspecified

oficia! de pinturaOne who had been examined and found compe­tent to paint decorations on pottery

olambrillaTile

Specifically, these were small square maiolicatiles interspersed in areas paved with bricks orunglazed tiles. They were known for a livelyvariety of designs including escutcheons, geo­metries, flowers, humans, and animals.

olieraJar with single handle and spout used for oils;usually flat based, broad conical body sloping upto small neckSynonym: aceitera

olla 66 orza

ollaWide mouthed jar, with orwithout handles

Mexican inventories refer toollas de almendrad«, whichcould have been used for con­tainers of either an almondflavored milk or tequila.olleria: pottery workshop or storeollero: maker or seller of ollasollers: Catalan term for makers of ollas

olleteValencian term for small jar with a lid and onehandle

opacidadOpacity

The quality ofopaqueness is achieved in a leadglaze through the addition of a small percentageof tin oxide, also known as stannic oxide. Thismineral remains relatively insoluble duringfiring. Because it is thus suspended in the glaze,it prevents light from penetrating through thecoating to the bod y clay. It has the further advan­tage of being white, which offers a suitablebackground for painted decorations of one ormore contrasting colors.

ordenanzasGuild ordinances

Regulations concerning all aspects of pot­tery-making were laid down by government au­thorities. In order to modify them, formal writtenrequests by the potters had to besubmitted, usu­ally prepared. by a public scribe. Penalties forinfractions of the ordinances included prison,fines, and sometimes confiscation of potterywhich was then given to convents and hospitals.

ordinarieroOne who made common pottery

This was a category of artisan specifically de­scribed in the guild ordinances ofTalavera whichwas the equivalent to those potters restricted tothe making of common grade wares in Mexico.Such a person could not make finer grade pot­tery without passing an examination to demon­strate advanced proficiency and the paymentof certain fees.

orejaLug

Horizontal solid handles, or lugs, were typical

of Spanish srnall lustered or plain porringers ofthe r yth and 16th centuries. Such lugs usuallywere scalloped or lobed in the Medieval manner.On rare occasions similar lugs were used on plainMexican maiolica.Literal meaning: ear

orientalizarTo orientalize

Spanish maiolica designs became orientalizedduring the 17th century in response to a greatamount of porcelains brought to Europe by thePortuguese after IS I 5 and by the Dutch duringthe next century, both countries during portionsof these centuries being under Spanish politicalcontrol. Color scheme, divisions of field of de­sign, and some forms and motifs reflect thisinfluence which, in ceramics, was transmutedmainly via Delft. In Spain such Chinese designgrammar frequently was combined with typi­cally local themes evidenced by religious andsecular insignia.

The impact ofChinese porcelains was not mir­rored on Mexican maiolica until the mid r zrhcentury. Then Chinese-style decorations, forms,and colors dominated the output of fine waresduring the next half century and continued indiluted manner into the roth century. Imitationsof patterns and forms from the Orient weremore direct than they had been in Spain, withcoolie figures and personages of higher rankholding umbrellas and riding in elegant carriagesthrough backgrounds filled with rock, foliage,and gliding bird motifs identified with Wan-lirepertoire.orientalismo: orientalism

orinalurinalSynonym: bacin, beque, dompedro

oropimenteCompound of arsenic and zaire used with silverto produce a golden luster

orzaDrug jar

In Spanish ceramics thesejars generally have short widenecks and a well defined footprofile. They may be handledand lidded. Some orzas of theMuslim periods were outfitted with a perforateddisk set down into the neck area which filtered

67ovalado

water. Without the filter, the orzas served ascontainers for various medicines.Diminutive: orcitaSynonym, in part: olla, orseta

ovaladoVessel surface with egg-shaped or oval depres­sions

Such a surface treatment was characteristic ofmuch of the baroque work at Talavera, spe­cifically for plate or other flat forms.Synonym, in part: acanalado, gallonado

I[p II ~~7kiln for calcination of glazeingredients

padronCensus list

Spanish and Mexican documents, while woe­fully spotty, do contain such lists which indicateoccupations of various citizens, includingpottery-making.

pajaroteLarge ugly bird

A pattern used in late r zth and r Sth centurytimes in Manises to decorate lusterware was aneccentric bird. It usually appeared on largeplates which were employed to cover storagejars of oil.pardalot : debasement of pajarote

palanganaVariously defined as wash bowl, platter, or dishSynonym, in part: jofaina, lavabo, lavamanos,zafa

paletaPalette

The colors used on Spanish-tradition maiolicawere restricted predominately to one or moretones of blue, green, yellow, orange, and brown.

Panama Viejo

Each was variable due to impurities in the nativeminerals and to crude processing methods. Thebrown, for example, varied into a purplish huedepending on the presence or absence of man­ganese in the pigment solutions. Blue rangedfrom clouded greys to rich tones, probably indi­cating various sources of the cobalt mineral. As aresult of Italian influence, some blending ofprimary colors was practiced to achieve eithergradations of hue or new colors such as violet orrose, but this was more customary with deco­rators of tile than those of hollow ware. Redswere difficult to achieve because they tended tofade out during firing. When such a color wasneeded for faithful rendition of a pattern, somesort of red pigment usually was applied afterfiring.

palmatorioSmall candlestickSynonym: candil

paloShovel

A tool such as this was essential for manypurposes around a work yard from shovelingclay to feeding a kiln. They are usual tools men­tioned in inventories of potteries.

palomeraUnit of a dove or pigeon house

One archival record in Sevilla notes the orderof 1000 earthenware palomeras, or individualunits, for a pigeon house, palomar, by a mayor­domo for the Duque de Medina Sidonia.paloma: dove, pigeon

Panama ViejoPanama Viejo, established in 15 I 9 on the

Pacific coast of the isthmus, prospered as themost important juncture on the communicationchannel from Peru to Sevilla. Apparently towardthe latter part of the 16th century a local potteryindustry developed there whose products founda wide market down the west coast of SouthAmerica. Utility wares and tin glazed servicevessels appear to have come from the same kiln.A maiolica design style evolved which differedfrom either of the other two known New Worldcenters in Guatemala or Mexico. It was typifiedby use of blue, green, and brown decorations invarious combinations of stylized geometrical orfloral elements, and resembles most the workidentified in Spain with Granadine sources.

68panza

The town was sacked by Morgan in 1671 andwas then abandoned. The kilns, however, mighthave been used after that date by a few stragglers.

panzaBelly or area of greatest vessel circumferencepanzada: pot-belliedSynonym, in part: cuerpo

pafiueloDesign motif

Tiles which bear a design known aspafiuelo aredivided diagonally across their centers, with twozones of color thus formed. Generally the colorsare a triangle of white glaze and an opposedtriangle of one of the primary colors.Literal meaning: kerchief

papelcarboncilloPounce pattern

In practice this was a piece of stiff paperthrough which small holes were punched to indi­cate outlines of a design. A cloth impregnatedwith carbon was rubbed over the pattern, leavinga faint dotted outline for decorators to follow.The carbon was impermanent.Literal meaning: carbon paper

para la calRear walls of fuel chamber in Valencian kiln, sonamed because chunks of limestone were placedthere to calcine during firing for later use inmortar

parrillaJug with broad base and narrow neck; gridiron

The parrilladeSan Lorenzo was an insignia withparallel vertical lines surrounded by a rectangularframe line extended with corner prongs and anupper central hook usually placed in the center ofa shield outline topped by a crown. This was theescutcheon of the Escorial monastery, signifyingthe dedication of the controlling HieronyrniteOrder to the banner of St. Lawrence, a Christianpriest who in A.D. 258 had been martyred by theRoman Emperor Valerian by being roasted on agrill, or parrilla.Synonym, in part: simbolo laurentino

pasadorStrainer or colanderSynonym: coladero

pastaPaste or body claySynonym: barro

peana

pateraSmall earthenware saucer or dishSynonym, in part: plato, platillo

PaternaThis pottery center, located near Valencia, is

now abandoned, but excavations made early inthis century and several private collections haverevealed a tremendous assortment of some 24tons of ceramics dating from the r yth throughr yth centuries. One reason for the impressivevolume of recovered sherds and restorable ves­sels was the obligation for local potters to dumptheir wasters into huge pits. One entire salaof theGonzalez Marti ceramics museum housed in thePalacio del Marques de Dos Aguas in Valencia isdevoted to the display of some of the most repre­sentative pieces. Another fine collection is at theMuseo de Bellas Artes in Barcelona. ObviouslyPaterna was a thriving production center for avery long time.

Forms are restricted mainly to jars and plates.The emphasis was upon appealing designs ingreen and purple-brown at first, applied beneath aglaze coat which they penetrated from below andlater brushed over a creamy white glazed back­ground which offered a fascinating medley ofMedieval Gothic and Islamic patterns. The pot­tery was mass produced without the focus uponconspicuous consumption characteristic of laterceramics made in the same immediate locality bydescendants of the Paterna potters.

Either Paterna ceramics influenced those ofcentral Italy through extensive Aragonese tradeconnections or both areas shared a similarceramic background inherited from Muslimsources. Forms and color schemes of tin glazedwares from the two regions were comparable.Design motifs differed.

patitoMexican term for cockspurSynonym: caballito, oicole

patronPattern used for decorating ceramics

peanaVessel base

The base, or foot, of a vessel has structural andaesthetic importance. It must provide stabilityregardless of vessel size and contour, unless theobject is meant to be suspended in some way orsupported in a rack, and it should add a visually

pedaceria 69 Pesaro, Tomas de

pleasing line to the total effect. The engineeringaspect was the only important consideration forutility types.

Spanish-tradition potters approached the ves­sel foot in many ways. Common utility forms­dnforas, ollas, tinajas-remained tapered orround bottomed through the continuum from ther jth through rSth centuries. They had to besecured by being pushed into dirt floors or nestedinto racks of some sort. Morteros were left withvery heavy bases so that grinding motions wouldnot tip the vessel. Picbeles, jarros; bandejas,braseros, bacines usually were flat bottomed. Forvessels meant for special use or display, such asjarras, candeleros, tazas, or fruteros ; tall pedestalfeet often were thrown which imparted a suitableelegance of profile. A/bare/os, orzas, and otherforms derived from the cylinder usually rested ona low trimmed ring foot. The broad heavy ringfoot was typical of the cuenca bowl because itswidely flaring walls required a heavy base forstability. Frequently the ring on this and the Mus­lim made platowere pierced with a hole so that, inhomes typically without cupboards, the vesselsmight be hung on room walls for display andprotection. Platos derived from Gothic predeces­sors, such as the earliest examples seen in theCaribbean, had no defined foot but rested on aflattened base usually exhibiting a central con­vexity. This imparted a heavy cumbersome ap­pearance to the form which was eliminated asItalian styling calling for trimmed ring feet wasadopted. In order to remain faithful to the mod­els, vessel shapes taken from metal examples­tinteros, sa/eros-sometimes had small claw orball feet.Synonym, in part: repie

pedaceriaBatch of potsherdspedazo: fragmentSynonym: tiestos

pedaiioMexican term for lid of saggar

Such a covering was unflanged and merely saton top of the walls of the bottom part of thesaggar. Not all saggars had lids. The bottom partof one saggar provided a covering for a saggarplaced beneath it.

pellaPellet

This term must be read in context because it

may refer to a mass ofcrude ore or to balls of clay,shaped and ready to throw.Synonym, in part: bala, tallo

perfilProfile

In ceramic literature the word perfilmay meaneither the contour of a vessel or the outline of adesign.

perinolaPear or top-shaped ornament; finial

Ceramic finials for entrance gatesor roof tops, decorated by cuerda secamethods, are known from the 14thand r yth centuries in Sevilla. Suchobjects were replaced at a later dateby metal ornamentation.

The same form is occasionally de­scribed as a table ornament, or sabre­mesa.Synonym: perilla; remate

perladoPearl colored

This description was used for a light blue glazedtype made at Puebla late in the rBth century andinto the roth century.Synonym: aperlado ; cotor de perla

peruleroWide bellied, narrow mouthed pitcher or jar

One documentary reference from Sevilla men­tions a I 575 sale of botijas peru/eras for the flotabound for Tierra Firrne.Synonym, in part: botija, piche/

Pesaro, Tomas deTomas de Pesaro (Tommaso de Pesaro) was

one of a number of Ligurian potters who movedinto the Sevilla area about the middle of the rorhcentury, where they were responsible for a newsurge of activity in the production of hollow warebased upon Renaissance colors and decorativemodes. Tomas and two brothers had been trainedin the workshops oftheir father, Francesco, set upin 1528 in Genoa. This/abrica concentrated uponpatterns and colors, also being used contem­poraneously at Venice, which owed much toNear Eastern and Oriental models. They espe­cially liked fine lined, dark blue arabesques onblue to blue grey grounds. In Sevilla Tomas andan Italian partner purchased the old palace ofFernando Colon, the scholarly illegitimate son ofthe Admiral, for a pottery. Although their pro-

pestaria 70 pila bautismal

picbeleria: place where picbeles aremadepicbelero: maker of picbelesSynonym, in part: jarro de pica

piedrade GuanajuatoMexican term for hematite

In firing, this iron oxide produceda red-brown color which was em­ployed instead of manganese to out­line design elements. The source isassumed to have been Guanajuato,

piedra de molerGrinding stone, such as that used in mills to pul­verize minerals

piedra MexicanaMexican name for millstone used in grindingmineral pigments for maiolica decoration

pila bautismalBaptismal font

Vessels used in SpanishCatholic churches of the r sthand 16th centuries as con­tainers for water needed inbaptismal ceremonies typi­cally were monumental, leadglazed, heavy bowls exhib­iting bas-relief or appliquedbands near the rim area orspread over the entire body.They rested on tall supportingpedestal bases similarly deco­rated. Interestingly, such reliefornamentation had its origin inmudejardesign grammar. Asidefrom numerous known exam­ples in Toledo, Granada, and Sevilla, a compa­rable pila bataismal has been found in the en­virons of Mexico City and at least four are knownin the Canary Islands. The Mexican example bearsa date of 1599. The Canary Island specimens arethought to have reached there from Sevilla sometime between 1499 and 1539. Documents showothers were ordered for 16th century churches inthe Caribbean and Tierra Firme. A Sevillian ollerois listed as having sent two piles verdes to SantoDomingo in 1509. By the middle of the 17thcentury such ceramic pilas were prohibited byecclesiastical leaders who preferred them to bemade of marble or other stone such as tecale oronyx.

ducts have not yet been identified, a transferencefrom Genoa to Sevilla of their known methodsand styles was probable. The documents concern­ing the establishment of this industry list amongthe interesting properties two slaves, Juan negroand Manuel yndio. Pesaro pottery may havereached the New World in return for a nativeAmerican.

pestaiiaFlange of a vessel

This is usually a strip of clay extending below alid surface which fits the inside diameter of a jarand thus holds the lid in place

Piccolpasso, CiprianoPiccolpasso was a 16th century Italian military

engineer who wrote a treatise on contemporarymaiolica making. His three books and drawings,whose texts were translated into English bymembers of the Victoria and Albert Museumstaff, provide a valuable reference for methodsand materials in use in 16th century Italian work­shops. Because of similarity in end products, it isassumed that many Spanish procedures werecomparable, if not identical.

picaSpout; cutting tool

The most typical spout appearing on Spanishceramics of the Islamic period through the rSrhcentury is a small, triangular piece of clay looselyfolded and attached horizontally at or near rimline. Visually it resembles a bird's bill or beak,hence the name. Probably this form of spout wasinspired by Near Eastern ceramic or metal pro­totypes.

Long curved tubular spouts attached on lowerbody walls occur but are not common. Pulled orcompressed spouts without a sloping pouringedge are seen on later examples of Spanishmaiolica. It was this variation which was mostoften used by Mexican potters.

Pica also was the name for the tool used incutting pieces of tile to make alicatados.Synonym, in part: rostra

picbelPitcher; mug

The usual Spanish pitcher isround bodied and tall necked. Itmayor may not have a pulled orlobed pouring spout.

pila de agua bendita 71 pipa

An enormous beautiful carved wooden retablein the Granada cathedral, dated about r 520, de­picts such a pita bautisma/ being used during theenforced baptism of the Moors defeated theretwenty eight years earlier.

Another form ofpita bautisma/, also sometimesdescribed as an escudi/la doble or sopero, is moreoften associated with 17th and r8th centurymaiolica. It was a bowl base of much smallerdiameter than that of the earlier period, toppedwith a high conical lid bearing a central knob. Thisparticular version of baptismal font is not found inMexico, probably having been replaced there bymore elaborate stone or metal vessels.

The same shape of vessel is also noted amongceramics of the Spanish Muslim periods, when itmust have served other needs. Perhaps a clue tothis is seen in roth century Moroccan utilizationof the same form for the ceremonial serving ofbutter and honey or clabbered milk. It wouldappear that this was a special vessel form to bothChristian and Islamic users.

pita de agua benditaBenitier, or holy water stoup

In all Catholic churches such avessel is located near the entrancewhere the faithful may dip theirfingers prior to prayer. Such vesselsalso are found in private homes nearsmall shrines.

Typical Spanish pi/as are composed of flat slabsof clay, designed to be fastened to a wall, with asmall half-bowl for the water attached near itsbase. During the r8th century in Spain andMexico these vessels became baroque, with re­ligious imagery such as modeled figures of Christon the Cross, angels, or saints framed byarchirec­tural features adorning the slab above the waterbowl. Bright polychrome colors added to thegaudy appearance of these pi/as.

In modern Morocco vessels ofthis type are saidto hold soap used in Muslim ablutions.Diminutive: pi/etapi/a: sink, basin, trough, fountainSynonym: acetre, benditera

pilOnPounding mortar

As a first step in preparing clay to be used bypotters, chunks of the raw material were placed invery large deep mortars or stone lined pits where

they were broken up and pulverized with heavywooden poles.

pi/on secaderoDrying tank where washed clay was decantedsecar: to dry

pimporroTerm used in Estremadura for spouted Jar orbotijo

pincelPaint brush

Maiolists of Spain and Mexico derived thematerials for such brushes from various animalhairs such as those of dogs, horses, even rats.These hairs were then shaped and fastened to ahandle of some sort. Decorators had their favor­ites and passed them on to heirs.

pinta a/ crudoProcess of painting decorations in mineral oxideson to unfired glaze base

Because of the rapid absorbency of unfired tinglaze, the decorators had to be very sure handed.It was impossible to remove errors short of re­moving the glaze with water and allowing thevessel to dry prior to proceeding. On occasionhoney or gum arabic was mixed with pigmentsolutions to enable brushes to move moresmoothly over vessel surfaces. Smalldesigns werepainted freehand after a standard pattern hadbeen worked out by the maestro. Larger elementswere outlined with a pounched pattern and thenfilled in./oza pintada: painted pottery

pintura de borr6nSketched design

This refers to the process of roughing out thetotal design prior to filling it in with colors. It canalso mean an outlined style.Synonym, in part: aborronado

pipaPipe or wooden cask for storing wine or oils

Enormous amounts of wine, essential toSpanish diets, were shipped across the Atlanticduring the colonial period in two kinds of con­tainers. The small one was the earthenware tina­ja, which unless glazed on at least one surface,allowed its contents to seep out. The other wasthe pipe, which unless stoutly bound, also seeped.Suppliers of pipes for Columbus's Second Voy­age, for example, included inferior kegs which

piquera 72 plato del cordoncillo

oozed or sprang leaks, causing their contents tosour before they could be consumed. Althoughthe word pipa also was used as a liquid measure­ment, the actual capacity of casks varied. In En­gland a pipe was standardized at two hogsheads,or 105 imperial gallons.

piqueraWick opening in clay or metal oil lamps

pisaBlock of wedged claypisador: wedger of claypisar: to tread onSynonym: pella, masa

pisanoOf Pisa

This term is seen in several contexts. Becausethe Italian tiler, Francisco Niculoso, signed someof his panels with the name EI Pisano, allsmoothed maiolica tiles produced after his timecame to be called pisanos, to distinguish themfrom the earlier relief surfaced cuenca tiles. Inaddition, pisano (or de pisa) served as a sort ofgeneric term for Italian pottery in general,whether it was actually made at Pisa or not.Perhaps this resulted from the importance ofPisan ships, which for centuries had called atSpanish ports with the goods of the eas~ern

Mediterranean, or Pisan merchants who residedin Spanish cities such as Sevilla. The same situa­tion prevails with the commonly used phrase lozade venencia which identified Italian pottery asVenetian on basis of style, though it actually mayhave originated at a center like Genoa wherecomparable motifs and colors were used.

placaPlaque

Wall plaques of polychromed pictorial scenescomposed of a dozen or more tiles set contigu­ously were popular in rSth century Spain andMexico. Occasionally they were framed withborders of monochrome shaped tile.Synonym: tablero

planelletValencian term for potter's wheel headSynonym: cabeza

plantillaPattern; mold

A stamp of fired clay or wood called a plantillawas used to impress designs on leather hard or

slightly softer vessels, such as the large win~ed

amphorae characteristic of r sth century Sevilla,Granada, and Toledo.

plastictdadPlasticity

Plasticity is the property of clay which allo~s itto be manipulated without losing its cohesion,Generally the buff-burning clays with fairly finetexture are the most plastic. However, kaolinclays are low in plasticity, making the throwing ofporcelain more difficult than the throwing ofearthenware.

platoPlate

Plates, which in Spain are~known only among glazed~wares, may be defined as open,shallow, usually circular vessels~of variable diameter. In early~16th century Sevilla and Mexico the plate usuallyhad a concave center, sometimes accented bya low raised boss, widely flaring rims, and notrimmed ring base. It probably represents thegrowing custom ofindividual rather than c?mmu­nal dishes and served as an all-purpose eating ves­sel for liquids as well as solid foods. Gr.aduallycenters flattened, rims became more horizontal,and ring bases were customary. By the rSth cen­tury the sharp angle between interior center andrim disappeared. Late in that same century manyplates were flat bottomed, moldmade, and werewithout a ring base.

Plates are defined frequently in terms ofantici­pated functions, i.e, bread and butter plate, saladplate, dessert plate.Diminutive: platilloAugmentative: plat6nValencian vernacular: platsSynonym, in part: alai/or, flamenqailla, patera

plato del cbaparro . .Talaveran plate of r rth and rSth cenrunes typi­cally decorated in polychrome colors with a sceneof a bridge over a river and trees in thebackground

plato del cordoncillo .Manises lusterware plate of r yth century bearingraised rib pattern radiating out spoke fashionfrom a central raised circle

Often scattered small bosses were placedwithin the wheel. The plates themselves were

plato del pino 73 policromo

molded by a jigger and jolly method but the ribswere applied as not-tao-liquid slip.cordoncillo: rib

plato delpinoTalaveran plate of 17th and rSth centuries typi­cally decorated in polychrome colors with pinetree motif

plomoLead

Lead has many qualities which make it impor­tant to potters creating glazed wares. It is widelydistributed in quantity around the world. It meltsat a low temperature, is suitable for use on manytypes of clay, and is easily stained with mineraloxides such as copper and iron. For at least twomillenia it provided the dominant flux for mostglaze solutions known in the Western world. Itwas needed in considerable quantity by an activepotter, one Italian potter, for example, being re­corded as having purchased 13,415 pounds oflead in the single year of 1518.

Southern Spain lacked workable deposits oflead, which necessitated importation from else­where, possibly the Near Eastern Levante. Vene­tian ships appear to have been the main transport­ers of this are, promoting the Valencian phraseplom de uenecia.

Mexico is rich in lead deposits, Nuevo Leonproviding most of the mineral during the rzthcentury. Humboldt stated that at the end of thecolonial period lead was being exported fromMexico to Spain.esmalte plomifero: plumbiferous glaze

plomo blancoAncient Spanish term for tin

plumearTo hatch or shade in painting

Filling elements with hatch lines was commonpractice in Talaveran work of the last half ofthe 16th century. After Talaveran decoratorsadopted Italianate design, shading of elementsand background by broad lightly applied brushstrokes was usual.

Mexican rnaiolists adopted neither the hatchedelement nor shading methods but did in the rSthcentury use two shades of blue. This might beconsidered estilo plumeado. That was a style oftencombined with estilo aborranado, whereby indi­vidual elements were outlined in manganese oriron solutions.

poblanoOfPuebla

The town of Puebla de los Angeles, unlikeMexico City, was not founded over the ruins ofanIndian capital, although it was located in a valleyhaving a large aboriginal population. It was a newsettlement laid out in a geometric Spanish planwith Spanish settlers, and it remained one of themost Castilian cities of Mexico. A characteristicregional art evolved nevertheless, which istermed poblano, notable for extensive use of ar­chitectural ceramics, brick, worked stone, andplaster. The chinapoblana costume is a clue to thefusion of cultural elements which was reflected inthe locally made maiolica.

pocillo •Cup used for drinking chocolate;demitasse

The pocillo form, especially char­acteristic of Mexican maiolicas butlikewise made in Spain, was a shortcylinder about 2 !Iz to 3 inches in height, withstraight or slightly everted lip and a tiny ring foot.Its walls often were eggshell thin. Although han­dled examples are known, it most often was with­out such an appendage. Pocillos have not beenidentified in the Mexican ceramic sequence priorto the r rth century, but during the next century,when mass production of tableware was prac­ticed, they were made by the thousands. This fact,plus their fragility, makes them among the mostcommon colonial ceramics now found.

The pocillo form obviously was inspired byChinese tea cups, which also came to Mexico intremendous volume, nested together in heavychests which were placed as ballast in the holds ofthe Manila galleons. Tea did not become a popu­lar drink in Mexico. The cup was used for a nativebeverage, the old Nahuatl chocolatl.Synonym: pozeelo

policromoPolychrome

The use ofmore than one decorative color wastypical of Spanish ceramics from the time of theCordoban Caliphate in the roth century whencopper green and manganese purple-brown firstappeared on local ceramics. Polychromy con­tinued through the Nasrid period, often beingcobalt blue and silver and copper oxides. Onhollow ware the use of monochrome blue typicaloflate r yth century and much ofthe 16th century

polvo azul 74 porcelana

gave way to polychromes of blue, green, brown,yellow, and orange in various combinations, thelatter two colors having been introduced fromItaly. As time passed, greens and yellows definedby brown came to be identified with Puente delArzobispo, but they also were important in allother areas.

Polychromes appear among the first waresthought to have been made at Puebla, usuallyblue with touches of yellow and orange. In ther rth century an Italianate palette of blue, yellow,orange, green, and black became typical for onetype and blue and black for another. During thenext century a multicolored type was continued,but the century was notable for blues on white,which in many cases was also a polychrome be­cause two shades of blue were accented withblack-brown. At the end of the rSth centurythere was a revival of interest in the green­yellow-brown group of colors, paralleling that inSpain, and in the next century bright poly­chromes became usual.

polvo azulMexican term for dry cobaltpoloo: powder

poloeristaOne who prepared pigments

pomoVial; flagon

This form was a small bottle with stopper, usu­ally of a slightly exotic shape. It was designed tobe used for perfume, oils, and other specialliquids. Such vessels were most typical of the rSthcentury when Bourbon French court life encour­aged use of luxuries.Synonym:frasco •

poncberaPunch bowl

Very large hemisphericalbowls, which mayor may not have been used forpunch, were typical of r rrh and rSth centurywork at Talavera and rSth century work atPuebla.poncbe: punch

porcelanaPorcelain

Porcelain is a translucent, vitrious, high firedware created from kaolin clay and feldspathicstone. It was being made in China by the 9th orloth centuries, or in terms ofSpanish history, the

period of the Cordoban Caliphate. The main in­gredient necessary for its manufacture, thewhite-firing clay, was not identified in Europeuntil the beginning of the rSth century, althoughsome kaolin had been in use there as a powderwith which to dust wigs. At first a closely guardedsecret of Saxony, whose ruler had once impris­oned its discoverer to force him to attempt toartificially make gold, the process for producingporcelain spread throughout Europe. In additionto the kaolin, it was realized then that a new styleof kiln was essential in order to achieve the hightemperatures needed to mature porcelain pastes.

The effect on local ceramics of the forms anddesigns associated with Ming porcelains broughtto Europe in volume after the r yth century wasdramatic in all western countries. But Spanishmudejar design had already assimilated manyOriental concepts as they had filtered through theNear East, which long previously had been indirect touch with China. Therefore, change inceramic design during the European craze forchinoiserie was not as marked in Spain as in manyother places. Much of this latter-day Chineseinfluence came to Spain second hand throughDelft, Portuguese, French, and Italian interpreta­tions of vessel forms, some specificelements, andprevailing ideas ofdivisions offield. Naturally theresults were diluted. Furthermore, although ac­tual importation of Ming and Ch'ing vessels intoSpain and orders for Chinese products by Spanishnobility are known, there is surprisingly littleChinese porcelain still to be seen there. It wouldappear that the amount of Oriental porcelain inSpain did not equal that bought and sold inneighboring countries. Porcelain was not made inSpain itself until the second half of the rSrh cen­tury.

Ming porcelains had a more obvious effectupon Mexican maiolica because of the Manilagalleon operating through Acapulco after 1573.By the middle of the 17th century Puebla pottersmaking fine grade wares were involved in emulat­ing Eastern styles, probably because their ownmarket was in jeopardy due to the amount ofimported porcelain and also because of steadilydeclining trade and inspirational contact with themother country. Not only was there wholesalecopying of patterns and forms, but the blue onwhite theme identified with Chinese work of thetime dominated Mexican maiolicas for over 100

years. Indigenous tastes and aptitudes, as well as

75porosidad

raw materials available and kiln type in use,caused local Chinese-like ceramics to retain theirown uniqueness. No true porcelain was made incolonial Mexico, although some kaolin now isknown there.

No local maiolica copies of Chinese porcelainstyles ever were created in Guatemala, Panama,or Peru, even though all received much porcelainthroughout the Spanish period.

Ming and Ch'ing porcelains were a major kindof ceramics traded to all frontiers of the Spanishcolonial empire. Much of it went as contraband.The Viceroyalty of Peru theoretically was ex­cluded from the Oriental trade, but ships out ofCallao laid off Acapulco harbor to transfer Manilagoods for southern markets. Chinese porcelainsof the 17 th and rSth centuries still are ratherplentiful in both Mexico and Peru in spite of thereported smashing at the time ofindependence ofmany pieces in the mistaken belief that the lionfigures in some designs were part of the royalcrest of Spain. Also in existence in Mexico aresome fifteen to twenty crested dinner services ofporcelain made on order in the rSth century.

porosidadPorosity

Porosity is the quality of being permeable byliquids. In ceramics, it is related to hardness anddegree of vitrification. There is a 4 to 10% po­rosity in most unglazed earthenwares, a charac­teristic which makes it useful for the cooling ofliquids through evaporation.

porronEarthenware jug, usually with spoutSynonym, in part: botijo

portValencian term for kiln mouthSynonym: boca

pot, poteDrug jarDiminutive: potecilloSynonym: albarela, bote, tarro de botica

pozaleJar attached to rope to draw water from a wellSynonym: poal (Valencian vernacular)

pozueloIn colonial Mexico pozuelo was a variant of the

wordpocillo, or small cup. It was made in varioussizes, with and without handles, although the size

prensada

without handles suitable for clasping easily in onehand was most typical. It was a form copied in theearly 17th century from Oriental models, andappears to have superceded in part the angulartaza of Medieval origins. These cups probablywere the vessel form most commonly made in allgrades of Mexican ware. For example, an inven­tory compiled in the late rSth century ofpropertyleft by one deceased potter at Pue bla lists 722dozenpozuelos ofvarious styles; for another pottera total of 3476 dozen pozuelos at two locerias and anadditional I 10 dozen pozuelo wasters.

Such cups were thin walled, delicate vesselswhich probably were numerous in all middle andupper class homes. Furthermore, they were incontinual use. Thus pozuelos, or fragments ofthem, are very common in archaeological de­posits of the Mexican colonial period. They alsoappear among Guatemalan forms made duringthe rzth and rSrh centuries and likely wereadopted directly from Puebla styling.

Similar vessels are known among Spanishmaiolicas of the same centuries but just howcommon they were cannot be determined untilarchaeology of house sites of those eras is under­taken. Although believed of original Chinesederivation, it may have been a vessel shape dif­fused to Spain via Mexico with a complex of cul­tural traits associated with the use of chocolate,rather than coming via Portugal or Holland withthe use of tea.

The wordpozuelo also means a small fountain ora ceramic vessel sunk into the ground to collectwater, as in a sump, or to collect wine at winepresses. However, these forms would not havebeen made and sold in the quantity noted in theinventories above.

preg6nPublic proclamation

The guild ordinances were announced by acrier, pregonero publico, so that everyone wouldknow them and thereby be bound to observethem.

prender el homoTo fire the kiln

prensadaPressed

Forms which were molded, usually with flutedsides, are described as prensad«.prensar: to press

procendencia 76 querubin

procendenciaOrigin; provenience

pucberaEarthenware jar

Although the exact shape is not certain, thecapacity of the form is said to have varied fromlarge (about 5 gallons) to small. A number ofregional names apparently indicate its varioussizes or manifestations: crecio, cuatreiio, deespanta,jarriero, mestizo.

pucberoCooking potSynonym, in part: cacerola, cazuela, ollaDiminutive: pucberito

Puebla de los AngelesThis city in central Mexico, founded in 153 I ,

was famous throughout the colonial eras for in­dustrial goods, including ceramics. Althoughcommon utility and lead glazed wares are knownto have been made at an early period at Puebla, itwas the maiolica which was to make the townceramically important. Apparently well beforethe end of the 16th century Puebla wasproducingseveral styles of maiolica hollow ware in sufficientquantities for limited colonial trade. During thenext century this activity was accompanied by athriving industry dedicated to manufacture ofmaiolica tiles. Throughout the 17th and rSth cen­turies Puebla maiolica was traded to all parts ofthe Spanish empire in the Western Hemisphere.In 1793 there were 46 locerias in production.Even so, the industry was in a state of declinewhich continued throughout the roth century.

Puente del ArzobispoLocated in Castile near Talavera, Puente del

Arzobispo had been a pottery center for a longtime prior to the 16th century. At that time pot­ters there came under the influence of those atTalavera and made types so similar that they can­not be distinguished. In 1645 Puente del Ar­zobispo is reported to have had 8 kilns in use. Acentury later the number had increased to 13.During the rSth century Puente del Arzobispomaiolica was known for its monterlas in a green­yellow-brown palette.

puncbeMexican term for the blue ground types of thelate rSth century and early 19th century, other­wise known as azul aperlado

punteadoDecorative style employing use of many dots

Dotted designs were common at Talavera andSevilla in the late 16th century, probably inspiredby Italian models. This mode spread to Mexico atthe end of the century and saw its fullest expres­sion during the r rrh century on a multicoloredtype. The use of dots to fill outlines of animalsalso might have been suggested by Ming spotteddeer, a very common motif of the Wan-Ii period.pinta: dotpuntear: to dot

puntitos oscurosPinholes

Pinholing was a frequent defect in Spanish­tradition maiolica glaze due in part to too high apercentage of borax or litharge.

punz6nAwl used to etch designs, such as veins of leaves,through a background color

[mqUerOIValencian term for plank on which[aI freshly thrown vessels were placedfor preliminary drying

querubinCherub

A motif of winged angel heads was one of themost characteristic elements of Renaissance art,itself derived from Early Christian art, which dif­fused to Sevilla. There it frequently appears onazulejos. For example, such a frieze surmounts theelaborate entrance to the Santa Paula churchdecorated by Francisco Niculoso and probablywas the first example of querubines to appear inSpanish ceramics. The same design was intro­duced to Talavera by Italian influenced Flemishcraftsmen when it was incorporated with fer­roneries on fat bodied orzas. Also at Talavera ani­mated wingless angels cavort through pictorial

quintal 77 realzado

landscapes, paisajes, or support crests, or as mod­eled figures, adorn some pitas. Occasionally thecherub figures wear a headdress and hence arecalled indios coronados.

With the exportation of Sevillian tile to manyparts of the colonial empire, the querbin traveled.It was a motif especially prominent on Sevilliantile dados in churches and the Torre Tagli palacein Lima, where it has been duplicated by localartisans in making restorations following earth­quake damage.

Even though they were more removed fromthe full brunt of Renaissance conventions and bythe rzth century had become a culturally andracially mixed group, Mexican maiolists adoptedwith very little perceptible modification an as­sortment of Italianate motifs, particularly ex­pressed in tile panels. Thus the winged querbinappears on r rrh and r8th century tiles, both aspainted and relief figures. Its Mexican rendition isindistinguishable from its Spanish counterparts.The nude full view angel seldom was copied.

quintalUnit of measurement of approximately roopounds

Such units were used to gauge shipments ofores for the manufacture of glazes and pigments.

mJ] rajolesTile

This was a Valencian term forR rile, CU, into squares, triangles,stars, crosses, or other geometrical

shapes and combined into mosaics in pavements.Later in Catalufia rajoles became a term for glazedtiles with genre drawings of craftsmen at work orlife as it was then being lived, many of which

enliven the floors of guild halls. This sourcetherefore reveals something about the ceramictools in use, the way work proceeded, and thepotters themselves.

Rajoles enjoyed great popularity throughoutSpain in the r8th century. They represent theonly Cataluiian ceramic style which had anyinfluence in Mexico, perhaps passed there viaSevilla. But it should be noted also that at midcentury Cataluria was at last permitted to engagein the carrera de lndias. In Spain and in Mexico acomplete design of this Cataluiia category wasrepresented on a single tile or required groups ofmany tiles. One fine Mexico City home of ther8th century had a series of such tile panels de­picting the duena, the butler, the gardener; andthe washer woman. Because ofa background pat­tern known to have been used by maiolists work­ing in Mexico City, it is believed these panelswere the work of some shop located there. How­ever, another well known group of large animatedhuman figures on tile panels is mounted on thesecond and third story facades ofa colonial homein Puebla. They are said to have been placed thereto mock forever the municipal officials who pro­tested the building of this palace. Also of interestare individual tiles with short legged figures hav­ing unusually large heads drawn in caricature, orgrotescos. These are taken directly from Barcelo­nian models.

ramilleteroVase or plate used as a centerpieceramillete: bouquet, common motifin r8th centurySpain and Mexico

rasgueoPattern formed by fine lines

The filling of elements with fine lined parallelhatchure was a common device in late r6th cen­tury Talaveran work. Orange was the usual colorso used, outlines of elements being dark grey blueor manganese purple-brown.Synonym: bacburado; sombrear con lineas

realzadoRaised or embossed; highlighted

On Puebla maiolica of the r8th century muchof the dark blue decoration was applied so thicklythat it appears in some reliefon the vessel surface.A lighter tone of blue was used to enhance orhighlight the main darker blue theme. These twoapproaches to design, which may be called real-

recipiente 78 reverso

zado, were referred to in guild ordinances con­cerning copies of Chinese porcelain patterns.realzar: to highlight, to emboss

recipienteGeneric term for vessel or container; vessel body

redondaRound bodied large jug, usually lacking handles

rejlejo metdlicoLusterware

Lusterware was a specialized version of maio­lica whereby, after the white tin glaze and occa­sionally cobalt blue designs were fired, an overlayin silver and copper oxides, plus sulphur and redor yellow ochre suspended in vinegar, waspainted on the vessel. A third firing at low temp­erature ensued in a mufflekiln producing a reduc­tion atmosphere. The ochre was rubbed off afterfiring, leaving a metallic sheen.

Apparently introduced from Egypt, the lustertechnique reached an apogee in Spain amongNasrid craftsmen working at Malaga during therarh century and was the highest accomplishmentin Hispano-Moresque ceramics.

Manises assumed leadership in lusterware pro­duction during the r yth century, a trend fur­thered by the absorption of Muslim potters anddecorators after the fall of Granada in 1492. Thenames of more than 100 potters making luster­ware there during the 14th and r yth centuries areknown. Just as the racial composition of the pot­ting force was mixed, so did design patterns be­come a hybridization of Islamic and Gothic ideas.By the 17th and rSth centuries workmanship wasperfunctory as'demand for the ware declined inthe face of the rise of porcelain.

The development of lusterware demonstratesthe heights to which lowly earthen materialscould be taken by skilled craftsmen, who appar­ently initiated such work under a religious pro­hibition against the use of vessels of preciousmetals. It also reflects a materialistically orientedsociety willing to support a craft destined to pro­duce items for a very limited clientele.Synonym: Hispano-Moresque, loza dorada, obrade MaNcha

RenacimientoRenaissance

Not until the Italian Renaissance movementwas nearly a century old did it begin to make itselffelt along Spain's southern shores. About 1500

architecture, pamting, sculpture, and ceramicswere slowly beginning to move out of the Gothicpast under the influence of Italian artists andcraftsmen who were encouraged to settle there bya royal exemption from taxes. In Sevilla one ital­ian tiler early in the 16th century and a group ofItalian potters in the last half of the centurybrought about a dramatic change in maiolicastyles, while at the same time the Italian Renais­sance was being introduced to Castilian pottersvia Flemish artisans. Similar undercurrents werefelt in the Levante and Caralufia, New more ele­gant vessel forms, new refined techniques formaking and firing glazes, new variations of color,and above all new humanistic drawing in pictorialsequences, composiciones pictoricas, brought notonly the Renaissance to Spanish ceramics but arenewed vigor to an old industry and a nationalappreciation for pottery. All of these factorsrapidly diffused overseas.renacentista: pertaining to the Renaissance

repisarTo work clay with the feet, as in original prepara­tion of the clay bodypisar: to tread on

reticuladaReticulated

Such a mode of decoration based on intricatenetwork oflines is found in much Muslim ceramicwork. It recurs on some Puebla maiolica.

ReusLusterware and later maiolica were made at

Reus, a small town in Cataluiia, apparently bymoriscos remaining there after the 1610 expulsionorder for that area. Styles had some similarities toItalian motifs, but workmanship was inferior.Forms were not those of the molded lusterwareexamples typical of Valencia.

reuersoUnderside of a vessel

At some periods reverse sides of flat formsreceived much attention from Spanish ceramicdecorators. It was a morisco custom, for example,to draw large animated animals surrounded byfronds or arabesques on reverses of lusterwareplates. Other contemporary devices were encir­cling lines or sets of graduated arched lines orcircles.

Apparently as a reflection of the use ofexteriorlotus panels on Ming porcelain plates or shallow

risco 79 San Lorenzo del Escorial

sabumadorVessel in which incense was burned

These were of variable shape and size, usuallyelaborate, as befitting the ceremonial use of in­cense. Often animal forms were modeled for thispurpose. One late Mexican form was a cup on asaucer, the cup having slotted sides.Synonym: incensario; perfumador

salSalt

Common salt, a royal monopoly, was added tosome massicots in place of other sodiums.

~~f;ocellar •In the r yth through r yth century

green and purple-brown wares ofPaterna such vessels were small bowls with wavyrims (abolladura). In r rth and rSth centuries theytypically became a small lidless jar or a tiny bowlset down into a short cylinder, occasionally withfour ball feet. Such a form was described as twopieces encaja, or inserted. Groups of three or fourattached bowls with a loop handle rising fromtheir point of junction occasionally served as saltcellars.

salseraVariously defined as a sauce boat or apothecaryjarsalsa: sauce, gravy

salvaderaSand box

During the colonial period it was customary todry ink by sprinkling fine sand, arenilla, on it. Acontainer for the sand, or other pounce material,most often was a small bowl. On occasion amolded square receptacle was used.

San Lorenzo del EscorialThis was a Hieronymite monastery within the

Escorial which was a main client of Talaveranmaiolica factories and is known to have placedorders for tiles and vessels from 1570 until theextinction ofthe Order. Among the hollow waresproduced to fulfill these contracts were manyvessels for the pharmacy located there. All were

bowls, Ligurian draftsmen drew casually overlap­ping arcades on their blue ground type, which inturn were copied by Spanish and Mexican makersof blue wares in the late 16th century. Such acustom of exterior blue arched lines on shallowbowls was revived on a blue on white varietymade at Puebla in the late rSth century.

riscoMexican baroque monument characteristicallydecorated with porcelain sherds

A well known risco in the San Angel district ofMexico City, located in the patio of an rSth cen­tury residence, contains an extravagant display ofporcelain fragments mortared next to a widerange of rSth century Puebla maiolica sherds andcomplete vessels.

rocallaRocaille

A style of ornamentation based on shape ofwater worn rocks and shells was typical of rSthcentury art, inspiring the term Rococo. De­veloped by French masters, this style was widelyadopted by rSth century Alcoran and Talaveranpotters and ceramic decorators. Expressive of thevogue were moldmade forms with foliated rims,painted in airy, small scaled floral sprays. Late inthe rSth century Puebla potters copied theseshapes and designs, which had their originalsource in Chinese porcelains.

rodetaBanding wheel on which vessels could be turnedwhile being decorated.

rostroPouring spoutSynonym: pico

ruedaWheelSynonym: torno, the preferred term for potter'swheel

ruloMillstone, used for grinding raw clay, which wasturned by mules or oxen

sachenRaised area at rear of fuel chamberin Valencian kiln on which wereplaced minerals to be calcined andvessels to be bisqued

Santa Cruz Oyanguereny Espinola, Diego 80 servicio

decorated in what has been called an estilo es­curialense, which amounted to an elegant in­terpretation of vogues current at various periodsbut which were rhrought suitable for royal pa­trons. The tall wasp waisted albarelos with domedlids are particularly handsome with their usualcrowned insignia of the grid of St. Lawrence (SanLorenzo) characteristic of the Escorial. laterworks also displayed the names of leading priors.

The monastery building itself provided an ar­chitectural motif which was drawn in perspectiveon fine vessels of the r rrh and rSth centuries.

Santa Cruz Oyangueren y Espinola, DiegoAn rSrh century master potter at Puebla, this

artisan was such an outstanding decorator that heclaimed to have been the inventor of Chinesedesign on Mexican ware, a statement which doesnot appear accurate inasmuch as the earliestChinese-style patterns seem to date in the lastseveral decades of the r rth century and in factwere referred to in the guild ordinances of thatperiod. Nevertheless, he said in a petition to theauthorities that his work was so fine it could notbe distinguished from that ofChina andJapan andit had brought him fame throughout the entireViceroyalty of Nueva Espana. This success didnot prevent him from getting into trouble overguild infractions.

Santa Cruz Oyangueren served as guild alcaldefive different years. Upon his death, he ownedthree houses, another under construction, andtwo pottery workshops. This would seem toconfirm his claim to fame.

Santas Justa and RufinaPatron saints of Spanish and Spanish colonial

potters, also called Santas Alfareras, Justa andRufina were two Christian potters who lived inRoman Sevilla in the 3rd century. They werecrucified by being racked and strangled for refus­ing to sell their vessels for the benefit of somepagan rites.

Some time after the Reconquest of 1248, pot­ters of Sevilla were organized into a cofradiaunder the banner of SaintsJusta and Rufina. Thesame name was given to the Sevillian hospitalwhere potters were treated. Thus there is an in­teresting passage of culture from the Romanperiod of a millenium earlier to Christian work­shops, where many of the craftsmen were stillMuslims. A similar cofradia later was establishedin Talavera in the Convento de la SantisimaTrinidad. The saints' day was July 19.

By the r rth century potters ofMexico City andPuebla also are known to have been organizedinto a cofradia taking its name from those twoladies and celebratingJuly 19 with special obser­vances. The San Marcos church, built between1643 and 1675, was the headquarters of thePuebla group. The Mexico City cofradia wasat the Santa Veracruz church.

Santiago de los CaballerosThe seat of the Audiencia of Guatemala (mod­

ern Antigua) was the home of a prosperous soci­ety which for several centuries supported a smallpottery industry. Some tiles were imported fromSevilla, and some hollow wares made their waysouth over the long camino realfrom Puebla. Butmost local needs for ceramics appear to have beensatisfied by Guatemalan artisans. The variety ofvessel forms made was considerable, but concernwas for functional rather than display objects.After developing a limited stock of simple 17thcentury patterns for use on tin glazed pieces,borrowed with few modifications from Sevilla,these potters contented themselves for a verylong time with tiresome repetitions, a situationwhich, added to lack of Chinese influence andlack of the use of cobalt blue, must have been theresult of the geographical isolation of the high­land city. Santiago de los Caballeros was virtuallydestroyed by earthquakes late in the colonial era,but a few potters remained there to carry on themaiolica tradition.

sazonProcess of ripening clay necessary to increaseplasticity

secaderoDrying room

Green ware had to be thoroughly dry beforefiring, a matter of several days to several weeks,depending on thickness, size, and atmospherictemperatures. It was best to dry vessels slowlyin asomewhat humid atmosphere to prevent warp­ing. In Paterna the kiln chambers were put to thisuse when a load of vessels was not being fired.Synonym: sequir (Valencian vernacular)

seiialMaker's markSynonym: marca

seruicioSet of tableware; chamber pot

servidor 81 tablazon

seruidorChamber pot

servidoraServing bowl, usually for sweets

siliceSilica 0 r flint

The native silica content of the fine grainedquartz sand incorporated in lead and tin glazesolutions was essential in helping create a glassyfinish. Its presence in glaze also helped decreasedestructive thermal expansions.

smaltino (Italian)Greyish blue glaze produced by addition of smaltto tin glaze

Glazes of this color were typical of Ligurianpotteries in the last half of the 16th century. Theycovered plates and jars which were sold to mer­chants in Sevilla, who then exported some ofthem to the Indies.Synonym, in part: berettino (Italian)

sobadoThe state at which clay was ready to be formedinto balls for later usesobar: to knead

socarratTile

Typical of the end of r yth and beginning of16th centuries at Paterna, these tiles were large (c.14 inches square), thick, and meant to be used onceilings or other protected places. They werebisqued, covered with lime which was painted instrong tones of vermillion, blue, black, and occa­sionally yellow, and refired. Matte designs areinteresting depictions of current dress and cos­tumes.

In Valencia the word also means bisqued pot­tery in general.

soletaWooden potter's tool used during throwing pro­cess

sombrear con lineasTo shade with linesSynonym, in part: hachurado,plumeado

soperaSoup plate

The shallow plate with widely flaring sidesoften has been called a sopera, though that func­tion is merely inferential. However, stews werethe common way of cooking meat and vegetables,

and this form would have served well for thosefoods.

In colonial Nuevo Mexico this particular formwas one copied through hand building methodsby the Indian potters.

soperoTureenSynonym, in part: escudilla do­ble, pila bautismal

sumersionSubmersion

Vessels were glazed by dip­ping them into vats of liquidglaze. The outline of workers'fingers frequently remain where the liquid bathdid not reach the bisqued walls. Glaze was pouredinto larger forms, swirled around quickly by tip­ping the pot, and then poured back into the vat.Rapid but even application of glaze was essentialfor a smooth fired coat.

superficieVessel surfacesuperficie gallonada: surface with channeled deco­rationssuperficie movida: surface with manipulated con­tourssuperficie pintada: surface with painted decora­tions

Whether the first two design conventions arosefrom the development of molds for pottery mak­ing or whether molds were devised in order topermit such decorative treatments remains an un­answered question. Both altered vessel surfaces.Molds came into the mainstream of Spanish ce­ramics during Islamic periods and, with numer­ous stylistic modifications, have continued to thepresent day.

mtablaz6nPlanking

After vessels were thrown orT trimmed, they were removed tolong boards which could be carried

to drying areas. Racks to support such boards had

82tablero

a place in every pottery. Such planking is includedin property inventories.Synonym: querol (Valencian vernacular), tabla,tablaje

tab/eroPlaque

A scene composed of a dozen or more tiles tobe mounted contiguously on to wallswas atablero.The same term also was used occasionally forlarge maiolica tiles placed between ceiling beams.These did not have a unified single pattern.Synonym: placa

tagli (Italian)Italian term for clay prisms projected throughsaggar walls to support rims of stacked vesselsduring glaze firing

Such triangular shaped pins or prisms of clayapparently were not used customarily in MuslimSpain, though their use is suggested on Maniseslusterware plates as a means for holding themvertically rather than horizontally but without useof saggars. They are known from Talavera. Prismshave been recovered with other kiln furniture,including perforated saggars, from a late 16th orearly r rth century kiln at Panama Viejo. Under­rim scars resulting from use of supporting pins arenoted on Mexican maiolica types of the secondhalf of the 16th century.

tahonaMill for grinding frit

Talavera de la ReinaThis town, famous in Spain for her maiolica

pottery and tiles, is known to have been produc­ing such ceramics by 152I. Especially during ther rth century her styles spread to allother produc­tion centers in the country, including Sevilla,making positive identifications difficult. Withoutthe strong Moorish influence present at nearbyToledo or at Sevilla, Talavera artisans were morereceptive to the influences ofItaly, which came toher directly from Italy and indirectly from Flan­ders. Most typical Talaveran oeuvre were picto­rial designs taken from engravings and executedin a polychrome palette which made particularuse of greens and yellows. Very large baroqueforms characterized her peak development.

So identified with maiolicas was Talavera thatthe name has been applied to maiolica made inMexico. However, there is no evidence thateitherTalaveran craftsmen or any great amount of

talla

pottery from that source actually arrived inPuebla or Mexico City.

tallaSculpture

Maiolica sculptures, brought to a high level ofexcellence by the Italian Della Robbias of ther yth and 16th centuries, remained generally aliento the main Spanish ceramic tradition, thoughfrom time to time both bultos (free standingfigures) and bajorelieoes (bas reliefs) were at­tempted. Approximately contemporaneous withthe Della Robbia movement, a series of twelveApostles modeled in claywere made in Barcelonafor the Gerona cathedral. A similar group wasmodeled for the Sevilla cathedral in 1457, byLorenzo Mercadante, probably of Flemish ances­try. Polychromed or green lead glazedsantoswerefashioned for other churches. A ship's manifestfor 15°9 for a cargo going to Santo Domingo inthe convoy taking Diego Colon to his new post asgovernor contains a notation of 55 glazed images.In a style referred to asal romano were medallionbas reliefs of saints' heads in three-quarter profileglazed in white backed by a circular disk of cobaltblue sky.

In Mexico similar low relief friezes, as well asfigures in the round, were attempted. The SantoDomingo church in Puebla, next to what mayhave been the potters' barrio, was adorned with 3feet tall angels placed around the exterior of thecupola. These were nudes, glazed in white, with abright blue sash draped diagonally across theirbodies. Pottery inventories include references tosuch figures as San Miguel and a pedestal baseupon which to place him, San Josef, and SanCayetano. All these works lack the refinementachieved by sculptors using other media, plasterfor example, though they exhibit considerablemastery of pottery-making techniques.

In the rSth century Mexican rnaiolistsfashioned sculptures imitating Chinese, ratherthan Italianate models. Fo Dogs and tiny mono­chrome figurines copying Fukien examples areknown.

Decorative manipulation of clay appears morecommonly in Spanish-tradition ceramics asSolomonic handles on ornamental jars, modeledheads of animals or angels at points of handleattachment, or the maze of columns and figureson pilas de agua bendita.Synonym: escultur«, estatua, imagen, talladura

83tallador

talladorPlatter

In the Middle Ages large round plates wereused for carving and for communal serving, indi­vidual diners dipping into the contents with theirfingers and using a slice of bread as a plate. Indi­vidual plates were called talladorsiellos in Teruel.These platters appear in variable shapes, somewith deep wells, most with flat bottoms and hori­zontal rims.

In Valencian workshops the word referred toblocks of plastic clay awaiting final wedging.Literal meaning: a carver

tallerWorkshop

talloBlock of wedged clay to be used for throwingSynonym: bala, pella

tamizSieve through which clay was pushed in order toremove foreign materialstamizar: to sieve

tandaPit or deep mortar where raw clay was moistenedin order to clean it of foreign matter

tanque de decantacionTank for decanting water off clay during originalpreparation

tapa, tapador, tapaderaLid, cover

Lidded vessels, while not common in Spanishform repertoire do occur, these usually beingdrug jars, or large ornamental jars used for otherpurposes. The most frequent type lid is a domedcover, sometimes with an attached flat bottom,and a tiny knob.tapar: to covertapon: stopper, usually a cork or wad of cloth orleather

tareaAmount of work accomplished in a given periodof time, usually a day

This term is found in Mexican colonial assess­ments of goods on hand in potteries when ownersdied, always used in connection with green orbisqued wares. It is a gross measurement of pro­duction vessels-cups, jars, plates, etc.-such asthose turned out by apprentices or journeymento meet a daily standard.

taza

tarracetValencian vessel meant for the drinking of bever­ages

This was a small cylinder on a pedestal base.Usually two handles were added.Synonym, in part: copa, taza

tarroJar; drug jar

The tarrois a straight sided cylinder, sometimeswith a constricted neck and sometimes widemouthed. In the middle of the r yth century, theform appears in lusterware with a sharp highspout, or pico.Synonym, in part: albarelo , bote, taza

tasaRegulation; assessment

In regulated Spanish society price control wascustomary on all trade goods. Such official docu­ments were called tasas. One such tasa issued bythe Conde de la Puebla of Sevilla at the beginningof the 17th century lists the various kinds ofceramics for sale there and the set prices for them.This particular document reveals that Por­tuguese, English, Dutch, and Italian ceramicscompeted with Talaveran, Puente del Arzobispo,and Sevillian products. It also confirms the localimitation of Talaveran and Chinese styles, withthe latter costing twice as much as the former. Ofnote additionally is the fact that no wares fromAragon or Caralufia are mentioned as having beenfor sale in Sevilla at that time.tasacion: an appraisal or inventorytasador: guild appraiser, appointed by city officials

tauromaquiaArt of bullfighting

Bullfighting scenes were frequent designs onfine Talavera vessels of the r rth and rSth cen­turies and reappear as monterias in Sevilla. Sim­plified verions also occur on a few Puebla ex­amples.

tazaCup; small bowl

In early periods this wordusually seems to mean a pedes­tal footed cup or small bowl.The basal angle of the cupproper was sharp, and themouth was straight and wide.Such forms were made in Man­ises lusterware and later maio­licas, including those first

teja 84 tetera

brought to the Indies. In later times the typicaltaza had no pedestal base but was set on a low ringfoot. It was typically without handles. However,by the rSrh century, when coffee was widelyused, tazas tended to be taller, straight sided witha handle, and occasionallywere used with a sauceror shallow bowl. They retained more of a bowlappearance than contemporary pocillos, which inSpain sometimes had two handles and a saucerwith trembleuse, or socket. A Chinese form, theso-called rice bowl, which often was lidded, prob­ably contributed to changes in taza styling. Aninventory of Sevillian pottery for sale in the early17th century mentions tazas de frailes, perhaps inreference to decorative or ownership insignia ofreligious groups.

Mexicans seem to have preferred the handle­less Oriental taza without saucer. Its close rela­tionship with the poci/lo (pozuelo) form is indicatedin the lumping together of these two types ofvessels in property inventories.Diminutive: tacitaAugmentative: tazonSynonym, in part: albornia, bernegal,jicara,poci/lo

tejaCurved earthenware roof tile

These tiles, typical of much Mediterranean ar­chitecture, were formed over molds and taperedso that lower ends would fit over a tile laid fartherbelow on the roof. The makers of tiles were con­sidered in a classwith masons, that is, not potters.They were among the first artisans to come to theNew World in a group of colonists in 1493. Inspite of this beginning, as late as 1509 one shipcarried 3000 roof tiles from Sevilla to SantoDomingo and other vessels are recorded as hav­ing had similar cargos.tejado: tile rooftejar: tile or brick works

templarTo hit each bisqued tile with a river cobble so as tojudge by the sound created whether any trappedair bubbles would make the finished tile unser­viceable

tepalcateMexican term for potsherd

tequezquiteMexican term for sodium deposits

Such materials were formed through evapo­ration of saline lakes or waters trapped in de-

pressions. Lakes Texcoco, Zumpango, and SanCristobal in the Valley of Mexico had extensivesodium deposits about their shores, which wereused in colonial times, as today, for the manufac­ture of soap. There were similar beds in thePuebla valley, as well as to the north of the capitalwhere numerous bolsons trapped waters. There­fore, the two principal centers of maiolica pro­duction had easy access to carbonate of sodawhich was used in the formulation of blue anddark brown pigments, as well as comprising partof the massicot of the glaze. The tartar of leescreated in the extensive wine industry of An­dalusia or the salts from burned marsh grassesfrom the wastelands along the lower Guadal­quivir provided similar materials in Spain, thelatter also contributing to a thriving soap factoryin Sevilla.tequezquitera: refinery of sodium

terrazaGlazed two handled jarSynonym, in part: jarra

terreroPlace where raw clay was obtained; also a basketfor the carrying of the claySynonym, in part: cantera, barrero

TeruelTeruel, located in Aragon, was an active pot­

tery center during Medieval times, notable forvery large heavy forms. Contemporaneous to theactivities at Paterna, Teruel potters similarlyturned to green and purple-brown decorations, apalette they retained much longer than southernpotters. At Teruel there was a period ofdark bluedecorated pottery in the r yth century followedby a limited production of lusterware. Early workstrongly reflected a mudejar background, withmore refined throwing, glazing, and decoratingbeing evident. During the r rrh and rSth cen­turies a decline in all these aspects of the craftoccurred.

testerPlace where wasters and rubbish from kiln opera­tions were dumped

teteraTeapot

This was a Chinese form which found littleplace in Spanish-tradition ceramics, probably be­cause tea never became the popular beverage thatit did in English or Arabic countries. Interesting,

tibor 8S tinaja

however, is the fact that the Oriental tea cup wasuniformly adopted for the serving of chocolate.

tiborVery large jar with high shoul­ders tapering down to a rela­tively narrow base

The tibor is considered aChinese form which was copiedin fine wares made at Puebla.It also appears made in someTalaveramaiolicaof the 17th andrSth centuries. In the Orient itfrequently was used to store ginger. In Mexico, inaddition to being a show piece, the tibor was usedas a container for cacao beans and occasionallywas outfitted with a metal lid and lock.

In Cuba the word means a chamber pot; asecondary meaning in Mexico is a gourd cup.

tiestoPotsherd; flowerpot; in Chile, a bowl or basinSynonym, in part: cacharro, casco ,jardinera, maceta

tinaj«Large earthenware jar; a liquidmeasurement of about 12 ~ gal­lons

Obviously derived from theGraeco-Roman amphora, largetinajas were used extensively inthe Spanish world for storing ortransporting liquids such as wa­ter, wine, or olive oil, or for solidfoods such as garbanzos, olives,wheat, almonds, raisins, and so forth. Because ofthis function, they have been given the mis­nomer, "olive jar." Utility versions were massive,thick walled, strong ribbed, necked with a heavyorifice, thrown in sections luted together, andappear unglazed or lead glazed on one or bothsurfaces. Most appear to have been stopperedwith a wad of cloth, leather, or grass, although amore formal lid is indicated in a 1570 dowryinventory as tapadera de tinaja. They were madewithout handles, with one strap handle on theupper shoulder, or with a pair of such appen­dages. Three categories with temporal sig­nificancehave been suggested for Spanish tinajasreaching the New World, one dating from 1493to 1575, a second from 1575 to 1700, and a thirdfrom 1700 to 1830. By the end of the colonialperiod the word botella is used to describe usual

shipping containers for wine, though these mayhave been glass rather than ceramic. The bota wasthe characteristic leather wine bottle of Spain.

During the Islamic period some tinajas, whichhad heraldic impressions on shoulders and were aspecialty of Sevilla and Toledo, are reported asbeing large enough to hold 500 to 700 gallons,but generally in later periods they were meant tocontain about 12 gallons. This then became a unitof liquid measurement. However, modernexamples, such as those made at Colmenar deOreja, Castile, suggest that huge wine storage jarsmay have continued. These now hold up to 2000gallons, are 18 feet high, and require some 4000pounds of clay to make. They are formed in sec­tions carried to huge kilns on the backs of manymen. These tinajas presently are being replacedby cement tanks.

Smaller tinajas were used in pottery work­shops for the storage of paint solutions, and musthave seen similar function in all sorts ofdomesticand commercial activities. So ubiquitous was thetinaja that it was included in a variety of humblesettings by r rrh century Sevillianpainters, such asRebecca and Eliezar by Murillo or Apollo at theForge of Vulcan by Velasquez. One typical use wasfor the securing ofwater from a vendor (aguatero) ,carrying his supply in a stoppered tinaja strappedby the handle over his shoulder, who walkedthrough the streets of most Spanish towns. Thistheme was exploited by Velasquez in his TheWater Carrier of Seville, painted in 1618. Suchwater salesmen still are a common part ofMoroc­can market scenes.

The most distinctive secondary use of tinajaswas in building construction, their durability,round contours, and relatively light weight ascompared to other possible materials, makingthem useful in closing the space above the archesof roof vaulting in churches or providing sub­floor drainage. Potters in Triana periodically soldor donated such vessels, usually as wasters orbroken pots, for the building of vaults at theworld's largest Gothic cathedral still under con­struction in Sevilla at the time of the discovery ofAmerica. Potters in Barcelona supplied tinajas tomasons at churches there. Comparable usage hasbeen encountered in the New World at SantoDomingo and Oaxaca and undoubtedly occurredelsewhere. The number of tinajas coming to theAmericas, 3,000-4,000 on single ships in theflot«, means, in the days before returnable bottles,

tinta azul 86 tonel

a huge backlog of pots which must have beenreused in many ways, construction among them.

Very functional objects, Spanish tinajas havebeen encountered, whole or shattered, not onlyin Spain itself but from every area visited bySpaniards during their global explorations, fromthe South Pacific, throughout the New Worldempire, to Atlantic islands. Their fragments areexpectable artifacts in the hundreds of ship­wrecks which occurred during three centuries ofSpanish naval history.Diminutive: tinajuelaAugmentative: tinajontinajero: maker or seller of tinajasSynonym, in part: an/ora,olla,tenalla (Aragonesevernacular), tinaco

tinta azulCobalt; zaire

tintero •Inkwell

Vessels used to contain ink wereofa variety of shapes, some ofwhichwere thrown and some moldmade, all small. Cir­cular, hexagonal, rectangular, or square, they ap­pear generally to copy metal shapes with tiny ballor claw feet. The actual well for ink was a smallbowl or jar set down inside a larger outer ceramicframe or was merely a molded depression, rebun­dido, in the upper surface. The side walls,laterales,were latticed, incised, or decorated with paintedmotifs. In addition to the opening for the inkcontainer, the upper surface of the well had twoor more holes surrounding the central opening inwhich to fit quills (canon) used in writing. InMexico known examples generally are whiteedged with blue and appear to date in the rSthcentury.

In cultures with high percentages of illiteracysuch as Spain and her colonies, the knowledge ofwriting was identified with aristocracy, official­dom, or clergy. Hence most paintings of promi­nent persons typically included a table on whichwas placed atinteroand quill asmarks ofstatus. Assome Mexican paintings with such iconographyare of persons who lived there as early as the firsthalf of the 17th century, ceramic inkwells alreadymay have been part of the local repertoire.tinta: ink

Tolson de OroOrder of the Golden Fleece

This chivalric Order was founded by Philip the

Good of Burgundy in 1430, later approved byPope Eugene V. The badge was a lamb suspendedfrom an enameled ring of flint stones emittingflames. The mastership was in the hands of thesovereign. Therefore, in 1477 the Order cameunder the leadership of Maximilian of Austria,later Holy Roman Emperor. His grandson,Charles V, also Holy Roman Emperor as well asKing of Spain, in 1516 enlarged the originalgroup of 22 nobles to include 10 Spaniards. TheOrder, conceived as a tribute to the Flemish wooltrade to which Spain contributed much, was dedi­cated to defending King and Church. Philip IIcalled the last general meeting in 1559, but theOrder remained a Spanish institution until theHapsburgs died out at the end of the 17th cen­tury. The Austrian branch continued into thiscentury.

A few of Talavera's finest r rrh centurymaiolicas carry the Toison de Oro insignia. Thesewere special vessels commissioned by one of theelite members. The insignia is drawn as a chainencircling a personal escutcheon. At intervals onthe chain are ovoid elements representing flintstones from which curved plumes radiate out­ward. From the bottom of the chain occasionallyis suspended a tiny lamb figure.

ToledoOnce the center of a large Moorish population

and noted for its mudejarart, Toledo did not makenoteworthy pottery except for cuerda seca andcuenca tiles, the largepiles bautismales, and brocalesof the 15th and 16th centuries. In the 17th andrSrh centuries Talaveran patterns were copied atI I local potteries.

TonalaFine pottery clays present in the Tonala area of

Jalisco, Mexico, not far from Guadalajara, havemade this an important pottery making centerfrom aboriginal times. During the colonial periodmany red wares were produced in the vicinity insufficient volume to be exported back to Spain.The most well known types, which seem to haveevolved late, showed a regional fusion of someaspects of Spanish technology and pseudo-Indiandesigns. A grey unglazed body carried designs indark grey, brick red, and occasionally white. Tinglazed wares were not made.

tonelBarrelDiminutive: toneleteSynonym: barril

tornadizo 87 Trinitario

tomadizoSevillian name for a person who was culturally aMuslim but converted to Catholicism

Its meaning was comparable to the term con­verso applied to Jews who became New Chris­tians.Synonym, in part: moriscoLiteral meaning: turncoat

tomoPotter's wheel

A very important advancement in the makingof pottery, this is a mechanized devise consistingof a horizontal wheel head connected by means ofa vertical shaft to a larger, heavy horizontal wheelnear floor level which when propelled (usually byfoot action) provides centrifugal force to rotatethe upper wheel head. The potter's hands thus arefreed to mold the clay utilizing the thrust pro­vided. To judge from modern kick wheels in usein Spain, Mexico, and Morocco, the potter satslightly to one side of the head rather than di­rectly in front of it.

Potter's wheels have been in use in Spain fromthe Visigothic period. With the Islamic invasionsof the 8th century and the establishment of pot­tery making as a commercial craft, the wheel,called a tomo morisca, was universally adopted.Spanish technology introduced potter's wheels tothe New World as part of a complex of traitsassociated with pottery making. In the Americasit was standard in all Spanish workshops, butIndians who created vessels for home or villageconsumption continued hand and mold methodsin use for several thousand years before the ad­vent of the Europeans.

Pictures of Spanish potters at work in the 16thand later centuries show a wheel with its head attable height, the mechanism in fact being set intoa table or surrounded by planking on which torest tools. However, in modern Morocco allwheels, even those used for the throwing ofpieces later to receive tin glaze and polychromedecoration, traditionally are set in subterraneantrenches, with the head at ground level. The sur­rounding ground serves as a work table, even tohaving bowls of lubricating water or slurry re­cessed into the soil. Probably this was the typicalplacement of wheels in Moorish parts of Spainprior to the Christian Reconquest. Severalconfirmations of this suggestion are a 1786traveler's comment about a floor level potter'swheel in operation at Muel, Aragon, and pit

wheels still being used in the Fajalauza sector ofGranada and in the cave town of Guadix, both inthe area of the last Moorish kingdom in Spain andboth still retaining a strong Moorish flavor.tomeado: wheel turned, throwntornero: operator of potter's wheelSynonym: rueda

Torre del OroA faceted tower constructed in Sevilla by Al­

mohade builders in the years 1220-21 was lo­cated on the banks of the Rio Guadalquivir nearthe crossing to Triana. It is indirectly important inthe story of local ceramics because it is said for­merly to have been covered in part by goldentiles, now disappeared. Like the nearby Giralda,the Torre del Oro is a Sevillian landmark.

tramujiUtensil used in Spain in which to combine tin,lead, and sand to form frit

tribedeValencian name for cockspurSynonym: cabal/ito, tricole

TrianaThe industrial quarter of Sevilla, with a large

soap factory and many potteries, also was the partof town where most of the men involved in theAmerican trade lived. It was located across theRio Guadalquivir from Sevilla proper and wasconnected to it by a pontoon bridge. Out beyondthe houses were open meadow lands where manyof the potters owned small garden plots or vine­yards. In the same meadows was a large deposit ofred-burning clay which was reserved for the useof pottery guild members.

tricoleMexican term for cockspurSynonym: caballito, patito

trincberoTrencher

In ceramics this is a platter on which meat iscarved or served, Platters in Spanish ceramics areusually from rSth century contexts and aremoldmade, flat bottomed, often with foliatedrims.trincbar: to slice, carve meatSynonym: tal/ador

TrinitarioOrder of the Holy Trinity

The Trinitarian Order, founded in Rome in the

tupi 88 verde

12th century, was especially popular in Spain be­cause it was dedicated to the redemption of cap­tives from religious wars. It claimed to have freedover 900,000 Christian captives from Moham­medans, largely as a result of the Crusades. Itssymbol, which appears on numerous examples ofTalaveran maiolica, was the formee cross, or onehaving the ends cut off square.

tup!Catalonian name for small jar with lid and onehandleSynonym: ollete

WJullat compasatIuI Most expensive wore, made rn~~:ncian potteries

UrnThe urn generally is considered to be a vase

with a foot and occasionally ornamental pairedhandles. Such forms appeared late in the con­tinuum of Spanish-tradition ceramics as a result ofNeoclassical vogues.Synonym, in part: vasa

mvajilla, vasija

jVI Generic term foc hollow woreValladares, Fernando

Working in Sevilla in the late16th and first half of the 17th cen-

turies, Fernando and his son, Juan, gained fameby making many of the finest tile panels knownfor the period. They were distinguished in archi­val references with the phrase "maestros de hacerloza:" Their specialtywas flat surfaced polychrometiles with typical Renaissance patterns of wingedcherubs, grotesques, cornucopias, and foliage.One panel attributed to Fernando, presently inthe Museo de Bellas Artes in Sevilla, has a centralportrayal of the Sevillian potter-saints, Justa andRufina, standing before the Giralda. It is datedabout 1598.

Valladares tiles were exported to Peru andMexico.

vaquetaChamois used to smooth and compress rims ofwet potsSynonym: pelleja

vasaGeneralized term for vase or cup, which might beof any number of contours

The word is used also as a unit of size, as in vasade agua.vasa de comulgatorio: communion vase

veedorInspector in guild system

The position of inspector was limited to thosewith maestro rating. Veedores were elected officialswith duties including the making of periodicinspection tours to the potteries to insure thatvarious ordinances were being observed. AfterMexican guild regulations were modified in thelate r rth century to admit non-Spaniards, theveedor remained a restricted position.veeduria: inspectorshipuer: to see, examine

verdeGreen

The use of green for design motifs, togetherwith purple-brown from manganese, had thelongest continuous use in Spanish-traditionceramics of any decorative color, dating from theCordoban Caliphate. It found its greatestemployment at Paterna in the Spanish Levanteand at Teruelin Aragon during the r yth and rathcenturies. Contemporary Italian maiolica alsomade use of the same colors. In the rage for bluedecoration, green decoration was ignored for atime, but in r rrh century Talaveran polychromework and copies of it made at Sevilla, green, orpintada de primaoera, made a comeback. In the

verduguillo 89 vitrificacion

late rSrh and rorh centuries, green was identifiedwith work at Puente del Arzobispo.

Green appears on the earliest maiolica made inMexico when some tin glazed vessels weredipped a second time before firing into a greenlead glaze solution. This was in imitation of occa­sional Sevillianpractice, but Mexican results wereshiny and apple green, rather than matte andcoppery, due to differences in the base tin glazeorthe secondary lead bath. The first Mexican use ofgreen as a decorative pigment, rather than anall-over coating, seems to be early r rrh century.However, except for a multicolored style where itwasused as an occasional element filler,green wasconsidered suitable only for wares of low quality.In 172 I a petition was made by some Pueblapotters to officially allow green to be used oncommon wares, stating that the practice alreadywas widespread. After the colonial period endedand the Puebla industry was slumping, greenagain became respectable and appeared in bothdesigns and glazes.

In Panama, green was used in conjunction withblue, a typical 16th century Granadine schemewhich also had some popularity earlier in Teruel.The green pigment often contaminated the tinglaze to produce a faint greenish tint to otherwiseundecorated types.

In Guatemala, green was one of the principalcolors utilized for vessel decoration, as a filler andmain element. Usually it was combined with yel­low and brown designs in a typical Sevilliantreatment.

Copper deposits for the production of greenpigments are known in Spain and Mexico, copperbeing one of the first minerals mined in the latterplace.verde clara: transparent green lead glaze, whoseuse was widespread throughout the Spanishcommunity

verduguilloTile

These were long narrow tiles used primarily forborders, or orlas.Synonym, in part: slicer

oertedorSpout

Vertedor applies specifically to pouring spoutsother than the pico, or beak form.

vidrioGlass

The word vidrio often is used to mean glaze, a

glassy product. However, at present, it alsomeans ground glassobtained from broken bottleswhich are used in the formulation of certain pig­ments, the glass, of course, being a frit. For ex­ample, tin plate pieces mixed with such glassproduces black, and scales of copper mixed withglass produces green. It is not clear whether glassformerly was used in this way or not; most likelyfrits were made as needed. Smalt results from theuse of glass melted with impure cobalt oxide.vidriar: to glazevidriado: glazed ceramicsvidriador: one who glazes

vidrio de color, oidrio de esmalteSmalt

Smalt is essentially a further refinement ofzaire. From 2 to 10% zaire was added to glass,melted, and poured into water which caused it toharden immediately. This material was then pul­verized. The entire heating and crushing processwas repeated many times to achieve flour fine­ness, at which stage the substance was stored insmall leather bags. The finest smalt was amonopoly ofthe Royal Saxony Porcelain Factory,but lesser grades were sold throughout Europeand commanded high prices.

It is uncertain whether Spanish maiolists madeuse of smalt to obtain blue pigment. Most knownarchives refer only to zaire, much of which camefrom the same source. Smalt may have beenpurchased by the porcelain factories of Alcoraand Buen Retiro.oidrio: glass

vinagrera, uinajeraCruet

A small bottle, usually with onehandle and a short restricted neckserved as a cruet for serving oils orvinegar. The vinajerawas used espe­cially to hold wine or water for theEucharist.Synonym: aceitera, botella,jarraparaaceite.frasco

oitrificacionVitrification

During firing fusible minerals in clays melt andbind particles together, making for a hard, tightbody. If heat is high enough, complete glassifica­tion takes place. This is vitrification.

It is not possible to achieve vitrification withearthenware clays because these bodies, high in

90vuelo

iron, generally melt at far lower temperaturesthan those necessary to form glass. Accidentalexamples of vitrification may be seen in somewares made ofclays with lower amounts ofiron asa result ofover firing, in which case accompanyingwarping, cracking, or the density of vitrificationitself would have caused the vessel to be consi­dered a waster.

Near complete vitrification is achieved inporcelain, made in Spain in the late r Srh century.

uueloFlywheel on the base of the potter's wheel unit

It was this wheel, mounted at the base of themachine, which the potter kicked with a forwardmovement of the right foot to spin the wheelhead. In order to maintain good steady rhythm,the wheel had to be fashioned from heavy mate­rials which would insure proper rotation oncesufficient momentum had been attained.Synonym: /alda

mzabalete (Arabic deriv.)

IZ, .Srnall arches between main archesof a kiln roof

za/a (Arabic deriv.)Small basin or washbowl

Synonym, in part: jo/aina, lavamanos

zaire (Arabic deriv.)Impure cobalt oxide

Zaire was dark earthy material made fromroasting a mixture ofcobalt oxide and quartz sandat high temperatures, a method discovered about1500 in Saxony at a location where a large depositof the mineral was encountered. Undoubtedly,zafre, which gave better blue colors than most ofthe raw cobalt used earlier, contributed to theincreasing popularity of blue decorated maiolicasduring the ensuing century, at which time Saxonywas the chief source for Delft, English, Spanish,and Italian potteries.

zurrapa

At first, impurities in the mix produced blueswhich were dark and greyed, but improvementsin processing steadily progressed. For instance,the oxides ultimately were cleaned by being dis­solved in hydrochloric acid so that the insolublematerials might be removed. The smoother bluesapparent on European pottery of the rzth cen­tury probably are the result of this refinement.

A similar change from almost slate blue of the16th century to a bright blue of the 17th centuryon Mexican maiolicas suggests use of the purifiedzaire.

It should be noted that the word zaire appearsto have been used for all blue pigment, whetheror not it was processed cobalt.

zancuda (Arabic deriv.)Motif of wading bird or crane

Such an element was common on Spanishmaiolica after the 16th century and probably wasborrowed from the Chinese who considered it asymbol for good fortune.

In the last half of the r Sth century Mexicandecorators painted this element extensively onmiddling fine grade tableware, much ofwhich wassent to the northern frontiers.

zinguizarra (Arabic deriv.)Small mill for grinding colorants

zurrapa (Arabic deriv.)Lees

The sediment from inside wine casks was usedin Italy and in Spain for making massicot forglazes. It was scraped from the container and leftin the open to harden into loaves. Later a pile ofsuch loaves was surrounded by a ring of stonesand burned. The calcined materials then werestored in airtight jars until needed. This materialwas important in increasing the coefficient of ex­pansion in glaze bases.

In Mexico the production of wine was pro­hibited to prevent undue competition with Span­ish industries. Soda ash was substituted for lees.

Selected References

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English Cross-Reference Index

abbot's cap motif ... capelaalumina aluminaamphora an/ora, tinajaAndalusia al Andalusantimony antimonicappraiser tasadorapprentice aprendizarabize (to) arabizararchitect alarifearchitecture ... arquitecturaarris ... aristaarsenic-zafre compound ... oropimenteartisan ... artificeartisan group artesanadoassessment tasaatmosphere atmosferaawl ... punzonaxle, potter's wheel ... drbol, eje

background ... fondobanded decoration ... fajabanding wheel rodetabaptismal font escudill« doble, pil« bautismalbarrel ... barril, tonelbas relief ... bajorelievebasin brasero, lebrillo, librell, pilabasket cesta, chuiquigiiite, terrerobatch of 1800 tiles ... cerrellbatch of 1000 bricks or tiles ... laborbatch of potsherds ... pedaceria, tiestosbatch of vessels sold as unit ... en vasabedding for tile ... alcatifabell-like «cempandobench alhamibenitier acetre, benditera, pil« de agua benditabevel biselbird motif pajarote, pardalotbisque kiln juaguetebisque pottery bizcocbo, cocida, escaldd,juaguete,loza

cruda, socarratbisque firing ... pequeno fuegoblack ... negrobleeding bowl ... baciablue ... azul, azul delgado, azulfuerte, azul musulmanblue glaze ... aperlado, berettino, puncbe, smaltinoborax ... atincar, bOrax, bOTicaborder, tile .. . orlaboss ... bollo de relieve

bottle ... ampolla, botella, biberon , damajuana, frasco,garrafa; redoma

bowl ... bol, cocos amarillos , cuenca, ensaladera, escudelle,escudilla, legumbrera, poncbera, seruidora, taza

box, earthenware ... arqueta, cojitabox, wooden ... caja, cajon,caxonbrazier ... brasero, foquerbrick, fired ... ladrillo; layer .. . ladrillador; maker ...

ladrillero; mold ... ladrilleria; yard ... ladrilladobrick, unfired adobebrick in kiln atobon , camisabrim ala, bordebrush escobetabullfighting motif tauromaquiabutterfly motif mariposabuyer of damaged pottery ... almalluquero

calcination kiln almela,/orn de cremar, padillacandleholder candelero, candil, ldmpara,palmatoriocanteen cantimplora, barrilejo, botijo, garra/acarafe botella,/rasco, garra/a, redomacask pip«casserole '" cacerola, cassolete, cazuela, legumbrera,

pecberocensus list padronceramics cerdmicachain motif cadenetechamber pot bacin, basin, beque, borcelana, camero,

cocio, dompedro; orinal, seroicio, seruidor, vasa de nocbechamfer biselchamois alpaiiat«, pellej«, vaquetachanneled vessel surface ... acanalado , gallonado,

ovaladocherub motif querubinchicken house gallineroChinese-like decorative style ... acbinadachocolate colored ... achocolatadochocolate jar ... tiborcitadel ... alcazarclay, body masa, pastaclay, pit balsa, barreal, barrera, barrero, cantera, tan-

da, terreroclay, potter's ... arcillafigulinaclay, raw ... antill«, arcilla, barroclay,wedged ...amasado, balsa, masa.pella,sobado, tallocobalt ... cobalto, polvo azul, tinta azul, zafrecockspur '" atifle, cabal/ito, caballo, patito, tribede,

tricole, oicole

coffee server 95 funnel

coffee server ... cafeteracolander coladero,filtro, pasador, pile de tolarcolor (to) colarar, colorearcommon, grade ... comun, corriente, ordinariaconduit ... albanal, arcaduz, atanor, tuboconfraternity ... cofradiacontainer recipientecooking pot cacerola , cazuela, olla,pucberocool (to) enfriarcopper cobrecostly Valencian wares ... ullet compasatcostral ... barrilejo, toneletecover (to) ... cubrir, taparcrack ... grietacrackling ... agrietado intentional, estriadocraftsman .. ~ artesano ; artificecraftsmen ... artesanadocrate guaca!crazing agrietado accidental, cuarteadocrockery cacharreriacrier ... pregonero publicocrucible crisolcruet aceitera, alcuza, botella, frasco, vinagreracup albornia, bernegal, bote, burlador, catavino,jicara,

pocillo, pozuelo ; tazacupboard ... cbinerocupful ... jicarazcocutting tool picocutting wire bilocylindrical cilindrico

damask-like damascadodecoration adorno, decoraciondecorative process of separating zones of glaze by

greased lines ... cuerda seca, loza de Puente del Ar­zobispo

decorator adornista, colorista, decorador, dibujantedehydration desbidrataciondemijohn bombona, botella, damajuana, garrafadesign ... dibujodesign motif motivodesign style castizo ; estilodie ... matrizdirect rim rectodiscard (to) desecbardistrict ... barriodonkey load .' .. carga menordot ... pintadot (to) ... punteardotted decorative mode ... punteadodownspout canal, desagiiedraftsman dibujante

drawn in outline ... al trazodrug jar ... albarelo, bote, canilla, cetrill, gallipot, orza,

pote, pot, tarro de boticadrying room secadero , sequerdump ground testar

embossed realzadoengobe barbotina, engalbaengraving grabaduraescutcheon escudoeverted rim salienteextrafine, grade ... refino

factory ... fdbricafern motif helechofettling tool alariafield of design or color campofigural representation figurafine, grade ... finofine lined motif ... hachurado, rasgueo ; sombrear con

lineasfinial ... perilla, perinola, rematefinish coat of lead glaze copertafire (to) bisque pottery bizcocharfire (to) the kiln ... prender el hornofire vertically de cantofire with sagger en[undafire without sagger ... en sueltofiring process ... coccion , cocbura, cocimientoflange pestanaflask ampolla, botella, damajuana ,frasco,redoma, vin-

agreraflat rim . . . planofleet of trading ships ... j/otaflint ... siliceflowerpot ... florero, maceta, ramilletero, vasafluted ... acanalado , gallonado, ovaladofluted wall bowl ... cresptnaflux ... fundentefly wheel, potter's wheel ... altabaque,falda, vuelofoliated rim ... onduladofolk art in Spanish ceramics ... monteriafoot rest, potter's wheel ... estrep ; estribofountain ... fuente, pilafountain mouth ... brocalfree standing sculptured figure ... bultofretwork ... caladofrieze frisofrit fritafruit dish ... fruterofuel storeroom ... alcatifafunnel ... embudo

galena 96 levigation

galena alcofoll, alcohol, alcohol de alfarerogallery abrazaderagimp line motif ... armadoginger jar ... tiborglass vidrioglaze alarca, bamiz; brillo, esmalte, vidrioglaze (to) ... vidriarglaze coat, unfired ... marcaglaze firing ... gran fuegoglazed tile interspaced with unglazed brick or tile ...

entrelazadoglazer vidriadorglobular globulargoblet copa, gradal, greal, greallet , tarracetgolden doradogrape leaf motif ... parragreen ... pintada de primavera, verdegreen ware ... obra crud«gridiron ... parrillagrinding stone ...piedrademoler.piedra Mexicana,rulogrog material refractarioguild gremioguild official ... alcalde, diputado, veedor

half orange motif ... media naranjahand of Fatima motif ... mano de Fatimahandle ... asa, cogedera, mangohandwarmer ... calientemanosHapsburg Eagle motif ... aguila bidfalahatch (to) plumear, sombrear con lineashatchure hachuradohead, potter's wheel ... cabecera, cabezuela, planellet,

rodalhematite ... hematite, piedra de Guanajuatohighlight (to) realzarhollow ware cacbarros , cerdmica.loza,vajilla, vasijaholy figure santoholy water stoup ... benditera, caldereta, pil« de agua

benditahumpbacked blue pigment ... contrabecbo azulhunting motif caceriahutch, rabbit conejera

imitation ... contrabecboimpasto blue pigment ... contrahecbo azulimport (to) ... importarimpressed design ... improntaimpressed tile ... cuencaincense burner ... foquer, incensaria, perfumador,

sahumadorincised esgrafiadoinkwell tintero

inscription, Arabic ... alabanza, alafiainsignia of St. Lawrence ... simbolo laurentinoinspector ... veedorinspectorship veeduriainterweave (to) entrelazarinventory ... tasacioninverted rim ... entranteiron ... hierroIralianare pottery style ... a la romano, compendiaro,

istoriato, pisano

jar ... a/fabia, alcuza, arcaduz, biber6n, botijo,cangilon,cantaro, canter,cocio, credo,cuatreiio, deespanto,jarra,jarriero; jarro, mestizo, olla, ollete, porron, pucbera,tibor, tinaja, tupi

jar, spouted botijo,jarra depico, pimporro

jardiniere albabaquero , a/fabreguer,/lorero, macetaJew converted to Christianity ... conversojoin (to) ... [untarjug ... botija, cuartelera, [arra, jarro, parrilla, perulero,

picbel, terraza

kerchief motif ... panuelokiln ... homo; bisque kiln .. .[uaguete; calcination kiln

... almela.forn decremar, padilla; firing chamber ...cdmara de coccion , laboratorio , sacben; fuel chamber... caldera, cdmara de combuscion; fuel chamber, backwall .. .front», para la cal; load ... carga del homo;Muslim style homo arabe, homo moruno, homoredondo; mouth boca, port; peephold ... bueco;perforated floor between chambers ... garbell; roofarch ... alcobe, zabalete; roof opening ... allule,lumbrera; smelting kiln ... homo castellaiio; upperwalls carcbata

knead (to) sobarknob ... boton

label cartelalaborer jomalero, obradorlace motif encaje de bolillosladle almijarra, dragolamp lampara, lucemalandscape . . . paisaje

layer of vessels in kiln ... emplanilla, lecbolead ... plom, plomolead glaze ... bamiz plomifero; brillo, esmalte plomiferolead glaze, green verde claralead glazed ware meladolead oxide aceroi, azarcon, minioleaf motif boj«lees ... zurrapalevigation ... levigacion

lid 97 plate

lid ... tapa, tapadera, tapadorlitharge ... almartaga, greta, litargirioload ... carga, carretadalobed scroll motif ... atauriquelug ... agarradero ; orejalusterware ... Hispano-Moresque, lozadorada,obra de

Malicha, reflejo metdlicolute (to) ... juntar

maiolica ... loza blanca, maiolicamake impermeable (to) ... impermeabilizarmaker of amphorae ... gerrer, tinajeromaker of basins lebrilleromaker of bricks ladrilleromaker of closed vessel forms ... cerraderomaker of common pottery ... ordinarieromaker of fretwork ... caladormaker of jars botijero;jarrero ; ollero, oilersmaker of lamps lampareromaker of open vessel forms ... oficia! de abiertomaker of pigments poloeristamaker of pitchers picbeleromaker of saggars cobijadormaker's mark ... marca, seiialmallet ... mazomanganese ... manganesoManila galleon ... nao de la chinamanipulated contours movidamanufacturing processes maniobramarl margamason albani!mason of floor tile ... baldosadormassicot ... masicote, mazacotemaster builder alartlemaster potter cuadalero , maestro, maestro indieromatte matematured maduradomedallion medallonmiddling fine, grade ... entrefinomilk vessel ... lecberonmill ... tahona, zinguizarramillstone piedra de moler, piedra Mexicana, rulominiwn azarcon , miniomold horma, matrix, molde, plantillamold, bricks ... gabela, ladrilleriamold (to) ... amoldarmonochrome ... camaieu, claroscuro, monocromomonument decorated with potsherds ... riscoMoor ... moroMoorish quarter ... a/jamamortar almirez; mamelot , molcajete, mortero ; pilonmotif motivo

mottle (to) ... jaspearmottled ... esponjado, jaspeadoMuslim kiln ... homoarabe, homo moruno, homo redondoMuslim converted to Christianity ... morisco, tornadizo

narrative decorative style ... istoriato

obverse anterior, anuersoochre, red almagra, almagre, almazarronof Damascus damascene, damasquinoof Puebla ... poblanoolive residue ... borujoopacity ... opacidadopening on side of barber's bowl ... escotaduraoperator of potter's wheel ... torneroorange ... naranjado, ocreOrder of the Golden Fleece ... Toison de Oroordinance ... ordenanzaore ... barillaorientalize (to) ... orientalizarorigin ... procendenciaoutline (to) ... borronearoutlining decorative technique ... aborrandoovoid ... ovoide

paint (to) on unfired glaze ... pintar al crudopaint brush ... pincelpainter of ceramic decorations ... o./icial de pinturapalette ... paletaparsley leaf motif ... perejilpattern ... patron, plantillapatty of clay alcabilepearl colored aperlado ; aperlado azulino ; azul aper-

lado, color de perle, per/ado, puncbepellet pellapicture cuadropigeon house palomerapilgrim bottle barrilejo ;botijo;cantimplora,garra/apin, clay ... taglipinched rim ... festoneado, pellizcadopinholes ... puntitos oscurospipe, earthenware ... albatia], atanor, canal,catia, tubopipe, wooden ... pipapipe line caneriapitcher barralet , cangiltm, cdntara, cdntara, cetrill,

picbelpitcher shelf ... cantareraplanking querol, tabla, tablazon, tab/ajeplaque placa, tab/eroplasticity plasticidadplate ... ataifor, bacini, pdter«, plato, ramilietero; back

... reverso; front. .. anverso; wall ... catetto, contorno

plate with bridge motif 98 Spanish Muslim

plate with bridge motif plato del cbaparroplate with pine motif plato delpinoplate with ribs ... plato del cordoncilloplateau mancerinaplatter bandeja,flamenquilla, palangana,platon, tal-

ladorplumbiferous glaze ... esmalte plomiferopointed rim aftladopolychrome policromopoppy motif adormideraporcelain porcelanaporosity porosidadPOSt firing cooling period ... caldas pasadas, en­

friamientopotato flower motif ... flor depatatapotsherd ... cacbarra, cascajo, casco,fragmento, tepalcate,

tiestopotter ...alfahar,alfaharero, alfar,alfarero, locero, olleropotter's wheel ... rued«, torno; axle ... drbo], eje; fly

wheel ... altabaque,falda, vuelo; head ... cabecera,cabezuel«, planellet, rodal; foot rest ... estrep , estribo

pottery ... cerdmica, loza; coarse quality .. . lozabasta,loza tosca; glazed ... loza vidriada; lead glazed .lozaamarilla;tin glazed .. . lozablanca; unglazed .loza roja, lozaprieta

pottery market ... alcaiceria de la lozapottery workshop ... alfareria, fdbrica, loceria, olleria,

tallerpounce bag ... munequillapounce material arenillapounce pattern papelcarboncillopound weight librapounding mortar ... pilonpreserves dish ... conserverapressed ... prensadaprism, clay ... tagliprocess of ripening clay ... sazonproclamation ... pregonprofile ... perfilprovenience procendenciapunch bowl poncberapurple ... morada

quill ... canon

raised realzadoredware brinquino, bucaro, loza rojaregulation tasarenaissance renacimientoreticulated reticuladareverse ... fondo, reverso

rim ... borde, cenefa, cercorinse (to) juagarroaster asadorrocaille motif ... rocallarods of fired clay ... morrellrounded rim ... redondeado

saggar ... cajuela, cobija, berramiento debencbir; bottom... caja; top ... pedano

salad bowl ... ensaladerasalt ... salsalt cellar salerosalrwort almajo, atincar, barrilla, borax,boricasand ... arenasandbox salvaderasauceboat salserasaucer pdterascaffold andamio, armazon de la dispensescale balanzascales of copper caspa de cobrescales of tin plate caspa de latascallop edged ... avenerado, festoneadosconce antocherasculpture estatua,escultura, imagen, talla, talladuraserving bowl ... seruidoraset of tableware ... servicioSevillian bispalensesewer pipe albanalshade (to) plumear, sombrear con lineasshaped potsherd ... chinitashaving bowl ... baciashipping route to Americas ... carrera de Indiasshovel ... paloshrink (to) encogershrinkage encogimientoside walls of molded forms ... lateralessieve balsot, tamizsift (to) tamizarsilica silicesink pil«sketch boceto, dibujo, pintura de borronslip barbotina, engalbaslurry lechadasmalt vidrio de color, uidrio de esmaltesmelting furnace ... homo castellaiiosmooth . . . lisosmooth (to) ... ablandarsodium ... sodio, tequezquitespeckling of pigment ... salpicadurasoup plate ... soperaSpanish Muslim ... moro

99Spanish Muslim

Spanish Muslim living under Christian king ... mudejarspice box especierospittoon escupiderasplotch manchasponged esponjadospout caiio ;pico, rostro, oertedorspur motif acicatestain (to) embarrarstamped estampado , improntastencil estarcidostick with which to test tile blanks ... amauraorestill ... alambiquestoked kiln caldastoker of kiln hornadorstopper ... taponstrapwork motif ... ferroneriesstudent of ceramics ... ceramofilostyle ... castizo, estilostylized ... estilizadasubmersion sumersionsun dry (to) asolearsurface ... superficie

tank ... pilsn, tanquetapered rim ... adelgazadotax ... almojarifazgo ; diezmo; lezda, media anatatax collector ... alamina, almojarifeteapot teteratemper material refractariotemplate hierro para perfilartest (to) fired tiles ... templartest piece ... muestrathistle leaf motif ... cardothrowing wheel, potter's wheel ... cabecera, cabezuela,

planellet, rodalthrown ... torneadotile ... adefera, alargado, alfardon,alicer, alizar, azulejo,

azulejo de arista, azulejo de labor, baldosa, cuenca,cuerda seca, ladrillo por tabla, losa, loseta, losilla,olam-brilla, pisano, rajole ; verduguillo; blank loncha;panel alicatado; roof ... teja; works tejar

tile (to) alicatar, azulejartin ... estaiio , plomo blancotin glaze ... barnizestanifero, esmalte estanifero, maiolicatone down colors (to) ... esfumartool apero ; herramientatoy juguete; production ... jugueteriatrade to Americas ... carrera de Indiastray ... bandeja,charola ,jlamenquilla, mancerina,platel,

platontreacle ... melado

well in vessel surface

Tree of Life motif ... homtrencher ... trincherotrimming tool ... alpetije, canatrough ... bebedero, catio, cocio, piletub ... baiiera, barreiio, borcelana, cocio, pilatureen ... escudilla doble, sopero

unfired ware . . . obra crudaunparterned ... lisourinal bacin, beque, meadero, orinal, tasa meaderourn urna, vasause potter's wheel (to) en un torno, modelarutensil for making frit tramuji

valued at (to be) ... importarvase florero, maceta, ramilletero ; vasovat almdjena, cuba,pilOnvegetable bowl legumbreravendor of crocks cacbarrerovendor of fuel chamicerovendor of water aguaterovessel ... recipiente; body ... cuerpo; core nucleo;

equator panza; foot .. paena, repii;lip labio;neck cuello ;gollete; shoulder ... bombro; size ...medida, tamano; surface ... superficie; wall ... catetto,contorno

vial ... frasco ; pomovinegar ... azumbre, vinagrevitrification ... uitrificacion

wading bird motif ... zancudawagon load carretadawainscoting friscowalls on which clay put to dry ... estanywarmer foquerwarped alabeadowash basin ... aljebana, aljofaina, jofaina, lavadero,

lavamanos, lavatorio, palangana, zafawaster ... almalluque, desecbo ; desperdicio, labaza, loza

quebrada, loza mala, loza inferiorwater cooler ... alcarraza, cdntaro, carraco, olla, tinajawater jar ... aguamanil, albaiial, botijo, jarro, jofaina,

pil«, pozale, tinajawater wheel jar ... arcaduz , cangilonwater duct atanor; canal, caiiowavy rim abolladurawedge (to) ablandar, amasar, macerarwedger of clay amasador, pisadorwedging tool estiraoraweight measurement arroba,celemin , libra, quintalwell in vessel surface bueco, rebundido

well jar

well jar ... alcuz«, arcaduz, tetrillwheel turned ... torneadowhite ... blanco; whitish ... blancuzcowhite lead litargiriowholesale en gruesowick opening ... piquerawine bottle, leather ... bota

100

work clay with feet (to) ... repisarworkmanship becburawork table morberwork unit tarea

yellow ... amarillo

yellow