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List of Dutch inventions and discoveries From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it (https://en.wikipedia.org /w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_inventions_and_discoveries&action=edit). The Netherlands, despite its comparatively modest size and population, had a considerable part in the making of the modern society. [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8] The Netherlands [9] and its people have made numerous seminal contributions to the world's civilization, [10][11][12][13][14][15][16] especially in art, [8][17][18][19][20] science, [21][22][23][24] technology and engineering, [25][26][27] economics and finance, [28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35] [36][37] cartography and geography, [38][39] exploration and navigation, [40][41] law and jurisprudence, [42] thought and philosophy, [7][43][44][45] medicine, [46] and agriculture. During the Age of Discovery (the Dutch Golden Age in particular), using their expertise in doing business, cartography, shipbuilding, seafaring and navigation, the Dutch traveled to the far corners of the world, leaving their language embedded in the names of many places. [47][48] Dutch exploratory voyages revealed largely unknown landmasses to the civilized world and put their names on the world map. In the 16th and 17th centuries, Dutch-speaking cartographers [49] helped lay the foundations for the birth and development of modern cartography (including nautical cartography and stellar cartography). The Dutch came to dominate the map making and map printing industry by virtue of their own travels, trade ventures, and widespread commercial networks. [50] The Dutch initiated what we would call today the free flow of geographical information. As Dutch ships reached into the unknown corners of the globe, Dutch cartographers incorporated new discoveries into their work. Instead of using the information themselves secretly, they published it, so the maps multiplied freely. They were able to share their discoveries and ideas with the world because Dutch officials supported the freedom of press. The Dutch were the first (non-natives) to undisputedly discover, explore and map many unknown isolated areas of the world such as Svalbard, Australia, [51] New Zealand, Tonga, Sakhalin, [52] and Easter Island. In many cases the Dutch were the first Europeans the natives would encounter. [53] Australia (originally known as New Holland), never became a permanent Dutch settlement, [54] yet the Dutch were the first to undisputedly map its coastline. The Dutch navigators charted almost three-quarters of the Australian coastline, except the east coast. During the Age of Exploration, the Dutch explorers and cartographers were also the first to systematically observe and map (chart) the largely unknown far sounthern skies – the first significant addition to the topography of the sky since Ptolemy's time. Among the IAU's 88 modern constellations, there are 15 Dutch-created constellations, including 12 southern constellations. [55][56][57] In the sixth episode Travellers' Tales of the popular documentary TV series Cosmos (1980), American astronomer Carl Sagan, who also served as host, took a look at the Voyager missions to Jupiter and Saturn, and compared the excitement to the adventuring spirit of the early Dutch explorers who traveled unknown seas for the first time. Their discoveries led to further knowledge of previously unheard of wonders and riches, comparable to the invaluable data retrieved by the spacecraft. Dutch-speaking people, in spite of their relatively small number, have a significant history of invention, innovation, discovery and exploration. The following list is composed of objects, (largely) unknown lands, breakthrough ideas/concepts, principles, phenomena, processes, methods, techniques, styles etc., that were discovered or invented (or pioneered) by people from the Netherlands and Dutch-speaking people from the former Southern Netherlands (Zuid-Nederlanders in Dutch). Until the fall of Antwerp (1585), the Dutch and Flemish were generally seen as one people. [58] Contents List of Dutch inventions and discoveries - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_inventions_a... 1 od 131 6.10.2015 22:46

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List of Dutch inventions and discoveriesFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dutch_inventions_and_discoveries&action=edit).

The Netherlands, despite its comparatively modest size and population, had a considerable part in themaking of the modern society.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8] The Netherlands[9] and its people have made numerousseminal contributions to the world's civilization,[10][11][12][13][14][15][16] especially in art,[8][17][18][19][20]

science,[21][22][23][24] technology and engineering,[25][26][27] economics and finance,[28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35]

[36][37] cartography and geography,[38][39] exploration and navigation,[40][41] law and jurisprudence,[42]

thought and philosophy,[7][43][44][45] medicine,[46] and agriculture.

During the Age of Discovery (the Dutch Golden Age in particular), using their expertise in doing business,cartography, shipbuilding, seafaring and navigation, the Dutch traveled to the far corners of the world,leaving their language embedded in the names of many places.[47][48] Dutch exploratory voyages revealedlargely unknown landmasses to the civilized world and put their names on the world map. In the 16th and17th centuries, Dutch-speaking cartographers[49] helped lay the foundations for the birth and development ofmodern cartography (including nautical cartography and stellar cartography). The Dutch came to dominatethe map making and map printing industry by virtue of their own travels, trade ventures, and widespreadcommercial networks.[50] The Dutch initiated what we would call today the free flow of geographicalinformation. As Dutch ships reached into the unknown corners of the globe, Dutch cartographersincorporated new discoveries into their work. Instead of using the information themselves secretly, theypublished it, so the maps multiplied freely. They were able to share their discoveries and ideas with the worldbecause Dutch officials supported the freedom of press. The Dutch were the first (non-natives) toundisputedly discover, explore and map many unknown isolated areas of the world such as Svalbard,Australia,[51] New Zealand, Tonga, Sakhalin,[52] and Easter Island. In many cases the Dutch were the firstEuropeans the natives would encounter.[53] Australia (originally known as New Holland), never became apermanent Dutch settlement,[54] yet the Dutch were the first to undisputedly map its coastline. The Dutchnavigators charted almost three-quarters of the Australian coastline, except the east coast. During the Age ofExploration, the Dutch explorers and cartographers were also the first to systematically observe and map(chart) the largely unknown far sounthern skies – the first significant addition to the topography of the skysince Ptolemy's time. Among the IAU's 88 modern constellations, there are 15 Dutch-created constellations,including 12 southern constellations.[55][56][57] In the sixth episode Travellers' Tales of the populardocumentary TV series Cosmos (1980), American astronomer Carl Sagan, who also served as host, took alook at the Voyager missions to Jupiter and Saturn, and compared the excitement to the adventuring spirit ofthe early Dutch explorers who traveled unknown seas for the first time. Their discoveries led to furtherknowledge of previously unheard of wonders and riches, comparable to the invaluable data retrieved by thespacecraft.

Dutch-speaking people, in spite of their relatively small number, have a significant history of invention,innovation, discovery and exploration. The following list is composed of objects, (largely) unknown lands,breakthrough ideas/concepts, principles, phenomena, processes, methods, techniques, styles etc., that werediscovered or invented (or pioneered) by people from the Netherlands and Dutch-speaking people from theformer Southern Netherlands (Zuid-Nederlanders in Dutch). Until the fall of Antwerp (1585), the Dutch andFlemish were generally seen as one people.[58]

Contents

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1 Inventions and innovations1.1 Arts and architecture1.2 Agriculture1.3 Cartography and geography1.4 Chemicals and materials1.5 Communication and multimedia1.6 Computer science and information technology1.7 Economics1.8 Finance1.9 Foods and drinks1.10 Law and jurisprudence1.11 Measurement1.12 Medicine1.13 Military1.14 Musical instruments1.15 Philosophy and social sciences1.16 Religion and ethics1.17 Scientific instruments1.18 Sports and games1.19 Technology and engineering1.20 Transportation1.21 Others

2 Discoveries2.1 Archaeology2.2 Astronomy2.3 Biology2.4 Chemistry2.5 Genetics2.6 Geology2.7 Mathematics2.8 Mechanics2.9 Medicine2.10 Microbiology2.11 Physics

3 Explorations3.1 Voyages of discovery3.2 Scientific explorations3.3 Others

4 See also5 Bibliography6 Notes7 References8 External links

Inventions and innovations

Arts and architecture

Movements and styles

De Stijl (Neo-Plasticism) (1917)

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Frederiksborg Castle (Hillerød,

Denmark) was built as a royal

residence for King Christian IV

of Denmark. The majority of

the present castle was built

between 1600-1620 in Dutch

Renaissance style with red brick

façade, sweeping gables, and

sandstone decorations.

Børsen, Copenhagen's old stock

exchange, was designed by

Lorentz and Hans van

Steenwinckel the Younger and

is the oldest stock exchange in

Denmark.

The De Stijl school proposed simplicity and abstraction, both in architecture and painting, by using onlystraight horizontal and vertical lines and rectangular forms. Furthermore, their formal vocabulary was limitedto the primary colours, red, yellow, and blue and the three primary values, black, white and grey. De Stijl'sprincipal members were painters Theo van Doesburg (1883–1931), Piet Mondrian (1872–1944), VilmosHuszár (1884–1960), and Bart van der Leck (1876–1958) and architects Gerrit Rietveld (1888–1964),Robert van 't Hoff (1888–1979) and J.J.P. Oud (1890–1963).

Architecture

Brabantine Gothic architecture (1300s)

Brabantine Gothic, occasionally called Brabantian Gothic, is a significant variant of Gothic architecture thatis typical for the Low Countries. It surfaced in the first half of the 14th century at Saint Rumbold's Cathedralin the City of Mechelen. The Brabantine Gothic style originated with the advent of the Duchy of Brabantand spread across the Burgundian Netherlands.

Netherlandish gabled architecture (1400s-1600s)

The Dutch gable was a notable feature of the Dutch-Flemish Renaissancearchitecture (or Northern Mannerist architecture) that spread to northernEurope from the Low Countries, arriving in Britain during the latter part ofthe 16th century. Notable castles/buildings including Frederiksborg Castle,Rosenborg Castle, Kronborg Castle, Børsen, Riga's House of theBlackheads and Gdańsk's Green Gate were built in Dutch-FlemishRenaissance style with sweeping gables, sandstone decorations and copper-covered roofs. Later Dutch gables with flowing curves became absorbedinto Baroque architecture. Examples of Dutch-gabled buildings can befound in historic cities across Europe such as Potsdam (Dutch Quarter),Friedrichstadt, Gdańsk and Gothenburg. The style spread beyond Europe,for example Barbados is well known for Dutch gables on its historicbuildings. Dutch settlers in South Africa brought with them building stylesfrom the Netherlands: Dutch gables, then adjusted to the Western Caperegion where the style became known as Cape Dutch architecture. In theAmericas and Northern Europe, the West End Collegiate Church (NewYork City, 1892), the Chicago Varnish Company Building (Chicago, 1895),Pont Street Dutch-style buildings (London, 1800s), Helsingør Station(Helsingør, 1891), and Gdańsk University of Technology's Main Building(Gdańsk, 1904) are typical examples of the Dutch Renaissance Revival(Neo-Renaissance) architecture in the late 19th century.

Netherlandish Mannerist architecture (Antwerp Mannerism) (1500s)

Antwerp Mannerism is the name given to the style of a largely anonymousgroup of painters from Antwerp in the beginning of the 16th century. Thestyle bore no direct relation to Renaissance or Italian Mannerism, but thename suggests a peculiarity that was a reaction to the classic style of theearly Netherlandish painting. Antwerp Mannerism may also be used todescribe the style of architecture, which is loosely Mannerist, developed inAntwerp by about 1540, which was then influential all over NorthernEurope. The Green Gate (Brama Zielona) in Gdańsk, Poland, is a buildingwhich is inspired by the Antwerp City Hall. It was built between 1568 and1571 by Regnier van Amsterdam and Hans Kramer to serve as the formal residence of the Polish monarchs

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Dutch Renaissance gabled

façade of the House of

Blackheads (Riga's Old Town).

The original building was

erected during the first third of

the 14th century for the

Brotherhood of Blackheads, a

guild for unmarried German

merchants in Riga. The Dutch

Renaissance/Mannerist style

(with typically Dutch gables

and red Dutch brick façades)

blossomed more fully in

Nordic countries and Hanseatic

cities than in its homeland.

The Great Armoury in

Gdańsk/Danzig, Poland. It was

built in typically Dutch

Mannerist style with a

stepped-gable façade of red

Dutch brick and sandstone

decorations.

when visiting Gdańsk.

Cape Dutch architecture (1650s)

Cape Dutch architecture is an architectural style found in the Western Capeof South Africa. The style was prominent in the early days (17th century)of the Cape Colony, and the name derives from the fact that the initialsettlers of the Cape were primarily Dutch. The style has roots in medievalNetherlands, Germany, France and Indonesia. Houses in this style have adistinctive and recognisable design, with a prominent feature being thegrand, ornately rounded gables, reminiscent of features in townhouses ofAmsterdam built in the Dutch style.

Amsterdam School (Dutch Expressionist architecture) (1910s)

The Amsterdam School (Dutch: Amsterdamse School) flourished from 1910through about 1930 in the Netherlands. The Amsterdam School movementis part of international Expressionist architecture, sometimes linked toGerman Brick Expressionism.

Rietveld Schröder House (De Stijl architecture) (1924)

The Rietveld Schröder House or Schröder House (Rietveld Schröderhuis inDutch) in Utrecht was built in 1924 by Dutch architect Gerrit Rietveld. Itbecame a listed monument in 1976 and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in2000. The Rietveld Schröder House constitutes both inside and outside aradical break with tradition, offering little distinction between interior andexterior space. The rectilinear lines and planes flow from outside to inside,with the same colour palette and surfaces. Inside is a dynamic, changeableopen zone rather than a static accumulation of rooms. The house is one ofthe best known examples of De Stijl architecture and arguably the only trueDe Stijl building.[59][60][61][62][63][64][65][66][67][68][69][70]

Van Nelle Factory (1925–1931)

The Van Nelle factory was built between 1925 and 1931. Its most strikingfeature is its huge glass façades. The factory was designed on the premisethat a modern, transparent and healthy working environment in greensurroundings would be good both for production and for workers' welfare.The complex is the result of the radical application of a number of culturaland technical concepts dating from the early twentieth century. This led toa new, functional approach to architecture that enjoyed mass appeal right from the start. The factory had ahuge impact on the development of modern architecture in Europe and elsewhere. However, it is not just itsarchitectural style, but rather its response to the social challenges of the day which makes the Van Nellefactory special. Its glass façade, with its large openable windows and advanced ventilation system, is quiteunique, even though similar factories are to be found elsewhere.[71] The Van Nelle Factory is a Dutchnational monument (Rijksmonument) and since 2014 has the status of UNESCO World Heritage Site. TheJustification of Outstanding Universal Value was presented in 2013 to the UNESCO World HeritageCommittee.

The factory complex, a collection of interconnected buildings, is one of the highlights of twentieth-centuryindustrial architecture. Soon after it was built, prominent architects described the factory as ‘the most

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The Green Gate (Brama

Zielona) is one of the most

notable tourist attractions in

Gdańsk, Poland. It was built

between 1568-1571 in the

Netherlandic/Dutch Mannerist

style with a typically Dutch

gable façade.

The Baiturrahman Grand

Mosque in the center of Banda

Aceh city, Aceh Province,

Indonesia. The mosque was

built (1879) in Dutch East

Indies architectural style with

the combination of occidental

and oriental features. The

mosque's stepped gables

(trapgevel in Dutch) are

reminiscent of Dutch

Renaissance architectural style.

beautiful spectacle of our modern age that I know’ (Le Corbusier, 1932)and ‘a poem in steel and glass’ (Robertson and Yerbury, 1930).[72][73][74] Adelicate grid of glass and concrete, the two parts of the Van Nelle complexare connected by dynamic, angular bridges. It influenced factory designworldwide and now houses creative industries and art fairs.[75][76]

Furniture

Dutch door (1600s)

The Dutch door (also known as stable door or half door) is a type of doordivided horizontally in such a fashion that the bottom half may remain shutwhile the top half opens. The initial purpose of this door was to keepanimals out of farmhouses, while keeping children inside, yet allowing lightand air to filter through the open top. This type of door was common in theNetherlands in the seventeenth century and appears in Dutch paintings ofthe period. They were commonly found in Dutch areas of New York andNew Jersey (before the American Revolution) and in South Africa.[77]

Red and Blue Chair (1917)

The Red and Blue Chair was designed in 1917 by Gerrit Rietveld. Itrepresents one of the first explorations by the De Stijl art movement inthree dimensions. It features several Rietveld joints.

Zig-Zag Chair (1934)

The Zig-Zag Chair was designed by Rietveld in 1934. It is a minimalistdesign without legs, made by 4 flat wooden tiles that are merged in aZ-shape using Dovetail joints. It was designed for the Rietveld SchröderHouse in Utrecht.

Visual arts

Foundations of modern oil painting (1400s)

Although oil paint was first used for Buddhist paintings by Indian andChinese painters sometime between the fifth and tenth centuries, it did not gain notoriety until the 15thcentury. Its practice may have migrated westward during the Middle Ages. Oil paint eventually became theprincipal medium used for creating artworks as its advantages became widely known. The transition beganwith Early Netherlandish painting in northern Europe, and by the height of the Renaissance oil paintingtechniques had almost completely replaced tempera paints in the majority of Europe. Early Netherlandishpainting (Jan van Eyck in particular) in the 15th century was the first to make oil the default paintingmedium, and to explore the use of layers and glazes, followed by the rest of Northern Europe, and only thenItaly.[78][79][80][81] Early works were still panel paintings on wood, but around the end of the 15th centurycanvas became more popular, as it was cheaper, easier to transport, and allowed larger works.

Glaze (painting technique) (1400s)

Glazing is a technique employed by painters since the invention of modern oil painting. Early Netherlandishpainters in the 15th century were the first to make oil the usual painting medium, and explore the use oflayers and glazes, followed by the rest of Northern Europe, and only then Italy.[78]

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The exterior of the Rietveld

Schröder House. The Rietveld

Schröder House (Rietveld

Schröderhuis) is considered one of

the icons of the Modern

architecture. With its radical

approach to design and the use of

space, the Rietveld Schröderhuis

occupies a seminal position in the

development of architecture in the

modern age.

A Dutch door with the top half

open, in South Africa

Proto-Realism (1400s–1600s)

Two aspects of realism were rooted in at least two centuries of Dutchtradition: conspicuous textural imitation and a penchant for ordinary andexaggeratedly comic scenes. Two hundred years before the rise ofliterary realism, Dutch painters had already made an art of the everyday– pictures that served as a compelling model for the later novelists. Bythe mid-1800s, 17th-century Dutch painting figured virtuallyeverywhere in the British and French fiction we esteem today as thevanguard of realism.

Proto-Surrealism (1470s–1510s)

Hieronymus Bosch is considered one of the prime examples ofPre-Surrealism. The surrealists relied most on his insights. In the 20thcentury, Bosch's paintings (e.g. The Garden of Earthly Delights, TheHaywain, The Temptation of St. Anthony and The Seven Deadly Sinsand the Four Last Things) were cited by the Surrealists as precursors totheir own visions.

Modern still-life painting (1500s–1600s)

Still-life painting as an independent genre or specialty first flourished inthe Netherlands in the last quarter of the 16th century, and the Englishterm derives from stilleven: still life, which is a calque, while Romancelanguages (as well as Greek, Polish, Russian and Turkish) tend to useterms meaning dead nature.

Naturalistic landscape painting (1500s–1600s)

The term "landscape" derives from the Dutch word landschap, whichoriginally meant "region, tract of land" but acquired the artisticconnotation, "a picture depicting scenery on land" in the early 1500s.After the fall of the Roman Empire, the tradition of depicting purelandscapes declined and the landscape was seen only as a setting forreligious and figural scenes. This tradition continued until the 16thcentury when artists began to view the landscape as a subject in its ownright. The Dutch Golden Age painting of the 17th century saw thedramatic growth of landscape painting, in which many artistsspecialized, and the development of extremely subtle realist techniquesfor depicting light and weather.

Genre painting (1500s)

The Flemish Renaissance painter Pieter Brueghel the Elder chose peasants and their activities as the subjectof many paintings. Genre painting flourished in Northern Europe in his wake. Adriaen van Ostade, DavidTeniers, Aelbert Cuyp, Jan Steen, Johannes Vermeer and Pieter de Hooch were among many paintersspecializing in genre subjects in the Netherlands during the 17th century. The generally small scale of theseartists' paintings was appropriate for their display in the homes of middle class purchasers.

Marine painting (1600s)

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A Rietveld joint, also called a

Cartesian node in furniture-

making, is an overlapping joint of

three battens in the three

orthogonal directions. It was a

prominent feature in the Red and

Blue Chair that was designed by

Gerrit Rietveld in 1917. Rietveld

joints are inextricably linked with

the early 20th century Dutch

artistic movement called De Stijl

(of which Gerrit Rietveld was a

member).

Signature of Jan van Eyck. Jan Van

Eyck is often credited as the first

master of oil painting.

Marine painting began in keeping with medieval Christian art tradition.Such works portrayed the sea only from a bird's eye view, andeverything, even the waves, was organized and symmetrical. Theviewpoint, symmetry and overall order of these early paintingsunderlined the organization of the heavenly cosmos from which theearth was viewed. Later Dutch artists such as Hendrick CorneliszVroom, Cornelius Claesz, Abraham Storck, Jan Porcellis, Simon deVlieger, Willem van de Velde the Elder, Willem van de Velde theYounger and Ludolf Bakhuizen developed new methods for painting,often from a horizontal point of view, with a lower horizon and morefocus on realism than symmetry.[82][83]

Vanitas (1600s)

The term vanitas is most often associated with still life paintings thatwere popular in seventeenth-century Dutch art, produced by the artistssuch as Pieter Claesz. Common vanitas symbols included skulls (areminder of the certainty of death); rotten fruit (decay); bubbles,(brevity of life and suddenness of death); smoke, watches, andhourglasses, (the brevity of life); and musical instruments (the brevityand ephemeral nature of life). Fruit, flowers and butterflies can beinterpreted in the same way, while a peeled lemon, as well as the typicalaccompanying seafood was, like life, visually attractive but with a bitterflavor.

Civil group portraiture (1600s)

Group portraits were produced in great numbers during the Baroqueperiod, particularly in the Netherlands. Unlike in the rest of Europe,Dutch artists received no commissions from the Calvinist Church whichhad forbidden such images or from the aristocracy which was virtuallynon-existent. Instead, commissions came from civic and businessesassociations. Dutch painter Frans Hals used fluid brush strokes of vividcolor to enliven his group portraits, including those of the civil guard towhich he belonged. Rembrandt benefitted greatly from suchcommissions and from the general appreciation of art by bourgeoisclients, who supported portraiture as well as still-life and landscapepainting. Notably, the world's first significant art and dealer marketsflourished in Holland at that time.

Tronie (1600s)

In the 17th century, Dutch painters (especially Frans Hals, Rembrandt, Jan Lievens and Johannes Vermeer)began to create uncommissioned paintings called tronies that focused on the features and/or expressions ofpeople who were not intended to be identifiable. They were conceived more for art's sake than to satisfyconventions. The tronie was a distinctive type of painting, combining elements of the portrait, history, andgenre painting. This was usually a half-length of a single figure which concentrated on capturing an unusualmood or expression. The actual identity of the model was not supposed to be important, but they mightrepresent a historical figure and be in exotic or historic costume. In contrast to portraits, "tronies" werepainted for the open market. They differ from figurative paintings and religious figures in that they are notrestricted to a moral or narrative context. It is, rather, much more an exploration of the spectrum of humanphysiognomy and expression and the reflection of conceptions of character that are intrinsic to psychology’s

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The Windmill at Wijk by Jacob

van Ruisdael (1670). It is a

commonplace of art history that

the genre of "naturalistic

landscape painting" first

emerged in Holland in the

seventeenth century. The word

"landscape" entered the modern

English language as landskip

(variously spelt), an

anglicization of the Dutch

landschap, around the start of

the 17th century. The

17th-century Dutch landscape

art had considerable influences

on the British landscape art,

American Hudson River

School, and French Barbizon

School in subsequent centuries.

The genre of marine painting as a

distinct category separate from

landscape is attributed to Hendrick

Cornelisz Vroom from early in the

seventeenth century.

pre-history.

Rembrandt lighting (1600s)

Rembrandt lighting is a lighting technique that is used in studio portraitphotography. It can be achieved using one light and a reflector, or twolights, and is popular because it is capable of producing images whichappear both natural and compelling with a minimum of equipment.Rembrandt lighting is characterized by an illuminated triangle under the eyeof the subject, on the less illuminated side of the face. It is named for theDutch painter Rembrandt, who often used this type of lighting in hisportrait paintings.

Mezzotint (1642)

The first known mezzotint was done in Amsterdam in 1642 by Utrecht-bornGerman artist Ludwig von Siegen. He lived in Amsterdam from 1641 toabout 1644, when he was supposedly influenced by Rembrandt.[84][85]

Aquatint (1650s)

The painter and printmaker Jan van de Velde is often credited to be theinventor of the aquatint technique, in Amsterdam around 1650.[85]

Pronkstilleven (1650s)

Pronkstilleven (pronk still life or ostentatious still life) is a type of banquetpiece whose distinguishing feature is a quality of ostentation and splendor.These still lifes usually depict one or more especially precious objects.Although the term is a post-17th century invention, this type ischaracteristic of the second half of the seventeenth century. It wasdeveloped in the 1640s in Antwerp from where it spread quickly to theDutch Republic. Flemish artists such as Frans Snyders and Adriaen vanUtrecht started to paint still lifes that emphasized abundance bydepicting a diversity of objects, fruits, flowers and dead game, oftentogether with living people and animals. The style was soon adopted byartists from the Dutch Republic.[86] A leading Dutch representative wasJan Davidsz. de Heem, who spent a long period of his active career inAntwerp and was one of the founders of the style in Holland.[87] [88]

Other leading representatives in the Dutch Republic were Abraham vanBeyeren, Willem Claeszoon Heda and Willem Kalf.[86]

Proto-Expressionism (1880s)

Vincent van Gogh's work is most often associated with Post-Impressionism, but his innovative style had avast influence on 20th-century art and established what would later be known as Expressionism, also greatlyinfluencing fauvism and early abstractionism. His impact on German and Austrian Expressionists wasespecially profound. "Van Gogh was father to us all," the German Expressionist painter Max Pechsteinproclaimed in 1901, when Van Gogh's vibrant oils were first shown in Germany and triggered the artisticreformation, a decade after his suicide in obscurity in France. In his final letter to Theo, Van Gogh statedthat, as he did not have any children, he viewed his paintings as his progeny. Reflecting on this, the Britishart historian Simon Schama concluded that he "did have a child of course, Expressionism, and many, many

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Girl with a Pearl Earring

(1665), Vermeer's masterpiece

is often considered as a

“tronie”.

The typical Rembrandt lighting

setup. Rembrandt's treatment of

light and dark in his portraiture

created a style of lighting

known today as Rembrandt

lighting. Rembrandt lighting

technique is used by many

modern photographers and

cinematographers.

heirs."

M. C. Escher's graphic arts (1920s–1960s)

Dutch graphic artist Maurits Cornelis Escher, usually referred to as M. C.Escher, is known for his often mathematically inspired woodcuts,lithographs, and mezzotints. These feature impossible constructions,explorations of infinity, architecture and tessellations. His special way ofthinking and rich graphic work has had a continuous influence in scienceand art, as well as permeating popular culture. His ideas have been used infields as diverse as psychology, philosophy, logic, crystallography andtopology. His art is based on mathematical principles like tessellations,spherical geometry, the Möbius strip, unusual perspectives, visualparadoxes and illusions, different kinds of symmetries and impossibleobjects. Gödel, Escher, Bach by Douglas Hofstadter discusses the ideas ofself-reference and strange loops, drawing on a wide range of artistic andscientific work, including Escher's art and the music of J. S. Bach, toillustrate ideas behind Gödel's incompleteness theorems.

Miffy (Nijntje) (1955)

Miffy (Nijntje) is a small female rabbit in a series of picture books drawnand written by Dutch artist Dick Bruna.

Music

Franco-Flemish School (Netherlandish School) (1400s-1500s)

In music, the Franco-Flemish School or more precisely the NetherlandishSchool refers to the style of polyphonic vocal music composition in theBurgundian Netherlands in the 15th and early 16th centuries, and to thecomposers who wrote it.

Venetian School (Venetian polychoral style) (1500s)

The Venetian School of polychoral music was founded by the Netherlandish composer Adrian Willaert.

Hardcore (electronic dance music genre) (1990s)

Hardcore or hardcore techno is a subgenre of electronic dance music originating in Europe from theemergent raves in the 1990s. It was initially designed at Rotterdam in Netherlands, derived from techno.[89]

Hardstyle (electronic dance music genre) (1990s-2000s)

Hardstyle is an electronic dance genre mixing influences from hardtechno and hardcore. Hardstyle wasinfluenced by gabber. Hardstyle has its origins in the Netherlands where artists like DJ Zany, Lady Dana, DJIsaac, DJ Pavo, DJ Luna and The Prophet, who produced hardcore, started experimenting while playingtheir hardcore records.

Agriculture

Holstein Friesian cattle (100s BC)

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A typical Holstein-Friesian cow.

Holstein cattle, a breed that now

dominates the global dairy industry,

are most quickly recognized by

their distinctive color markings and

outstanding milk production.

Orange-coloured carrots.

Before the 18th century, carrots

from Asia were usually purple,

while those in Europe were

either white or red. Dutch

farmers bred a variety that was

orange. The long orange Dutch

carrot, first described in 1721,

is the ancestor of the orange

horn carrot, one of the most

common types found in

supermarkets today. It takes its

name from the town of Hoorn,

in the Netherlands.

Holsteins or Holstein-Friesians are a breed of cattle known today as theworld's highest-production dairy animals. Originating in Europe,Holstein-Friesians were bred in the two north Holland provinces ofNorth Holland and Friesland, and Schleswig-Holstein in what becameGermany. The animals were the regional cattle of the Frisians and theSaxons. The Dutch breeders bred and oversaw the development of thebreed with the goal of obtaining animals that could best use grass, thearea's most abundant resource. Its color pattern came from artificialselection by the breeders.[90] The origins of the breed can be traced tothe black cows and white cows of the Batavians and Frisians - migranttribes who settled the coastal Rhine region more than two thousandyears ago. Over time, these two kinds of cows were selectively bredtogether with the aim of developing an animal that would make the bestuse of limited land by yielding generous quantities of both milk andmeat. The result was the efficient, high-producing black-and-white dairycow we know today as the Holstein Friesian.

Brussels sprout (1200s)

Forerunners to modern Brussels sprouts were likely cultivated in ancient Rome. Brussels sprouts as we nowknow them were grown possibly as early as the 13th century in the Low Countries (may have originated inBrussels). The first written reference dates to 1587. During the 16th century, they enjoyed a popularity in theSouthern Netherlands that eventually spread throughout the cooler parts of Northern Europe.

Orange-coloured carrot (1500s)

Through history, carrots weren’t always orange. They were black, purple,white, brown, red and yellow. Probably orange too, but this was not thedominant colour. Orange-coloured carrots appeared in the Netherlands inthe 16th century.[91] Dutch farmers in Hoorn bred the color. Theysucceeded by cross-breeding pale yellow with red carrots. It is more likelythat Dutch horticulturists actually found an orange rooted mutant varietyand then worked on its development through selective breeding to make theplant consistent. Through successive hybridisation the orange colourintensified. Improved strains resulted in three main varieties red, yellow anddeep gold. This was developed to become the dominant species across theworld, a sweet orange. Before the Dutch bred the sweet, orange-colouredcarrot, the carrot had a less sweet (bitter) taste than the ones we knowtoday. The colour choice may have been made to gain favour with theHouse of Orange, who led the Dutch Revolt against the Spanish Empire andlater became the Dutch Royal family.[92][93][94][95][96][97][98][99][100][101]

[102][103] Beta-Carotene, found in orange carrots is converted into vitamin Ain the body by all animals except cats.

Belle de Boskoop (apple) (1856)

Belle de Boskoop is an apple cultivar which, as its name suggests,originated in Boskoop, where it began as a chance seedling in 1856. Thereare many variants: Boskoop red, yellow or green. This rustic apple is firm, tart and fragrant. Greenish-graytinged with red, the apple stands up well to cooking. Generally Boskoop varieties are very high in acidcontent and can contain more than four times the vitamin C of 'Granny Smith' or 'Golden Delicious'.[104]

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Carrots can be selectively

bred to produce different

colours.

Karmijn de Sonnaville (apple) (1949)

Karmijn de Sonnaville is a variety of apple bred by Piet de Sonnaville, workingin Wageningen in 1949. It is a cross of Cox's Orange Pippin and Jonathan, andwas first grown commercially beginning in 1971. It is high both in sugars(including some sucrose) and acidity. It is a triploid, and hence needs goodpollination, and can be difficult to grow. It also suffers from fruit russet, whichcan be severe. In Manhart’s book, “apples for the 21st century”, Karmijn deSonnaville is tipped as a possible success for the future. Karmijn de Sonnaville isnot widely grown in large quantities, but in Ireland, at The Apple Farm, 8 acres(32,000 m2) it is grown for fresh sale and juice-making, for which the variety iswell suited.

Elstar (apple) (1950s)

Elstar apple is an apple cultivar that was first developed in the Netherlands inthe 1950s by crossing Golden Delicious and Ingrid Marie apples. It quicklybecame popular, especially in Europe and was first introduced to America in1972.[105] It remains popular in Continental Europe. The Elstar is a medium-sized apple whose skin is mostlyred with yellow showing. The flesh is white, and has a soft, crispy texture. It may be used for cooking and isespecially good for making apple sauce. In general, however, it is used in desserts due to its sweet flavour.

Groasis Waterboxx (2010)

The Groasis Waterboxx is a device designed to help grow trees in dry areas. It was developed by formerflower exporter Pieter Hoff, and won Popular Science's "Green Tech Best of What's New" Innovation of theyear award for 2010.

Cartography and geography

Method for determining longitude using a clock (1530)

The Dutch-Frisian geographer Gemma Frisius was the first to propose the use of a chronometer to determinelongitude in 1530. In his book On the Principles of Astronomy and Cosmography (1530), Frisius explainsfor the first time how to use a very accurate clock to determine longitude.[106] The problem was that inFrisius’ day, no clock was sufficiently precise to use his method. In 1761, the British clock-builder JohnHarrison constructed the first marine chronometer, which allowed the method developed by Frisius.

Triangulation as a surveying method (foundations of modern surveying) (1533 & 1615)

Triangulation had first emerged as a map-making method in the mid sixteenth century when the Dutch-Frisian mathematician Gemma Frisius set out the idea in his Libellus de locorum describendorum ratione(Booklet concerning a way of describing places).[107][108][109][110][111][112] Dutch cartographer Jacob vanDeventer was among the first to make systematic use of triangulation, the technique whose theory wasdescribed by Gemma Frisius in his 1533 book.

The modern systematic use of triangulation networks stems from the work of the Dutch mathematicianWillebrord Snell (born Willebrord Snel van Royen), who in 1615 surveyed the distance from Alkmaar toBergen op Zoom, approximately 70 miles (110 kilometres), using a chain of quadrangles containing 33triangles in all.[113][114][115] The two towns were separated by one degree on the meridian, so from hismeasurement he was able to calculate a value for the circumference of the earth – a feat celebrated in thetitle of his book Eratosthenes Batavus (The Dutch Eratosthenes), published in 1617. Snell's methods were

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The 1569 Mercator map of the

world (Nova et Aucta Orbis Terrae

Descriptio ad Usum Navigantium

Emendate Accommodata).

World map Theatrum Orbis

Terrarum by Ortelius (1570). The

period of late 16th and much of the

17th century (approximately

1570-1672) has been called the

Golden Age of Dutch

Cartography. The

cartographers/publishers of

Antwerp and Amsterdam,

especially, were leaders in

supplying maps and charts for all

of Western Europe.

taken up by Jean Picard who in 1669–70 surveyed one degree of latitude along the Paris Meridian using achain of thirteen triangles stretching north from Paris to the clocktower of Sourdon, near Amiens.

Mercator projection (1569)

The Mercator projection is a cylindrical map projection presented by theFlemish geographer and cartographer Gerardus Mercator in 1569. Itbecame the standard map projection for nautical purposes because of itsability to represent lines of constant course, known as rhumb lines orloxodromes, as straight segments which conserve the angles with themeridians.[116]

First true (modern) atlas (1570)

Flemish geographer and cartographer Abraham Ortelius generallyrecognized as the creator of the world's first modern atlas, the TheatrumOrbis Terrarum (Theatre of the World). Ortelius's Theatrum OrbisTerrarum is considered the first true atlas in the modern sense: acollection of uniform map sheets and sustaining text bound to form abook for which copper printing plates were specifically engraved. It issometimes referred to as the summary of sixteenth-century cartography.[117][118][119][120]

First printed atlas of nautical charts (1584)

The first printed atlas of nautical charts (De Spieghel der Zeevaerdt orThe Mirror of Navigation / The Mariner's Mirror) was produced byLucas Janszoon Waghenaer in Leiden. This atlas was the first attempt tosystematically codify nautical maps. This chart-book combined an atlasof nautical charts and sailing directions with instructions for navigationon the western and north-western coastal waters of Europe. It was thefirst of its kind in the history of maritime cartography, and was animmediate success. The English translation of Waghenaer's work waspublished in 1588 and became so popular that any volume of sea chartssoon became known as a "waggoner", the Anglicized form ofWaghenaer's surname.[121][122][123][124][125][126][127]

Concept of atlas (1595)

Gerardus Mercator was the first to coin the word atlas to describe a bound collection of maps through hisown collection entitled "Atlas sive Cosmographicae meditationes de fabrica mvndi et fabricati figvra". Hecoined this name after the Greek god who held the earth in his arms.[120][128]

First systematic charting of the far southern skies (southern constellations) (1595-97)

In the golden age of Dutch cartography and exploration (approximately 1570–1722), the Dutch-speakingpeoples made the seminal contributions to the natural history, cartography, geography and ethnography.Flanders-based cartographers such as Gerardus Mercator and Abraham Ortelius helped lay the foundationsfor the modern cartography. In the area of celestial cartography, the Dutch Republic's explorers andcartographers like Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser, Frederick de Houtman, Petrus Plancius and Jodocus Hondiuswere the pioneers in first systematic charting/mapping of largely unknown southern hemisphere skies in thelate 16th century.

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Portugal by Waghenaer

(1584). The publication of

Waghenaer's De Spieghel der

Zeevaerdt (1584) is widely

considered as one of the most

important developments in the

history of nautical cartography.

Equirectangular plot of declination vs right ascension

of the modern constellations with a dotted line

denoting the ecliptic. Constellations are colour-coded

by family and year established. (detailed view)

(http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons

/thumb

/d/d4/Constellations_ecliptic_equirectangular_plot.s

vg/1000px-

Constellations_ecliptic_equirectangular_plot.svg.png

)

The constellations around the South Pole were not observable from north ofthe equator, by Babylonians, Greeks, Chinese or Arabs. The modernconstellations in this region were defined during the Age of Exploration,notably by Dutch navigators Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick deHoutman at the end of sixteenth century. These twelve Dutch-createdsouthern constellations represented flora and fauna of the East Indies andMadagascar. They were depicted by Johann Bayer in his star atlasUranometria of 1603.[129] Several more were created by Nicolas Louis deLacaille in his star catalogue, published in 1756.[130] By the end of theMing Dynasty, Xu Guangqi introduced 23 asterisms of the southern skybased on the knowledge of western star charts.[131] These asterisms havesince been incorporated into the traditional Chinese star maps. Among theIAU's 88 modern constellations, there are 15 Dutch-created constellations(including Apus, Camelopardalis, Chamaeleon, Columba, Dorado, Grus,Hydrus, Indus, Monoceros, Musca, Pavo, Phoenix,Triangulum Australe, Tucana and Volans).

Continental drift hypothesis (1596)

The speculation that continents might have 'drifted' wasfirst put forward by Abraham Ortelius in 1596. Theconcept was independently and more fully developed byAlfred Wegener in 1912. Because Wegener'spublications were widely available in German andEnglish and because he adduced geological support forthe idea, he is credited by most geologists as the first torecognize the possibility of continental drift. During the1960s geophysical and geological evidence for seafloorspreading at mid-oceanic ridges established continentaldrift as the standard theory or continental origin and anongoing global mechanism.

Chemicals and materials

Bow dye (1630)

While making a coloured liquid for a thermometer, Cornelis Drebbel dropped a flask of Aqua regia on a tinwindow sill, and discovered that stannous chloride makes the color of carmine much brighter and moredurable. Though Drebbel himself never made much from his work, his daughters Anna and Catharina and hissons-in-law Abraham and Johannes Sibertus Kuffler set up a successful dye works. One was set up in 1643in Bow, London, and the resulting color was called bow dye.

Dyneema (1979)

Dutch chemical company DSM invented and patented the Dyneema in 1979. Dyneema fibres have been incommercial production since 1990 at their plant at Heerlen. These fibers are manufactured by means of agel-spinning process that combines extreme strength with incredible softness. Dyneema fibres, based onultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE), is used in many applications in markets such as lifeprotection, shipping, fishing, offshore, sailing, medical and textiles.

Communication and multimedia

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Compact Cassette

Compact Disc

Compact cassette (1962)

In 1962 Philips invented the compact audio cassette medium for audiostorage, introducing it in Europe in August 1963 (at the Berlin Radio Show)and in the United States (under the Norelco brand) in November 1964, withthe trademark name Compact Cassette.[132][133][134][135][136]

Laserdisc (1969)

Laserdisc technology, using a transparent disc,[137] was invented by DavidPaul Gregg in 1958 (and patented in 1961 and 1990).[138] By 1969, Philipsdeveloped a videodisc in reflective mode, which has great advantages over the transparent mode. MCA andPhilips decided to join forces. They first publicly demonstrated the videodisc in 1972. Laserdisc entered themarket in Atlanta, on 15 December 1978, two years after the VHS VCR and four years before the CD,which is based on Laserdisc technology. Philips produced the players and MCA made the discs.

Compact disc (1979)

The compact disc was jointly developed by Philips (Joop Sinjou) and Sony(Toshitada Doi). In the early 1970s, Philips' researchers started experimentswith "audio-only" optical discs, and at the end of the 1970s, Philips, Sony,and other companies presented prototypes of digital audio discs.

Bluetooth (1990s)

Bluetooth, a low-energy, peer-to-peer wireless technology was originallydeveloped by Dutch electrical engineer Jaap Haartsen and Swedishengineer Sven Mattisson in the 1990s, working at Ericsson in Lund,Sweden. It became a global standard of short distance wireless connection.

Wi-fi (1990s)

In 1991, NCR Corporation/AT&T Corporation invented the precursor to 802.11 in Nieuwegein. Dutchelectrical engineer Vic Hayes chaired IEEE 802.11 committee for 10 years, which was set up in 1990 toestablish a wireless networking standard. He has been called the father of Wi-Fi (the brand name forproducts using IEEE 802.11 standards) for his work on IEEE 802.11 (802.11a & 802.11b) standard in 1997.

DVD (1995)

The DVD optical disc storage format was invented and developed by Philips and Sony in 1995.

Ambilight (2002)

Ambilight, short for "ambient lighting", is a lighting system for televisions developed by Philips in 2002.

Blu-ray (2006)

Philips and Sony in 1997 and 2006 respectively, launched the Blu-ray video recording/playback standard.

Computer science and information technology

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Dijkstra's algorithm (1956)

Dijkstra's algorithm, conceived by Dutch computer scientist Edsger Dijkstra in 1956 and published in 1959,is a graph search algorithm that solves the single-source shortest path problem for a graph with non-negativeedge path costs, producing a shortest path tree. Dijkstra's algorithm is so powerful that it not only finds theshortest path from a chosen source to a given destination, it finds all of the shortest paths from the source toall destinations. This algorithm is often used in routing and as a subroutine in other graph algorithms.

Dijkstra's algorithm is considered as one of the most popular algorithms in computer science. It is also widelyused in the fields of artificial intelligence, operational research/operations research, network routing,network analysis, and transportation engineering.

Foundations of distributed computing (1960s)

Through his fundamental contributions Edsger Dijkstra helped shape the field of computer science. Hisgroundbreaking contributions ranged from the engineering side of computer science to the theoretical oneand covered several areas including compiler construction, operating systems, distributed systems, sequentialand concurrent programming, software engineering, and graph algorithms. Many of his papers, often just afew pages long, are the source of whole new research areas. Several concepts that are now completelystandard in computer science were first identified by Dijkstra and/or bear names coined by him.[139][140]

Edsger Dijkstra's foundational work on concurrency, semaphores, mutual exclusion, deadlock, findingshortest paths in graphs, fault-tolerance, self-stabilization, among many other contributions comprises manyof the pillars upon which the field of distributed computing is built. The Edsger W. Dijkstra Prize inDistributed Computing (sponsored jointly by the ACM Symposium on Principles of Distributed Computingand the EATCS International Symposium on Distributed Computing) is given for outstanding papers on theprinciples of distributed computing, whose significance and impact on the theory and/or practice ofdistributed computing has been evident for at least a decade.

Foundations of concurrent programming (1960s)

The academic study of concurrent programming (concurrent algorithms in particular) started in the 1960s,with Edsger Dijkstra (1965) credited with being the first paper in this field, identifying and solving mutualexclusion.[141] A pioneer in the field of concurrent computing, Per Brinch Hansen considers Dijkstra'sCooperating Sequential Processes (1965) to be the first classic paper in concurrent programming. As BrinchHansen notes: ‘Here Dijkstra lays the conceptual foundation for abstract concurrent programming.’[142]

Shunting-yard algorithm (1960)

In computer science, the shunting-yard algorithm is a method for parsing mathematical expressions specifiedin infix notation. It can be used to produce output in Reverse Polish notation (RPN) or as an abstract syntaxtree (AST). The algorithm was invented by Edsger Dijkstra and named the "shunting yard" algorithmbecause its operation resembles that of a railroad shunting yard. Dijkstra first described the Shunting YardAlgorithm in the Mathematisch Centrum report.

Schoonschip (early computer algebra system) (1963)

In 1963/64, during an extended stay at SLAC, Dutch theoretical physicist Martinus Veltman designed thecomputer program Schoonschip for symbolic manipulation of mathematical equations, which is nowconsidered the very first computer algebra system.

Mutual exclusion (mutex) (1965)

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In computer science, mutual exclusion refers to the requirement of ensuring that no two concurrentprocesses are in their critical section at the same time; it is a basic requirement in concurrency control, toprevent race conditions. The requirement of mutual exclusion was first identified and solved by Edsger W.Dijkstra in his seminal 1965 paper titled Solution of a problem in concurrent programming control,[143][144]

and is credited as the first topic in the study of concurrent algorithms.[141]

Semaphore (programming) (1965)

The semaphore concept was invented by Dijkstra in 1965 and the concept has found widespread use in avariety of operating systems.

Sleeping barber problem (1965)

In computer science, the sleeping barber problem is a classic inter-process communication andsynchronization problem between multiple operating system processes. The problem is analogous to that ofkeeping a barber working when there are customers, resting when there are none and doing so in an orderlymanner. The Sleeping Barber Problem was introduced by Edsger Dijkstra in 1965.[145]

Banker's algorithm (deadlock prevention algorithm) (1965)

The Banker's algorithm is a resource allocation and deadlock avoidance algorithm developed by EdsgerDijkstra that tests for safety by simulating the allocation of predetermined maximum possible amounts of allresources, and then makes an "s-state" check to test for possible deadlock conditions for all other pendingactivities, before deciding whether allocation should be allowed to continue. The algorithm was developed inthe design process for the THE operating system and originally described (in Dutch) in EWD108.[146] Thename is by analogy with the way that bankers account for liquidity constraints.

Dining philosophers problem (1965)

In computer science, the dining philosophers problem is an example problem often used in concurrentalgorithm design to illustrate synchronization issues and techniques for resolving them. It was originallyformulated in 1965 by Edsger Dijkstra as a student exam exercise, presented in terms of computerscompeting for access to tape drive peripherals. Soon after, Tony Hoare gave the problem its presentformulation.[147][148][149]

Dekker's algorithm (1965)

Dekker's algorithm is the first known correct solution to the mutual exclusion problem in concurrentprogramming. Dijkstra attributed the solution to Dutch mathematician Theodorus Dekker in his manuscripton cooperating sequential processes. It allows two threads to share a single-use resource without conflict,using only shared memory for communication. Dekker's algorithm is the first published software-only,two-process mutual exclusion algorithm.

THE multiprogramming system (1968)

The THE multiprogramming system was a computer operating system designed by a team led by Edsger W.Dijkstra, described in monographs in 1965-66[150] and published in 1968.[151]

Van Wijngaarden grammar (1968)

Van Wijngaarden grammar (also vW-grammar or W-grammar) is a two-level grammar that provides a

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technique to define potentially infinite context-free grammars in a finite number of rules. The formalism wasinvented by Adriaan van Wijngaarden to rigorously define some syntactic restrictions that previously had tobe formulated in natural language, despite their formal content. Typical applications are the treatment ofgender and number in natural language syntax and the well-definedness of identifiers in programminglanguages. The technique was used and developed in the definition of the programming language ALGOL68. It is an example of the larger class of affix grammars.

Structured programming (1968)

In 1968, computer programming was in a state of crisis. Dijkstra was one of a small group of academics andindustrial programmers who advocated a new programming style to improve the quality of programs.Dijkstra coined the phrase "structured programming" and during the 1970s this became the newprogramming orthodoxy.

EPROM (1971)

An EPROM or erasable programmable read only memory, is a type of memory chip that retains its datawhen its power supply is switched off. Development of the EPROM memory cell started with investigationof faulty integrated circuits where the gate connections of transistors had broken. Stored charge on theseisolated gates changed their properties. The EPROM was invented by the Amsterdam-born Israeli electricalengineer Dov Frohman in 1971, who was awarded US patent 3660819[152] in 1972.

Self-stabilization (1974)

Self-stabilization is a concept of fault-tolerance in distributed computing. A distributed system that isself-stabilizing will end up in a correct state no matter what state it is initialized with. That correct state isreached after a finite number of execution steps. Many years after the seminal paper of Edsger Dijkstra in1974, this concept remains important as it presents an important foundation for self-managing computersystems and fault-tolerant systems. Self-stabilization became its own area of study in distributed systemsresearch, and Dijkstra set the stage for the next generation of computer scientists such as Leslie Lamport,Nancy Lynch, and Shlomi Dolev. As a result, Dijkstra's paper received the 2002 ACM PODCInfluential-Paper Award (later renamed as Dijkstra Prize or Edsger W. Dijkstra Prize in DistributedComputing since 2003).[153]

Predicate transformer semantics (1975)

Predicate transformer semantics were introduced by Dijkstra in his seminal paper "Guarded commands,nondeterminacy and formal derivation of programs".

Guarded Command Language (1975)

The Guarded Command Language (GCL) is a language defined by Edsger Dijkstra for predicate transformersemantics.[154] It combines programming concepts in a compact way, before the program is written in somepractical programming language.

Van Emde Boas tree (VEB tree) (1975)

A Van Emde Boas tree (or Van Emde Boas priority queue, also known as a vEB tree, is a tree data structurewhich implements an associative array with m-bit integer keys. The vEB tree was invented by a team led byDutch computer scientist Peter van Emde Boas in 1975.[155]

ABC (programming language) (1980s)

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ABC is an imperative general-purpose programming language and programming environment developed atCWI, Netherlands by Leo Geurts, Lambert Meertens, and Steven Pemberton. It is interactive, structured,high-level, and intended to be used instead of BASIC, Pascal, or AWK. It is not meant to be a systems-programming language but is intended for teaching or prototyping.

The language had a major influence on the design of the Python programming language (as acounterexample); Guido van Rossum, who developed Python, previously worked for several years on theABC system in the early 1980s.[156][157]

Dijkstra-Scholten algorithm (1980)

The Dijkstra–Scholten algorithm (named after Edsger W. Dijkstra and Carel S. Scholten) is an algorithm fordetecting termination in a distributed system.[158][159] The algorithm was proposed by Dijkstra and Scholtenin 1980.[160]

Smoothsort (1981)

Smoothsort[161] is a comparison-based sorting algorithm. It is a variation of heapsort developed by EdsgerDijkstra in 1981. Like heapsort, smoothsort's upper bound is O(n log n). The advantage of smoothsort is thatit comes closer to O(n) time if the input is already sorted to some degree, whereas heapsort averages O(nlog n) regardless of the initial sorted state.

Amsterdam Compiler Kit (1983)

The Amsterdam Compiler Kit (ACK) is a fast, lightweight and retargetable compiler suite and toolchaindeveloped by Andrew Tanenbaum and Ceriel Jacobs at the Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam. It is MINIX'snative toolchain. The ACK was originally closed-source software (that allowed binaries to be distributed forMINIX as a special case), but in April 2003 it was released under an open source BSD license. It hasfrontends for programming languages C, Pascal, Modula-2, Occam, and BASIC. The ACK's notability stemsfrom the fact that in the early 1980s it was one of the first portable compilation systems designed to supportmultiple source languages and target platforms.[162][163]

Eight-to-fourteen modulation (1985)

EFM (Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation) was invented by Dutch electrical engineer Kees A. SchouhamerImmink in 1985. EFM is a data encoding technique – formally, a channel code – used by CDs, laserdiscs andpre-Hi-MD MiniDiscs.

MINIX (1987)

MINIX (from "mini-Unix") is a Unix-like computer operating system based on a microkernel architecture.Early versions of MINIX were created by Andrew S. Tanenbaum for educational purposes. Starting withMINIX 3, the primary aim of development shifted from education to the creation of a highly reliable andself-healing microkernel OS. MINIX is now developed as open-source software. MINIX was first released in1987, with its complete source code made available to universities for study in courses and research. It hasbeen free and open source software since it was re-licensed under the BSD license in April 2000.Tanenbaum created MINIX at the Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam to exemplify the principles conveyed inhis textbook, Operating Systems: Design and Implementation (1987), that Linus Torvalds described as "thebook that launched me to new heights".

The design principles Tanenbaum applied to MINIX greatly influenced the design decisions Linus Torvaldsapplied in the creation of the Linux kernel. Torvalds used and appreciated MINIX, but his design deviated

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from the MINIX architecture in significant ways, most notably by employing a monolithic kernel instead of amicrokernel. This was famously disapproved of by Tanenbaum in the Tanenbaum–Torvalds debate. EarlyLinux kernel development was done on a MINIX host system, which led to Linux inheriting various featuresfrom MINIX, such as the MINIX file system. When Linus Torvalds first started writing his Linux operatingsystem kernel (1991), he was working on a machine running MINIX, so the initial releases based a lot offunctionality on MINIX subsystems.[164] Until the April 1992 introduction of the extended file system, Linuxused the MINIX file system.[165]

Amoeba (operating system) (1989)

Amoeba is a distributed operating system developed by Andrew S. Tanenbaum and others at the VrijeUniversiteit in Amsterdam. The aim of the Amoeba project was to build a timesharing system that makes anentire network of computers appear to the user as a single machine. The Python programming language wasoriginally developed for this platform.[166]

Python (programming language) (1989)

Python is a widely used general-purpose, high-level programming language.[167][168] Its design philosophyemphasizes code readability, and its syntax allows programmers to express concepts in fewer lines of codethan would be possible in languages such as C++ or Java.[169][170] The language provides constructs intendedto enable clear programs on both a small and large scale. Python supports multiple programming paradigms,including object-oriented, imperative and functional programming or procedural styles. It features a dynamictype system and automatic memory management and has a large and comprehensive standard library.

Python was conceived in the late 1980s and its implementation was started in December 1989 by Guido vanRossum at CWI in the Netherlands as a successor to the ABC language (itself inspired by SETL) capable ofexception handling and interfacing with the Amoeba operating system. Van Rossum is Python's principalauthor, and his continuing central role in deciding the direction of Python is reflected in the title given to himby the Python community, benevolent dictator for life (BDFL).

Since 2008, Python has consistently ranked in the top eight most popular programming languages asmeasured by the TIOBE Programming Community Index. It is the third most popular language whosegrammatical syntax is not predominantly based on C, e.g. C++, C#, Objective-C, Java. Python does borrowheavily, however, from the expression and statement syntax of C, making it easier for programmers totransition between languages.

An empirical study found that, for a programming problem involving string manipulation and search in adictionary, scripting languages such as Python were more productive than conventional languages such as Cand Java. Memory consumption was often "better than Java and not much worse than C or C++". Largeorganizations that make use of Python include Google, Yahoo!, CERN, NASA, and some smaller ones likeILM, and ITA.

Vim (text editor) (1991)

Vim is a text editor written by the Dutch free software programmer Bram Moolenaar and first releasedpublicly in 1991. Based on the Vi editor common to Unix-like systems, Vim carefully separated the userinterface from editing functions. This allowed it to be used both from a command line interface and as astandalone application in a graphical user interface.

Blender (1995)

Blender is a professional free and open-source 3D computer graphics software product used for creating

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Big Buck Bunny, a short

computer animated comedy

film by the Blender Institute,

part of the Blender Foundation.

Like the foundation's previous

film Elephants Dream, the film

was made using Blender.

animated films, visual effects, art, 3D printed models, interactive 3Dapplications and video games. Blender's features include 3D modeling, UVunwrapping, texturing, raster graphics editing, rigging and skinning, fluidand smoke simulation, particle simulation, soft body simulation, sculpting,animating, match moving, camera tracking, rendering, video editing andcompositing. Alongside the modelling features it also has an integratedgame engine. Blender has been successfully used in the media industry inseveral parts of the world including Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil,Russia, Sweden, and the United States.

The Dutch animation studio Neo Geo and Not a Number Technologies(NaN) developed Blender as an in-house application, with the primaryauthor being Ton Roosendaal. The name Blender was inspired by a song byYello, from the album Baby.[171] Roosendaal founded NaN in June 1998 tofurther develop and distribute the program. They initially distributed theprogram as shareware until NaN went bankrupt in 2002.

The creditors agreed to release Blender under the GNU General PublicLicense, for a one-time payment of €100,000 (US$100,670 at the time). OnJuly 18, 2002, Roosendaal started a Blender funding campaign to collectdonations, and on September 7, 2002, announced that they had collectedenough funds and would release the Blender source code. Today, Blender isfree, open-source software and is—apart from the Blender Institute's twohalf-time and two full-time employees—developed by the community.[172]

The Blender Foundation initially reserved the right to use dual licensing, so that, in addition to GNU GPL,Blender would have been available also under the Blender License that did not require disclosing sourcecode but required payments to the Blender Foundation. However, they never exercised this option andsuspended it indefinitely in 2005.[173] Currently, Blender is solely available under GNU GPL.

EFMPlus (1995)

EFMPlus is the channel code used in DVDs and SACDs, a more efficient successor to EFM used in CDs. Itwas created by Dutch electrical engineer Kees A. Schouhamer Immink, who also designed EFM. It is 6%less efficient than Toshiba's SD code, which resulted in a capacity of 4.7 gigabytes instead of SD's original 5GB. The advantage of EFMPlus is its superior resilience against disc damage such as scratches andfingerprints.

Economics

Institutional foundations of modern corporation (first multinational, join t-stock, public limitedcompany) (1602)

The Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, or VOC), founded in 1602, was theworld’s first multinational, joint-stock,[174] limited liability corporation[175][176][177][178][179][180][181][182] - aswell as its first government-backed trading cartel.[183][184][185][186] It was the first company to issue shares ofstock and what evolved into corporate bonds. The VOC was also the first company to actually issue stocksand bonds through a stock exchange.[187][188][189][190] In 1602, the VOC issued shares that were madetradable on the Amsterdam Stock Exchange. This invention enhanced the ability of joint-stock companies toattract capital from investors as they could now easily dispose their shares. The company was knownthroughout the world as the VOC thanks to its logo featuring those initials, which became the first globalcorporate brand. The company's monogram also became the first global logo.[191]

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A bond from the Dutch East India

Company (VOC), dating from 7

November 1623. The VOC was the

first company in history to actually

issue bonds and shares of stock to

the general public. It was the VOC

that invented the idea of investing

in the company rather than in a

specific venture governed by the

company. The VOC was also the

first company to use a fully-fledged

capital market (including the bond

market and the stock market) as a

crucial channel to raise

medium-term and long-term funds.

The seventeenth-century Dutch merchants laid the foundations for thebirth and development of modern corporations that now operate in manycountries around the world.[192][193] The Dutch merchants were also thepioneers in laying the basis for modern corporate governance.[194] It wasthe VOC that invented the idea in 1606 of investing in the companyrather than in a specific venture governed by the company.[195] TheVOC is generally viewed as the first modern corporation.[196][197] Withits legal personhood, permanent capital with transferable shares,separation of ownership and management, and limited liability for bothshareholders and managers (or The Heeren XVII, who served as theboard of directors of the company), the Dutch East India Company(VOC) is generally considered a major institutional breakthrough.[198]

Motivated by international trade and the risks of venture capital, theVOC pioneered two of the most important riskmanagement innovationsknown, the implicit limited liability of shareholders and a secondarymarket for equity shares on the Amsterdam Stock Exchange.[177][199]

[200][201][202][203][204][205] The VOC marked a commercial breakthrough.It conducted semipermanent business ventures, instead of contractingwith different shareholders for each undertaking. Other firms soonfollowed suit.[206] The VOC's success inspired imitation acrossEurope—from Russia to Portugal.[193] Unlike the competing British EastIndia Company founded in 1600, the VOC allowed anyone to purchasestock in the trading at the open-air Amsterdam Bourse.[207][208] Within afew decades, the VOC proved itself to be the most powerful tradingcorporation in the seventeenth-century world and the model for thelarge-scale business enterprises that now dominate the global economy.[209][210] As Timothy Brookcommented: "The Dutch East India Company—the VOC, as it is known—is to corporate capitalism whatBenjamin Franklin's kite is to electronics: the beginning of something momentous that could not have beenpredicted at the time."[211] The VOC's institutional innovations made large-scale trade feasible for the firsttime in history.[212] These innovations allowed a single company to mobilize financial resources from a largenumber of investors and create ventures at a scale that had previously only been possible for monarchs.[213]

The key to the success of the VOC was that its ownership had been opened up to the general public. TheVOC, for the very first time in history, enabled investors from all strata of the population to invest in acompany that intended to continue to exist for many years. This enabled the vast sum of 6.5 million guildersto be raised. During its golden age, the VOC was the pioneering model for the modern corporations incorporate governance, entrepreneurship, performance, and profitability.

The Dutch East India Company (VOC) was the first permanently organized joint-stock company, with apermanent capital base (fixed capital stock).[214][215][216][217][218][219][220] In 1602, the world's first officialstock exchange (Amsterdam Stock Exchange or Amsterdam Bourse) was established by the VOC fordealings in its printed stocks and bonds. In the same year, The VOC undertook the world's first recorded IPOand, therefore, became the first public company to issue stock. It also played an integral role in modernhistory's first market crash. In 2010, a history student from Utrecht University, found the world’s oldestknown ‘share’ during his thesis research in the Westfries Archief in Hoorn. It dates from 1606 and wasissued by the VOC chamber of Enkhuizen.

The VOC is generally considered to be the world's first truly multinational corporation since it was the firsttransnational enterprise to issue stock. Some historians such as Timothy Brook and Russell Shorto considerthe VOC as the first pioneering corporation in the first wave of globalization.[221][222] The VOC was the firstmultinational corporation to operate officially in different continents such as Europe, Asia and Africa. Whilethe VOC mainly operated in what later became the Dutch East Indies (modern Indonesia), the company alsohad important operations elsewhere. It employed people from different continents and origins in the same

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Founded in 1602, the VOC - the

first company to be ever listed on

an official stock exchange (the

world’s first publicly traded

company on the world’s first

official stock exchange) - started

off as a spice trader. In the same

year, the VOC undertook the

world's first recorded IPO. "Going

public" enabled the company to

quickly raise the vast sum of 6.5

million guilders. The VOC's

institutional innovations helped lay

the foundations for modern

corporations (large-scale business

enterprises or multinational

corporations) and capital markets

that now dominate the world

economy.

functions and working environments. Although it was a Dutch company its employees included not onlypeople from the Netherlands, but also many from Germany and from other countries as well. Besides thediverse north-west European workforce recruited by the VOC in the Dutch Republic, the VOC madeextensive use of local Asian labour markets. As a result, the personnel of the various VOC offices in Asiaconsisted of European and Asian employees. Asian or Eurasian workers might be employed as sailors,soldiers, writers, carpenters, smiths, or as simple unskilled workers.[223] At the height of its existence theVOC had 25,000 employees worked in Asia and 11,000 were en route.[224] Also, while most of itsshareholders were Dutch, about a quarter of the initial shareholders were Zuid-Nederlanders (people from anarea that includes modern Belgium and Luxembourg) and there were also a few dozen Germans.[225]

The VOC is usually considered the world's first publicly tradedcompany.[182][227][228] The company was the first institutionalizedtrading company to have many of the attributes of the present publiclimited company.[176][229] In the first decades of the 17th century, theVOC was also the first recorded company ever to pay regular dividends,which averaged an annual 18% for almost 200 years (1602-1799).

The VOC was the first wholly recognized limited liability company.[177][230][231][232][233][234][235] The VOC had two types of shareholders:the participanten, who could be seen as non-managing members, andthe 76 bewindhebbers (later reduced to 60) who acted as managingdirectors. This was the usual set-up for Dutch joint-stock companies atthe time. The innovation in the case of the VOC was, that the liability ofnot just the participanten, but also of the bewindhebbers was limited tothe paid-in capital (usually, bewindhebbers had unlimited liability). TheVOC therefore was a limited liability company. Also, the capital wouldbe permanent during the lifetime of the company. As a consequence,investors that wished to liquidate their interest in the interim could onlydo this by selling their share to others on the Amsterdam StockExchange.[236] Confusion of confusions, a 1688 dialogue by theSephardi Jew Joseph de la Vega analyzed the workings of this one-stockexchange.

In terms of creating a corporate identity for example, the VOC had itsown logo, which it placed on all kinds of objects—official documentsbore the VOC monogram seal, its packaged crates of goods werebranded with the same, its property—cannons to pewter to porcelain, allwere variously monogrammed.[237] The VOC's monogram became thebest-known company trademark of the early modern period, possibly infact the first globally recognized corporate logo.[209]

First megacorporation (1602)

The Dutch East India Company was arguably the first megacorporation,possessing quasi-governmental powers, including the ability to wagewar, imprison and execute convicts, negotiate treaties, coin money andestablish colonies. Many economic and political historians consider theDutch East India Company as the most valuable, powerful and influential corporation in the world history.

The VOC existed for almost 200 years from its founding in 1602, when the States-General of theNetherlands granted it a 21-year monopoly over Dutch operations in Asia until its demise in 1796. Duringthose two centuries (between 1602 and 1796), the VOC sent almost a million Europeans to work in the Asiatrade on 4,785 ships, and netted for their efforts more than 2.5 million tons of Asian trade goods. By

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17th-century etching of the

Oost-Indisch Huis (Dutch for

"East India House"), the

headquarters of the United East

India Company (VOC) in

Amsterdam. Considered by

many to be the first truly

(modern) transnational

corporation,[226] while the

VOC established its

administrative center in Batavia

(present-day Jakarta), the

company also had important

operations elsewhere.

The Fort Batavia, seen from

West Kali Besar (Andries

Beeckman, c. 1656). It was in

Batavia on the island of Java,

that the VOC established its

administrative center, with a

Governor-General in charge

from 1610 onwards.

contrast, the rest of Europe combined sent only 882,412 people from 1500to 1795, and the fleet of the English (later British) East India Company, theVOC's nearest competitor, was a distant second to its total traffic with2,690 ships and a mere one-fifth the tonnage of goods carried by the VOC.The VOC enjoyed huge profits from its spice monopoly through most of the17th century.[238]

Considered to be the largest corporation in history,[185] the VOC was evenlarger than some countries. By 1669, the VOC was the richest privatecompany the world had ever seen, with over 150 merchant ships, 40warships, 50,000 employees, a private army of 10,000 soldiers, and adividend payment of 40% on the original investment.[239][240][241][242]

The VOC had considerable influences on the history of some countries andterritories such as New Netherland, Indonesia, Australia, South Africa,Taiwan and Japan. The VOC trade post on Dejima, an artificial island offthe coast of Nagasaki, was for more than two hundred years the only placewhere Europeans were permitted to trade with Japan. Rangaku (literally"Dutch Learning", and by extension "Western Learning") is a body ofknowledge developed by Japan through its contacts with the Dutch enclaveof Dejima, which allowed Japan to keep abreast of Western technology andmedicine in the period when the country was closed to foreigners,1641–1853, because of the Tokugawa shogunate’s policy of nationalisolation (sakoku).[243][244]

In terms of world history of geography and exploration, the VOC can becredited with putting most of Australia's coast (then Nova Hollandia andother names) on the world map, between 1606 and 1756.[245] The VOC'sexploratory voyages such as those led by Willem Janszoon (Duyfken),Henry Hudson (Halve Maen) and Abel Tasman revealed vast newterritories to Europeans.

Dutch auction (1600s)

A Dutch auction is also known as an open descending price auction.Named after the famous auctions of Dutch tulip bulbs in the 17th century, itis based on a pricing system devised by Nobel Prize–winning economistWilliam Vickrey. In the traditional Dutch auction, the auctioneer beginswith a high asking price which is lowered until some participant is willing toaccept the auctioneer's price. The winning participant pays the lastannounced price. Dutch auction is also sometimes used to describe online auctions where several identicalgoods are sold simultaneously to an equal number of high bidders. In addition to cut flower sales in theNetherlands, Dutch auctions have also been used for perishable commodities such as fish and tobacco.

First modern art market (1600s)

The Dutch Republic was the birthplace of the first modern art market (open art market or free art market).The seventeenth-century Dutch were the pioneering arts marketers, successfully combining art andcommerce together as we would recognise it today.[246] Until the 17th century, commissioning works of artwas largely the preserve of the church, monarchs and aristocrats. The emergence of a powerful and wealthymiddle class in Holland, though, produced a radical change in patronage as the new Dutch bourgeoisiebought art. For the first time, the direction of art was shaped by relatively broadly-based demand rather thanreligious dogma or royal whim, and the result was a market which today's dealers and collectors would find

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The ship Vryburg (built by the

V.O.C. in 1748 and sailed

under the Dutch flag) on a

Chinese porcelain plate,

commissioned 1756.

VOC monogram formerly above

the entrance to the Castle of Good

Hope. The abbreviation “VOC”

stands for Vereenigde Oostindische

Compagnie in Dutch, literally

meaning “United East Indian

Company” or “United East India

Company”. The VOC's monogram,

possibly in fact the first globally-

recognized corporate logo.[209]

This Kraak porcelain dish (in a

museum in Malacca) was

emblazoned with the V.O.C.

monogram

familiar. With the creation of the first large-scale open art market,prosperous Dutch merchants, artisans, and civil servants bought paintingsand prints in unprecedented numbers. Foreign visitors were astonished thateven modest members of Dutch society such as farmers and bakers ownedmultiple works of art. Dutch 17th-century art saw the rise of new subjects,as landscapes, still lifes, and scenes of daily life replaced formerly dominantreligious images and scenes from classical mythology.[247]

Concept of corporate governance (1600s)

The seventeenth-century Dutch businessmen were the pioneers in layingthe basis for modern corporate governance. Isaac Le Maire, an Amsterdambusinessman and a sizeable shareholder of the VOC, became the firstrecorded investor to actually consider the corporate governance's problems.In 1609, he complained of the VOC's shoddy corporate governance. OnJanuary 24, 1609, Le Maire filed a petition against the VOC, marking thefirst recorded expression of shareholder activism. In what is the firstrecorded corporate governance dispute, Le Maire formally charged thatthe directors (the VOC's board of directors – the Heeren XVII) sought to“retain another’s money for longer or use it ways other than the latterwishes” and petitioned for the liquidation of the VOC in accordancewith standard business practice.[248][249][250] Initially the largest singleshareholder in the VOC and a bewindhebber sitting on the board ofgovernors, Le Maire apparently attempted to divert the firm’s profits tohimself by undertaking 14 expeditions under his own accounts instead ofthose of the company. Since his large shareholdings were notaccompanied by greater voting power, Le Maire was soon ousted byother governors in 1605 on charges of embezzlement, and was forced tosign an agreement not to compete with the VOC. Having retained stockin the company following this incident, in 1609 Le Maire would becomethe author of what is celebrated as “the first recorded expression ofinvestor advocacy” in history.[251][252][253]

The first shareholder revolt happened in 1622, among Dutch East IndiaCompany (VOC) investors who complained that the company accountbooks had been “smeared with bacon” so that they might be “eaten bydogs.” The investors demanded a “reeckeninge,” a proper financialaudit.[254] The 1622 campaign by the shareholders of the VOC is atestimony of genesis of CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) in whichshareholders staged protests by distributing pamphlets and complainingabout management self enrichment and secrecy.[255]

Modern concept of foreign direct investment (1600s)

The construction in 1619 of a train-oil factory on Smeerenburg in theSpitsbergen islands by the Noordsche Compagnie, and the acquisition in1626 of Manhattan Island by the Dutch West India Company are referredto as the earliest cases of outward foreign direct investment (FDI) in Dutchand world history. Throughout the seventeenth century, the Dutch EastIndia Company (VOC) and the Dutch West India Company (GWIC/WIC)also began to create trading settlements around the globe. Their trading activities generated enormouswealth, making the Dutch Republic one of the most prosperous countries of that time. The Dutch Republic's

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A coin (duit) minted in 1744 by the

VOC.

extensive arms trade occasioned an episode in the industrialdevelopment of early-modern Sweden, where arms merchants like Louisde Geer and the Trip brothers, invested in iron mines and iron works,another early example of outward foreign direct investment.

First modern market-oriented economy (1600s)

It was in the Dutch Republic that some important industries (economicsectors) such as shipbuilding, shipping, printing and publishing weredeveloped on a large-scale export-driven model for the first time inhistory. The ship building district of Zaan, near Amsterdam, became thefirst industrialized area in the world,[256] with around 900 industrialwindmills at the end of the 17th century, but there were industrializedtowns and cities on a smaller scale also. Other industries that sawsignificant growth were papermaking, sugar refining, printing, the linen industry (with spin-offs in vegetableoils, like flax and rape oil), and industries that used the cheap peat fuel, like brewing and ceramics(brickworks, pottery and clay-pipe making).

The Dutch shipbuilding industry was of modern dimensions, inclining strongly toward standardised,repetitive methods. It was highly mechanized and used many labor-saving devices-wind-powered sawmills,powered feeders for saw, block and tackles, great cranes to move heavy timbers-all of which increasedproductivity.[257] Dutch shipbuilding benefited from various design innovations which increased carryingcapacity and cut costs.[83][258][259][260][261][262] Dutch warships were the best in the world and their merchantfleet was equally outstanding. The size of the Dutch merchant fleet in the 1670s probably exceeded thecombined fleets of England, France, Spain, Portugal, and Germany. The Dutch Republic dominated herringfishing in the North Sea, cod fishing off Iceland and whaling at Spitzbergen in the Arctic.[8] By the lastquarter of the seventeenth century, Dutch shipping dominated the world's carrying trade, growing tenfoldbetween 1500 and 1700 (Wallerstein 1980:46)[263] “By seventeenth century standards,” Richard Ungeraffirms, Dutch shipbuilding “was a massive industry and larger than any shipbuilding industry which hadpreceded it.”[264] During his undercover visit to the Dutch Republic as part of the Grand Embassy mission(1697-1698), Peter the Great wanted to learn more about the Dutch shipbuilding industry. He studiedshipbuilding and carpentry in Zaandam and Amsterdam. Through the agency of Nicolaas Witsen,cartographer, mayor of Amsterdam and expert on Russia, he worked at the Dutch East India Company(VOC) shipyard. In order to modernise the Imperial Russia, Peter introduced these Dutch crafts and skills inhis home country and in particular in the newly founded capital of his Russian empire Saint Petersburg.[265][266][267]

In the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, the Dutch-speaking peoples came to dominate not onlythe print trade (having replaced the Italians), but also the map making and map printing industry by virtue oftheir own travels, trade ventures, and widespread commercial networks. The Dutch initiated what we wouldcall today the free flow of geographical information. The Ducth publishing centers of Antwerp andAmsterdam would eclipse the former centers of cartographic activity. During the seventeenth century, theDutch publishing industry was arguably the largest and most sophisticated in Europe. The Netherlands haddeveloped into the 'publishing house of Europe', thanks to an extensive trade in printed matter that chieflycomprised the mass reprinting of foreign publications. The privilege system played an essential role in thislarge-scale publication of printed matter. While the system had long been maintained in France as a tool forcensorship, in the Netherlands it tended to be exploited by the publishers as an effective instrument formonopolising the market. The Dutch publishing industry flourished in the liberal political climate, whereprogressive ideas could appear in print without a problem.[268][269][270] By the middle of the seventeenthcentury the United Provinces had become the undisputed centre of the European book trade, producing alarger assortment of books and other printed material than anywhere else in Europe. Dutch publishing wassuccessful internationally in two ways. Firstly, the Dutch monopolised the trade in publications. Secondly,

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The shipyard of the United East

India Company in Amsterdam

(1726 engraving by Joseph

Mulder). The shipbuilding

district of Zaan, near

Amsterdam, became one of the

world's earliest known

industrialized areas, with

around 900 wind-powered

sawmill at the end of the 17th

century. In the 1590s the Dutch

shipbuilders began to develop

wind-driven sawmilling

technology. By the early

seventeenth century Dutch

shipyards were producing a

large number of ships to a

standard design, allowing

extensive division of labour,

specialization which further

reduced unit costs.[273]

the Dutch printed a large part of the total European book production. Many exiles and freethinkers chose tomove to the United Provinces. The Dutch Republic became a mass producer of illegal pamphlets andforbidden books.[271][272]

First capitalist nation-state (foundations of modern capitalism) (1600s)

Economic historians consider the Netherlands as the first predominantlycapitalist nation.[34][205][274][275][276][277][278][279][280][281][282] Thedevelopment of European capitalism began among the city-states of Italy,Flanders, and the Baltic. It spread to the European interstate system,eventually resulting in the world's first capitalist nation-state, the DutchRepublic of the seventeenth century.[283] The Dutch were the first todevelop capitalism on a nationwide scale (as opposed to earlier city states).They also played a pioneering role in the emergence of the capitalist world-system.[284] Simon Schama aptly titled his work The Embarrassment ofRiches, capturing the astonishing novelty and success of the commercialrevolution in the Dutch Republic. The Dutch, it seems, more than anyone inthe West since the palmy days of ancient Rome, had more money than theyknew what to do with. They discovered, unlike the Romans, that the bestuse of money was to make more money. They invested it, mostly inoverseas ventures, utilizing the innovation of the joint-stock company inwhich private investors could purchase shares, the most famous being theDutch East India Company.[285] Wherever Dutch capital went, there urbanfeatures were developed, economic activities expanded, new industriesestablished, new jobs created, trading companies operated, swampsdrained, mines opened, forests exploited, canals constructed, mills turned,and ships were built. The Dutch were pioneering venture capitalists whoraised the commercial and industrial potential of underdeveloped landswhose resources they exploited. This paved the way to the DutchRepublic's prosperity, as it can pave the way to prosperity elsewhere.[286][287][288] The United Provinces of the Netherlands were the land inwhich the capitalist spirit for the first time attained its fullest maturity.[289][290][291]Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations (1776) includes dozens ofreferences to the Dutch Republic's capitalist economic model.[292] KarlMarx described the Dutch Republic or Holland as “the model capitalistnation of the seventeenth century”, which was in “the rosy dawn of the eraof capitalist production”. He concluded that “the total capital of theRepublic was probably more important than that of all the rest of Europe put together”.[293][294][295][296]

[297][298] As John Steele Gordon (1999) commented “The Dutch invented modern capitalism in the earlyseventeenth century. Although many of the basic concepts had first appeared in Italy during theRenaissance, the Dutch, especially the citizens of the city of Amsterdam, were the real innovators. Theytransformed banking, stock exchanges, credit, insurance, and limited-liability corporations into a coherentfinancial and commercial system.” They brought these techniques/institutions together and established themon a secure basis in a merchant economy organized around a common for-profit motive.[299] In Early modernEurope it featured the wealthiest trading city (Amsterdam) and the first full-time stock exchange. Thetraders created insurance and retirement funds, along with less benign phenomena, such as the boom-bustcycle, the world's first asset-inflation bubble, the Tulip mania of 1636–1637. But the bursting of the tulipbubble did not end Dutch economic hegemony. Tulipmania was followed by a century of Dutch leadership inalmost every branch of global commerce, finance, and manufacturing. It was in the Netherlands that theearly techniques of stock-market manipulation were developed, such as short selling (selling stock onedoesn't own, in hopes of a fall in price), bear raids (where insiders conspire to sell a stock short until theoutsiders panic and sell out their holdings, allowing the insiders to close their shorts profitably), syndicates

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A Satire of Tulip Mania by Jan

Brueghel the Younger (ca.

1640) depicts speculators as

brainless monkeys in

contemporary upper-class

dress. Generally considered to

be the first recorded speculative

bubble (or economic bubble),

the Tulip Mania of 1636-1637

was an episode in which

contract prices for bulbs of the

recently introduced tulip

reached extraordinarily high

levels and then suddenly

collapsed. The term "Tulip

Mania" is now often used

metaphorically to refer to any

large economic bubble (when

asset prices deviate from

intrinsic values).

(where a group manipulates a stock price by buying and selling amongthemselves), and corners (where a person or syndicate secretly acquires theentire floating supply of a commodity, forcing all who need to buy thecommodity to do so at their price).[300] The seventeenth-century Dutchmerchants were pioneering venture capitalists at the dawn of moderncapitalism.[301][302][303] Motivated by international trade and the risks ofventure capital, the Dutch United East India Company pioneered two of themost important riskmanagement innovations known, the implicit limitedliability of shareholders and a secondary market for equity shares on theAmsterdam Stock Exchange.[204] As Timothy Brook commented “theDutch East India Company—the VOC, as it is known—is to corporatecapitalism what Benjamin Franklin's kite is to electronics: the beginning ofsomething momentous that could not have been predicted at the time.”[304]

World-systems theorists (including Immanuel Wallerstein and GiovanniArrighi) often consider the economic primacy of the Dutch Republic in the17th century as the first capitalist hegemony[305][306][307][308][309]

[310][311][312] in world history (followed by hegemonies of the UnitedKingdom in the 19th century and the United States in the 20th century).

First modern economic miracle (1585–1714)

The Dutch economic transition from a possession of the Holy RomanEmpire in the 1590s to the foremost maritime and economic power in theworld has been called the “Dutch Miracle” (or “Dutch Tiger”) by manyeconomic historians, including K. W. Swart.[313] Until the 1700s, theeconomy of the Dutch Republic was the most advanced and sophisticatedever seen in history.[314] While Britain’s was the first economy to use fossilenergy to produce goods for market, the most characteristic institutions ofcapitalism were invented in the Dutch Republic. The first modern economic miracle was that of the DutchRepublic (1585–1702).[315][316][317][318][319] During their Golden Age, the provinces of the NorthernNetherlands rose from almost total obscurity as the poor cousins of the industrious and heavily urbanisedsouthern regions (Southern Netherlands) to become the world leader in economic success.[320][321][322][323]

[324][325][326] On the surface, the Dutch Republic looked thoroughly modern in every sense. It expressedreligious tolerance, had a flourishing market economy, was ruled by a representative government, and had anegalitarian social structure. The Dutch Republic drew power from its federalism and openness when royalabsolutist centralization was the norm.[327] During the 17th century, the Dutch population increased from anestimated 1.5 million to almost 2 million,[328] with a population half that of England and Wales,[329]

one-quarter that of Spain, one-eighth that of France.[330] More than 60 percent of Dutch people lived incities, compared to about 10 percent in most other European countries at the end of the 17th century. TheDutch Republic, and especially the province of Holland, was a highly urbanized society, where city life andburgher values pervaded even the lives of people not living in the cities. The level of urbanisation inseventeenth century Netherlands was only attained in other European countries at the turn of the twentiethcentury. From about 1600 to 1720, the Dutch had the highest per capita income in the world - at least doublethat of neighbouring countries at the time.[331][332] Over the seventeenth century, the Dutch became the mostliterate people in Europe and possibly the world. The Dutch had the world's most generous (private) welfaresystem. “It is doubtful if England or any other country,” wrote Charles Wilson, “could rival the scores ofalmshouses for old men and women, the orphanages, hospitals, and schools maintained by privateendowments from the pockets of the Dutch regent class.”[333] In religion too the Netherlands stood out,being the most tolerant country in Europe, home to a wide variety of Christian denominations as well asJews. The Dutch Republic was the first European state to practice religious toleration on a large scale. Theyalso became the first state to articulate the notion that the government should leave people to their religious

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preferences. Also, from the very start, the Dutch Republic was a much more egalitarian country than any ofthe other countries of Europe. Trade and industry dominated economic life, whatever significanceagriculture still may have had. Despite its lack of human and natural resources (except for water[334] andwind power), the Dutch Republic dominated global market in many important industries[335] such asshipbuilding, shipping, water engineering and management, printing, publishing, map making, lens-making,sugarcane refining, outward investment (outward/overseas direct investment),[336] financial services,[337] andinternational trade.[338] The Dutch Republic had a commercial fleet that was larger than that of England,France, Germany, Portugal, and Spain combined. The United Provinces could build ships faster, cheaper, andbetter than any rival.[339] France, Denmark, and Sweden outsourced their warship construction to the DutchRepublic.[340] As Witold Rybczynski notes, the Dutch Republic or the United Provinces of the Netherlandswas “a brand-new state, formed in 1609 after thirty years of rebellion against Spain. It was among thesmallest countries in Europe. It had few natural resources — no mines, no forests — and what little landthere was needed constant protection from the sea. But this “low” country surprisingly quickly establisheditself as a major power. In a short time it became the most advanced shipbuilding nation in the world anddeveloped large naval, fishing, and merchant fleets. Its explorers founded colonies in Africa and Asia, aswell as in America. The Netherlands introduced many financial innovations that made it a major economicforce — and Amsterdam became the world center for international finance. Its manufacturing towns grew soquickly that by the middle of the century the Netherlands had supplanted France as the leading industrialnation of the world.”[330][341]

Dynamic macroeconomic model (1936)

Dutch economist Jan Tinbergen developed the first national comprehensive macroeconomic model, which hefirst built for the Netherlands and after World War II later applied to the United States and the UnitedKingdom.

Fairtrade certification (1988)

The concept of fair trade has been around for over 40 years, but a formal labelling scheme emerged only inthe 1980s. At the initiative of Mexican coffee farmers, the world's first Fairtrade labeling organisation,Stichting Max Havelaar, was launched in the Netherlands on 15 November 1988 by Nico Roozen, Frans vander Hoff and Dutch ecumenical development agency Solidaridad. It was branded "Max Havelaar" after afictional Dutch character who opposed the exploitation of coffee pickers in Dutch colonies.

Finance

Concept of bourse (1200s)

An exchange, or bourse, is a highly organized market where (especially) tradable securities, commodities,foreign exchange, futures, and options contracts are sold and bought. The term bourse is derived from the13th-century inn named Huis ter Beurze in Bruges, Low Countries, where traders and foreign merchantsfrom across Europe conducted business in the late medieval period.[342] The building, which was establishedby Robert van der Buerze as a hostelry, had operated from 1285. Its managers became famous for offeringjudicious financial advice to the traders and merchants who frequented the building. This service becameknown as the "Beurze Purse" which is the basis of bourse, meaning an organised place of exchange.Eventually the building became solely a place for trading in commodities. From the Dutch-speaking cities ofthe Low Countries, the term ‘beurs' spread to other European states such as France, Italy, Spain, Germany,Denmark and Sweden where it was corrupted into 'bourse', 'borsa', 'bolsa', 'börse', 'børsen' and 'börsen'. InEngland, too, the term ‘Bourse’ was used between 1550 and 1775, eventually giving way to the term ‘RoyalExchange’.

Foundations of stock market (first official, fully-fledged stock exchange) (1602)

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One of the oldest known stock

certificates, issued by the VOC

chamber of Enkhuizen, dated 9 Sep

1606.[343][344][345][346] The

establishment of Amsterdam Stock

Exchange (1602) by the VOC, has

long been recognized as the origin

of modern stock exchanges that

specialize in creating and

sustaining secondary markets in the

securities issued by corporations.

By the 1680s, the financial

techniques used in the Amsterdam

financial markets were as

sophisticated as any practiced

today.

Engraving depicting the

Amsterdam Stock Exchange

(Amsterdam's old bourse, a.k.a.

Beurs van Hendrick de Keyser

in Dutch), built by Hendrick de

Keyser (c. 1612). The

Amsterdam Stock Exchange

was the world's first official

stock exchange when it began

trading the VOC's freely

transferable securities

(including bonds and shares of

stock).

The seventeenth-century Dutch merchants laid the foundations formodern stock market that now influences greatly the global economy. Itwas in the Dutch Republic that a fully-fledged stock market wasestablished and developed for the first time in history.[347] The Dutchmerchants were also the pioneers in developing the basic techniques ofstock trading. Although bond sales by municipalities and states can betraced to the thirteenth century, the origin of modern stock exchangesthat specialize in creating and sustaining secondary markets in corporatesecurities goes back to the formation of the Dutch East India Companyin the year 1602.[207][348][349][350] Dutch investors were the first to tradetheir shares at a regular stock exchange.[201] The Amsterdam StockExchange is considered the oldest in the world. It was established in1602 by the Dutch East India Company for dealings in its printed stocksand bonds. Here, the Dutch also pioneered stock futures, stock options,short selling, debt-equity swaps, merchant banking, bonds, unit trustsand other speculative instruments. Unlike the competing companies, theVOC allowed anyone (including housemaids) to purchase stock in thetrading at the fully operational Amsterdam Bourse. The practice ofnaked short selling was also invented in the Dutch Republic. In 1609,Isaac Le Maire, an Amsterdam merchant and a sizeable shareholder ofthe Dutch East India Company (VOC), became the first recorded shortseller in history. The first recorded ban on short selling also took place inthe Dutch Republic in the same year. In the early 1600s, Dutchmerchants invented the common stock — that of the VOC. Also, theDutch experienced the first recorded stock market crash in history, theTulip Mania of 1636-1637. Since 1602, stock market trading has come along way. But basically, the concept and principle of stock market trading isstill upheld and is still being implemented up to now.[351][352]

In the sixteenth century, the overall economic supremacy of the Italiancity-states gradually came to an end and the centre of financial activities inEurope shifted to the Low Countries, first to Bruges, and later to Antwerpand Amsterdam. They, too, became important centres of financialinnovation. Among Bruges's wealthiest residents was the Van der Beursfamily, inn-keepers who allegedly gave their name to the later bourse (HuisTer Beurze in Dutch).[353] From the Dutch-speaking cities of the LowCountries, the term ‘beurs' spread to other European states such as France,Italy, Spain, Germany, Denmark and Sweden where it was corrupted into'bourse', 'borsa', 'bolsa', 'börse', 'børsen' and 'börsen'. In England, too, theterm ‘Bourse’ was used between 1550 and 1775, eventually giving way tothe term ‘Royal Exchange’. The concept of a stock market has been aroundfor hundreds of years and there are examples of their early developmentacross Europe, including the trading of government debt by brokers intwelfth-century France. But the sophisticated use of a stock market hadtheir beginnings in the Low Countries.[354] Dutch-speaking cities such asBruges, Antwerp, and Amsterdam played a vital role in the birth anddevelopment of early stock exchanges.[355] Antwerp Bourse (Handelsbeursin Dutch) was built in 1531 and was the first public building usedexclusively for financial and commodities trading.[356] The first official,fully operational (fully-fledged) stock exchange is, however, recognised as being the Amsterdam StockExchange which was established in 1602.[276][357][358][359][360][361] The Amsterdam Stock Exchange is oftenconsidered as the first modern stock exchange. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange (a.k.a. Beurs van Hendrick

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Courtyard of the Amsterdam Stock

Exchange (Beurs van Hendrick de

Keyser) by Emanuel de Witte,

1653. The Amsterdam Stock

Exchange is said to have been the

first stock exchange to introduce

continuous trade in the early 17th

century. It was in seventeenth-

century Amsterdam that the global

securities market began to take on

its modern form. Amsterdam was

also the first city where derivatives

that were based on securities were

used freely for a long period of

time.

de Keyser in Dutch) is also said to have been the first stock exchange tointroduce continuous trade in the early 17th century. Edward Stringhamhas written extensively on the development of sophisticated contracts onthe Amsterdam Stock Exchange in the seventeenth century, includingshort sale contracts.[362] By the 1680s, the financial techniques used inthe Amsterdam's financial markets (including stock trading, derivativestrading, and option trading) were as sophisticated as any practicedtoday.[363][364] It was in the Dutch Republic that the early techniques ofstock-market manipulation were developed, such as short selling (sellingstock one doesn't own, in hopes of a fall in price), bear raids (whereinsiders conspire to sell a stock short until the outsiders panic and sellout their holdings, allowing the insiders to close their shorts profitably),syndicates (where a group manipulates a stock price by buying andselling among themselves), and corners (where a person or syndicatesecretly acquires the entire floating supply of a commodity, forcing allwho need to buy the commodity to do so at their price).[300]

Joseph de la Vega, also known as Joseph Penso de la Vega and by othervariations of his name, was an Amsterdam trader from a Spanish Jewishfamily and a prolific writer as well as a successful businessman in17th-century Amsterdam. His 1688 book Confusion of Confusionsexplained the workings of the city's stock market. It was the earliestbook about stock trading, taking the form of a dialogue between amerchant, a shareholder and a philosopher, the book described a marketthat was sophisticated but also prone to excesses, and de la Vega offeredadvice to his readers on such topics as the unpredictability of marketshifts and the importance of patience in investment. The book has beendescribed as the first precursor of modern behavioural finance, with itsdescriptions of investor decision-making still reflected in the way someinvestors operate today, and in 2001 was still rated by the Financial Times as one of the ten best investmentbook ever written.[361]

First fully functioning (fully-fledged) financial market (1600s)

The Dutch Republic (Amsterdam in particular) was the birthplace of the world's first fully functioningfinancial market, with the birth of a fully fledged capital market. Capital markets for debt and equity sharesare used to raise long-term funds. New stocks and bonds are sold in primary markets (including initial publicofferings) and secondary markets (including stock exchanges). While the Italian city-states produced the firsttransferable municipal bonds, they didn't develop the other ingredient necessary to produce a fully fledgedcapital market: corporate shareholders. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) became the first company tooffer shares of stock to the general public. Dutch investors were the first to trade their shares at a regularstock exchange. In 1602 the Dutch East India Company (VOC) established an exchange in Amsterdamwhere the VOC stocks and bonds could be traded in a secondary market.[181][365] The buying and selling ofthe VOC's securities (including shares and bonds) became the basis of the first official stock market. TheDutch were also the first to use a fully-fledged capital market (including bond market and stock market) tofinance companies (such as the VOC and the WIC). It was in seventeenth-century Amsterdam that theglobal securities market began to take on its modern form.

The fundamental change in taxation and borrowing that took place in the Dutch Republic in thelate-sixteenth and early-seventeenth centuries is often referred to by economic historians as the financialrevolution.[366] It is viewed as the key to the economic growth and political power of the Dutch Republic inits seventeenth-century Golden Age. There is agreement with respect to the fact that this revolution predatedthe English financial revolution by almost a century. It is agreed that a significant public debt was created in

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the Dutch Republic long before it was created in England. Tracy (1985), 't Hart (1993), and others date theformation of a market for government bonds in the Dutch Republic a few decades before the formation ofthe VOC (1602).[367] Many commercial and financial institutions new in seventeenth-century London,including the stock market, were based on models developed in Amsterdam earlier in the century. WhenWilliam III of Orange acceded to the English throne in 1688, he introduced well-tried financial innovationsfrom the Dutch Republic.[368] A consolidated public debt was already created in Holland in mid-sixteenthcentury.[369] Kuzminski (2013) notes, “The Dutch, in short, invented the first system of national publiccredit. For the first time in Europe and, it appears, world history, we find a credit system not dependentsolely on the vicissitudes of private bankers like the Medici or the Fuggers and their unreliable privatedebtors, like the monarchs of Europe. Credit was now backed by publically guaranteed, more or lessperpetual national institutions. The bourse and the bank of Amsterdam had behind them the imprimatur ofthe collective corporate backing of the provinces and towns.”[370]

Foundations of corporate finance (1600s)

What is now known as corporate finance has its modern roots in financial management policies of the DutchEast India Company (VOC) in the 17th century and some basic aspects of modern corporate finance beganto appear in financial activities of Dutch businessmen in the early 1600s.

Initial public offering (1602)

The earliest form of a company which issued public shares was the publicani during the Roman Republic. In1602, the Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or VOC) became the firstmodern company to issue shares to the public, thus launching the first modern initial public offering (IPO).The VOC held the first public offering of shares in history shortly after its founding.[371][372][373] With thisfirst recorded initial public offering (IPO), the VOC brought in 6,424,588 guilders and the companysubsequently grew to become the first true transnational corporation in the world.

Institutional foundations of investment banking (1600s)

The Dutch were the pioneers in laying the basis for investment banking, allowing the risk of loans to bedistributed among thousands of investors in the early seventeenth century.[374]

Institutional foundations of central banking (first central bank) (1609)

Prior to the 17th century most money was commodity money, typically gold or silver. However, promises topay were widely circulated and accepted as value at least five hundred years earlier in both Europe andAsia. The Song Dynasty was the first to issue generally circulating paper currency, while the Yuan Dynastywas the first to use notes as the predominant circulating medium. In 1455, in an effort to control inflation,the succeeding Ming Dynasty ended the use of paper money and closed much of Chinese trade. Themedieval European Knights Templar ran an early prototype of a central banking system, as their promises topay were widely respected, and many regard their activities as having laid the basis for the modern bankingsystem. As the first public bank to "offer accounts not directly convertible to coin", the Bank of Amsterdam(Amsterdamsche Wisselbank or literally Amsterdam Exchange Bank) established in 1609 is considered to bethe precursor to modern central banks, if not the first true central bank.[202][375][376][377][378][379][380][381] TheWisselbank's innovations helped lay the foundations for the birth and development of modern centralbanking systems.[382][383][384][385][386][387][388] There were earlier banks, especially in the Italian city-states,but the Wisselbank, with its public backing, provided for a scale of operations and stability hithertounmatched. Along with a number of subsidiary local banks, it performed many of modern-day centralbanking functions.[285] The model of the Wisselbank as a state bank was adapted throughout Europe,including the Bank of Sweden (1668) and the Bank of England (1694).[389] It occupied a central position in

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A painting by Pieter Saenredam of

the old town hall in Amsterdam

where the Wisselbank was founded

in 1609. The Amsterdamsche

Wisselbank (literally meaning

“Amsterdam Exchange Bank”), the

precursor to, if not the first modern

central bank. The Wisselbank's

innovations helped lay the

foundations for the central banking

system that now plays a vital role

in the world's economy.

the financial world of its day, providing an effective, efficient andtrusted system for national and international payments. Theestablishment of the Wisselbank led to the introduction of the concept ofbank money — the bank guilder. Lucien Gillard (2004) calls it theEuropean guilder (le florin européen),[390] and Adam Smith devotesmany pages to explaining how the bank guilder works (Smith 1776:446-455). Considered by many experts to be the first internationallydominant reserve currency of modern times, the Dutch guilder was thedominant currency during the 17th and 18th centuries. It was justreplaced by British pound sterling in the 19th century and the US dollartook the lead just after World War Two and has held it until this day.[391]

[392][393]

Short selling (1609)

Financial innovation in Amsterdam took many forms. In 1609, investorsled by Isaac Le Maire formed history's first bear syndicate to engage inshort selling, but their coordinated trading had only a modest impact indriving down share prices, which tended to be robust throughout the17th century.

Concept of dividend policy (1610)

In the first decades of the 17th century, the VOC was the first recorded company ever to pay regulardividends. To encourage investors to buy shares, a promise of an annual payment (called a dividend) wasmade. An investor would receive dividends instead interest and the investment was permanent in the form ofshares in the company. Between 1600 and 1800 the Dutch East India Company (VOC) paid annualdividends worth around 18 percent of the value of the shares.

First European banknote (1661)

In 1656, King Charles X Gustav of Sweden signed two charters creating two private banks under thedirectorship of Johan Palmstruch (though before having been ennobled he was called Johan Wittmacher orHans Wittmacher), a Riga-born merchant of Dutch origin. Palmstruch modeled the banks on those ofAmsterdam where he had become a burgher. The first real European banknote was issued in 1661 by theStockholms Banco of Johan Palmstruch, a private bank under state charter (precursor to the SverigesRiksbank, the central bank of Sweden).

First book ever on stock trading (1688)

Joseph de la Vega, also known as Joseph Penso de la Vega, was an Amsterdam trader from a Spanish Jewishfamily and a prolific writer as well as a successful businessman. His 1688 book Confusion de Confusiones(Confusion of Confusions) explained the workings of the city's stock market. It was the earliest book aboutstock trading, taking the form of a dialogue between a merchant, a shareholder and a philosopher. The bookdescribed a market that was sophisticated but also prone to excesses, and de la Vega offered advice to hisreaders on such topics as the unpredictability of market shifts and the importance of patience in investment.The book has been described as the first precursor of modern behavioural finance, with its descriptions ofinvestor decision-making still reflected in the way some investors operate today, and in 2001 was still ratedby the Financial Times as one of the ten best investment book ever written.[394]

Concept of technical analysis (1688)

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The Dam Square in Amsterdam,

by Gerrit Adriaensz

Berckheyde, c. 1660. In the

picture of the centre of highly

cosmopolitan and tolerant

Amsterdam, Muslim/Oriental

figures (possibly Ottoman or

Moroccan merchants) are

shown negotiating.

The principles of technical analysis are derived from hundreds of years of financial market data. Theseprinciples in a raw form have been studied since the seventeenth century.[395] Some aspects of technicalanalysis began to appear in Joseph de la Vega's accounts of the Dutch markets in the late 17th century. InAsia, technical analysis is said to be a method developed by Homma Munehisa during the early 18th centurywhich evolved into the use of candlestick techniques, and is today a technical analysis charting tool.[396][397]

Concept of behavioral finance (1688)

Josseph de la Vega was in 1688 the first person to give an account of irrational behaviour in financialmarkets. His 1688 book Confusion of Confusions, has been described as the first precursor of modernbehavioural finance, with its descriptions of investor decision-making still reflected in the way someinvestors operate today.

First modern model of a financial centre (1600s)

In the seventeenth century (the Dutch Golden Age in particular),Amsterdam, despite its relatively modest size and population, was the firstmodern model of a global (international) financial centre that now operatedin several countries around the world. During their Golden Age, the Dutchwere responsible for three major institutional innovations in economic andfinancial history. The first major innovation was the foundation of theUnited East India Company/Dutch East India Company (a.k.a. VerenigdeOostindische Compagnie or VOC in Dutch), the world's first publicly tradedcompany, in 1602.[398] As the first listed company (the first company to beever listed on an official stock exchange), the VOC was the first companyto actually issue stock and bonds to the general public. The second majorinnovation was the creation of the world's first fully functioning financialmarket, with the birth of a fully fledged capital market (including the bondmarket and stock market). The establishment of Amsterdam StockExchange (1602) by the VOC, has long been recognized as the origin ofmodern stock exchanges that specialize in creating and sustainingsecondary markets in the securities issued by corporations. The AmsterdamStock Exchange (Beurs van Hendrick de Keyser in Dutch) was the world's first official stock exchange whenit began trading the VOC's freely transferable securities (including bonds and shares of stock).[399] Thebuying and selling of these securities became the basis of the first official stock market. The third majorinnovation was the establishment of the Bank of Amsterdam (Amsterdamsche Wisselbank in Dutch) in 1609,which led to the introduction of the concept of bank money. The Bank of Amsterdam was arguably theworld's first central bank. Along with a number of subsidiary local banks, it performed many functions ofcentral banking system. The uniqueness of the 17th-century Dutch society’s structure (such as highlybourgeois, entrepreneurial, republican, federal, liberal, tolerant, secularist, and egalitarian features) played animportant role in the birth of these seminal institutional innovations.

In the 17th century and during most of the 18th century, Amsterdam had been the most influential(powerful) financial centre of the world.[400][401][402] It was in Amsterdam that the important institutionalinnovations such as limited-liability joint-stock company, publicly traded company, transnationalcorporation, capital market (including bond market and stock market), central banking, investment banking,and investment fund (mutual fund) were systematically operated for the first time in history. Amsterdam –unlike its predecessors such as Bruges, Antwerp, Genoa, and Venice – controlled crucial resources andmarkets directly, sending its fleets to all quarters of the world.[278][403][404] Some economic historians(including Jonathan Israel) have identified the Dutch Republic with the Amsterdam Entrepôt as the first trueworld entrepôt,[405][406] whose commercial calendar was organized around the return of the four great fleetsfrom the Baltic, the Levant, the West Indies, and the East Indies.[407]

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Foundations of modern financial system (1600s)

In the early 1600s, the Dutch revolutionized domestic and international finance by inventing common stock— that of the Dutch East India Company and founding a proto-central bank, the Wisselbank or Bank ofAmsterdam. In 1609, the Dutch had already had a government bond market for some decades. Shortlythereafter, the Dutch Republic had in place, in one form or another, all of the key components of a modernfinancial system: formalized public credit, stable money, elements of a banking system, a central bank ofsorts and securities markets. The Dutch Republic went on to become that century's leading economy.[408]

Concept of investment fund (1774)

The first investment fund has its roots back in 1774. A Dutch merchant named Adriaan van Ketwich formeda trust named Eendragt Maakt Magt. The name of Ketwich's fund translates to "unity creates strength". Inresponse to the financial crisis of 1772-1773, Ketwich’s aim was to provide small investors an opportunity todiversify (Rouwenhorst & Goetzman, 2005). This investment scheme can be seen as the first near-mutualfund. In the years following, near-mutual funds evolved and become more diverse and complex.

Mutual fund (1774)

The first mutual funds were established in 1774 in the Netherlands. Amsterdam-based businessman Abrahamvan Ketwich (a.k.a. Adriaan van Ketwich) is often credited as the originator of the world's first mutualfund.[409] The first mutual fund outside the Netherlands was the Foreign & Colonial Government Trust,which was established in London in 1868.

Foods and drinks

Gibbing (1300s)

Gibbing is the process of preparing salt herring (or soused herring), in which the gills and part of the gulletare removed from the fish, eliminating any bitter taste. The liver and pancreas are left in the fish during thesalt-curing process because they release enzymes essential for flavor. The fish is then cured in a barrel withone part salt to 20 herring. Today many variations and local preferences exist on this process. The process ofgibbing was invented by Willem Beuckelszoon[410] (aka Willem Beuckelsz, William Buckels[411] or WilliamBuckelsson), a 14th-century Zealand Fisherman. The invention of this fish preservation technique led to theDutch becoming a seafaring power.[412] This invention created an export industry for salt herring that wasmonopolized by the Dutch.

Doughnut (1600s)

Many people believe it was the Dutch who invented doughnuts. A Dutch snack made from potatoes had around shape like a ball, but, like Gregory's dough balls, needed a little longer time when fried to cook theinside thoroughly. These potato-balls developed into doughnuts when the Dutch finally made them intoring-shapes reduce frying time.

Gin (jenever) (1650)

Gin is a spirit which derives its predominant flavour from juniper berries (Juniperus communis). From itsearliest origins in the Middle Ages, gin has evolved over the course of a millennium from a herbal medicineto an object of commerce in the spirits industry. Gin was developed on the basis of the older Jenever, andbecome widely popular in Great Britain when William III of Orange, leader of the Dutch Republic, occupiedthe British throne with his wife Mary. Today, the gin category is one of the most popular and widelydistributed range of spirits, and is represented by products of various origins, styles, and flavour profiles that

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A selection of bottled gins offered

at a liquor store.

A bowl of cocoa powder.

In 1828, C. J. van Houten

revolutionized the modern

chocolate industry by

inventing a hydraulic

press that squeezed the

cocoa butter (fat) out of

the cocoa beans,

producing cocoa powder.

all revolve around juniper as a common ingredient.

The Dutch physician Franciscus Sylvius is often credited with theinvention of gin in the mid 17th century,[413][414] although the existenceof genever is confirmed in Massinger's play The Duke of Milan (1623),when Dr. Sylvius would have been but nine years of age. It is furtherclaimed that British soldiers who provided support in Antwerp againstthe Spanish in 1585, during the Eighty Years' War, were already drinkinggenever (jenever) for its calming effects before battle, from which theterm Dutch Courage is believed to have originated.[415] The earliestknown written reference to genever appears in the 13th centuryencyclopaedic work Der Naturen Bloeme (Bruges), and the earliestprinted genever recipe from 16th century work Een Constelijck Distileerboec (Antwerp).[416]

Stroopwafel (1780s)

A stroopwafel (also known as syrup waffle, treacle waffle or caramel waffle) is a waffle made from two thinlayers of baked batter with a caramel-like syrup filling the middle. They were first made in Gouda in the1780s. The traditional way to eat the stroopwafel is to place it atop of a drinking vessel with a hot beverage(coffee, tea or chocolate) inside that fits the diameter of the waffle. The heat from the rising steam warmsthe waffle and slightly softens the inside and makes the waffle soft on one side while still crispy on the other.

Cocoa powder (foundations of modern chocolate industry) (1828)

In 1815, Dutch chemist Coenraad Van Houten introduced alkaline salts tochocolate, which reduced its bitterness. In the 1820s, Casparus van Houten, Sr.patented an inexpensive method for pressing the fat from roasted cocoa beans.[417][418][419] He created a press to remove about half the natural fat (cacaobutter) from chocolate liquor, which made chocolate both cheaper to produceand more consistent in quality. This innovation introduced the modern era ofchocolate. Van Houten developed the first cocoa powder producing machine inthe Netherlands.[420] Van Houten's machine – a hydraulic press – reduced thecocoa butter content by nearly half. This created a "cake" that could bepulverized into cocoa powder, which was to become the basis of all chocolateproducts.[421][422][423][424][425][426][427][428][429][430][431] The press separated thegreasy cocoa butter from cacao seeds, leaving a purer chocolate powder behind.This powder, much like the instant cocoa powder used today, was easier to stirinto milk and water. As a result, another very important discovery was made:solid chocolate. By using cocoa powder and low amounts of cocoa butter, it wasthen possible to manufacture chocolate bar. The term "chocolate" then came tomean solid chocolate, rather than hot chocolate.

Dutch-process chocolate (1828)

Dutch-processed chocolate or Dutched chocolate is chocolate that has beentreated with an alkalizing agent to modify its color and give it a milder tastecompared to "natural cocoa" extracted with the Broma process. It forms the basis for much of modernchocolate, and is used in ice cream, hot cocoa, and baking. The Dutch process was developed in the early19th century by Dutch chocolate maker Coenraad Johannes van Houten, whose father Casparus isresponsible for the development of the method of removing fat from cacao beans by hydraulic press around1828, forming the basis for cocoa powder.[418][419]

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Law and jurisprudence

Doctrine of the Freedom of the Seas (foundations of the Law of the Sea/UNCLOS) (1609)

In 1609, Hugo Grotius, the Dutch jurist who is generally known as the father of modern international law,published his book Mare Liberum (The Free Sea), which first formulated the notion of freedom of the seas.He developed this idea into a legal principle.[432] It is said to be 'the first, and classic, exposition of thedoctrine of the freedom of the seas' which has been the essence and backbone of the modern law of thesea.[433][434] It is generally assumed that Grotius first propounded the principle of freedom of the seas,although all countries in the Indian Ocean and other Asian seas accepted the right of unobstructednavigation long before Grotius wrote his De Jure Praedae (On the Law of Spoils) in the year of 1604. Hiswork sparked a debate in the seventeenth century over whether states could exclude the vessels of otherstates from certain waters. Grotius won this debate, as freedom of the seas became a universally recognizedlegal principle, associated with concepts such as communication, trade and peace. Grotius's notion of thefreedom of the seas would persist until the mid-twentieth century, and it continues to be applied even to thisday for much of the high seas, though the application of the concept and the scope of its reach is changing.

Secularized natural law (foundations of modern international law) (1625)

The publication of De jure belli ac pacis (On the Laws of War and Peace) by Hugo Grotius in 1625 hadmarked the emergence of international law as an 'autonomous legal science'.[435][436][437] Grotius’s On theLaw of War and Peace, published in 1625, is best known as the first systematic treatise on international law,but to thinkers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, it seemed to set a new agenda in moral andpolitical philosophy across the board. Grotius developed pivotal treatises on freedom of the seas, the law ofspoils, the laws of war and peace and he created an autonomous place for international law as its owndiscipline. Jean Barbeyrac’s Historical and Critical Account of the Science of Morality, attached to histranslation of Samuel von Pufendorf’s Law of Nature and Nations in 1706, praised Grotius as “the first whobroke the ice” of “the Scholastic Philosophy; which [had] spread itself all over Europe” (1749: 67, 66).[438]

Grotius' truly distinctive contribution to jurisprudence and philosophy of law (public international law or lawof nations in particular) was that he secularized natural law.[439][440][441][442][443][444][445] Grotius haddivorced natural law from theology and religion by grounding it solely in the social nature and natural reasonof man.[433][434] When Grotius, considered by many to be the founder of modern natural law theory (orsecular natural law), said that natural law would retain its validity 'even if God did not exist' (etiamsidaremus non esse Deum), he was making a clear break with the classical tradition of natural law.[446]

[447][448][449]Adam Smith, in lectures delivered in 1762 on the subject of moral philosophy and the law ofnations, said that: “Jurisprudence is that science which inquires into the general principles which ought to bethe foundation of laws of all nations. Grotius seems to have been the first who attempted to give the worldanything like a regular system of natural jurisprudence, and his treatise, 'On the Laws of War and Peace, 'with all its imperfections, is perhaps at this day the most complete work on this subject.” [450]

Grotian conception of international society (1625)

The Grotian conception of international society became the most distinctive characteristic of theinternationalist (or rationalist) tradition in international relations. This is why it is also called the Grotiantradition. According to it international politics takes place within international society in which states arebound not only by rules of prudence or expediency but also of morality and law. Grotius was arguably notthe first to formulate such a doctrine. However, he was first to clearly define the idea of one society ofstates, governed not by force or warfare but by laws and mutual agreement to enforce those laws. As manyinternational law scholars noted, the spirit of the Peace of Westphalia (1648) was preceded with the thoughtsand ideas of Grotius. Thomas Franck observed: ‘Since the Reformation, the Peace of Westphalia, and thewritings of Hugo Grotius, there has been an explicit assumption that the international system is an

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association of sovereign states.’[451] As Hedley Bull declared: ‘The idea of international society whichGrotius propounded was given concrete expression in the Peace of Westphalia’, affirming that ‘Grotius mustbe considered the intellectual father of this first general peace settlement of modern times’.[452]

Cannon shot rule (1702)

By the end of the seventeenth century, support was growing for some limitation to the seaward extent ofterritorial waters. What emerged was the so-called "cannon shot rule", which acknowledged the idea thatproperty rights could be acquired by physical occupation and in practice to the effective range ofshore-based cannon: about three nautical miles. The rule was long associated with Cornelis vanBijnkershoek, a Dutch jurist who, especially in his De Dominio Maris Dissertatio (1702), advocated amiddle ground between the extremes of Mare Liberum and John Selden's Mare Clausum, accepting both thefreedom of states to navigate and exploit the resources the of the high seas and a right of coastal states toassert wide-ranging rights in a limited marine territory.

Permanent Court of Arbitration (1899)

The Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) is an international organization based in The Hague in theNetherlands. The court was established in 1899 as one of the acts of the first Hague Peace Conference,which makes it the oldest global institution for international dispute resolution.[453] Its creation is set outunder Articles 20 to 29 of the 1899 Hague Convention for the pacific settlement of international disputes,which was a result of the first Hague Peace Conference. The most concrete achievement of the Conferencewas the establishment of the PCA as the first institutionalized global mechanism for the settlement ofdisputes between states. The PCA encourages the resolution of disputes that involve states, state entities,intergovernmental organizations, and private parties by assisting in the establishment of arbitration tribunalsand facilitating their work. The court offers a wide range of services for the resolution of internationaldisputes which the parties concerned have expressly agreed to submit for resolution under its auspices.Dutch-Jew legal scholar Tobias Asser's role in the creation of the PCA at the first Hague Peace Conference(1899) earned him the Nobel Peace Prize in 1911.

International Opium Convention (1912)

The International Opium Convention, sometimes referred to as the Hague Convention of 1912, signed on 23January 1912 at The Hague, was the first international drug control treaty and is the core of the internationaldrug control system. The adoption of the Convention was a turning point in multilateralism, based on therecognition of the transnational nature of the drug problem and the principle of shared responsibility. [454]

Marriage equality (legalization of same-sex marriage) (2001)

Denmark was the first state to recognize a legal relationship for same-sex couples, establishing "registeredpartnerships" very much like marriage in 1989. In 2001, the Netherlands became the first nation in the worldto grant same-sex marriages. The first laws enabling same-sex marriage in modern times were enacted duringthe first decade of the 21st century. As of 29 March 2014, sixteen countries (Argentina, Belgium, Brazil,Canada, Denmark,[nb 1] France, Iceland, Netherlands,[nb 2] New Zealand,[nb 3] Norway, Portugal, Spain,South Africa, Sweden, United Kingdom,[nb 4] Uruguay) and several sub-national jurisdictions (parts ofMexico and the United States) allow same-sex couples to marry. Polls in various countries show that there isrising support for legally recognizing same-sex marriage across race, ethnicity, age, religion, politicalaffiliation, and socioeconomic status.

Measurement

Pendulum clock (first high-precision clock) (1656)

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The first accurate mechanical clock. From

its invention in 1656 by Christiaan

Huygens until the 1930s, the pendulum

clock was the world's most precise

timekeeper, accounting for its widespread

use.

Christiaan Huygens – "the most

ingenious watchmaker of all

time" (Arnold

Sommerfeld)[455]

The first mechanical clocks,employing the verge escapementmechanism with a foliot or balancewheel timekeeper, were inventedin Europe at around the start of the14th century, and became the

standard timekeeping device until the pendulum clock wasinvented in 1656. The pendulum clock remained the most accuratetimekeeper until the 1930s, when quartz oscillators were invented,followed by atomic clocks after World War 2.[456]

A pendulum clock uses a pendulum's arc to mark intervals of time.From their invention until about 1930, the most accurate clockswere pendulum clocks. Pendulum clocks cannot operate onvehicles or ships at sea, because the accelerations disrupt thependulum's motion, causing inaccuracies. The pendulum clock wasinvented by Christian Huygens, based on the pendulum introducedby Galileo Galilei. Although Galileo studied the pendulum as earlyas 1582, he never actually constructed a clock based on thatdesign. Christiaan Huygens invented pendulum clock in 1656 andpatented the following year. He contracted the construction of hisclock designs to clockmaker Salomon Coster, who actually builtthe clock.

Huygens' invention of pendulum clock helped lay the foundationsfor the modern clockmaking industry. The longcase clock (alsoknown as the grandfather clock) was created to house the pendulum andworks by the English clockmaker William Clement in 1670 or 1671. It wasalso at this time that clock cases began to be made of wood and clock facesto utilize enamel as well as hand-painted ceramics. In 1670, WilliamClement created the anchor escapement,[457] an improvement overHuygens' crown escapement. Clement also introduced the pendulumsuspension spring in 1671. The concentric minute hand was added to theclock by Daniel Quare, a London clock-maker and others, and the secondhand was first introduced. During the Industrial Revolution, daily life wasorganized around the home pendulum clock. Pendulum clocks remained themechanism of choice for accurate timekeeping for centuries, with F. M.Fedchenko's observatory clocks produced from after World War II up toaround 1960 marking the end of the pendulum era as a time standard.Pendulum clocks were more than simply utilitarian timekeepers; they werestatus symbols that expressed the wealth and culture of their owners. Theyevolved in a number of traditional styles, specific to different countries andtimes as well as their intended use. Case styles somewhat reflect thefurniture styles popular during the period. Today, pendulum clocks remainpopular for domestic, decorative and antique use.[458][459][460][461][462]

[463][464][465][466][467][468]

Concept of the standardization of the temperature scale (1665)

Various authors have credited the invention of the thermometer to Cornelis Drebbel, Robert Fludd, GalileoGalilei or Santorio Santorio. The thermometer was not a single invention, however, but a development.However, each inventor and each thermometer was unique—there was no standard scale. In 1665 ChristiaanHuygens suggested using the melting and boiling points of water as standards.[469][470] The Fahrenheit scale

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Drawing of one of his first

balance springs, attached to a

balance wheel, by Christiaan

Huygens, published in his letter

in the Journal des Sçavants of

25 February 1675. The

application of the spiral balance

spring for watches ushered in a

new era of accuracy for

portable timekeepers, similar to

that which the pendulum had

introduced for clocks.

A mechanical watch movement.

From its invention in 1675 by

Christiaan Huygens, the spiral

hairspring (balance spring)

system for portable

timekeepers, still used in

mechanical watchmaking

industry today.

is now usually defined by two fixed points: the temperature at which water freezes into ice is defined as 32degrees Fahrenheit (°F), and the boiling point of water is defined to be 212 °F, a 180 degree separation, asdefined at sea level and standard atmospheric pressure. In 1742, Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius createda temperature scale which was the reverse of the scale now known by the name "Celsius": 0 represented theboiling point of water, while 100 represented the freezing point of water. From 1744 until 1954, 0 °C wasdefined as the freezing point of water and 100 °C was defined as the boiling point of water, both at apressure of one standard atmosphere with mercury being the working material.

Spiral-hairspring watch (first high-precision watch) (1675)

The invention of the mainspring in the early 15th century allowed portableclocks to be built, evolving into the first pocketwatches by the 17thcentury, but these were not very accurate until the balance spring wasadded to the balance wheel in the mid 17th century. Some dispute remainsas to whether British scientist Robert Hooke (his was a straight spring) orDutch scientist Christiaan Huygens was the actual inventor of the balancespring. Huygens was clearly the first to successfully implement a spiralbalance spring in a portable timekeeper. This is significant because up tothat point the pendulum was the most reliable.[464][466][471][472][473][474]

[475][476][477][478][479][480] This innovation increased watches' accuracyenormously, reducing error from perhaps several hours per day[481] toperhaps 10 minutes per day,[482] resulting in the addition of the minute handto the face from around 1680 in Britain and 1700 in France.

Like the invention of pendulum clock, Huygens' spiral hairspring (balancespring) system of portable timekeepers, helped lay the foundations for themodern watchmaking industry. The application of the spiral balance springfor watches ushered in a new era of accuracy for portable timekeepers,similar to that which the pendulum had introduced for clocks. From itsinvention in 1675 by Christiaan Huygens, the spiral hairspring (balancespring) system for portable timekeepers, still used in mechanicalwatchmaking industry today.[456][483][484][485][486]

Mercury thermometer (first practical, accurate thermometer) (1714)

Various authors have credited the invention of the thermometer to CornelisDrebbel, Robert Fludd, Galileo Galilei or Santorio Santorio. Thethermometer was not a single invention, however, but a development.Though Galileo is often said to be the inventor of the thermometer, what heproduced were thermoscopes. The difference between a thermoscope and athermometer is that the latter has a scale.[487] The first person to put a scaleon a thermoscope is variously said to be Francesco Sagredo[488] or SantorioSantorio[489] in about 1611 to 1613.

Before there was the thermometer, there was the earlier and closely relatedthermoscope, best described as a thermometer without a temperature scale.A thermoscope only showed the differences in temperatures, for example,it could show something was getting hotter. However, the thermoscope didnot measure all the data that a thermometer could, for example an exacttemperature in degrees. What can be considered the first modern thermometer, the mercury thermometerwith a standardized scale, was invented by German-Dutch scientist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (who hadsettled in Amsterdam in 1701) in 1714.[490][491][492][493][494][495][496][497]Fahrenheit invented the first truly

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A medical mercury-in-glass

maximum thermometer.

Fahrenheit's mercury-in-glass

thermometer was far more reliable

and accurate than any that had

existed before, and the mercury

thermometers in use today are

made in the way Fahrenheit

devised.

Thermometer with Fahrenheit

(symbol °F) and Celsius

(symbol °C) units.

accurate thermometer using mercury instead of alcohol and watermixtures. He began constructing his own thermometers in 1714, and itwas in these that he used mercury for the first time. Previousthermometers, such as those constructed by Galileo and GuillaumeAmontons, used combinations of alcohol and water; as the temperaturerose, the alcohol would expand and the level within the thermometerwould increase. These thermometers were not particularly accurate,however, since they were too easily thrown off by changing air pressure.The key to Fahrenheit's thermometer was a new method for cleaningmercury that enabled it to rise and fall within the tube without stickingto the sides. Mercury was an ideal substance for reading temperaturessince it expanded at a more constant rate than alcohol and is able to beread at much higher and lower temperatures.

The traditional thermometer is a glass tube with a bulb at one endcontaining a liquid which expands in a uniform manner withtemperature. The tube itself is narrow (capillary) and has calibrationmarkings along it. The liquid is often mercury, but alcohol thermometersuse a colored alcohol. The alcohol thermometer was the earliest, efficient, modern-style instrument oftemperature measurement. Mercury-in-glass thermometers have been considered the most accurate liquid-filled types. However, mercury is a toxic heavy metal, and mercury has only been used in clinicalthermometers if protected from breakage of the tube.

Fahrenheit scale (first standardized temperature scale) (1724)

Various authors have credited the invention of the thermometer to CornelisDrebbel, Robert Fludd, Galileo Galilei or Santorio Santorio. Thethermometer was not a single invention, however, but a development.However, each inventor and each thermometer was unique—there was nostandard scale. In 1665 Christiaan Huygens suggested using the melting andboiling points of water as standards, and in 1694 Carlo Renaldini proposedusing them as fixed points on a universal scale. In 1701 Isaac Newtonproposed a scale of 12 degrees between the melting point of ice and bodytemperature. Finally in 1724 Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit produced atemperature scale which now (slightly adjusted) bears his name. He coulddo this because he manufactured thermometers, using mercury (which has ahigh coefficient of expansion) for the first time and the quality of hisproduction could provide a finer scale and greater reproducibility, leadingto its general adoption. The Fahrenheit scale was the first widely usedtemperature scale. By the end of the 20th century, most countries used theCelsius scale rather than the Fahrenheit scale, though Canada retained it as a supplementary scale usedalongside Celsius. Fahrenheit remains the official scale for Jamaica, the Cayman Islands, Belize, theBahamas, Palau and the United States and associated territories.

Snellen chart (1862)

The Snellen chart is an eye chart used by eye care professionals and others to measure visual acuity. Snellencharts are named after Dutch ophthalmologist Hermann Snellen who developed the chart in 1862. Visionscientists now use a variation of this chart, designed by Ian Bailey and Jan Lovie.

String galvanometer (1902)

Previous to the string galvanometer, scientists used a machine called the capillary electrometer to measure

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ECG as done by Willem

Einthoven

the heart's electrical activity, but this device was unable to produce results at a diagnostic level. Dutchphysiologist Willem Einthoven developed the string galvanometer in the early 20th century, publishing thefirst registration of its use to record an electrocardiogram in a Festschrift book in 1902. The first humanelectrocardiogram was recorded in 1887, however only in 1901 was a quantifiable result obtained from thestring galvanometer.

Schilt photometer (1922)

In 1922, Dutch astronomer Jan Schilt invented the Schilt photometer, a device that measures the light outputof stars and, indirectly, their distances.

Medicine

Clinical electrocardiography (first diagnostic electrocardiogram) (1902)

In the 19th century it became clear that the heart generated electriccurrents. The first to systematically approach the heart from an electricalpoint-of-view was Augustus Waller, working in St Mary's Hospital inPaddington, London. In 1911 he saw little clinical application for his work.The breakthrough came when Einthoven, working in Leiden, used his moresensitive string galvanometer, than the capillary electrometer that Wallerused. Einthoven assigned the letters P, Q, R, S and T to the variousdeflections that it measured and described the electrocardiographic featuresof a number of cardiovascular disorders. He was awarded the 1924 NobelPrize for Physiology or Medicine for his discovery.[498][499][500][501][502][503]

[504][505]

Einthoven's triangle (1902)

Einthoven's triangle is an imaginary formation of three limb leads in a triangle used in electrocardiography,formed by the two shoulders and the pubis.[506] The shape forms an inverted equilateral triangle with theheart at the center that produces zero potential when the voltages are summed. It is named after WillemEinthoven, who theorized its existence.[507]

First European blood bank (1940)

When German bombers attacked The Hague in 1940 while Willem Johan Kolff was there, he organised thefirst blood bank in continental Europe.

Rotating drum dialysis machine (first practical artificial kidney) (1943)

An artificial kidney is a machine and its related devices which clean bloodfor patients who have an acute or chronic failure of their kidneys. Thefirst artificial kidney was developed by Dutchman Willem Johan Kolff.The procedure of cleaning the blood by this means is called dialysis, atype of renal replacement therapy that is used to provide an artificialreplacement for lost kidney function due to renal failure. It is a lifesupport treatment and does not treat disease.[508][509][510][511][512][513]

[514][515][516][517][518][519][520]

Artificial heart (1957)

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On 12 December 1957, Kolff implanted an artificial heart into a dog at Cleveland Clinic. The dog lived for90 minutes. In 1967, Dr. Kolff left Cleveland Clinic to start the Division of Artificial Organs at the Universityof Utah and pursue his work on the artificial heart. Under his supervision, a team of surgeons, chemists,physicists and bioengineers developed an artificial heart and made it ready for industrial production. To helpmanage his many endeavors, Dr. Kolff assigned project managers. Each project was named after its manager.Graduate student Robert Jarvik was the project manager for the artificial heart, which was subsequentlyrenamed the Jarvik-7. Based on lengthy animal trials, this first artificial heart was successfully implantedinto the thorax of patient Barney Clark in December 1982. Clark survived 112 days with the device.

Military

Modern model of sea power (1585–1688)

The Dutch Republic has been considered by many political and military historians as the first modern(global) sea power.[521][522][523][524] The United Provinces of the Netherlands was the first state to possessthe full triad of foreign commerce, forward bases and merchant and naval fleets. In the middle of the 17thcentury the Dutch navy was the most powerful navy in the world.[525][526] The Dutch Republic had acommercial fleet that was larger than that of England, France, Germany, Portugal, and Spain combined.According to Walter Russell Mead, the “modern version of sea power was invented by the Dutch. Thesystem of global trade, investment, and military power the Dutch built in the seventeenth century was theenvy and the wonder of the world at the time, and many of its basic features were adopted by the British andthe Americans in subsequent years.”[527][528] When the Peter the Great determined to achieve sea power forImperial Russia, he came to the Dutch Republic to learn about shipbuilding, seamanship and nauticalsciences.[529] During his stay in Holland (1697) the Tsar engaged, with the help of Russian and Dutchassistants, many skilled workers such as builders of locks, fortresses, shipwrights and seamen. They had tohelp him with his modernization of Russia. The best-known sailor who made the journey from the DutchRepublic to Russia was Norwegian-Dutch Cornelius Cruys. Cruys performed well in Russia and came beregarded as the architect of the Russian Navy. He became the first commander of the Russian Baltic Fleetand the vice admiral of the Imperial Russian Navy. Peter the Great designed his new capital on the model ofAmsterdam and gave it a Dutch name, Sankt Pieter Burkh (later Germanized into Saint Peterburg).[530][531]

In St. Petersburg, there is an island which is still called Novaya Gollandiya (literally “New Holland”). Thetriangular man-made island took its name after a number of canals and shipbuilding facilities that renderedits appearance similar to Amsterdam. The Tsar chose to call his island “New Holland”, commemorating hisenthusiasm for all things Dutch.[532]

House of Orange-Nassau's military reforms (1590s–1600s)

The early modern Military Revolution began with reforms inaugurated by Prince Maurice of Nassau with hiscousins Count Willem Lodewijk of Nassau-Dillenburg and Count John VII of Nassau during the 1590s.[534][535] Maurice developed a system of linear formations (linear tactics), discipline, drill and volley firebased on classical Roman methods that made his army more efficient and his command and control moreeffective. He also developed a 43-step drill for firing the musket that was included in an illustrated weaponsmanual by Jacob de Gheyn II in 1607 (Wapenhandelinghe or Exerise of Arms). This became known as theDutch drill. It was widely read and emulated in the rest of Europe. Adopting and perfecting the techniquespioneered by Maurice of Nassau several decades earlier, Gustavus Adolphus repeatedly proved histechniques by defeating the armies of Spain (1630–1632), an empire with resources fantastically larger thanSweden's during the Thirty Years' War.[536][537][538][539][540][541][542][543][544][545][546][547]Descartes served fora while in the army of the Dutch military leader Prince Maurice of Orange-Nassau, and developed afascination for practical technology. Maurice' s military innovations had considerable influences onDescartes' system of philosophy.[548]

Norden bombsight (1920s)

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Dutch States Army musketeer by

Jacob de Gheyn II from his

Wapenhandelinge. Dutch military

reforms had considerable

influences on the European warfare

in the early modern period (the

17th and 18th centuries in

particular).[533]

A mechanical wind-up metronome

in motion

The Norden bombsight was designed by Carl Norden, a Dutch engineereducated in Switzerland who emigrated to the U.S. in 1904. In 1920, hestarted work on the Norden bombsight for the United States Navy. Thefirst bombsight was produced in 1927. It was essentially an analogcomputer, and bombardiers were trained in great secrecy on how to useit. The device was used to drop bombs accurately from an aircraft,supposedly accurate enough to hit a 100-foot circle from an altitude of21,000 feet—but under actual combat situations, such an accuracy wasnever achieved.

Submarine snorkel (1939)

A submarine snorkel is a device that allows a submarine to operatesubmerged while still taking in air from above the surface. It wasinvented by the Dutchman J.J. Wichers shortly before World War II andcopied by the Germans during the war for use by U-Boats. Its commonmilitary name is snort.

Goalkeeper CIWS (1975)

Goalkeeper is a close-in weapon system (CIWS) still in use as of 2013.It is autonomous and completely automatic short-range defense of shipsagainst highly maneuverable missiles, aircraft and fast maneuveringsurface vessels. Once activated the system automatically performs theentire process from surveillance and detection to destruction, including selection of priority targets.

Musical instruments

Metronome (1812)

The first (mechanical) metronome was invented by Dietrich NikolausWinkel in Amsterdam in 1812, but named (patented) after JohannMaelzel, who took the idea and popularized it.[549][550][551][552][553]

[554][555]

Fokker organ (1950)

Dutch musician-physicist Adriaan Fokker designed and had builtkeyboard instruments capable of playing microtonal scales via ageneralized keyboard. The best-known of these is his 31-tone equal-tempered organ, which was installed in Teylers Museum in Haarlem in1951. It is commonly called the Fokker organ.

Kraakdoos (1960s)

The Kraakdoos or Cracklebox is a custom-made battery-powered noise-making electronic device. It is asmall box with six metal contacts on top, which when pressed by fingers generates unusual sounds and tones.The human body becomes a part of the circuit and determines the range of sounds possible – differentplayers generate different results. The concept was first conceived by Michel Waisvisz and Geert Hamelbergin the 1960s, and developed further in the 1970s when Waisvisz joined the STEIM foundation inAmsterdam.

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Moodswinger (2006)

The Moodswinger is a twelve-string electric zither with an additional third bridge designed by Dutch luthierYuri Landman. The rod functions as the third bridge and divides the strings into two sections to addovertones, creating a multiphonic sound.

Springtime (guitar) (2008)

The Springtime is an experimental electric guitar with seven strings and three outputs. Landman created theinstrument in 2008.

Philosophy and social sciences

Neostoicism (1580s)

Neostoicism was a syncretic philosophical movement, joining Stoicism and Christianity. Neostoicism wasfounded by Dutch-Flemish humanist Justus Lipsius, who in 1584 presented its rules, expounded in his bookDe Constantia (On Constancy), as a dialogue between Lipsius and his friend Charles de Langhe. The elevenyears (1579-1590) that Lipsius spent in Leiden (Leiden University) were the period of his greatestproductivity. It was during this time that he wrote a series of works designed to revive ancient Stoicism in aform that would be compatible with Christianity. The most famous of these is De Constantia (1584).Neostoicism had a direct influence on many seventeenth and eighteenth-century writers includingMontesquieu, Bossuet, Francis Bacon, Joseph Hall, Francisco de Quevedo and Juan de Vera y Figueroa.

Modern rationalism (1630s–1670s)

The rise of modern rationalism in the Dutch Republic, had a profound influence on the 17th-centuryphilosophy. Descartes is often considered to be the first of the modern rationalists. Descartes himself hadlived in the Dutch Republic for some twenty years (1628–1649) and served for a while in the army of theDutch military leader Prince Maurice of Orange-Nassau. The Dutch Republic was the first country in whichDescartes' rationalistic philosophy (Cartesianism) succeeded in replacing Aristotelianism as the academicorthodoxy. Fritz Berolzheimer considers Hugo Grotius the Descartes of legal philosophy and notes Grotianrationalism's influence on the 17th-century jurisprudence: "As the Cartesian "cogito ergo sum" became thepoint of departure of rationalistic philosophy, so the establishment of government and law upon reason madeHugo Grotius the founder of an independent and purely rationalistic system of natural law." In the late 1650sLeiden was a place where one could study Cartesian philosophy. Sometime between 1656 and 1661 itappears that Spinoza did some formal study of philosophy at the University of Leiden. Philosophy of Spinoza(Spinozism) was an systematic answer to Descartes' famous dualist theory that the body and spirit areseparate.

Modern pantheism (1670s)

Pantheism was popularized in the modern era as both a theology and philosophy based on the work of the17th-century Dutch Jew philosopher Baruch Spinoza, whose Ethics was an answer to Descartes' famousdualist theory that the body and spirit are separate. Spinoza is regarded as the chief source of modernpantheism. Spinoza held that the two are the same, and this monism is a fundamental quality of hisphilosophy. He was described as a "God-intoxicated man," and used the word God to describe the unity ofall substance. Although the term pantheism was not coined until after his death, Spinoza is regarded as itsmost celebrated advocate.

Early liberalism (foundations of liberalism) (1600s)

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"European liberalism", Isaiah Berlin wrote, "wears the appearance of a single coherent movement, littlealtered during almost three centuries, founded upon relatively simple foundations, laid by Locke or Grotiusor even Spinoza; stretching back to Erasmus and Montaigne..."[556]

As Bertrand Russell noted in his A History of Western Philosophy (1945): "Descartes lived in Holland fortwenty years (1629-49), except for a few brief visits to France and one to England, all on business. It isimpossible to exaggerate the importance of Holland in the seventeenth century, as the one country wherethere was freedom of speculation. Hobbes had to have his books printed there; Locke took refuge thereduring the five worst years of reaction in England before 1688; Bayle (of the Dictionary) found it necessaryto live there; and Spinoza would hardly have been allowed to do his work in any other country."[43] Russelldescribed early liberalism in Europe: "Early liberalism was a product of England and Holland, and hadcertain well-marked characteristics. It stood for religious toleration; it was Protestant, but of a latitudinarianrather than of a fanatical kind; it regarded the wars of religion as silly..."[43]

As Russell Shorto states: “Liberalism has many meanings, but in its classical sense it is a philosophy basedon individual freedom. History has long taught that our modern sensibility comes from the eighteenthcentury Enlightenment. In recent decades, historians have seen the Dutch Enlightenment of the seventeenthcentury as the root of the wider Enlightenment.[556][557][558][559] And at the center of this sits the city ofAmsterdam.”[560] Amsterdam, to Shorto, was not only the first city in Europe to develop the cultural andpolitical foundations of what we now call liberalism—a society focused on the concerns and comforts ofindividuals, run by individuals acting together, and tolerant of religion, ethnicity, or other differences—butalso an exporter of these beliefs to the rest of Europe and the New World.[561][562][563][564]

Cartesianism (1630s–1640s)

If Descartes is still considered the father of modern philosophy, Dutch Republic can be called its cradle.Cartesianism is the name given to the philosophical doctrine of René Descartes. Descartes is often regardedas the first thinker to emphasize the use of reason to develop the natural sciences. Cartesianism had beencontroversial for several years before 1656. Descartes himself had lived in the Dutch Republic for sometwenty years (1628–1649). Descartes served for a while in the army of the Dutch military leader PrinceMaurice of Orange-Nassau, and developed a fascination for practical technology. In the 1630s, while stayingin the Dutch city Deventer, Descartes worked on a text which became published as Traite' de l'Homme(1664). Throughout his writing, he used words such as clock, automaton, and self—moving machine asinterchangeable constructs. He postulated an account of the physical world that was thoroughly materialistic.His mechanical view of nature replaced the organism model which had been popular since theRenaissance.[548] His Discours de la méthode (1637) was originally published at Leiden, and his Principiaphilosophiae (1644) appeared from the presses at Amsterdam. In the 1630s and 1640s, Descartes's ideasgained a foothold at the Dutch universities.[565]

Spinozism (1660s–1670s)

Spinozism is the monist philosophical system of the Dutch-Jewish philosopher Baruch Spinoza which defines"God" as a singular self-subsistent substance, with both matter and thought as its attributes.

Affect (philosophy) (1670s)

Affect (affectus or adfectus in Latin) is a concept used in the philosophy of Spinoza and elaborated by HenriBergson, Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari that emphasizes bodily experience. The term "affect" is central towhat became known as the "affective turn" in the humanities and social sciences.

Mandeville's paradox (1714)

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Mandeville's paradox is named after Bernard Mandeville, who shows that actions which may be qualified asvicious with regard to individuals have benefits for society as a whole. This is already clear from the subtitleof his most famous work, The Fable of The Bees: ‘Private Vices, Publick Benefits’. He states that "Fraud,Luxury, and Pride must live; Whilst we the Benefits receive.") (The Fable of the Bees, ‘The Moral’).

Mathematical intuitionism (1907–1908)

Mathematical intuitionism was founded by the Dutch mathematician and philosopher Luitzen Egbertus JanBrouwer. In the philosophy of mathematics, intuitionism, or neointuitionism (opposed to preintuitionism), isan approach where mathematics is considered to be purely the result of the constructive mental activity ofhumans rather than the discovery of fundamental principles claimed to exist in an objective reality. That is,logic and mathematics are not considered analytic activities wherein deep properties of objective reality arerevealed and applied, but are instead considered the application of internally consistent methods used torealize more complex mental constructs, regardless of their possible independent existence in an objectivereality.

Religion and ethics

Devotio Moderna (1370s–1390s)

Devotio Moderna, or Modern Devotion, was a movement for religious reform, calling for apostolic renewalthrough the rediscovery of genuine pious practices such as humility, obedience and simplicity of life. Itbegan in the late fourteenth-century, largely through the work of Gerard Groote, and flourished in the LowCountries and Germany in the fifteenth century, but came to an end with the Protestant Reformation. GerardGroote, father of the movement, founded the Brethren of the Common Life; after his death, disciplesestablished a house of Augustinian Canons at Windesheim (near Zwolle, Holland). These two communitiesbecame the principal exponents of Devotio Moderna.

Devotio Moderna, an undogmatic form of piety which some historians have argued helped to pave the roadfor the Protestant Reformation, is most known today through its influence on Thomas à Kempis, the authorof The Imitation of Christ a book which proved highly influential for centuries.

Mennonites (1536)

The Mennonites are a Christian group based around the church communities of Anabaptist denominationsnamed after Menno Simons (1496–1561) of Friesland. Through his writings, Simons articulated andformalized the teachings of earlier Swiss founders. The teachings of the Mennonites were founded on theirbelief in both the mission and ministry of Jesus Christ, which they held to with great conviction despitepersecution by various Roman Catholic and Protestant states.

Dutch Reformed Church (1571)

The Dutch Reformed Church (in Dutch: Nederlandse Hervormde Kerk or NHK) was a Reformed Christiandenomination. It developed during the Protestant Reformation, with its base in what became known as theRoman Catholic Church. It was founded in the 1570s and lasted until 2004, the year it merged with theReformed Churches in the Netherlands and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Kingdom of theNetherlands to form the Protestant Church in the Netherlands.

Arminianism (1620)

Arminianism is based on the theological ideas of Dutch Reformed theologian Jacobus Arminius (1560–1609)and his historic supporters known as the Remonstrants. His teachings held to the five solae of the

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Reformation, but they were distinct from the particular teachings of Martin Luther, Zwingli, John Calvin,and other Protestant Reformers. Arminius (Jacobus Hermanszoon) was a student of Beza (successor ofCalvin) at the Theological University of Geneva.

Many Christian denominations have been influenced by Arminian views on the will of man being freed bygrace prior to regeneration, notably the Baptists in the 16th century, the Methodists in the 18th century andthe Seventh-day Adventist Church. John Wesley was influenced by Arminianism. Also, Arminianism was animportant influence in Methodism, which developed out of the Wesleyan movement. Some assert thatUniversalists and Unitarians in the 18th and 19th centuries were theologically linked with Arminianism.

First synagogue to be established in the (Americas) New World (1636)

The first synagogue of the New World, Kahal Zur Israel Synagogue, is founded in Recife, Brazil by theDutch Jews. The Kahal Zur Israel Synagogue in Recife, Brazil, erected in 1636, was the first synagogueerected in the Americas. Its foundations have been recently discovered, and the 20th-century buildings onthe site have been altered to resemble a 17th-century Dutch synagogue.[566]

Jansenism (1640s)

Jansenism was a Catholic theological movement, primarily in France, that emphasized original sin, humandepravity, the necessity of divine grace, and predestination. The movement originated from theposthumously published work (Augustinus) of the Dutch theologian Cornelius Jansen, who died in 1638. Itwas first popularized by Jansen's friend Abbot Jean Duvergier de Hauranne, of Saint-Cyran-en-BrenneAbbey, and after Duvergier's death in 1643, was led by Antoine Arnauld. Through the 17th and into the 18thcenturies, Jansenism was a distinct movement within the Catholic Church. The theological centre of themovement was the convent of Port-Royal Abbey, Paris, which was a haven for writers including Duvergier,Arnauld, Pierre Nicole, Blaise Pascal, and Jean Racine.

First Jewish congregation to be established in (the United States) North America (1654)

Congregation Shearith Israel, the Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue in the City of New Amsterdam, wasfounded in 1654, the first Jewish congregation to be established in North America. Its founders weretwenty-three Jews, mostly of Spanish and Portuguese origin, who had been living in Recife, Brazil. When thePortuguese defeated the Dutch for control of Recife, and brought with them the Inquisition, the Jews of thatarea left. Some returned to Amsterdam, where they had originated. Others went to places in the Caribbeansuch as St. Thomas, Jamaica, Surinam and Curaçao, where they founded sister Sephardic congregations. Onegroup of twenty-three Jews, after a series of unexpected events, landed in New Amsterdam. After beinginitially rebuffed by anti-Semitic Governor Peter Stuyvesant, Jews were given official permission to settle inthe colony in 1655. These pioneers fought for their rights and won permission to remain. This marks thefounding of the Congregation Shearith Israel.[567]

Scientific instruments

Telescope (optical telescope) (1608)

The first devices clearly identifiable as "telescopes" speared in the Netherlands around 1608.[568] A patentsubmitted by spectacle maker Hans Lippershey is the first recorded design (a few weeks before anotherspectacle maker, Jacob Metius submitted his patent). Lippershey failed to receive a patent because thedevice seemed to be already well known but was rewarded by the Dutch government for his design.[568] Adescription of Lippershey's instrument quickly reached Galileo Galilei, who created a working unit in 1609,with which he made the observations found in his Sidereus Nuncius of 1610.

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Early depiction of a "Dutch telescope" from

1624. The invention of the telescope

revolutionized science and technology. It helped

lay the foundations for modern astronomy and

physics.

Lippershey crater, on the Moon, bears his name.[569]

Huygens eyepiece (first compound eyepiece) (1670s)

Huygens eyepieces consist of two plano-convex lenses withthe plane sides towards the eye separated by an air gap. Thelenses are called the eye lens and the field lens. The focalplane is located between the two lenses. It was invented byChristiaan Huygens in the late 1660s and was the firstcompound (multi-lens) eyepiece.[570][571][572][573][574]

Huygens discovered that two air spaced lenses can be usedto make an eyepiece with zero transverse chromaticaberration. These eyepieces work well with the very longfocal length telescopes (in Huygens day they were used withsingle element long focal length non-achromatic refractingtelescopes, including very long focal length aerialtelescopes). This optical design is now considered obsoletesince with today's shorter focal length telescopes the eyepiece suffers from short eye relief, high imagedistortion, chromatic aberration, and a very narrow apparent field of view. Since these eyepieces are cheapto make they can often be found on inexpensive telescopes and microscopes.[575] Because Huygenseyepieces do not contain cement to hold the lens elements, telescope users sometimes use these eyepieces inthe role of "solar projection", i.e. projecting an image of the Sun onto a screen. Other cemented eyepiecescan be damaged by the intense, concentrated light of the Sun.

Cycloidal pendulum (1673)

The cycloid pendulum was invented by Christiaan Huygens in 1673. Its purpose is to eliminate the lack ofisochronism of the ordinary simple pendulum. This is achieved by making the mass point move on a cycloidinstead of a circular arc.[576][577][578][579][580][581][582]

Pyrometer (1739)

The pyrometer, invented by Pieter van Musschenbroek, is a temperature measuring device. A simple typeuses a thermocouple placed either in a furnace or on the item to be measured. The voltage output of thethermocouple is read from a meter. Many different types of thermocouple arev available, for measuringtemperatures from −200 °C to above 1500 °C.[583]

Leyden jar (first practical capacitor) (1745–1746)

A Leyden jar, or Leiden jar, is a device that "stores" static electricity between two electrodes on the insideand outside of a glass jar. It was the original form of a capacitor (originally known as a "condenser"). It wasinvented independently by German cleric Ewald Georg von Kleist on 11 October 1745 and by Dutchscientist Pieter van Musschenbroek of Leiden (Leyden) in 1745–1746. The invention was named for thecity. The Leyden jar was used to conduct many early experiments in electricity, and its discovery was offundamental importance in the study of electricity. Previously, researchers had to resort to insulatedconductors of large dimensions to store a charge. The Leyden jar provided a much more compact alternative.Like many early electrical devices, there was no particular use for the Leyden jar at first, other than to allowscientists to do a greater variety of electrical experiments. Benjamin Franklin, for example, used a Leydenjar to store electricity from lightning in his famous kite experiment in 1752. By doing so he proved thatlightning was really electricity.

The idea for the Leyden jar was discovered independently by two parties: German scientist and jurist Ewald

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A battery of four water-filled

Leyden jars, Museum Boerhaave,

Leiden. The Leyden jar was the first

device capable of storing an

electric charge.

A phase contrast microscope.

Frits Zernike's invention

permits the study of internal

cell structure without the need

to stain and thus kill the cells.

Georg von Kleist, and Dutchmen Pieter van Musschenbroek andAndreas Cunaeus. These scientists developed the Leyden jar whileworking under a theory of electricity that saw electricity as a fluid, andhoped to develop the jar to "capture" this fluid. In 1744 von Kleist lineda glass jar with silver foil, and charged the foil with a friction machine.Kleist was convinced that a substantial electric charge could becollected when he received a significant shock from the device. Theeffects of this "Kleistian jar" were independently discovered around thesame time by Dutch scientists Pieter van Musschenbroek and Cunaeusat the University of Leiden. Van Musschenbroek communicated on itwith the French scientific community where it was called the Leydenjar.[584][585][586][587][588][589][590]

Eisinga Planetarium (1781)

The Eisinga Planetarium (Royal Eise Eisinga Planetarium) was built byEise Eisinga in his home in Franeker, Friesland. It took Eisinga sevenyears to build his planetarium, completing it in 1781. The orrery stillexists and is the world's oldest working planetarium.

Kipp's apparatus (1860)

Kipp's apparatus, also called a Kipp generator, is designed for preparation of small volumes of gases. It wasinvented around 1860 by Dutch pharmacist Petrus Jacobus Kipp and widely used in chemical laboratoriesand for demonstrations in schools into the second half of the 20th century.

Phase contrast microscope (1933)

In optical microscopy many objects such as cell parts in protozoans,bacteria and sperm tails are essentially fully transparent unless stained (andtherefore killed). The difference in densities and composition within theseobjects however often gives rise to changes in the phase of light passingthrough them, hence they are sometimes called "phase objects". Using thephase-contrast technique makes these structures visible and allows thestudy of living specimens. This phase contrast technique proved to be suchan advancement in microscopy that Dutch physicist Frits Zernike wasawarded the Nobel Prize in 1953.

Magnetic horn (1961)

The magnetic horn (also known as the Van der Meer horn) is ahigh-current, pulsed focusing device, invented by the Dutch physicistSimon van der Meer at CERN. It selects pions and focuses them into asharp beam. Its original application was in the context of neutrino physics,where beams of pions have to be tightly focused. When the pions thendecay into muons and neutrinos or antineutrinos, an equally well-focusedneutrino beam is obtained. The muons were stopped in a wall of 3000 tonsof iron and 1000 tons of concrete, leaving the neutrinos or antineutrinos toreach the Gargamelle bubble chamber.

Sports and games

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Kolf players on ice, Hendrick Avercamp's

painting (1625)

St. Lidwina of Schiedam's fall

when she was ice skating, wood

drawing from the 1498 edition of

John Brugman's Vita of Lidwina.

Speed skating match on the

Zuiderzee near Hindeloopen in

1828

Kolf (forerunner of modern golf) (1200s)

A golf-like game (kolf in Dutch) is recorded as taking place on26 February 1297, in a city called Loenen aan de Vecht, wherethe Dutch played a game with a stick and leather ball. Thewinner was whomever hit the ball with the least number ofstrokes into a target several hundred yards away. Some scholarsargue that this game of putting a small ball in a hole in theground using clubs was also played in 17th-century Netherlandsand that this predates the game in Scotland.

Figure skating (prototype) (1400s–1600s)

The Dutch played a significant role in the history of ice skating(including speed skating and figure skating). The first feature of iceskating in a work of art was made in the 15th century. The picture,depicted Saint Lidwina, patron saint of ice skaters, falling on the ice.Another important aspect is a man seen in the background, who isskating on one leg. This means that his skates must have had sharp edgessimilar to those found on modern ice skates. Until the 17th century, iceskating was mostly used for transportation. Some of the Stuarts(including King Charles II of England) who had fled to the DutchRepublic during the Cromwell Royal reign later returned to Britain,bringing with them the new sport. Upon his return to England in 1658,the King brought two innovations in ice skating – a pair of iron skatesand the Dutch roll. The Dutch roll was the first form of a gliding orskating motion made possible by the iron skate's two edges. However,speed skating was the focus of the Dutch, while the English developedmodern figure skating.

Speed skating (1400s–1600s)

Speed skating, which had developed in the Netherlands in the 17th century,was given a boost by the innovations in skate construction. Speed skating,or speedskating, is a competitive form of skating in which skaters race eachother over a certain distance. Types of speed skating are long track speedskating, short track speed skating and marathon speed skating. In themodern Olympic Games, long-track speed skating is usually referred to asjust "speed skating", while short-track speed skating is known as "shorttrack".

Yachting (sport sailing) (1600s)

Sailing, also known as yachting, is a sport in which competitors race frompoint to point, or around a race course, in sail-powered boats. Yachting refers to recreational sailing orboating, the specific act of sailing or using other water vessels for sporting purposes. The invention of sailingis prehistoric, but the racing of sailing boats is believed to have started in the Netherlands some time in the17th century. While living in the Dutch Republic, King Charles II of England fell in love with sailing and in1660, took home the Dutch gifted 66-foot yacht he called Mary. The sport's popularity spread across theBritish Isles. The world's first yacht club was founded in Cork, Ireland in 1720.

International Skating Union (1892)

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The International Skating Union (ISU) is the international governing body for competitive ice skatingdisciplines, including figure skating, synchronized skating, speed skating, and short track speed skating. Itwas founded in Scheveningen, Netherlands, in 1892, making it the oldest governing international wintersport federation[591] and one of the oldest international sport federations.

The first official World Championships in Speed Skating (open to men only) directly under the auspices ofthe ISU were held in Amsterdam in 1893.

Korfball (1902)

Korfball (Korfbal in Dutch) is a mixed gender team sport, with similarities to netball and basketball. A teamconsists of eight players; four female and four male. A team also includes a coach. It was founded in theNetherlands in 1902 by Nico Broekhuysen.

Cruyff Turn (1974)

The Cruijff Turn (also known as Cruyff Turn), is a famous dribbling trick in football, was perfected by theDutch football player Johan Cruijff for whom the evasive trick was named. To make this move, the playerfirst looks to pass or cross the ball. However, instead of kicking it, he drags the ball behind his planted footwith the inside of his other foot, turns through 180 degrees and accelerates away. The trick was famouslyemployed by Cruijff in the 1974 FIFA World Cup, first seen in the Dutch match against Sweden and soonwidely copied.

Total Football (1970s)

The foundations for Total Football (Dutch: totaalvoetbal) were laid by Englishman Jack Reynolds who wasthe manager of AFC Ajax. Rinus Michels, who played under Reynolds, later became manager of Ajax andrefined the concept into what is known today as "Total Football" (Totaalvoetbal in Dutch language), using itin his training for the Ajax Amsterdam squad and the Netherlands national football team in the 1970s.[592][593][594][595][596][597][598] It was further refined by Stefan Kovacs after Michels left for FC Barcelona.Johan Cruyff was the system's most famous exponent. Due to Cruyff's style of play, he is still referred to asthe total footballer.[599] Its cornerstone was a focus on positional interchange. The invention oftotaalvoetbal helped lay the foundations for the significant successes of Dutch football at both club andinternational level in the 1970s. During that decade, the Dutch football rose from almost total obscurity tobecome a powerhouse in world football.[600] In an interview published in the 50th anniversary issue of WorldSoccer magazine, the captain of the Brazilian team that won the 1970 FIFA World Cup, Carlos Alberto,went on to say: “The only team I’ve seen that did things differently was Holland at the 1974 World Cup inGermany. Since then everything looks more or less the same to me…. Their ‘carousel’ style of play wasamazing to watch and marvellous for the game.”[601]

Tiki-taka (1990s)

FC Barcelona and the Spanish national football team play a style of football known as Tiki-taka that has itsroots in Total Football. Johan Cruyff founded Tiki-taka (commonly spelled tiqui-taca in Spanish) during histime as manager of FC Barcelona (1988–1996).[602][603][604] The style was successfully adopted by theall-conquering Spain national football team (2008–2012) and Josep Guardiola's Barcelona team(2009–2011).[597][605][606][607][608] Tiki-taka style differs from Total Football in that it focuses on ballmovement rather than positional interchange.

Technology and engineering

First pound lock in Europe (1373)

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Eastern Scheldt storm surge

barrier. The Delta Works and

the Zuiderzee Works have been

declared one of the Seven

Wonders of the Modern World

by the American Society of

Civil Engineers.

The Netherlands revived the construction of canals during the 13th–14thcentury that had generally been discontinued since the fall of the RomanEmpire. They also contributed in the development of canal constructiontechnology, such as introducing the first flash locks in Europe. The firstpound lock in Europe was built by the Dutch in 1373 at Vreeswijk, where acanal from Utrecht joins the river Lek.[610]

Thermostat (automatic temperature regulator) (1620s)

Around the 1620s, Cornelis Drebbel developed an automatic temperaturecontrol system for a furnace, motivated by his belief that base metals couldbe turned to gold by holding them at a precise constant temperature forlong periods of time. He also used this temperature regulator in anincubator for hatching chickens.[611][612][613][614][615][616]

Feedback control system (1620s)

Feedback control has been used for centuries to regulate engineered systems. In the 17th century, Drebbelinvented one of the earliest devices to use feedback, an chicken incubator that used a damper controlled bya thermostat to maintain a constant temperature.

Magic lantern (first practical image projector; the forerunner of modern slide projector) (1659)

The magic lantern is an optical device, an early type of image projector developed in the 17th century.People have been projecting images using concave mirrors and pin-hole cameras (camera obscura) sinceRoman times. But glass lens technology wasn't sufficiently developed to make advanced optical devices(such as telescope and microscope) until the 17th century. With pinhole cameras and camera obscura it wasonly possible to project an image of actual scene, such as an image of the sun, on a surface. The magiclantern on the other hand could project a painted image on a surface, and marks the point where camerasand projectors became two different kinds of devices. There has been some debate about who the originalinventor of the magic lantern is, but the most widely accepted theory is that Christiaan Huygens developedthe original device in the late 1650s.[617][618][619][620][621][622][623] However, other sources give credit to theGerman priest Athanasius Kircher. He describes a device such as the magic lantern in his book Ars MagnaLucis et Umbrae.[624][625] Huygens is credited because of his major innovation in lantern technology, whichwas the replacement of images etched on mirrors from earlier lanterns such as Kircher’s with images paintedon glass. This is what paved the way for the use of colour and for double-layered slide projections (generallyused to simulate movement).

The first allusion to a 'magic lantern' is by Huygens in the 1650s and he is generally credited with inventingit—though he didn't want to admit it, considering it frivolous. Huygens was the first to describe a fullyfunctioning magic lantern, one he made, and wrote about it in a work in 1659. Huygens magic lantern hasbeen described as the predecessor of today’s slide projector and the forerunner of the motion pictureprojector. Images were hand painted onto the glass slide until the mid-19th century when photographic slideswere employed. Huygens introduced this curiosity to the Danish mathematician Thomas Walgenstein whorealized its commercial value for entertainment and traveled through Europe—mostly France and Italy—demonstrating his machine to foreign princes and selling them replicas for their own amusement. Theforerunner of the modern slide projector as well as moving pictures, magic lanterns retained their popularityfor centuries and were also the first optical toy to be used for family entertainment in the home.

Fire hose (1673)

In Amsterdam, the Superintendent of the Fire Brigade, Jan van der Heyden, and his son Nicholaas took

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The Zuiderzee Works turned

the Zuiderzee into a fresh water

lake IJsselmeer, and created

1650 km² of land. Flood

control and land reclamation

have been ongoing through

history, making the Dutch

among the world's leading

experts in hydraulic

engineering.[609] The Dutch

have demonstrated that it is

perfectly feasible to safely live

below sea level. About 30% of

the Netherlands lies below sea

level. Also, about 55% of its

area is vulnerable to flooding,

and about 29% is susceptible to

river flooding. As a really

small-sized country with few

natural resources, about 1/6 of

the entire country (about 7,000

km2 in total) has been

reclaimed from the sea, lakes,

marshes and swamps. This has

led to an old Dutch saying,

"God created the world, but the

Dutch created Holland (or the

Netherlands)".

firefighting to its next step with the fashioning of the first fire hose in 1673.

Gunpowder engine (first practical rudimentary internal combustionpiston engine) (1678-80)

A gunpowder engine, also known as an explosion engine or Huygens'engine, is a type of internal combustion engine using gunpowder as its fuel.It was considered essentially as the first rudimentary internal combustionpiston engine.[626][627][628][629][630][631][632] The concept was first exploredduring the 1600s, most notably by the Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens.[633][634][635][636][637] In 1678 he outlined a gunpowder engine consisting ofa vertical tube containing a piston. Gunpowder was inserted into the tubeand lit through a small hole at the base, like a cannon. The expandinggasses would drive the piston up the tube until the reached a point near thetop. Here, the piston uncovered holes in the tube that allowed anyremaining hot gasses to escape. The weight of the piston and the vacuumformed by the cooling gasses in the now-closed cylinder drew the pistonback into the tube, lifting a test mass to provide power.[638] According tosources, a single example of this sort of engine was built in 1678 or 79 usinga cannon as the cylinder. The cylinder was held down to a base where thegunpowder sat, making it a breech loading design. The gasses escaped viatwo leather tubes attached at the top of the barrel. When the piston reachedthem the gasses blew the tubes open, and when the pressure fell, gravitypulled the leather down causing the tubes droop to the side of the cylinder,sealing the holes.[638] Huygens’ presented a paper on his invention in 1680,A New Motive Power by Means of Gunpowder and Air.[639] By 1682, thedevice had successfully shown that a dram (1/16th of an ounce) ofgunpowder, in a cylinder seven or eight feet high and fifteen or eighteeninches in diameter, could raise seven or eight boys (or about 1,100 pounds)into the air, who held the end of the rope.[640]

Hollander beater (1680s)

The Hollander beater is a machine developed by the Dutch in 1680 toproduce pulp from cellulose-containing plant fibers. It replaced stamp millsfor preparing pulp because the Hollander could produce in one day thesame quantity of pulp that a stamp mill could produce in eight.

Gas lighting (1783)

In 1783, Maastricht-born chemist Jan Pieter Minckelers used coal gas forlighting and developed the first form of gas lighting.

Meat slicer (1898)

A meat slicer, also called a slicing machine, deli slicer or simply a slicer, is a tool used in butcher shops anddelicatessens to slice meats and cheeses. The first meat slicer was invented by Wilhelm van Berkel(Wilhelmus Adrianus van Berkel) in Rotterdam in 1898.[641][642][643] Older models of meat slicer may beoperated by crank, while newer ones generally use an electric motor.[644]

Pentode (1926)

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Bimetallic thermostat for

buildings. In the 1620s, Cornelius

Drebbel invented a mercury

thermostat to regulate the

temperature of a chicken incubator.

This is one of the first recorded

modern feedback-controlled

devices.

Magic lantern at the Wymondham

Museum. The magic lantern

(Laterna magica or Lanterna

magica) was the forerunner of the

modern slide projector.

Huygens' gunpowder engine is

often considered as the earliest

recognizable forerunner of

modern internal combustion

engines.

A pentode is an electronic device having five active electrodes. Theterm most commonly applies to a three-grid vacuum tube (thermionicvalve), which was invented by the Dutchman Bernhard D.H. Tellegen in1926.[645][646][647][648]

Philishave (1939)

Philishave was the brand name for electric shavers manufactured by thePhilips Domestic Appliances and Personal Care unit of Philips (in theUS, the Norelco name is used). The Philishave shaver was invented byPhilips engineer Alexandre Horowitz, who used rotating cutters insteadof the reciprocating cutters that had been used in previous electricshavers.

Gyrator (1948)

A gyrator is a passive, linear, lossless, two-port electrical networkelement invented by Tellegen as a hypothetical fifth linear element afterthe resistor, capacitor, inductor and ideal transformer.[649][650][651][652]

Traffic enforcement camera (1958)

Dutch company Gatsometer BV, founded by the 1950s rally driverMaurice Gatsonides, invented the first traffic enforcement camera.Gatsonides wished to better monitor his speed around the corners of arace track and came up with the device in order to improve his timearound the circuit.[653] The company developed the first radar for usewith road traffic and is the world's largest supplier of speed-monitoringcamera systems. Because of this, in some countries speed cameras aresometimes referred to as "Gatsos". They are also sometimes referred toas "photo radar", even though many of them do not use radar.

The first systems introduced in the late 1960s used film cameras, replacedby digital cameras beginning in the late 1990s.

Variomatic (1958)

Variomatic is the stepless, fully automatic transmission of the Dutch carmanufacturer DAF, originally developed by Hub van Doorne. TheVariomatic was introduced in 1958 (DAF 600), the first automatic gear boxmade in the Netherlands. It continues in use in motorscooters. Variomaticwas the first commercially successful continuously variable transmissions(CVT).

Red light camera (1965)

A Red light camera is a traffic enforcement camera that captures an imageof a vehicle that enters an intersection against a red traffic light. Byautomatically photographing such vehicles, the camera produces evidencethat assists authorities in their enforcement of traffic laws. The first redlight camera system was introduced in 1965, using tubes stretched acrossthe road to detect the violation and trigger the camera. One of the first

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During the 13th and 14th century,

wooden skates with metal blades

were introduced by Dutch. These

ice skates were made of steel, with

sharpened edges on the bottom to

aid movement. The construction of

modern ice skates has stayed

largely the same since then.

developers of these red light camera systems was Dutch company Gatsometer BV.

Stochastic cooling (1968)

Stochastic cooling is a form of particle beam cooling. It is used in some particle accelerators and storagerings to control the emission of particle beams. This process uses the electrical signals that the individualcharged particles generate in a feedback loop to reduce the tendency of individual particles to move awayfrom other particles in the beam. This technique was invented and applied at the Intersecting Storage Rings,and later the Super Proton Synchrotron, at CERN in Geneva, Switzerland by Dutch physicist Simon van derMeer. By increasing the particle density to close to the required energy, this technique improved the beamquality and, inter alia, brought the discovery of W and Z bosons within reach.

Clap skate (1980)

The clap skate (also called clapskates, slap skates, slapskates) is a type of ice skate used in speed skating.Clap skates were developed at the Faculty of Human Movement Sciences of the Vrije Universiteit ofAmsterdam, led by Gerrit Jan van Ingen Schenau, although the idea is much older. van Ingen Schenau, whostarted work on a hinged speed skate in 1979, created his first prototype in 1980 and finished his PhD thesison the subject in 1981 using the premise that a skater would benefit from extended movement keeping theblade on the ice, allowing the calf muscles more time to exert force.

Transportation

Ice skate improvements (1300s–1400s)

In the 14th century, the Dutch started using wooden platform skateswith flat iron bottom runners. The skates were attached to the skater'sshoes with leather straps and poles were used to propel the skater.Around 1500, the Dutch shifted to a narrow metal double edged blade,so the skater could now push and glide with his feet, eliminating theneed for a pole.

Herring Buss (1400s)

A herring buss (Dutch: Haring Buis) was a type of seagoing fishingvessel, used by Dutch and Flemish herring fishermen in the 15th throughearly 19th centuries. The Buis was first adapted for use as a fishingvessel in the Netherlands, after the invention of gibbing made it possibleto preserve herring at sea.[654] This made longer voyages feasible, andhence enabled Dutch fishermen to follow the herring shoals far from thecoasts. The first herring buss was probably built in Hoorn around 1415.The last one was built in Vlaardingen in 1841.

Yacht (1580s)

Originally defined as a light, fast sailing vessel used by the Dutch navy to pursue pirates and othertransgressors around and into the shallow waters of the Low Countries. Later, yachts came to be perceivedas luxury, or recreational vessels.

Fluyt (1500s)

Fluyt, a type of sailing vessel originally designed as a dedicated cargo vessel. Originating from the

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An 18th-century Dutch

yacht owned by the

Rotterdam chapter of

the Dutch East India

Company. This yacht has

the gaff rig and

leeboards of the period.

Dutch fluyt, 1677

De Salamander, a wind-driven

sawmill in Leidschendam

Netherlands in the 16th century, the vessel was designed to facilitate transoceanicdelivery with the maximum of space and crew efficiency. The inexpensive shipcould be built in large numbers. This ship class was credited with enhancingDutch competitiveness in international trade and was widely employed by theDutch East India Company in the 17th and 18th centuries. The fluyt was asignificant factor in the 17th century rise of the Dutch seaborne empire.[262][655]

[656][657][658][659]

Wind-powered sawmill (1592)

Cornelis Corneliszoon was the inventor of the wind-powered sawmill.[660][661]

[662][663][664] Prior to the invention of sawmills, boards were rived and planed, ormore often sawn by two men with a whipsaw using saddleblocks to hold the logand a pit for the pitman who worked below and got the benefit of sawdust in hiseyes. Sawing was slow and required strong and durable sawmen. The topsawerhad to be the stronger of the two because the saw was pulled in turn by each man,and the lower had the advantage of gravity. The topsawyer also had to guide thesaw to produce a plank of even thickness. This was often done by followinga chalkline.

Early sawmills adapted the whipsaw to mechanical power, generally drivenby a water wheel to speed up the process. The circular motion of the wheelwas changed to back-and-forth motion of the saw blade by a pitman thusintroducing a term used in many mechanical applications. A pitman issimilar to a crankshaft used in reverse. A crankshaft convertsback-and-forth motion to circular motion.

Generally only the saw was powered and the logs had to be loaded andmoved by hand. An early improvement was the development of amovable carriage, also water powered, to steadily advance the logthrough the saw blade.

Schooner (prototype) (1600s)

A schooner is a type of sailing vessel with fore-and-aft sails on two ormore masts, the foremast being no taller than the rear mast(s). Suchvessels were first used by the Dutch in the 16th or 17th century (butmay not have been called that at the time). Schooners first evolved froma variety of small two-masted gaff-rigged vessels used in the coast andestuaries of the Netherlands in the late 1600s. Most were working craftbut some pleasure yachts with schooner rigs were built for wealthymerchants and Dutch nobility. Following arrival of the Dutch-bornprince William III the Orange on the British throne, the British RoyalNavy built a Royal yacht with a schooner rig in 1695, HMS RoyalTransport. This vessel, captured in a detailed Admiralty model, is the earliest fully documentedschooner.[665] Royal Transport was quickly noted for its speed and ease of handling and mercantile vesselssoon adopted the rig in Europe and in European colonies in North America. Schooners were immediatelypopular with colonial traders and fishermen in North America with the first documented reference to aschooner in America appearing in Boston port records in 1716.[666] North American shipbuilders quicklydeveloped a variety of schooner forms for trading, fishing and privateering. According to the languagescholar Walter William Skeat, the term schooner comes from scoon, while the sch spelling comes from thelater adoption of the Dutch spelling ("schoener"). Another study suggests that a Dutch expression praising

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Land yachts designed by Simon

Stevin in the year 1600

The Drebbel, the first navigable

submarine.

The 1903 Spyker 60 HP racing

car was the world's first car

with a six-cylinder engine as

well as permanent four-wheel

drive and four-wheel brakes.

ornate schooner yachts in the 1600s, "een schoone Schip", may have led to the term "schooner" being usedby English speakers to describe the early versions of the schooner rig as it evolved in England andAmerica.[667]

Land yacht (1600)

The Wind chariot or land yacht (Zeilwagen) was designed byFlemish-born mathematician & engineer Simon Stevin for PrinceMaurice of Orange. Land yacht. It offered a carriage with sails, of whicha little model was preserved in Scheveningen until 2012. Around theyear 1600, Stevin, Maurice and twenty-six others used it on the beachbetween Scheveningen and Petten. The carriage was propelled solely byforce of wind, and traveled faster than horse-drawn vehicles.

First verified practical (navigable) submarine (1620)

Cornelius Drebbel was the inventor of the first navigable submarine,[668][669][670][671] while working for the British Royal Navy. UsingWilliam Bourne's design from 1578, he manufactured a steerable submarinewith a leather-covered wooden frame. Between 1620 and 1624 Drebbelsuccessfully built and tested two more, successively larger vessels. Thethird model had 6 oars and could carry 16 passengers. This model wasdemonstrated to King James I and several thousand Londoners. Thesubmarine stayed submerged for three hours and could travel fromWestminster to Greenwich and back, cruising at a depth of from 12 to 15feet (3.7 to 4.6 m). This submarine was tested many times in the Thames,but never used in battle.[672][673][674][675][676][677][678][679]

In 2002, the British boatbuilder Mark Edwards built a wooden submarinebased on the original 17th-century version by Drebbel. This was shown in the BBC TV programme Buildingthe Impossible in November 2002. It is a scale working model of the original and was built using tools andconstruction methods common in 17th century boat building and was successfully tested under water withtwo rowers at Dorney Lake, diving beneath the surface and being rowed underwater for 10 minutes. Legalconsiderations prevented its use on the River Thames itself.

First ever car equipped with a six-cylinder engine, along with four-wheel drive (1903)

Spyker is credited with building and racing the first ever four-wheel racingcar in 1903. The first four-wheel-drive car, as well as hill-climb racer, withinternal combustion engine, the Spyker 60 H.P., was presented in 1903 byDutch brothers Jacobus and Hendrik-Jan Spijker of Amsterdam.[680][681]

[682][683][684][685][686] The two-seat sports car, which was also the first evercar equipped with a six-cylinder engine, is now an exhibit in the LouwmanCollection (the former Nationaal Automobiel Museum) at the Hague in TheNetherlands.[687][688][689][690][691]

Others

First practical national anthem (Het Wilhelmus) (1574)

Wilhelmus van Nassouwe (Het Wilhelmus) is the national anthem of theNetherlands and is the oldest national anthem in the world. The anthem was first written down in 1574

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Original fossils of

Pithecanthropus erectus (now

Homo erectus) found in Java in

1891. Estimated to be between

700,000 and 1,000,000 years

old, at the time of their

discovery the fossils of "Java

Man" were the oldest hominin

fossils ever found.

(during the Dutch Revolt). The Japanese anthem, Kimigayo, has the oldest (9th century) lyrics, but a melodywas only added in the late 19th century, making it a poem rather than an anthem for most of its lifespan.Although the Wilhelmus was not officially recognised as the Dutch national anthem until 1932, it has alwaysbeen popular with parts of the Dutch population and resurfaced on several occasions in the course of Dutchhistory before gaining its present status.

Discoveries

Archaeology

Java Man (Homo erectus erectus) (1891)

Java Man (Homo erectus erectus) is the name given to hominid fossilsdiscovered in 1891 at Trinil – Ngawi Regency on the banks of the SoloRiver in East Java, Indonesia, one of the first known specimens of Homoerectus. Its discoverer, Dutch paleontologist Eugène Dubois, gave it thescientific name Pithecanthropus erectus, a name derived from Greek andLatin roots meaning upright ape-man.

Astronomy

Columba (constellation) (1592)

Columba is a small, faint constellation named in the late sixteenth century.Its name is Latin for dove. It is located just south of Canis Major andLepus. Columba was named by Dutch astronomer Petrus Plancius in 1592in order to differentiate the 'unformed stars' of the large constellation CanisMajor. Plancius first depicted Columba on the small celestial planispheresof his large wall map of 1592. It is also shown on his smaller world map of1594 and on early Dutch celestial globes.

Novaya Zemlya effect (1597)

The first person to record the Novaya Zemlya effect was Gerrit de Veer, amember of Willem Barentsz' ill-fated third expedition into the polar region. Novaya Zemlya, the archipelagowhere de Veer first observed the phenomenon, lends its name to the effect.

12 southern constellations (1597–1598)

Plancius defined 12 constellations created by Plancius from the observations of Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser andFrederick de Houtman.[692][693][694][695][696][697][698]

Apus is a faint constellation in the southern sky, first defined in the late 16th century. Its name means"no feet" in Greek, and it represents a bird-of-paradise (once believed to lack feet). It first appearedon a 35 cm diameter celestial globe published in 1597 (or 1598) in Amsterdam by Plancius withJodocus Hondius.

Chamaeleon is named after the chameleon, a kind of lizard.

Dorado is now one of the 88 modern constellations. Dorado has been represented historically as adolphinfish and a swordfish.

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Christiaan Huygens was the first

person to describe Saturn's rings as

a disk surrounding Saturn

Grus is Latin for the crane, a species of bird. The stars that form Grus were originally considered partof Piscis Austrinus (the southern fish).

Hydrus' name means "male water snake".

Indus represents an Indian, a word that could refer at the time to any native of Asia or the Americas.

Musca is one of the minor southern constellations. It first appeared on a 35-cm diameter celestialglobe published in 1597 (or 1598) in Amsterdam by Plancius and Hondius. The first depiction of thisconstellation in a celestial atlas was in Johann Bayer's Uranometria of 1603.

Pavo is Latin for peacock.

Phoenix is a minor southern constellation, named after the mythical phoenix. It was the largest of thetwelve.

Triangulum Australe is Latin for "the southern triangle", which distinguishes it from Triangulum in thenorthern sky and is derived from the almost equilateral pattern of its three brightest stars. It was firstdepicted on a celestial globe as Triangulus Antarcticus by Plancius in 1589, and later with moreaccuracy and its current name by Johann Bayer in his 1603 Uranometria.

Tucana is Latin for the toucan, a South American bird.

Volans represents a flying fish; its name is a shortened form of its original name, Piscis Volans.

Camelopardalis (constellation) (1612–1613)

Camelopardalis was created by Plancius in 1613 to represent the animal Rebecca rode to marry Isaac in theBible. One year later, Jakob Bartsch featured it in his atlas. Johannes Hevelius gave it the official name of"Camelopardus" or "Camelopardalis" because he saw the constellation's many faint stars as the spots of agiraffe.

Monoceros (constellation) (1612–1613)

Monoceros is a relatively modern creation. Its first certain appearance was on a globe created by Plancius in1612 or 1613. It was later charted by Bartsch as Unicornus in his 1624 star chart.

Rings of Saturn (1655)

In 1655, Huygens became the first person to suggest that Saturn wassurrounded by a ring, after Galileo's much less advanced telescope hadfailed to show rings. Galileo had reported the anomaly as possibly 3planets instead of one.

Titan (Saturn's moon) (1655)

In 1655, using a 50 power refracting telescope that he designed himself,Huygens discovered the first of Saturn's moons, Titan.

Kapteyn's Star (1897)

Kapteyn's Star is a class M1 red dwarf about 12.76 light years fromEarth in the southern constellation Pictor, and the closest halo star to the Solar System. With a magnitude ofnearly 9 it is visible through binoculars or a telescope. It had the highest proper motion of any star known

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Titan was the first known moon of

Saturn, discovered in 1655 by

Christiaan Huygens.

until the discovery of Barnard's Star in 1916. Attention was first drawnto what is now known as Kapteyn's Star by the Dutch astronomerJacobus Kapteyn, in 1897.

Discovery of evidence for galactic rotation (1904)

In 1904, studying the proper motions of stars, Dutch astronomer JacobusKapteyn reported that these were not random, as it was believed in thattime; stars could be divided into two streams, moving in nearly oppositedirections. It was later realized that Kapteyn's data had been the firstevidence of the rotation of our Galaxy, which ultimately led to thefinding of galactic rotation by Bertil Lindblad and Jan Oort.

Galactic halo (1924)

In 1924, Dutch astronomer Jan Oort discovered the galactic halo, agroup of stars orbiting the Milky Way but outside the main disk.

Oort constants (1927)

The Oort constants (discovered by Jan Oort) and are empirically derived parameters that characterizethe local rotational properties of the Milky Way.

Evidence of dark matter (1932)

In 1932, Dutch astronomer Jan Oort became the first person to discover evidence of dark matter. Oortproposed the substance after measuring the motions of nearby stars in the Milky Way relative to the galacticplane. He found that the mass of the galactic plane must be more than the mass of the material that can beseen. A year later (1933), Fritz Zwicky examined the dynamics of clusters of galaxies and found theirmovements similarly perplexing.

Discovery of methane in the atmosphere of Titan (1944)

The first formal proof of the existence of an atmosphere around Titan came in 1944, when Gerald Kuiperobserved Titan with the new McDonald 82-inch (2.1 m) telescope and discovered spectral signatures onTitan at wavelengths longer than 0.6 µm (micrometers), among which he identified two absorption bands ofmethane at 6190 and 7250 Å (Kuiper1944). This discovery was significant not only because it requires adense atmosphere with a significant fraction of methane, but also because the atmosphere needs to bechemically evolved, since methane requires hydrogen in the presence of carbon, and molecular and atomichydrogen would have escaped from Titan's weak gravitational field since the formation of the solarsystem.[699]

Discovery of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of Mars (1947)

Using infrared spectrometry, in 1947 the Dutch-American astronomer Gerard Kuiper detected carbondioxide in the Martian atmosphere, a discovery of biological significance because it is a principal gas in theprocess of photosynthesis (see also: History of Mars observation). He was able to estimate that the amountof carbon dioxide over a given area of the surface is double that on the Earth.

Miranda (Uranus's moon) (1948)

Miranda is the smallest and innermost of Uranus's five major moons. It was discovered by Gerard Kuiper on

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16 February 1948 at McDonald Observatory.

Nereid (Neptune's moon) (1949)

Nereid, also known as Neptune II, is the third-largest moon of Neptune and was its second moon to bediscovered, on 1 May 1949, by Gerard Kuiper, on photographic plates taken with the 82-inch telescope atMcDonald Observatory.

Oort cloud (1950)

The Oort cloud or Öpik–Oort cloud, named after Dutch astronomer Jan Oort and Estonian astronomer ErnstÖpik, is a spherical cloud of predominantly icy planetesimals believed to surround the Sun at a distance ofup to 50,000 AU (0.8 ly). Further evidence for the existence of the Kuiper belt emerged from the study ofcomets. That comets have finite lifespans has been known for some time. As they approach the Sun, its heatcauses their volatile surfaces to sublimate into space, gradually evaporating them. In order for comets tocontinue to be visible over the age of the Solar System, they must be replenished frequently.[700] One sucharea of replenishment is the Oort cloud, a spherical swarm of comets extending beyond 50,000 AU from theSun first hypothesised by Dutch astronomer Jan Oort in 1950.[701] The Oort cloud is believed to be the pointof origin of long-period comets, which are those, like Hale–Bopp, with orbits lasting thousands of years.

Kuiper belt (1951)

The Kuiper belt was named after Dutch-American astronomer Gerard Kuiper, regarded by many as thefather of modern planetary science, though his role in hypothesising it has been heavily contested. In 1951,he proposed the existence of what is now called the Kuiper Belt, a disk-shaped region of minor planetsoutside the orbit of Neptune, which also is a source of short-period comets.

Biology

Foundations of modern reproductive biology (1660s –1670s)

In the 1660s and 1670s the Dutch Republic-based scientists (in particular Leiden University-based JanSwammerdam and Nicolas Steno, and Delft-based Regnier de Graaf and Anton van Leeuwenhoek) madekey discoveries about animal and human reproduction. Their research and discoveries contributed greatly tothe modern understanding of the female mammalian reproductive system.[702] Many authors see Regnier deGraaf as the founder of modern reproductive biology (Setchell, 1974).[703] This is due essentially to his useof convergent scientific methods: meticulous dissections, clinical observations and critical analysis of theavailable literature (Ankumet al., 1996).[704]

Function of the Fallopian tubes (1660s)

Dutch physician & anatomist Regnier de Graaf may have been the first to understand the reproductivefunction of the Fallopian tubes. He described the hydrosalpinx, linking its development to female infertility.de Graaf recognized pathologic conditions of the tubes. He was aware of tubal pregnancies, and he surmisedthat the mammalian egg traveled from the ovary to the uterus through the tube.

Development of ovarian follicles (1672)

In his De Mulierum Organis Generatione Inservientibus (1672), de Graaf provided the first thoroughdescription of the female gonad and established that it produced the ovum. De Graaf used the terminologyvesicle or egg (ovum) for what now called the ovarian follicle. Because the fluid-filled ovarian vesicles had

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Van Leeuwenhoek is universally

acknowledged as the father of

microbiology because he was the

first to undisputedly

discover/observe, describe, study

and conduct scientific experiments

with microbes (microorganisms),

using simple single-lensed

microscopes of his own design.[705][706]Leeuwenhoek is also

considered to be the father of

bacteriology and protozoology.[707][708]

been observed previously by others, including Andreas Vesalius and Falloppio, De Graaf did not claim theirdiscovery. He noted that he was not the first to describe them, but to describe their development. De Graafwas the first to observe changes in the ovary before and after mating and describe the corpus luteum. Fromthe observation of pregnancy in rabbits, he concluded that the follicle contained the oocyte. The maturestage of the ovarian follicle is called the Graafian follicle in his honour, although others, including Fallopius,had noticed it previously but failed to recognize its reproductive significance.

Foundations of microbiology (discovery of microorganisms) (1670s)

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek is often considered to be the father ofmicrobiology. Robert Hooke is cited as the first to record microscopicobservation of the fruiting bodies of molds, in 1665. However, the firstobservation of microbes using a microscope is generally credited to vanLeeuwenhoek. In the 1670s, he observed and researched bacteria andother microorganisms, using a single-lens microscope of his own design.[709][710][711][712][713][714][715][716][717][718][719]

In 1981 the British microscopist Brian J. Ford found that Leeuwenhoek'soriginal specimens had survived in the collections of the Royal Societyof London.[720] They were found to be of high quality, and were all wellpreserved. Ford carried out observations with a range of microscopes,adding to our knowledge of Leeuwenhoek's work.[721]

Photosynthesis (1779)

Photosynthesis is a fundamental biochemical process in which plants,algae, and some bacteria convert sunlight to chemical energy. Theprocess was discovered by Jan Ingenhousz in 1779.[722][723][724][725][726]

[727][728][729][730][731][732] The chemical energy is used to drive reactionssuch as the formation of sugars or the fixation of nitrogen into aminoacids, the building blocks for protein synthesis. Ultimately, nearly allliving things depend on energy produced from photosynthesis. It is alsoresponsible for producing the oxygen that makes animal life possible.Organisms that produce energy through photosynthesis are calledphotoautotrophs. Plants are the most visible representatives ofphotoautotrophs, but bacteria and algae also employ the process.

Plant respiration (1779)

Plant respiration was also discovered by Ingenhousz in 1779.

Foundations of virology (1898)

Martinus Beijerinck is considered one of the founders of virology. In 1898, he published results on hisfiltration experiments, demonstrating that tobacco mosaic disease is caused by an infectious agent smallerthan a bacterium. His results were in accordance with similar observations made by Dmitri Ivanovsky in1892. Like Ivanovsky and Adolf Mayer, predecessor at Wageningen, Beijerinck could not culture thefilterable infectious agent. He concluded that the agent can replicate and multiply in living plants. He namedthe new pathogenvirus to indicate its non-bacterial nature. This discovery is considered to be the beginningof virology.

Chemistry of photosynthesis (1931)

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The leaf is the primary site of

photosynthesis in plants. In

1779, Jan Ingenhousz

discovered the essential role of

light in the process of

photosynthesis, by which green

plants in sunlight absorb carbon

dioxide and release oxygen.

In 1931, Cornelis van Niel made key discoveries explaining the chemistryof photosynthesis. By studying purple sulfur bacteria and green sulfurbacteria, he was the first scientist to demonstrate that photosynthesis is alight-dependent redox reaction, in which hydrogen reduces carbon dioxide.[733][734] Expressed as:

2 H2A + CO2 → 2A + CH2O + H2O

where A is the electron acceptor. His discovery predicted that H2O is thehydrogen donor in green plant photosynthesis and is oxidized to O2. Thechemical summation of photosynthesis was a milestone in theunderstanding of the chemistry of photosynthesis. This was laterexperimentally verified by Robert Hill.

Foundations of modern ethology (Tinbergen's four questions) (1930s)

Many naturalists have studied aspects of animal behaviour throughouthistory. Ethology has its scientific roots in the work of Charles Darwin and of American and Germanornithologists of the late 19th and early 20th century, including Charles O. Whitman, Oskar Heinroth, andWallace Craig. The modern discipline of ethology is generally considered to have begun during the 1930swith the work of Dutch biologist Nikolaas Tinbergen and by Austrian biologists Konrad Lorenz and Karl vonFrisch.[735]

Tinbergen's four questions, named after Nikolaas Tinbergen, one of the founders of modern ethology, arecomplementary categories of explanations for behaviour. It suggests that an integrative understanding ofbehaviour must include both a proximate and ultimate (functional) analysis of behaviour, as well as anunderstanding of both phylogenetic/developmental history and the operation of current mechanisms.[736]

Vroman effect (1975)

The Vroman effect, named after Leo Vroman, is exhibited by protein adsorption to a surface by blood serumproteins.

Chemistry

Concept of gas (1600s)

Flemish physician Jan Baptist van Helmont is sometimes considered the founder of pneumatic chemistry,coining the word gas and conducting experiments involving gases. Van Helmont had derived the word “gas”from the Dutch word geest, which means ghost or spirit.

Van 't Hoff equation (1884)

The Van 't Hoff equation in chemical thermodynamics relates the change in the equilibrium constant, Keq, of

a chemical equilibrium to the change in temperature, T, given the standard enthalpy change, ∆Ho, for theprocess. It was proposed by Dutch chemist Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff in 1884.[737] The Van 't Hoffequation has been widely utilized to explore the changes in state functions in a thermodynamic system. TheVan 't Hoff plot, which is derived from this equation, is especially effective in estimating the change inenthalpy, or total energy, and entropy, or amount of disorder, of a chemical reaction.

Van 't Hoff factor (1884)

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The van 't Hoff factor is a measure of the effect of a solute upon colligative properties such as osmoticpressure, relative lowering in vapor pressure, elevation of boiling point and freezing point depression. Thevan 't Hoff factor is the ratio between the actual concentration of particles produced when the substance isdissolved, and the concentration of a substance as calculated from its mass.

Lobry de Bruyn–van Ekenstein transformation (1885)

In carbohydrate chemistry, the Lobry de Bruyn–van Ekenstein transformation is the base or acid-catalyzedtransformation of an aldose into the ketose isomer or vice versa, with a tautomeric enediol as reactionintermediate. The transformation is relevant for the industrial production of certain ketoses and wasdiscovered in 1885 by Cornelis Adriaan Lobry van Troostenburg de Bruyn and Willem Alberda vanEkenstein.

Prins reaction (1919)

The Prins reaction is an organic reaction consisting of an electrophilic addition of an aldehyde or ketone toan alkene or alkyne followed by capture of a nucleophile. Dutch chemist Hendrik Jacobus Prins discoveredtwo new organic reactions, both now carrying the name Prins reaction. The first was the addition ofpolyhalogen compounds to olefins, was found during Prins doctoral research, while the others, theacid-catalyzed addition of aldehydes to olefinic compounds, became of industrial relevance.

Hafnium (1923)

Dutch physicist Dirk Coster and Hungarian-Swedish chemist George de Hevesy co-discovered Hafnium (Hf)in 1923, by means of X-ray spectroscopic analysis of zirconium ore. Hafnium' is named after Hafnia', theLatin name for Copenhagen (Denmark), where it was discovered.

Crystal bar process (1925)

The crystal bar process (also known as iodide process or the van Arkel–de Boer process) was developed byDutch chemists Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer in 1925. It was the first industrial processfor the commercial production of pure ductile metallic zirconium. It is used in the production of smallquantities of ultra-pure titanium and zirconium.

Koopmans' theorem (1934)

Koopmans' theorem states that in closed-shell Hartree–Fock theory, the first ionization energy of a molecularsystem is equal to the negative of the orbital energy of the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO). Thistheorem is named after Tjalling Koopmans, who published this result in 1934.[738] Koopmans became aNobel laureate in 1975, though neither in physics nor chemistry, but in economics.

Genetics

Concept of pangene/gene (1889)

In 1889, Dutch botanist Hugo de Vries published his book Intracellular Pangenesis, in which he postulatedthat different characters have different hereditary carriers, based on a modified version of Charles Darwin'stheory of Pangenesis of 1868. He specifically postulated that inheritance of specific traits in organismscomes in particles. He called these units pangenes, a term shortened in 1909 to genes by Danish botanistWilhelm Johannsen.

Rediscovery the laws of inheritance (1900)

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1900 marked the "rediscovery of Mendelian genetics". The significance of Gregor Mendel's work was notunderstood until early in the twentieth century, after his death, when his research was re-discovered by Hugode Vries, Carl Correns and Erich von Tschermak, who were working on similar problems.[739] They wereunaware of Mendel's work. They worked independently on different plant hybrids, and came to Mendel'sconclusions about the rules of inheritance.

Geology

Bushveld Igneous Complex (1897)

The Bushveld Igneous Complex (or BIC) is a large, layered igneous intrusion within the Earth's crust that hasbeen tilted and eroded and now outcrops around what appears to be the edge of a great geological basin, theTransvaal Basin. Located in South Africa, the BIC contains some of Earth's richest ore deposits. Thecomplex contains the world's largest reserves of platinum group metals (PGMs), platinum, palladium,osmium, iridium, rhodium, and ruthenium, along with vast quantities of iron, tin, chromium, titanium andvanadium. The site was discovered around 1897 by Dutch geologist Gustaaf Molengraaff.

Mathematics

Analytic geometry (1637)

Descartes (1596–1650) was born in France, but spent most of his adult life in the Dutch Republic. AsBertrand Russell noted in his A History of Western Philosophy (1945): "He lived in Holland for twenty years(1629–49), except for a few brief visits to France and one to England, all on business....". In 1637, Descartespublished his work on the methods of science, Discours de la méthode in Leiden. One of its threeappendices was La Géométrie, in which he outlined a method to connect the expressions of algebra with thediagrams of geometry. It combined both algebra and geometry under one specialty — algebraic geometry,now called analytic geometry, which involves reducing geometry to a form of arithmetic and algebra andtranslating geometric shapes into algebraic equations.

Cartesian coordinate system (1637)

Descartes' La Géométrie contains Descartes' first introduction of the Cartesian coordinate system.

Differential geometry of curves (concepts of the involute and evolute of a curve) (1673)

Christiaan Huygens was the first to publish in 1673 (Horologium Oscillatorium) a specific method ofdetermining the evolute and involute of a curve[740]

Korteweg–de Vries equation (1895)

In mathematics, the Korteweg–de Vries equation (KdV equation for short) is a mathematical model ofwaves on shallow water surfaces. It is particularly notable as the prototypical example of an exactly solvablemodel, that is, a non-linear partial differential equation whose solutions can be exactly and preciselyspecified. The equation is named for Diederik Korteweg and Gustav de Vries who, in 1895, proposed amathematical model which allowed to predict the waves behaviour on shallow water surfaces.[741]

Proof of the Brouwer fixed-point theorem (1911)

Brouwer fixed-point theorem is a fixed-point theorem in topology, named after Dutchman Luitzen Brouwer,who proved it in 1911.

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Proof of the hairy ball theorem (1912)

The hairy ball theorem of algebraic topology states that there is no nonvanishing continuous tangent vectorfield on even-dimensional n-spheres. The theorem was first stated by Henri Poincaré in the late 19th century.It was first proved in 1912 by Brouwer.[742]

Debye functions (1912)

The Debye functions are named in honor of Peter Debye, who came across this function (with n = 3) in 1912when he analytically computed the heat capacity of what is now called the Debye model.

Kramers–Kronig relations (1927)

The Kramers–Kronig relations are bidirectional mathematical relations, connecting the real and imaginaryparts of any complex function that is analytic in the upper half-plane. The relation is named in honor ofRalph Kronig[743] and Hendrik Anthony Kramers.[744]

Heyting algebra (formalized intuitionistic logic) (1930)

Formalized intuitionistic logic was originally developed by Arend Heyting to provide a formal basis forLuitzen Brouwer's programme of intuitionism. Arend Heyting introduced Heyting algebra (1930) toformalize intuitionistic logic.[745][746]

Zernike polynomials (1934)

In mathematics, the Zernike polynomials are a sequence of polynomials that are orthogonal on the unit disk.Named after Frits Zernike, the Dutch optical physicist, and the inventor of phase contrast microscopy, theyplay an important role in beam optics.

Minnaert function (1941)

In 1941, Marcel Minnaert invented the Minnaert function, which is used in optical measurements of celestialbodies. The Minnaert function is a photometric function used to interpret astronomical observations[747][748]

and remote sensing data for the Earth.[749]

Mechanics

Proof of the law of equilibrium on an inclined plane (1586)

In 1586, Simon Stevin (Stevinus) derived the mechanical advantage of the inclined plane by an argumentthat used a string of beads.[750] Stevin's proof of the law of equilibrium on an inclined plane, known as the"Epitaph of Stevinus".

Centripetal force (1659)

Christiaan Huygens stated what is now known as the second of Newton's laws of motion in a quadraticform.[751] In 1659 he derived the now standard formula for the centripetal force, exerted by an objectdescribing a circular motion, for instance on the string to which it is attached.[752][753][754][755][756][757][758] Inmodern notation:

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A body experiencing uniform

circular motion requires a

centripetal force, towards the

axis as shown, to maintain its

circular path. In 1659,

Christiaan Huygens coined the

term "centrifugal force" and

was the first to derive the now

standard mathematical

description for the centripetal

force.

with m the mass of the object, v the velocity and r the radius. Thepublication of the general formula for this force in 1673 was a significantstep in studying orbits in astronomy. It enabled the transition from Kepler'sthird law of planetary motion, to the inverse square law of gravitation.[759]

Centrifugal force (1659)

Huygens coined the term centrifugal force in his 1659 De Vi Centrifigaand wrote of it in his 1673 Horologium Oscillatorium on pendulums.

Formula for the period of mathematical pendulum (1659)

In 1659, Christiaan Huygens was the first to derive the formula for theperiod of an ideal mathematical pendulum (with massless rod or cord andlength much longer than its swing),[760][761][762][763][764][765][766] in modernnotation:

with T the period, l the length of the pendulum and g the gravitational acceleration. By his study of theoscillation period of compound pendulums Huygens made pivotal contributions to the development of theconcept of moment of inertia.

Tautochrone curve (isochrone curve) (1659)

A tautochrone or isochrone curve is the curve for which the time taken by an object sliding without frictionin uniform gravity to its lowest point is independent of its starting point. The curve is a cycloid, and the timeis equal to π times the square root of the radius over the acceleration of gravity. Christiaan Huygens was thefirst to discover the tautochronous property (or isochronous property) of the cycloid.[767] The tautochroneproblem, the attempt to identify this curve, was solved by Christiaan Huygens in 1659. He provedgeometrically in his Horologium Oscillatorium, originally published in 1673, that the curve was a cycloid.Huygens also proved that the time of descent is equal to the time a body takes to fall vertically the samedistance as the diameter of the circle which generates the cycloid, multiplied by π⁄2. The tautochrone curveis the same as the brachistochrone curve for any given starting point. Johann Bernoulli posed the problem ofthe brachistochrone to the readers of Acta Eruditorum in June, 1696. He published his solution in the journalin May of the following year, and noted that the solution is the same curve as Huygens's tautochrone curve.[768][769]

Coupled oscillation (spontaneous synchronization) (1665)

Christiaan Huygens observed that two pendulum clocks mounted next to each other on the same supportoften become synchronized, swinging in opposite directions. In 1665, he reported the results by letter to theRoyal Society of London. It is referred to as "an odd kind of sympathy" in the Society's minutes. This maybe the first published observation of what is now called coupled oscillations. In the 20th century, coupledoscillators took on great practical importance because of two discoveries: lasers, in which different atomsgive off light waves that oscillate in unison, and superconductors, in which pairs of electrons oscillate insynchrony, allowing electricity to flow with almost no resistance. Coupled oscillators are even moreubiquitous in nature, showing up, for example, in the synchronized flashing of fireflies and chirping of

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One of the large, detailed

illustrations in Andreas Vesalius's

De humani corporis fabrica, 1543

crickets, and in the pacemaker cells that regulate heartbeats.

Medicine

Foundations of modern (human) anatomy (1543)

Flemish anatomist and physician Andreas Vesalius is often referred to asthe founder of modern human anatomy for the publication of the seven-volume De humani corporis fabrica (On the Structure of the HumanBody) in 1543.

Crystals in gouty tophi (1679)

In 1679, van Leeuwenhoek used a microscopes to assess tophaceousmaterial and found that gouty tophi consist of aggregates of needle-shaped crystals, and not globules of chalk as was previously believed.

Boerhaave syndrome (1724)

Boerhaave syndrome (also known as spontaneous esophagealperforation or esophageal rupture) refers to an esophageal rupturesecondary to forceful vomiting. Originally described in 1724 by Dutchphysician/botanist Hermann Boerhaave, it is a rare condition with highmortality. The syndrome was described after the case of a Dutchadmiral, Baron Jan von Wassenaer, who died of the condition.

Factor V Leiden (1994)

Factor V Leiden is an inherited disorder of blood clotting. It is a variantof human factor V that causes a hypercoagulability disorder. It is named after the city Leiden, where it wasfirst identified by R. Bertina, et al., in 1994.

Microbiology

Blood cells (1658)

In 1658 Dutch naturalist Jan Swammerdam was the first person to observe red blood cells under amicroscope and in 1695, microscopist Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, also Dutch, was the first to draw anillustration of "red corpuscles", as they were called. No further blood cells were discovered until 1842 whenthe platelets were discovered.

Red blood cells (1658)

The first person to observe and describe red blood cells was Dutch biologist Jan Swammerdam, who hadused an early microscope to study the blood of a frog.

Micro-organisms (1670s)

A resident of Delft, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, used a high-power single-lens simple microscope to discoverthe world of micro-organisms. His simple microscopes were made of silver or copper frames, holdinghand-ground lenses were capable of magnification up to 275 times. Using these he was the first to observeand describe single-celled organisms, which he originally referred to as animalcules, and which now referred

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Replica of microscope

by Leeuwenhoek. Van

Leeuwenhoek is

considered to be the first

to observe and describe

microorganisms

(animalcules) using a

microscope.

Leishmania donovani, (a species

of protozoa) in a bone marrow cell

Giardia trophozoite, SEM. The

trophozoite form of Giardia

was first observed in 1681 by

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in

his own diarrhea stools.

to as micro-organisms or microbes.[705][770][771]

Infusoria (1674) - Infusoria is a collective term for minute aquatic creaturesincluding ciliate, euglena, paramecium, protozoa and unicellular algae that exist infreshwater ponds. However, in formal classification microorganism calledinfusoria belongs to Kingdom Animalia, Phylum Protozoa, Class Ciliates(Infusoria). They were first discovered by Antoni van Leeuwenhoek.

Protozoa (1674) - In 1674, Van Leeuwenhoekwas the first person to observe and describeprotozoa.

Bacteria (1676) - The first bacteria wereobserved by van Leeuwenhoek in 1676 usinghis single-lens microscope.[716][772]

[773][774][775] He described the creatures hesaw as small creatures. The name bacteriumwas introduced much later, by ChristianGottfried Ehrenberg in 1828, derived fromthe Greek word βακτηριον meaning "smallstick". Because of the difficulty in describing individual bacteria and theimportance of their discovery, the study of bacteria is generally that of the studyof microbiology.

Sperm cells (1677) - Sperm cells were first observed by Anton van Leeuwenhoek in 1677. The term“sperm” refers to the male reproductive cells. A uniflagellar sperm cell that is motile is referred to as a“spermatozoon”, whereas a non-motile sperm cell is referred to as a “spermatium”.

Spermatozoa (1677) - A spermatozoon or spermatozoon (pl. spermatozoa), from the ancient Greekσπερµα (seed) and ζων (alive) and more commonly known as a sperm cell, is the haploid cell that isthe male gamete. Sperm cells were first observed by a student of van Leeuwenhoek in 1677.Leeuwenhoek pictured sperm cells with great accuracy.

Giardia (1681) - Giardia is a genus of anaerobic flagellatedprotozoan parasites of the phylum Sarcomastigophora that coloniseand reproduce in the small intestines of several vertebrates, causinggiardiasis. Their life cycle alternates between an actively swimmingtrophozoite and an infective, resistant cyst. The trophozoite form ofGiardia was first observed in 1681 by Van Leeuwenhoek duringobservation of his own stool.[776]

Volvox (1700)- Volvox is a genus of chlorophytes, a type of green algae. Itforms spherical colonies of up to 50,000 cells. They live in a variety offreshwater habitats, and were first reported by Van Leeuwenhoek in 1700.

Biological nitrogen fixation (1885)

Biological nitrogen fixation was discovered by Martinus Beijerinck in 1885.

Rhizobium (1888)

Rhizobium is a genus of Gram-negative soil bacteria that fix nitrogen.Rhizobium forms an endosymbiotic nitrogen fixing association with roots of legumes and Parasponia.Martinus Beijerinck in the Netherlands was the first to isolate and cultivate a microorganism from the

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Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)

symptoms on tobacco. TMV

was the first virus to ever be

discovered and crystallized. In

1898, Martinus Beijerinck

coined the term of "virus" to

indicate that the causal agent of

tobacco mosaic disease was of

non-bacterial nature. This

discovery is considered to be

the beginning of virology.

nodules of legumes in 1888. He named it Bacillus radicicola, which is now placed in Bergey's Manual ofDeterminative Bacteriology under the genus Rhizobium.

Spirillum (first isolated sulfate-reducing bacteria) (1895)

Martinus Beijerinck discovered the phenomenon of bacterial sulfate reduction, a form of anaerobicrespiration. He learned that bacteria could use sulfate as a terminal electron acceptor, instead of oxygen. Heisolated and described Spirillum desulfuricans (now called Desulfovibrio desulfuricans[777]), the firstknown sulfate-reducing bacterium.

Concept of virus (1898)

In 1898 Beijerinck coined the term "virus" to indicate that the causal agentof tobacco mosaic disease was non-bacterial. Beijerinck discovered what isnow known as the tobacco mosaic virus. He observed that the agentmultiplied only in cells that were dividing and he called it a contagiumvivum fluidum (contagious living fluid). Beijerinck's discovery isconsidered to be the beginning of virology.[778][779][780][781][782][783][784][785]

[786][787]

Azotobacter (1901)

Azotobacter is a genus of usually motile, oval or spherical bacteria thatform thick-walled cysts and may produce large quantities of capsular slime.They are aerobic, free-living soil microbes which play an important role inthe nitrogen cycle in nature, binding atmospheric nitrogen, which isinaccessible to plants, and releasing it in the form of ammonium ions intothe soil. Apart from being a model organism, it is used by humans for theproduction of biofertilizers, food additives, and some biopolymers. The firstrepresentative of the genus, Azotobacter chroococcum, was discovered anddescribed in 1901 by the Dutch microbiologist and botanist MartinusBeijerinck.

Enrichment culture (1904)

Beijerinck is credited with developing the first enrichment culture, a fundamental method of studyingmicrobes from the environment.

Physics

31 equal temperament (1661)

Division of the octave into 31 steps arose naturally out of Renaissance music theory; the lesser diesis — theratio of an octave to three major thirds, 128:125 or 41.06 cents — was approximately a fifth of a tone and athird of a semitone. In 1666, Lemme Rossi first proposed an equal temperament of this order. Shortlythereafter, having discovered it independently, scientist Christiaan Huygens wrote about it also. Since thestandard system of tuning at that time was quarter-comma meantone, in which the fifth is tuned to 51/4, theappeal of this method was immediate, as the fifth of 31-et, at 696.77 cents, is only 0.19 cent wider than thefifth of quarter-comma meantone. Huygens not only realized this, he went farther and noted that 31-ETprovides an excellent approximation of septimal, or 7-limit harmony. In the twentieth century, physicist,music theorist and composer Adriaan Fokker, after reading Huygens's work, led a revival of interest in thissystem of tuning which led to a number of compositions, particularly by Dutch composers. Fokker designed

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the Fokker organ, a 31-tone equal-tempered organ, which was installed in Teyler's Museum in Haarlem in1951.

Foundations of classical mechanics (1673)

Through his fundamental contributions Christiaan Huygens helped shape and lay the foundations of classicalmechanics. His works cover all the fields of mechanics, from the invention of technical devices applicable todifferent machines to a purely rational knowledge of motion.[788] Huygens published his results in a classic ofthe 17th-century mechanics, Horologium Oscillatorium (1673), that is regarded as one of the three mostimportant work done in mechanics in the 17th century, the other two being Galileo Galilei’s Discourses andMathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences (1638) and Isaac Newton's PhilosophiæNaturalis Principia Mathematica (1687). It is Huygens' major work on pendulums and horology. AsDomenico Bertoloni Meli (2006) notes, Horologium Oscillatorium was “a masterful combination ofsophisticated mathematics and mechanics mixed with a range of practical applications culminating with anew clock aimed at resolving the vexing problem of longitude.”[789]

Foundations of physical optics / wave optics (wave theory of light) (1678)

Huygens' groundbreaking research on the nature of light helped lay the foundations of modern optics(physical optics in particular).[790][791] Huygens is remembered especially for his wave theory of light, whichhe first communicated in 1678 to France's Royal Académie des sciences and which he published in 1690 inhis Treatise on light. His argument that light consists of waves now known as the Huygens–Fresnel principle,two centuries later became instrumental in the understanding of wave–particle duality. The interferenceexperiments of Thomas Young vindicated Huygens' s wave theory in 1801.[792][793]

Polarization of light (1678)

In 1678, Huygens discovered the polarization of light by double refraction in calcite.[794][795][796]

Huygens' principle (concepts of the wavefront and wavelet) (1690)

In his Treatise on light, Huygens showed how Snell's law of sines could be explained by, or derived from, thewave nature of light, using the Huygens–Fresnel principle.

Bernoulli's principle (1738)

Bernoulli's principle was discovered by Dutch-Swiss mathematician and physicist Daniel Bernoulli andnamed after him. It states that for an inviscid flow, an increase in the speed of the fluid occurssimultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy.

Brownian motion (1785)

In 1785, Ingenhousz described the irregular movement of coal dust on the surface of alcohol and thereforehas a claim as discoverer of what came to be known as Brownian motion.

Buys Ballot's law (1857)

The law takes its name from Dutch meteorologist C. H. D. Buys Ballot, who published it in the ComptesRendus, in November 1857. While William Ferrel first theorized this in 1856, Buys Ballot was the first toprovide an empirical validation. The law states that in the Northern Hemisphere, if a person stands with hisback to the wind, the low pressure area will be on his left, because wind travels counterclockwise around

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Huygens is now remembered

mostly as the founder and the

foremost champion of wave

theory of light. His argument

that light consists of waves,

expounded in his Traité de la

Lumiére (Treatise on light),

now known as the Huygens–

Fresnel principle, which two

centuries later became

instrumental in the

understanding of wave–particle

duality.

low pressure zones in that hemisphere. this is approximately true in thehigher latitudes and is reversed in the Southern Hemisphere.

Foundations of molecular physics (1873)

Spearheaded by Mach and Ostwald, a strong philosophical current thatdenied the existence of molecules arose towards the end of the 19thcentury. The molecular existence was considered unproven and themolecular hypothesis unnecessary. At the time Van der Waals' thesis waswritten (1873), the molecular structure of fluids had not been accepted bymost physicists, and liquid and vapor were often considered as chemicallydistinct. But Van der Waals's work affirmed the reality of molecules andallowed an assessment of their size and attractive strength. By comparinghis equation of state with experimental data, Van der Waals was able toobtain estimates for the actual size of molecules and the strength of theirmutual attraction.[797] The effect of Van der Waals's work on molecularscience in the 20th century was direct and fundamental, as is wellrecognized and documented, due in large part to books by John Rowlinson(1988), and by Kipnis and Yavelov (1996). By introducing parameterscharacterizing molecular size and attraction in constructing his equation ofstate, Van der Waals set the tone for molecular physics (moleculardynamics in particular) of the 20th century. That molecular aspects such assize, shape, attraction, and multipolar interactions should form the basis formathematical formulations of the thermodynamic and transport propertiesof fluids is presently considered an axiom.[798]

Van der Waals equation of state (1873)

In 1873, J. D. van der Waals introduced the first equation of state derived by the assumption of a finitevolume occupied by the constituent molecules.[799] The Van der Waals equation is generally regarded as thefirst somewhat realistic equation of state (beyond the ideal gas law). Van der Waals noted the non-ideality ofgases and attributed it to the existence of molecular or atomic interactions. His new formula revolutionizedthe study of equations of state, and was most famously continued via the Redlich-Kwong equation of state(1949) and the Soave modification of Redlich-Kwong. While the Van der Waals equation is definitelysuperior to the ideal gas law and does predict the formation of a liquid phase, the agreement withexperimental data is limited for conditions where the liquid forms. Except at higher pressures, the real gasesdo not obey Van der Waals equation in all ranges of pressures and temperatures. Despite its limitations, theequation has historical importance, because it was the first attempt to model the behaviour of real gases.

Van der Waals forces (1873)

The van der Waals forces are named after the scientist who first described them in 1873. Johannes Diderikvan der Waals noted the non-ideality of gases and attributed it to the existence of molecular or atomicinteractions. They are forces that develop between the atoms inside molecules and keep them together.[800]

The Van der Waals forces between molecules, much weaker than chemical bonds but present universally,play a fundamental role in fields as diverse as supramolecular chemistry, structural biology, polymer science,nanotechnology, surface science, and condensed matter physics. Elucidation of the nature of the Van derWaals forces between molecules has remained a scientific effort from Van der Waals's days to the present.

Van der Waals radius (1873)

The Van der Waals radius, rw, of an atom is the radius of an imaginary hard sphere which can be used to

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The Van der Waals force between

atoms, molecules and surfaces is a

part of everyday life in many

different ways. Geckos can stick to

walls and ceilings because of Van

der Waals forces.

Lorentz forceF on a charged

particle (of chargeq) in motion

(instantaneous velocity v). The

E field and B field vary in

space and time.

model the atom for many purposes. It is named after Johannes Diderikvan der Waals, winner of the 1910 Nobel Prize in Physics, as he was thefirst to recognise that atoms were not simply points and to demonstratethe physical consequences of their size through the van der Waalsequation of state.

Law of corresponding states (1880)

The law of corresponding states was first suggested and formulated byvan der Waals in 1880. This showed that the van der Waals equation ofstate can be expressed as a simple function of the critical pressure,critical volume and critical temperature. This general form is applicableto all substances. The compound-specific constants a and b in theoriginal equation are replaced by universal (compound-independent)quantities. It was this law that served as a guide during experimentswhich ultimately led to the liquefaction of hydrogen by James Dewar in1898 and of helium by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes in 1908.

Lorentz ether theory (1892)

Lorentz ether theory has its roots in Hendrik Lorentz's "theory of electrons", which was the final point in thedevelopment of the classical aether theories at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th century.Lorentz's initial theory created in 1892 and 1895 was based on a completely motionless aether. Many aspectsof Lorentz's theory were incorporated into special relativity with the works of Albert Einstein and HermannMinkowski.

Lorentz force law (1892)

In 1892, Hendrik Lorentz derived the modern form of the formula for theelectromagnetic force which includes the contributions to the total forcefrom both the electric and the magnetic fields.[801][802][803] In manytextbook treatments of classical electromagnetism, the Lorentz force law isused as the definition of the electric and magnetic fields E and B.[804]

[805][806] To be specific, the Lorentz force is understood to be the followingempirical statement:

The electromagnetic force F on a test charge at a given point andtime is a certain function of its charge q and velocity v, which canbe parameterized by exactly two vectors E and B, in the functionalform:

Abraham–Lorentz force (1895)

In the physics of electromagnetism, the Abraham–Lorentz force (also Lorentz-Abraham force) is the recoilforce on an accelerating charged particle caused by the particle emitting electromagnetic radiation. It is alsocalled the radiation reaction force or the self force.

Lorentz transformation (1895)

In physics, the Lorentz transformation (or Lorentz transformations) is named after the Dutch physicist

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Discoverer of the Zeeman

effect, Pieter Zeeman with

Albert Einstein and Paul

Ehrenfest in his laboratory in

Amsterdam (circa 1920).

Hendrik Lorentz. It was the result of attempts by Lorentz and others to explain how the speed of light wasobserved to be independent of the reference frame, and to understand the symmetries of the laws ofelectromagnetism. The Lorentz transformation is in accordance with special relativity, but was derivedbefore special relativity. Early approximations of the transformation were published by Lorentz in 1895. In1905, Poincaré was the first to recognize that the transformation has the properties of a mathematical group,and named it after Lorentz.

Lorentz contraction (1895)

In physics, length contraction (more formally called Lorentz contraction or Lorentz–FitzGerald contractionafter Hendrik Lorentz and George FitzGerald) is the phenomenon of a decrease in length measured by theobserver, of an object which is traveling at any non-zero velocity relative to the observer. This contraction isusually only noticeable at a substantial fraction of the speed of light.

Lorentz factor (1895)

The Lorentz factor or Lorentz term is the factor by which time, length, and relativistic mass change for anobject while that object is moving. It is an expression which appears in several equations in special relativity,and it arises from deriving the Lorentz transformations. The name originates from its earlier appearance inLorentzian electrodynamics – named after the Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorentz.[807]

Zeeman effect (1896)

The Zeeman effect, named after the Dutch physicist Pieter Zeeman, is theeffect of splitting a spectral line into several components in the presence ofa static magnetic field. It is analogous to the Stark effect, the splitting of aspectral line into several components in the presence of an electric field.Also similar to the Stark effect, transitions between different componentshave, in general, different intensities, with some being entirely forbidden (inthe dipole approximation), as governed by the selection rules.

Since the distance between the Zeeman sub-levels is a function of themagnetic field, this effect can be used to measure the magnetic field, e.g.that of the Sun and other stars or in laboratory plasmas. The Zeeman effectis very important in applications such as nuclear magnetic resonancespectroscopy, electron spin resonance spectroscopy, magnetic resonanceimaging (MRI) and Mössbauer spectroscopy. It may also be utilized toimprove accuracy in atomic absorption spectroscopy.

A theory about the magnetic sense of birds assumes that a protein in the retina is changed due to the Zeemaneffect.[808]

When the spectral lines are absorption lines, the effect is called inverse Zeeman effect.

Liquid helium (liquefaction of helium) (1908)

Helium was first liquefied (liquid helium) on 10 July 1908, by Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes.With the production of liquid helium, it was said that “the coldest place on Earth” was in Leiden.[809][810][811]

Superconductivity (1911)

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Liquid helium in a cup.

Paul Ehrenfest, Hendrik

Lorentz and Niels Bohr visit

Heike Kamerlingh Onnes in the

cryogenic lab (where Onnes

discovered the phenomenon of

superconductivity in 1911).

Superconductivity, the ability of certain materials to conduct electricitywith little or no resistance, was discovered by Dutch physicist HeikeKamerlingh Onnes.[812][813][814][815]

Einstein–de Haas effect (1910s)

The Einstein–de Haas effect or the Richardson effect (after Owen WillansRichardson), is a physical phenomenon delineated by Albert Einstein andWander Johannes de Haas in the mid 1910s, that exposes a relationshipbetween magnetism, angular momentum, and the spin of elementaryparticles.

Debye model (1912)

In thermodynamics and solid state physics, the Debye model is a methoddeveloped by Peter Debye in 1912 for estimating the phonon contributionto the specific heat (heat capacity) in a solid.[816] It treats the vibrations ofthe atomic lattice (heat) as phonons in a box, in contrast to the Einsteinmodel, which treats the solid as many individual, non-interacting quantumharmonic oscillators. The Debye model correctly predicts the lowtemperature dependence of the heat capacity.

De Sitter precession (1916)

The geodetic effect (also known as geodetic precession, de Sitter precession or de Sitter effect) representsthe effect of the curvature of spacetime, predicted by general relativity, on a vector carried along with anorbiting body. The geodetic effect was first predicted by Willem de Sitter in 1916, who provided relativisticcorrections to the Earth–Moon system's motion.

De Sitter space and anti-de Sitter space (1920s)

In mathematics and physics, a de Sitter space is the analog in Minkowski space, or spacetime, of a sphere inordinary, Euclidean space. The n-dimensional de Sitter space, denoted dSn, is the Lorentzian manifold analogof an n-sphere (with its canonical Riemannian metric); it is maximally symmetric, has constant positivecurvature, and is simply connected for n at least 3. The de Sitter space, as well as the anti-de Sitter space isnamed after Willem de Sitter (1872–1934), professor of astronomy at Leiden University and director of theLeiden Observatory. Willem de Sitter and Albert Einstein worked in the 1920s in Leiden closely together onthe spacetime structure of our universe. De Sitter space was discovered by Willem de Sitter, and, at the sametime, independently by Tullio Levi-Civita.

Van der Pol oscillator (1920)

In dynamical systems, a Van der Pol oscillator is a non-conservative oscillator with non-linear damping. Itwas originally proposed by Dutch physicist Balthasar van der Pol while he was working at Philips in 1920.Van der Pol studied a differential equation that describes the circuit of a vacuum tube. It has been used tomodel other phenomenon such as human heartbeats by colleague Jan van der Mark.

Kramers' opacity law (1923)

Kramers' opacity law describes the opacity of a medium in terms of the ambient density and temperature,assuming that the opacity is dominated by bound-free absorption (the absorption of light during ionization ofa bound electron) or free-free absorption (the absorption of light when scattering a free ion, also called

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bremsstrahlung).[817] It is often used to model radiative transfer, particularly in stellar atmospheres.[818] Therelation is named after the Dutch physicist Hendrik Kramers, who first derived the form in 1923.[819]

Electron spin (1925)

In 1925, Dutch physicists George Eugene Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit co-discovered the concept ofelectron spin, which posits an intrinsic angular momentum for all electrons.

Solidification of helium (1926)

In 1926, Onnes' student, Dutch physicist Willem Hendrik Keesom, invented a method to freeze liquid heliumand was the first person who was able to solidify the noble gas.

Ehrenfest theorem (1927)

The Ehrenfest theorem, named after the Austrian-born Dutch-Jew theoretical physicist Paul Ehrenfest atLeiden University.

De Haas–van Alphen effect (1930)

The de Haas–van Alphen effect, often abbreviated to dHvA, is a quantum mechanical effect in which themagnetic moment of a pure metal crystal oscillates as the intensity of an applied magnetic field B isincreased. It was discovered in 1930 by Wander Johannes de Haas and his student P. M. van Alphen.

Shubnikov–de Haas effect (1930)

The Shubnikov–de Haas effect (ShdH) is named after Dutch physicist Wander Johannes de Haas andRussian physicist Lev Shubnikov.

Kramers degeneracy theorem (1930)

In quantum mechanics, the Kramers degeneracy theorem states that for every energy eigenstate of atime-reversal symmetric system with half-integer total spin, there is at least one more eigenstate with thesame energy. It was first discovered in 1930 by H. A. Kramers[820] as a consequence of the Breit equation.

Minnaert resonance frequency (1933)

In 1933, Marcel Minnaert published a solution for the acoustic resonance frequency of a single bubble inwater, the so-called Minnaert resonance. The Minnaert resonance or Minnaert frequency[821] is the acousticresonance frequency of a single bubble in an infinite domain of water (neglecting the effects of surfacetension and viscous attenuation).

Casimir effect (1948)

In quantum field theory, the Casimir effect and the Casimir–Polder force are physical forces arising from aquantized field. Dutch physicists Hendrik Casimir and Dirk Polder at Philips Research Labs proposed theexistence of a force between two polarizable atoms and between such an atom and a conducting plate in1947. After a conversation with Niels Bohr who suggested it had something to do with zero-point energy,Casimir alone formulated the theory predicting a force between neutral conducting plates in 1948; theformer is called the Casimir–Polder force while the latter is the Casimir effect in the narrow sense.

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Map of Willem Barentsz' first

voyage

Tellegen's theorem (1952)

Tellegen's theorem is one of the most powerful theorems in network theory. Most of the energy distributiontheorems and extremum principles in network theory can be derived from it. It was published in 1952 byBernard Tellegen. Fundamentally, Tellegen's theorem gives a simple relation between magnitudes that satisfyKirchhoff's laws of electrical circuit theory.

Stochastic cooling (1970's)

In the early 1970s Simon van der Meer, a Dutch particle physicist at CERN, discovered this technique toconcentrate proton and anti-proton beams, leading to the discovery of the W and Z particles. He won the1984 Nobel Prize in Physics together with Carlo Rubbia.

Renormalization of gauge theories (1971)

In 1971, Gerardus 't Hooft, who was completing his PhD under the supervision of Dutch theoretical physicistMartinus Veltman, renormalized Yang–Mills theory. They showed that if the symmetries of Yang–Millstheory were to be realized in the spontaneously broken mode, referred to as the Higgs mechanism, thenYang–Mills theory can be renormalized.[822][823] Renormalization of Yang–Mills theory is considered as amajor achievement of twentieth century physics.

Holographic principle (1993)

The holographic principle is a property of string theories and a supposed property of quantum gravity thatstates that the description of a volume of space can be thought of as encoded on a boundary to the region—preferably a light-like boundary like a gravitational horizon. In 1993, Dutch theoretical physicist Gerard 'tHooft proposed what is now known as the holographic principle. It was given a precise string-theoryinterpretation by Leonard Susskind[824] who combined his ideas with previous ones of 't Hooft and CharlesThorn.[824][825]

Explorations

Voyages of discovery

Orange Islands (1594)

During his first journey in 1594, Dutch explorer Willem Barentszdiscovered the Orange Islands.

Svalbard (first documented/undisputed sighting of, landing on andcharting of the Svalbard Archipelago) (1596)

On 10 June 1596, Barentsz and Dutchman Jacob van Heemskerkdiscovered Bear Island,[826][827][828] a week before their discovery ofSpitsbergen Island.[826][827][828]

The first undisputedly to have discovered the archipelago is anexpedition led by the Dutch mariner Willem Barentsz, who was lookingfor the Northern Sea Route to China.[829] He first spotted Bjørnøya on10 June 1596[830] and the northwestern tip of Spitsbergen on 17 June.[829] The sighting of the archipelagowas included in the accounts and maps made by the expedition and Spitsbergen was quickly included by

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Map of Willem Barentsz third

voyage

Crew of Willem Barentsz

fighting a polar bear

Portion of 1599 map of Arctic

exploration by Willem

Barentsz. Spitsbergen, here

mapped for the first time, is

indicated as "Het Nieuwe Land"

(Dutch for "the New Land"),

center-left.

cartographers. The name Spitsbergen, meaning "pointed mountains" (fromthe Dutchspits – pointed, bergen – mountains), was at first applied to boththe main island and the Svalbard archipelago as a whole.[826][828]

There is no conclusive evidence of the first human activity on Svalbard.Swedish archeologist Hans Christiansson found flint and slate objects heidentified as Stone Age tools dating from ca. 3000 BC,[831] but there is littlesupport among his peers as no dwelling place has been found.[832] Duringthe 19th century, Norwegian historians proposed that Norse seamen hadfound Svalbard in 1194. This is based on annals that found Svalbarði fourdays sailing from Iceland. Although it forms the basis for the modern nameof the archipelago, there is no scientific consensus that supports thehypothesis. Russian historians have proposed that Russian Pomors mayhave visited the island as early as the 15th century.[833] This line was largelypursued by Soviet scholars, but again, no conclusive evidence has beenfound.[834]

First documented winter surviving in the High Arctic (1596-1597)

The Russians knew of Novaya Zemlya from the 11th century, when huntersfrom Novgorod visited the area.[835] For western Europeans, the search forthe Northern Sea Route in the 16th century led to its exploration.[835] Thefirst visit from a west European was by Hugh Willoughby in 1553, and hemet Russian ships from the already established hunting trade.[835] Dutchexplorer Willem Barentsz reached the west coast of Novaya Zemlya in1594, and in a subsequent expedition of 1596 rounded the Northern pointand wintered on the Northeast coast.[836] Willem Barents, Jacob vanHeemskerck and their crew were blocked by the pack ice in the Kara Seaand forced to winter on the east coast of Novaya Zemlya. The wintering ofthe shipwrecked crew in the 'Saved House' was the first successfulwintering of Europeans in the High Arctic. Twelve of the 17 men managedto survive the polar winter (De Veer, 1917). Barentsz died during theexpedition, and may have been buried on the northern island.[837]

First undisputed sighting of the Falkland Islands/Sebald Islands (1600)

In 1600 the Dutch navigator Sebald de Weert made the first undisputedsighting of the Falkland Islands. It was on his homeward leg back to theNetherlands after having left the Straits of Magellan that Sebald De Weert noticed some unnamed anduncharted islands, at least islands that did not exist on his nautical charts. There he attempted to stop andreplenish but was unable to land due to harsh conditions. The islands Sebald de Weert charted were a smallgroup off the northwest coast of the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) and are in fact part of the Falklands.De Weert then named these islands the “Sebald de Weert Islands” and the Falklands as a whole were knownas the Sebald Islands until well into the 18th century.

Pennefather River, Northern Australia (first documented/undisputed sighting of, landing on andcharting of the mainland Australia) (1606)

The Dutch ship, Duyfken, led by Willem Janszoon, made the first documented European landing in Australiain 1606.[838] Although a theory of Portuguese discovery in the 1520s exists, it lacks definitive evidence.[839][840][841] Precedence of discovery has also been claimed for China,[842] France,[843] Spain,[844] India,[845]

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Willem Barentsz made the first

indisputable discovery of

Svalbard in 1596, in an attempt

to find the Northern Sea Route.

The three voyages of Willem

Barents are remembered today

chiefly for the first documented

wintering in the High Arctic.

Objects found in Het Behouden

Huys (The Saved House) on

Novaya Zemlya.

Willem Barentsz' ship among

the Arctic ice

Het Behouden Huys on Novaya

Zemlya

and even Phoenicia.[846]

The Janszoon voyage of 1605-6 led to the first undisputed sighting ofAustralia by a European was made on 26 February 1606. Dutch vesselDuyfken, captained by Janszoon, followed the coast of New Guinea, missedTorres Strait, and explored perhaps 350 kilometres (220 mi) of western sideof Cape York, in the Gulf of Carpentaria, believing the land was still part ofNew Guinea. The Dutch made one landing, but were promptly attacked byMaoris and subsequently abandoned further exploration.[847][848][849][850]

[851][852]

The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and thefirst recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributedto the Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape YorkPeninsula in early 1606, and made landfall on 26 February at thePennefather River near the modern town of Weipa on Cape York.[853] TheDutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and namedthe island continent "New Holland" during the 17th century, but made noattempt at settlement.[853]

First charting of Manhattan, New York (1609)

The area that is now Manhattan was long inhabited by the Lenape Indians.In 1524, Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano – sailing in service ofthe king Francis I of France – was the first European to visit the area thatwould become New York City. It was not until the voyage of HenryHudson, an Englishman who worked for the Dutch East India Company,that the area was mapped.

Hudson Valley (1609)

At the time of the arrival of the first Europeans in the 17th century, theHudson Valley was inhabited primarily by the Algonquian-speakingMahican and Munsee Native American people, known collectively as RiverIndians. The first Dutch settlement was in the 1610s at Fort Nassau, atrading post (factorij) south of modern-day Albany, that traded Europeangoods for beaver pelts. Fort Nassau was later replaced by Fort Orange.During the rest of the 17th century, the Hudson Valley formed the heart ofthe New Netherland colony operations, with the New Amsterdamsettlement on Manhattan serving as a post for supplies and defense of theupriver operations.

Brouwer Route (1610–1611)

The Brouwer Route was a route for sailing from the Cape of Good Hope toJava. The Route took ships south from the Cape into the Roaring Forties,then east across the Indian Ocean, before turning northwest for Java. Thusit took advantage of the strong westerly winds for which the RoaringForties are named, greatly increasing travel speed. It was devised by Dutchsea explorer Hendrik Brouwer in 1611, and found to halve the duration ofthe journey from Europe to Java, compared to the previous Arab andPortuguese monsoon route, which involved following the coast of East Africa northwards, sailing through

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Duyfkenreplica under sail. The

first documented and undisputed

European sighting of and landing

on Australia was in late February

or early March 1606, by the Dutch

navigator Willem Janszoon aboard

the Duyfken. Australia is more than

three times the size of Greenland,

the world's largest island. Australia

is sometimes dubbed "The Island

Continent", and sometimes

accorded the role of "Earth’s

largest island but smallest

continent".

Hollandia Nova, 1659 map

prepared by Joan Blaeu based on

voyages by Abel Tasman and

Willem Jansz, this image shows a

French edition of 1663.

the Mozambique Channel and then across the Indian Ocean, sometimesvia India. The Brouwer Route played a major role in the discovery ofthe west coast of Australia.

Jan Mayen Island (first verified discovery of Jan Mayen island)(1614)

After unconfirmed reports of Dutch discovery as early as 1611, theisland was named after Dutchman Jan Jacobszoon May vanSchellinkhout, who visited the island in July 1614. As locations of theseislands were kept secret by the whalers, Jan Mayen got its current nameonly in 1620.[854]

Hell Gate, Long Island Sound, Connecticut River and Fisher'sIsland (1614)

The name "Hell Gate" is a corruption of Dutch phrase Hellegat, whichcould mean either "hell's hole" or "bright gate/passage". It was originallyapplied to the entirety of the East River. The strait was described in thejournals of Dutch explorer Adriaen Block, who is the first Europeanknown to have navigated the strait, during his 1614 voyage aboard theOnrust.

The first European to record the existence of Long Island Sound and theConnecticut River was Dutch explorer Adriaen Block, who entered itfrom the East River in 1614.

Fishers Island was called Munnawtawkit by the Native American Pequotnation. Block named it Visher's Island in 1614, after one of hiscompanions. For the next 25 years, it remained a wilderness, visitedoccasionally by Dutch traders.

Staten Island (Argentina), Cape Horn, Tonga, Hoorn Islands (1615)

On 25 December 1615, Dutch explorers Jacob le Maire and WillemSchouten aboard the Eendracht, discovered Staten Island, close to CapeHorn.

On 29 January 1616, they sighted land they called Cape Horn, after thecity of Hoorn. Aboard the Eendracht was the crew of the recentlywrecked ship called Hoorn.

They discovered Tonga on 21 April 1616 and the Hoorn Islands on 28 April 1616.

They discovered New Ireland around May–July 1616.

They discovered the Schouten Islands (also known as Biak Islands or Geelvink Islands) on 24 July 1616.

The Schouten Islands (also known as Eastern Schouten Islands or Le Maire Islands) of Papua New Guinea,were named after Schouten, who visited them in 1616.

Dirk Hartog Island (first documented/undisputed sighting of, landing on and charting of the WesternAustralia coastline) (1616)

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European exploration of

Australia until 1812. Australia,

the last inhabited continent to

be discovered authentically in

1606, was never a Dutch

possession, yet they were the

first to map its coastline

indisputably. During the 17th

century, the Dutch explorers

and cartographers have

charted/mapped almost three-

fourths of the Australian

coastline, except the east coast

which still remained a mystery

until it was discovered by

James Cook in 1770.

A replica of Henry Hudson's

17th-century Halve Maen

passes modern-day lower

Manhattan where the original

ship would have sailed while

investigating New York Harbor.

Hendrik Brouwer's discovery that sailing east from the Cape of Good Hopeuntil land was sighted, and then sailing north along the west coast ofAustralia was a much quicker route than around the coast of the IndianOcean made Dutch landfalls on the west coast inevitable. The first suchlandfall was in 1616, when Dirk Hartog landed at Cape Inscription on whatis now known as Dirk Hartog Island, off the coast of Western Australia, andleft behind an inscription on a pewter plate. In 1697 the Dutch captainWillem de Vlamingh landed on the island and discovered Hartog's plate. Hereplaced it with one of his own, which included a copy of Hartog'sinscription, and took the original plate home to Amsterdam, where it is stillkept in the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam.

Houtman Abrolhos (Western Australia) (1619)

The first sighting of the Houtman Abrolhos by Europeans was by DutchVOC ships Dordrecht and Amsterdam in 1619, three years after Hartogmade the first authenticated sighting of what is now Western Australia, 13years after the first authenticated voyage to Australia, that of the Duyfke]in 1606. Discovery of the islands was credited to Frederick de Houtman,Captain-General of the Dordrecht, as it was Houtman who later wrote ofthe discovery in a letter to Company directors.

Carstensz Glacier, Carstensz Pyramid/Puncak Jaya (1623)

The first person to spot Carstensz Pyramid (or Puncak Jaya) is reported tobe the Dutch navigator and explorer Jan Carstensz in 1623, for whom themountain is named. Carstensz was the first (non-native) to sight the glacierson the peak of the mountain on a rare clear day. The sighting wentunverified for over two centuries, and Carstensz was ridiculed in Europewhen he said he had seen snow and glaciers near the equator. Thesnowfield of Puncak Jaya was reached as early as 1909 by a Dutchexplorer, Hendrik Albert Lorentz with six of his indigenous Dayak Kenyahporters recruited from the Apo Kayan in Borneo. The now highestCarstensz Pyramid summit was not climbed until 1962, by an expedition ledby the Austrian mountaineer Heinrich Harrer with three other expeditionmembers – the New Zealand mountaineer Philip Temple, the Australianrock climber Russell Kippax, and the Dutch patrol officer Albertus (Bert)Huizenga.

Gulf of Carpentaria (Northern Australia) (1623)

The first known European explorer to visit the region was Dutch Willem Janszoon (also known as WillemJansz) on his 1605–6 voyage. His fellow countryman, Jan Carstenszoon (also known as Jan Carstensz),visited in 1623 and named the gulf in honour of Pieter de Carpentier, at that time the Governor-General ofDutch East Indies. Abel Tasman explored the coast in 1644.

Staaten River (Cape York Peninsula, Northern Australia) (1623)

The Staaten River is a river in the Cape York Peninsula, Australia that rises more than 200 kilometres(120 mi) to the west of Cairns and empties into the Gulf of Carpentaria. The river was first named byCarstenszoon in 1623.

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Block's map of his 1614 voyage,

with the first appearance of the

term "New Netherland"

The voyage of Willem Schouten

and Jacob le Maire in 1615–1616

Arrival of Abel Tasman in

Tongatapu, 1643, drawing by

Isaack Gilsemans

Dirk Hartog's plate in the

Rijksmuseum Amsterdam

Arnhem Land and Groote Eylandt (Gulf of Carpentaria, NorthernAustralia) (1623)

In 1623 Dutch East India Company captain Willem van Colster sailedinto the Gulf of Carpentaria. Cape Arnhem is named after his ship, theArnhem, which itself was named after the city of Arnhem.

Groote Eylandt was first sighted the Arnhem. Only in 1644, when AbelTasman arrived, was the island given a European name, Dutch for"Large Island" in an archaic spelling. The modern Dutch spelling isGroot Eiland.

Hermite Islands (1624)

In February 1624, Dutch admiral Jacques l'Hermite discovered theHermite Islands at Cape Horn.

First documented/undisputed sighting of, landing on and charting ofthe Southern Australia coast (1627)

In 1627, Dutch explorers François Thijssen and Pieter Nuyts discoveredthe south coast of Australia and charted about 1,800 kilometres(1,100 mi) of it between Cape Leeuwin and the Nuyts Archipelago.[855][856] François Thijssen, captain of the ship 't Gulden Zeepaert (TheGolden Seahorse), sailed to the east as far as Ceduna in South Australia.The first known ship to have visited the area is the Leeuwin ("Lioness"),a Dutch vessel that charted some of the nearby coastline in 1622. Thelog of the Leeuwin has been lost, so very little is known of the voyage.However, the land discovered by the Leeuwin was recorded on a 1627map by Hessel Gerritsz: Caert van't Landt van d'Eendracht ("Chart of theLand of Eendracht"), which appears to show the coast between present-dayHamelin Bay and Point D’Entrecasteaux. Part of Thijssen's map shows theislands St Francis and St Peter, now known collectively with theirrespective groups as the Nuyts Archipelago. Thijssen's observations wereincluded as soon as 1628 by the VOC cartographer Hessel Gerritsz in achart of the Indies and New Holland. This voyage defined most of thesouthern coast of Australia and discouraged the notion that "New Holland",as it was then known, was linked to Antarctica.

St Francis Island (originally in Dutch: Eyland St. François) is an islandon the south coast of South Australia near Ceduna. It is now part of theNuyts Archipelago Wilderness Protection Area. It was one of the firstparts of South Australia to be discovered and named by Europeans,along with St Peter Island. Thijssen named it after his patron saint, St.Francis.

St Peter Island is an island on the south coast of South Australia nearCeduna to the south of Denial Bay. It is the second largest island inSouth Australia at about 13 km long. It was named in 1627 by Thijssenafter Pieter Nuyts' patron saint.

Western Australia (1629)

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Map of Shark Bay area showing

Dirk Hartog Island and Cape

Inscription

Wiebbe Hayes Stone Fort on the

West Wallabi Island

Tasman's routes of the first and

second voyage

Map of the Maatsuyker Islands

The Weibbe Hayes Stone Fort, remnants of improvised defensive wallsand stone shelters built by Wiebbe Hayes and his men on the WestWallabi Island, are Australia's oldest known European structures, morethan 150 years before expeditions to the Australian continent by JamesCook and Arthur Phillip.

Tasmania (first documented/undisputed sighting and charting of theTasmanian mainland and the surrounding islands) (1642)

Tasmania was inhabited by an indigenous population, the TasmanianAborigines, and evidence indicates their presence in the territory, laterto become an island, at least 35,000 years ago. The Aboriginalpopulation at the time of British settlement in 1803 has been estimatedat approximately 5,000 or more [857]

In 1642, Abel Tasman sailed from Mauritius and on 24 November,sighted Tasmania. He named Tasmania Van Diemen's Land, afterAnthony van Diemen, the Dutch East India Company's GovernorGeneral, who had commissioned his voyage.[858][859][860] It wasofficially renamed Tasmania in honour of its first European discovereron 1 January 1856.[861]

Maatsuyker Islands, a group of small islands that are the southernmostpoint of the Australian continent. were discovered and named byTasman in 1642 after a Dutch official. The main islands of the group areDe Witt Island (354 m), Maatsuyker Island (296 m), Flat Witch Island,Flat Top Island, Round Top Island, Walker Island, Needle Rocks andMewstone.

Maria Island was discovered and named in 1642 by Tasman after Mariavan Diemen (née van Aelst), wife of Anthony. The island was known asMaria's Isle in the early 19th century.

Tasman's journal entry for 29 November 1642 records that he observeda rock which was similar to a rock named Pedra Branca off China,presumably referring to the Pedra Branca in the South China Sea.

Schouten Island is a 28 square kilometres (11 sq mi) island in easternTasmania, Australia. It lies 1.6 kilometres south of Freycinet Peninsulaand is a part of Freycinet National Park. In 1642, while surveying thesouth-west coast of Tasmania, Tasman named the island after JoostSchouten, a member of the Council of the Dutch East India Company.

Tasman also reached Storm Bay, a large bay in the south-east ofTasmania, Australia. It is the entrance to the Derwent River estuary andthe port of Hobart, the capital city of Tasmania. It is bordered by BrunyIsland to the west and the Tasman Peninsula to the east.

New Zealand and Fiji (first documented/undisputed sighting andcharting of New Zealand) (1642)

In 1642, during the same expedition, Abel Tasman discovered NewZealand. The first Europeans known to reach New Zealand were the crew of Dutch explorer Abel Tasman

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Murderers' Bay, drawing by Isaack

Gilsemans, 1642

Detail from a 1657 map by Jan

Janssonius, showing the western

coastline of Nova Zeelandia.

Tasman voyage of 1642-43 was

the known (documented) first

to sail across the Tasman Sea

and explore its islands.

who arrived in his ships Heemskerck and Zeehaen. Tasman anchored atthe northern end of the South Island in Golden Bay (he named itMurderers' Bay) in December 1642 and sailed northward to Tongafollowing a clash with local Māori. Tasman sketched sections of the twomain islands' west coasts. Tasman called them Staten Landt, after theStates General of the Netherlands, and that name appeared on his firstmaps of the country. In 1645 Dutch cartographers changed the name toNova Zeelandia in Latin, from Nieuw Zeeland, after the Dutch provinceof Zeeland. It was subsequently Anglicised as New Zealand by Britishnaval captain James Cook

Various claims have been made that New Zealand was reached by othernon-Polynesian voyagers before Tasman, but these are not widelyaccepted. Peter Trickett, for example, argues in Beyond Capricorn thatthe Portuguese explorer Cristóvão de Mendonça reached New Zealandin the 1520s, and the Tamil bell[862] discovered by missionary WilliamColenso has given rise to a number of theories,[845] [863] but historiansgenerally believe the bell 'is not in itself proof of early Tamil contactwith New Zealand'.[864][865][866]

In 1643, still during the same expedition, Tasman discovered Fiji.

Tongatapu and Ha̒̒̒̒apai (Tonga) (1643)

Tasman discovered Tongatapu and Haʻapai in 1643 commanding two ships,the Heemskerck and the Zeehaen commissioned by the Dutch East IndiaCompany. The expedition's goals were to chart the unknown southern andeastern seas and to find a possible passage through the South Pacific andIndian Ocean providing a faster route to Chile.

Sakhalin (Cape Patience) (1643)

The first European known to visit Sakhalin was Martin Gerritz de Vries,who mapped Cape Patience and Cape Aniva on the island's east coast in1643.

Kuril Islands (1643)

In the summer of 1643, the Castricum, under command of Martin Gerritz de Vries sailed by the southernKuril Islands, visiting Kunashir, Iturup and Urup, which they named "Company Island" and claimed for theNetherlands.

Vries Strait or Miyabe Line is a strait between two main islands of the Kurils. It is located between thenortheastern end of the island of Iturup and the southwestern headland of Urup Island, connecting the Sea ofOkhotsk on the west with the Pacific Ocean on the east. The strait is named after de Vries, the first recordedEuropean to explore the area.

The Gulf of Patience is a large body of water off the southeastern coast of Sakhalin, Russia, between themain body of Sakhalin Island in the west and Cape Patience in the east. It is part of the Sea of Okhotsk. Thefirst Europeans to visit the bay sailed on Castricum. They named the gulf in memory of the fog that had toclear for them to continue their expedition.

Rottnest Island and Swan River (Western Australian coast) (1696)

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A Quokka family on Rottnest

Island, Western Australia

Willem de Vlamingh's ships, with

black swans, at the entrance to the

Swan River, Western Australia,

coloured engraving (1796), derived

from an earlier drawing (now lost)

from the de Vlamingh expeditions

of 1696–97.

An adult black swan and cygnet.

For some 1500 years, the black

swan existed in the European

imagination as a metaphor for that

which could not exist. Dutch

explorer Willem de Vlamingh

made the first European record of

sighting a black swan in 1697. The

sighting was significant in Europe,

where "all swans are white" had

long been used as a standard

example of a well-known truth.

The first Europeans known to land on the Rottnest Island were 13 Dutchsailors including Abraham Leeman from the Waeckende Boey wholanded near Bathurst Point on 19 March 1658 while their ship wasnearby. The ship had sailed from Batavia in search of survivors of themissing Vergulde Draeck which was later found wrecked 80 kilometres(50 mi) north near present-day Ledge Point. The island was given thename "Rotte nest" (meaning "rat nest" in the 17th century Dutchlanguage) by Dutch captain Willem de Vlamingh who spent six daysexploring the island from 29 December 1696, mistaking the quokkas forgiant rats. De Vlamingh led a fleet of three ships, De Geelvink, DeNijptang and Weseltje and anchored on the northern side of the island,near The Basin.

On 10 January 1697, de Vlamingh ventured up the Swan River. He andhis crew are believed to have been the first Europeans to do so. Henamed the Swan River (Zwaanenrivier in Dutch) after the largenumbers of black swans that he observed there.

Easter Island and Samoa (first documented sighting of, landing onand charting of Easter Island) (1722)

On Easter Sunday, 5 April 1722, Dutch explorer Jacob Roggeveendiscovered Easter Island. Easter Island is one of the most remoteinhabited islands in the world.[867] The nearest inhabited land (50residents) is Pitcairn Island 2,075 kilometres (1,289 mi) away, thenearest town with a population over 500 is Rikitea on island Mangareva2,606 km (1,619 mi) away, and the nearest continental point lies incentral Chile, 3,512 kilometres (2,182 mi) away.

The name "Easter Island" was given by the island's first recordedEuropean visitor, the Dutch explorer Jacob Roggeveen, whoencountered it on Easter Sunday (5 April[868]) 1722, while searching forDavis or David's island. Roggeveen named it Paasch-Eyland (18thcentury Dutch for "Easter Island").[869] The island's official Spanishname, Isla de Pascua, also means "Easter Island".

The first-recorded European contact with the island took place on 5April (Easter Sunday) 1722 when Dutch navigator Jacob Roggeveenvisited for a week and estimated there were 2,000 to 3,000 inhabitantson the island. This was an estimate, not a census, and archaeologistsestimate the population may have been as high as 10,000 to 12,000 afew decades earlier. His party reported "remarkable, tall, stone figures, agood 30 feet in height", the island had rich soil and a good climate and"all the country was under cultivation". Fossil-pollen analysis shows thatthe main trees on the island had gone 72 years earlier in 1650. Thecivilization of Easter Island was long believed to have degenerateddrastically during the century before the arrival of the Dutch, as a resultof overpopulation, deforestation and exploitation of an extremelyisolated island with limited natural resources. The Dutch reported that afight broke out in which they killed ten or twelve islanders.

Jacob Roggeveen's expedition of 1722 gives us our first description ofthe islanders. They were "of all shades of colour, yellow, white and

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Easter Island is world famous for

its 887 extant monumental statues,

called moai

brown" and they distended their ear lobes so greatly with large disks thatwhen they took them out they could "hitch the rim of the lobe over thetop of the ear".[870] Roggeveen also noted how some of the islanderswere "generally large in stature". Islanders' tallness was also witnessedby the Spanish who visited the island in 1770, measuring heights of 196and 199 cm.

On 13 June Roggeveen discovered the islands of Samoa.

Orange River (1779)

The Orange River was named by Colonel Robert Gordon, commander ofthe Dutch East India Company garrison at Cape Town, on a trip to theinterior in 1779.

Scientific explorations

First systematic mapping of southern celestial hemisphere(1595–1597)

In 1595, Petrus Plancius, a key promoter to the East Indies expeditions, asked Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser, thechief pilot on the Hollandia, to make observations to fill in the blank area around the south celestial pole onEuropean maps of the southern sky. Plancius had instructed Keyser to map the skies in the southernhemisphere, which were largely uncharted at the time. Keyser died in Java the following year but hiscatalogue of 135 stars, probably measured up with the help of explorer-colleague Frederick de Houtman,was delivered to Plancius, and then those stars were arranged into 12 new southern constellations, lettingthem be inscribed on a 35-cm celestial globe that was prepared in late 1597 (or early 1598). This globe wasproduced in collaboration with the Amsterdam cartographer Jodocus Hondius.

Plancius's constellations (mostly referring to animals and subjects described in natural history books andtravellers' journals of his day) are Apis the Bee (later changed to Musca by Lacaille), Apus the Bird ofParadise, Chamaeleon, Dorado the Goldfish (or Swordfish), Grus the Crane, Hydrus the Small Water Snake,Indus the Indian, Pavo the Peacock, Phoenix, Triangulum Australe the Southern Triangle, Tucana theToucan, and Volans the Flying Fish. The acceptance of these new constellations was assured when JohannBayer, a German astronomer, included them in his Uranometria of 1603, the leading star atlas of its day.These 12 southern constellations are still recognized today by the International Astronomical Union (IAU).[692][693][694][695][696][697][698]

First major scientific expedition to Brazil (1637–1644)

Within the thirty-year period the Dutch West India Company controlled the northeast region of Brazil(1624–1654), the seven-year governorship of Count Johan Maurits van Nassau-Siegen was marked by anintense ethnographic exploration.[871][872][873] To that end, Johan Maurits brought from Europe with him ateam of artists and scientists who lived in Recife between 1637 and 1644: painter Albert Eckhout(specializing in the human figure), painter Frans Post (landscape painter), natural historian Georg Marcgraf(who also produced drawings and prints), and the physician Willem Piso. Together with Georg Marcgraf, andoriginally published by Joannes de Laet, Piso wrote the Historia Naturalis Brasiliae (1648), an importantearly western insight into Brazilian flora and fauna, also is the first scientific book about Brazil. AlbertEckhout, along with the landscape artist Frans Post, was one of two formally trained painters charged withrecording the complexity of the local scene. The seven years Eckhout spent in Brazil constitute aninvaluable contribution to the understanding of the European colonization of the New World. During his stayhe created hundreds of oil sketches – mostly from life – of the local flora, fauna and people. These paintings

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by Eckhout and the landscapes by Post were among the Europeans' first, introductions to South America.

First ethnographic descriptions of New Netherland and North American Indians (1641–1653)

In 1641, Kiliaen van Rensselaer, the director of the Dutch West India Company, hired Adriaen van derDonck (1620–1655) to be his lawyer for his large, semi-independent estate, Rensselaerswijck, in NewNetherland. Until 1645, van der Donck lived in the Upper Hudson River Valley, near Fort Orange (laterAlbany), where he learned about the Company's fur trade, the Mohawk and Mahican Indians who tradedwith Dutch, the agriculturist settlers, and the area's plants and animals. In 1649, after a serious disagreementwith the new governor, Peter Stuyvesant, he returned to the Dutch Republic to petition Dutch government.In 1653, still in the Netherlands waiting for the government to decide his case, Adriaen van der Donck wrotea comprehensive description of the New Netherland's geography and native peoples based on material in hisearlier Remonstrance. The book, Beschryvinge van Nieuw-Nederlant or A Description of New Netherlandlater published in 1655. This new book was well-crafted to the interests of his audience, consisting of anextensive description of American Indians and their customs, reports on the abundance of the area'sagriculture and wealth of its natural resources.[874][875][876][877][878]

Others

First non-Asian first-hand account of Korea (1653–1666)

Jan Weltevree (1595-?) is regarded as the first naturalized Westerner to Korea. Weltevree was a Dutch sailorwho arrived on the shores of an island off Joseon’s west coast in 1627 in a shipwreck. The Joseon Dynasty atthat time maintained an isolation policy, so the captured foreigner could not leave the country. Weltevreetook the name Bak Yeon (also Pak Yeon). He became an important government official and aided KingHyojong with his keen knowledge of modern weaponry. His adventures were recorded in the report byDutch East India Company accountant Hendrik Hamel.[879][880][881][882][883][884][885][886][887]

Dutch seafarer and VOC's bookkeeper Hendrick Hamel was the first westerner to experience first-hand andwrite about Korea in Joseon era (1392–1897). In 1653, Hamel and his men were shipwrecked on Jeju island,and they remained captives in Korea for more than a decade. The Joseon dynasty was often referred to asthe "Hermit Kingdom" for its harsh isolationism and closed borders. The shipwrecked Dutchmen were givensome freedom of movement, but were forbidden to leave the country. After thirteen years (1653–1666),Hamel and seven of his crewmates managed to escape to the VOC trading mission at Dejima (an artificialisland in the bay of Nagasaki, Japan), and from there to the Netherlands. In 1666, three different publisherspublished his report (Journal van de Ongeluckige Voyage van 't Jacht de Sperwer or An account of theshipwreck of a Dutch vessel on the coast of the isle of Quelpaert together with the description of thekingdom of Corea), describing their improbable adventure and giving the first detailed and accuratedescription of Korea to the western world.[881][883][884][888][889][890]

See also

List of place names ofDutch originAustralian places withDutch namesToponymy of NewNetherlandNew HollandDutch linguistic influenceon naval terms

History of publicinternational lawMilitary RevolutionCommercial RevolutionAgricultural RevolutionGlorious RevolutionPilgrim FathersThe FensNew Netherland

History of TongaHistory of FijiHistory of SamoaHistory of Easter IslandHistory of New YorkHistory of New York City(prehistory–1664)History of Cape TownHistory of Saint

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List of English words ofDutch originJapanese words of DutchoriginRangakuAge of Discovery/Age ofExplorationArctic exploration(Northern Sea Route)European exploration ofAustraliaNorthern Renaissance(Renaissance in the LowCountries)Dutch Golden AgeFlood control in theNetherlandsScientific RevolutionScience in the Age ofEnlightenmentRenaissance humanismProtestant ReformationProtestantism17th-century philosophyAge of EnlightenmentHistory of liberalism

Dutch BrazilDutch FormosaDutch Quarter (Potsdam)FriedrichstadtChristianshavn(Copenhagen)New Holland Island (St.Petersburg)Holland, MichiganHolambra (São Paulo)Tainan (Taiwan)Dejima (Nagasaki)History of PernambucoHistory of SvalbardHistory of South AfricaHistory of MauritiusHistory of TaiwanHistory of AustraliaHistory of TasmaniaHistory of New Zealand

PetersburgHistory of GothenburgHistory of DanzigFokkerState University ofLeuvenGhent UniversityUniversity of LiègeUniversity of IndonesiaBandung Institute ofTechnologyRoyal Observatory ofBelgiumBosscha ObservatoryEconomic history of theNetherlands (1500–1815)Financial history of theDutch RepublicHistory of capitalismWorld-systems theoryGreat DivergenceThe European MiracleThe Fable of The Bees:or, Private Vices, PublicBenefitsThe Protestant Ethic andthe Spirit of Capitalism

Bibliography

Adams, Ann Jensen: Temporality and the Seventeenth-century Dutch Portrait (Journal of Historiansof Netherlandish Art – JHNA.2013.5.2.15)Adams, Julia: The Familial State: Ruling Families and Merchant Capitalism in Early ModernEurope (The Wilder House Series in Politics, History and Culture). Cornell University Press, 2007,250ppAkashi, Kinji: Cornelius Van Bynkershoek: His Role in the History of International Law(International Law in Japanese Perspective). BRILL, 1998, 224ppAndersen, Geoff: The Telescope: Its History, Technology, and Future. Princeton University Press,2007, 256ppAnderson, Grahame: The Merchant of the Zeehaen: Isaac Gilsemans and the Voyages of AbelTasman. Wellington, NZ: Te Papa Press, 2001, 162ppArrighi, Giovanni; Silver, Beverly: Chaos and Governance in the Modern World System(Contradictions of Modernity). University of Minnesota Press, 1999, 348ppArrighi, Giovanni: The Long Twentieth Century: Money, Power and the Origins of Our Times. NewYork: Verso, 1994, 400ppAtack, Jeremy; Neal, Larry (eds.): The Origins and Development of Financial Markets andInstitutions, from the Seventeenth Century to the Present. Cambridge University Press, 2011, 496ppAymard, Maurice (ed.): Dutch Capitalism and World Capitalism / Capitalisme hollandais etcapitalisme mondial (Studies in Modern Capitalism / Etudes sur le capitalisme moderne).(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Paris: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme,1982, pp. viii+312)Baker, Bevan B.; Copson, E. T.: The Mathematical Theory of Huygens' Principle, 3rd edition. (NewYork: AMS Chelsea Publishing, 1987, 193pp)

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Notes

Excluding the Faroe Islands and Greenland.1. Excluding Aruba, Curaçao and St Maarten.2. Excluding Tokelau, Niue and the Cook Islands.3. Excluding Northern Ireland. The Scottish parliament has passed a bill that allows same-sex marriages to takeplace from October 2014.

4.

References

Motley, John Lothrop (1855). “The Rise of the Dutch Republic”, Volume I, Preface. “The rise of the DutchRepublic must ever be regarded as one of the leading events of modern times. Without the birth of this greatcommonwealth, the various historical phenomena of the sixteenth and following centuries must have either notexisted, or have presented themselves under essential modifications.”

1.

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Rybczynski, Witold (1987). Home: A Short History of an Idea. According to Witold Rybczynski’s Home: AShort History of an Idea, private spaces in households are a Dutch seventeenth-century invention, despite theircommonplace nature today. He has argued that home as we now know it came from the Dutch canal house ofthe seventeenth century. That, he said, was the first time that people identified living quarters as being preciselythe residence of a man, a woman and their children. “The feminization of the home in seventeenth centuryHolland was one of the most important events in the evolution of the domestic interior.” This evolution tookplace in part due to Dutch law being “explicit on contractual arrangements and on the civil rights of servants”.And, “for the first time, the person who was in intimate contact with housework was also in a position toinfluence the arrangement and disposition of the house.”Rybczynski (2007) discusses why we live in houses in the first place: “To understand why we live in houses, itis necessary to go back several hundred years to Europe. Rural people have always lived in houses, but thetypical medieval town dwelling, which combined living space and workplace, was occupied by a mixture ofextended families, servants, and employees. This changed in seventeenth-century Holland. The Netherlands wasEurope’s first republic, and the world’s first middle-class nation. Prosperity allowed extensive home ownership,republicanism discouraged the widespread use of servants, a love of children promoted the nuclear family, andCalvinism encouraged thrift and other domestic virtues. These circumstances, coupled with a particularaffection for the private family home, brought about a cultural revolution... The idea of urban houses spread tothe British Isles thanks to England's strong commercial and cultural links with the Netherlands.”

2.

Schama, Simon (1988). The Embarrassment of Riches: An Interpretation of Dutch Culture in the Golden Age3. Prak, Maarten (2005). The Dutch Republic in the Seventeenth Century: The Golden Age, p. 24. Tabor, Philip (2005). "Striking Home: The Telematic Assault on Identity". Published in Jonathan Hill, editor,Occupying Architecture: Between the Architect and the User. Philip Tabor states the contribution of 17thcentury Dutch houses as the foundation of houses today: “As far as the idea of the home is concerned, the homeof the home is the Netherlands. This idea's crystallization might be dated to the first three-quarters of theseventeenth century, when the Dutch Netherlands amassed the unprecedented and unrivalled accumulation ofcapital, and emptied their purses into domestic space.”According to Jonathan Hill (Immaterial Architecture, 2006), compared to the large scaled houses in England andthe Renaissance, the 17th Century Dutch house was smaller, and was only inhabited by up to four to fivemembers. This was due to their embracing "self-reliance", in contrast to the dependence on servants, and adesign for a lifestyle centered on the family. It was important for the Dutch to separate work from domesticity,as the home became an escape and a place of comfort. This way of living and the home has been noted ashighly similar to the contemporary family and their dwellings. House layouts also incorporated the idea of thecorridor as well as the importance of function and privacy. By the end of the 17th Century, the house layout wassoon transformed to become employment-free, enforcing these ideas for the future. This came in favour for theindustrial revolution, gaining large-scale factory production and workers. The house layout of the Dutch and itsfunctions are still relevant today.

5.

Perry, Marvin; Jacob, Margaret; Jacob, James; Chase, Myrna; Von Laue, Theodore (2009). Western Civilization:Ideas, Politics, and Society: Since 1400, p. 391-392

6.

Weber, Wolfgang (26 August 2002). "The end of consensus politics in the Netherlands (Part III: The historicalroots of consensus politics)". World Socialist Web Site. Retrieved 12 May 2014.

7.

Molyneux, John (14 Feb 2004). "Rembrandt and revolution: Revolt that shaped a new kind of art". SocialistWorker. Retrieved 6 May 2014.

8.

including the Dutch-speaking Southern Netherlands prior to 15859. Taylor, Peter J. (2002). Dutch Hegemony and Contemporary Globalization. “The Dutch developed a socialformula, which we have come to call modern capitalism, that proved to be transferable and ultimately deadly toall other social formulations.”

10.

Dunthorne, Hugh (2004). The Dutch Republic: That mother nation of liberty, in The Enlightenment World, M.Fitzpatrick, P. Jones, C. Knellwolf and I. McCalman eds. London: Routledge, pp. 87-103

11.

Usher, Robin (18 Jun 2005). "Mastering Holland". theage.com.au. Retrieved 20 Nov 2014.12. Hamowy, Ronald (2008). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism, p. 130-131. “Although today we can easily findmuch to criticize about the Dutch Republic, it remains a crucial early experiment in toleration, limitedgovernment, and commercial capitalism... Dutch shipping, banking, commerce, and credit raised living standardsfor the rich and the poor alike and for the first time created that characteristically modern social phenomenon, amiddle class... Libertarians value the Dutch Republic as a historical phenomenon not because it represented anysort of perfection, but above all because it demonstrated to several generations of intellectuals the practicalityof allowing citizens greater liberties than were customarily accorded them, which in turn contributed toproducing what we now know as classical liberalism.”

13.

Timmermann, Jim (16 November 2009). "COLUMN — 400 years of Dutch in America". The Holland Sentinel.Retrieved 20 December 2014.

14.

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Raico, Ralph (23 August 2010). "The Rise, Fall, and Renaissance of Classical Liberalism". Mises Daily.Retrieved 30 August 2014. "As the modern age began, rulers started to shake free of age-old customaryconstraints on their power. Royal absolutism became the main tendency of the time. The kings of Europe raiseda novel claim: they declared that they were appointed by God to be the fountainhead of all life and activity insociety. Accordingly, they sought to direct religion, culture, politics, and, especially, the economic life of thepeople. To support their burgeoning bureaucracies and constant wars, the rulers required ever-increasingquantities of taxes, which they tried to squeeze out of their subjects in ways that were contrary to precedent andcustom.The first people to revolt against this system were the Dutch. After a struggle that lasted for decades, they wontheir independence from Spain and proceeded to set up a unique polity. The United Provinces, as the radicallydecentralized state was called, had no king and little power at the federal level. Making money was the passionof these busy manufacturers and traders; they had no time for hunting heretics or suppressing new ideas. Thusde facto religious toleration and a wide-ranging freedom of the press came to prevail. Devoted to industry andtrade, the Dutch established a legal system based solidly on the rule of law and the sanctity of property andcontract. Taxes were low, and everyone worked. The Dutch "economic miracle" was the wonder of the age.Thoughtful observers throughout Europe noted the Dutch success with great interest."

15.

Shorto, Russell. "Amsterdam: A History of the World's Most Liberal City (overview)". russellshorto.com.Retrieved 30 August 2014. "Liberalism has many meanings, but in its classical sense it is a philosophy basedon individual freedom. History has long taught that our modern sensibility comes from the eighteenth centuryEnlightenment. In recent decades, historians have seen the Dutch Enlightenment of the seventeenth century asthe root of the wider Enlightenment."

16.

The Dutch Republic was the birthplace of the first modern art market, successfully combining art and commercetogether as we would recognise it today. Until the 17th century, commissioning works of art was largely thepreserve of the church, monarchs and aristocrats. The emergence of a powerful and wealthy middle class inHolland, though, produced a radical change in patronage as the new Dutch bourgeoisie bought art. For the firsttime, the direction of art was shaped by relatively broadly-based demand rather than religious dogma or royalwhim, and the result was the birth of a large-scale open (free) art market which today's dealers and collectorswould find familiar.

17.

Jaffé, H. L. C. (1986). De Stijl 1917-1931: The Dutch Contribution to Modern Art18. Muller, Sheila D. (1997). Dutch Art: An Encyclopedia19. Graham-Dixon, Andrew (4 Apr 2013). "Interview: Andrew Graham-Dixon (Andrew Graham-Dixon talks abouthis new series The High Art of the Low Countries)". BBC Arts & Culture. Retrieved 11 November 2014.

20.

Struik, Dirk J. (1981). The Land of Stevin and Huygens: A Sketch of Science and Technology in the DutchRepublic during the Golden Century (Studies in the History of Modern Science)

21.

Porter, Roy; Teich, Mikulas (1992). The Scientific Revolution in National Context22. Van Berkel, Klaas; Van Helden, Albert; Palm, Lodewijk (1998). A History of Science in the Netherlands:Survey, Themes and Reference

23.

Jorink, Eric (2010). Reading the Book of Nature in the Dutch Golden Age, 1575-171524. Haven, Kendall (2005). 100 Greatest Science Inventions of All Time25. Davids, Karel (2008). The Rise and Decline of Dutch Technological Leadership. Technology, Economy andCulture in the Netherlands, 1350-1800 (2 vols)

26.

Curley, Robert (2009). The Britannica Guide to Inventions That Changed the Modern World27.

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During their Golden Age, the Dutch were responsible for three major institutional innovations in economic andfinancial history. The first major innovation was the foundation of the Dutch East India Company (VOC), theworld's first publicly traded company, in 1602. As the first listed company (the first company to be ever listedon an official stock exchange), the VOC was the first company to actually issue stock and bonds to the generalpublic. Considered by many experts to be the world's first truly (modern) multinational corporation, the VOCwas also the first permanently organized limited-liability joint-stock company, with a permanent capital base.The Dutch merchants were the pioneers in laying the basis for modern corporate governance. The VOC is oftenconsidered as the precursor of modern corporations, if not the first truly modern corporation. It was the VOCthat invented the idea of investing in the company rather than in a specific venture governed by the company.With its pioneering features such as corporate identity (first globally-recognized corporate logo), entrepreneurialspirit, legal personhood, transnational (multinational) operational structure, high stable profitability, permanentcapital (fixed capital stock), freely transferable shares and tradable securities, separation of ownership andmanagement, and limited liability for both shareholders and managers, the VOC is generally considered a majorinstitutional breakthrough and the model for the large-scale business enterprises that now dominate the globaleconomy.The second major innovation was the creation of the world's first fully functioning financial market, with thebirth of a fully fledged capital market. The Dutch were also the first to effectively use a fully-fledged capitalmarket (including the bond market and the stock market) to finance companies (such as the VOC and the WIC).It was in seventeenth-century Amsterdam that the global securities market began to take on its modern form. In1602 the Dutch East India Company (VOC) established an exchange in Amsterdam where VOC stock andbonds could be traded in a secondary market. The VOC undertook the world's first recorded IPO in the sameyear. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange (Amsterdamsche Beurs in Dutch) was also the world's first fully-fledgedstock exchange. While the Italian city-states produced the first transferable government bonds, they didn'tdevelop the other ingredient necessary to produce a fully fledged capital market: corporate shareholders. TheDutch East India Company (VOC) became the first company to offer shares of stock. The dividend averagedaround 18% of capital over the course of the company's 200-year existence. Dutch investors were the first totrade their shares at a regular stock exchange. The buying and selling of these shares of stock in the VOCbecame the basis of the first stock market. It was in the Dutch Republic that the early techniques of stock-market manipulation were developed. The Dutch pioneered stock futures, stock options, short selling, bearraids, debt-equity swaps, and other speculative instruments. Amsterdam businessman Joseph de la Vega'sConfusion of Confusions (1688) was the earliest book about stock trading.The third major innovation was the establishment of the Bank of Amsterdam (Amsterdamsche Wisselbank inDutch) in 1609, which led to the introduction of the concept of bank money. The Bank of Amsterdam wasarguably the world's first central bank. The Wisselbank's innovations helped lay the foundations for the birth anddevelopment of the central banking system that now plays a vital role in the world's economy. It occupied acentral position in the financial world of its day, providing an effective, efficient and trusted system for nationaland international payments, and introduced the first ever international reserve currency, the bank guilder. LucienGillard (2004) calls it the European guilder (le florin européen), and Adam Smith devotes many pages toexplaining how the bank guilder works (Smith 1776: 446-455). The model of the Wisselbank as a state bankwas adapted throughout Europe, including the Bank of Sweden (1668) and the Bank of England (1694).

28.

Bornschier, Volker; Lengyel, Peter (1992). Waves, Formations and Values in the World System, p. 69. “The riseof capitalistnational states (as opposed to city-states) was a European innovation, and the first of these was theDutch Republic of the seventeenth century.”

29.

Brenner, Reuven (1994). Labyrinths of Prosperity: Economic Follies, Democratic Remedies, p. 6030. De Vries, Jan; Woude, Ad van der (1997). The First Modern Economy: Success, Failure, and Perseverance ofthe Dutch Economy, 1500–1815

31.

Gordon, John Steele (1999). The Great Game: The Emergence of Wall Street as a World Power: 1653–2000.“The Dutch invented modern capitalism in the early seventeenth century. Although many of the basic conceptshad first appeared in Italy during the Renaissance, the Dutch, especially the citizens of the city of Amsterdam,were the real innovators. They transformed banking, stock exchanges, credit, insurance, and limited-liabilitycorporations into a coherent financial and commercial system.”

32.

Gordon, Scott (1999). Controlling the State: Constitutionalism from Ancient Athens to Today, p. 172. “Inaddition to its role in the history of constitutionalism, the republic was important in the early development of theessential features of modern capitalism: private property, production for sale in general markets, and thedominance of the profit motive in the behavior of producers and traders.”

33.

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Sayle, Murray (5 April 2001). "Japan goes Dutch". London Riview of Books, Vol. 23 No. 7. Retrieved 18 May2014. "While Britain’s was the first economy to use fossil energy to produce goods for market, the mostcharacteristic institutions of capitalism were not invented in Britain, but in the Low Countries. The first miracleeconomy was that of the Dutch Republic (1588-1795), and it, too, hit a mysterious dead end. All economicsuccess contains the seeds of stagnation, it seems; the greater the boom, the harder it is to change course when itends."

34.

Mead, Walter Russell (18 Apr 2009). "Walter Russell Mead On Why Lula Was Right (The Debt We Owe theDutch: Blue-Eyed Bankers Have Given Us More Than the Current Financial Crisis)". Newsweek Magazine.Retrieved 11 June 2014. "The modern financial system grows out of a series of innovations in 17th-centuryNetherlands, and the Dutch were, on the whole, as Lula describes them. From the Netherlands, what the Englishcalled Dutch finance..."

35.

"The Keynes Conundrum by Reuven Brenner and David P. Goldman". First Things. 1 Oct 2010. Retrieved11 June 2014. "Western societies developed the institutions that support entrepreneurship only through a longand fitful process of trial and error. Stock and commodity exchanges, investment banks, mutual funds, depositbanking, securitization, and other markets have their roots in the Dutch innovations of the seventeenth centurybut reached maturity, in many cases, only during the past quarter of a century."

36.

Franklin, Jay D. (13 Aug 2012). "Amsterdam: Where It All Began". Index Funds Advisors. Retrieved20 December 2014.

37.

Schilder, Gunther (1985). The Netherland Nautical Cartography from 1550 to 165038. Woodward, David, ed (1987). Art and Cartography: Six Historical Essays, p. 147-17439. Paine, Lincoln P. (2000). Ships of Discovery and Exploration40. Day, Alan (2003). The A to Z of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia, p. xxxvii-xxxviii41. The Dutch made significant contributions to the law of the sea, law of nations (public international law) andcompany law

42.

Russell, Bertrand (1945). A History of Western Philosophy43. Van Bunge, Wiep (2001). From Stevin to Spinoza: an Essay on Philosophy in the Seventeenth-Century DutchRepublic

44.

Van Bunge, Wiep (2003). The Early Enlightenment in the Dutch Republic 1650–175045. "The triple helix in Dutch Life Sciences Health". Holland Trade. Retrieved 10 November 2014.46. Gottlieb, Mark (30 August 2006). "Continental Drifter -- Dutch Treat: An unlikely nation in an unlikely cornerof Europe boasts a remarkable record of unlikely achievement.". IndustryWeek. Retrieved 30 August 2014.

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McCloskey, Deirdre (17 Mar 2011). "Chapter 9 of the Bourgeois Revaluation: The Dutch Preached BourgeoisVirtue". Deirdremccloskey.com. Retrieved 18 April 2014. "The Dutch became in the High Middle Ages thetutors of the Northerners in trade and navigation. They taught the English how to say skipper, cruise, schooner,lighter, yacht, wiveling, yaw, yawl, sloop, tackle, hoy, boom, jib, bow, bowsprit, luff, reef, belay, avast, hoist,gangway, pump, buoy, dock, freight, smuggle, and keelhaul. In the last decade of the sixteenth century the busyDutch invented a broad-bottomed ship ideal for commerce, the fluyt, or fly-boat, and the German Ocean becamea new Mediterranean, a watery forum of the Germanic speakers — of the English, Scots, Norse, Danish, LowGerman, Frisian, Flemish, and above all the Dutch — who showed the world how to be bourgeois."

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including Southern Netherlands-based (Zuid-Nederlanders in Dutch) cartographers/geographers such as GemmaFrisius, Gerardus Mercator and Abraham Ortelius

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that comprising mainland Australia, Tasmania and their surrounding islands51. The first European known to visit Sakhalin was Martin Gerritz de Vries, who mapped Cape Patience and CapeAniva on the island's east coast in 1643. The Dutch captain, however, was not aware of their being on an island,and 17th century maps usually showed these points—and often Hokkaido, too—as parts of the mainland.

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McManamon, Francis; Cordell, Linda S.; Lightfoot, Kent; Milner, George (2009). Archaeology in America: AnEncyclopedia (4 volumes), p. 26

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As Peter J. Taylor (2002) notes: ‘The Dutch polity of the seventeenth century was famously unconcerned withterritorial expansion: as long as the frontier operated effectively as a defensive shield no extra land was deemednecessary.’

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Knobel, E. B. (1917). On Frederick de Houtman's Catalogue of Southern Stars, and the Origin of theSouthern Constellations. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 77, p. 414–432. Theconstellations around the South Pole were not observable from north of the equator, by Babylonians, Greeks,Chinese or Arabs. During the Age of Exploration, expeditions to the southern hemisphere began to result in theaddition of new constellations. The modern constellations in this region were defined notably by Dutchnavigators Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman, who in 1595 traveled together to the East Indies(first Dutch expedition to Indonesia). These 12 newly Dutch-created southern constellations (that includingApus, Chamaeleon, Dorado, Grus, Hydrus, Indus, Musca, Pavo, Phoenix, Triangulum Australe, Tucana andVolans) first appeared on a 35-cm diameter celestial globe published in 1597/1598 in Amsterdam by Dutchcartographers Petrus Plancius and Jodocus Hondius. The first depiction of these constellations in a celestialatlas was in Johann Bayer's Uranometria of 1603.

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Simpson, Phil (2012): Guidebook to the Constellations: Telescopic Sights, Tales, and Myths, p. 559-561, p.599-600

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Among 15 Dutch-created constellations (recognized by the IAU), three constellations including Camelopardalis,Columba, and Monoceros, formed by Petrus Plancius in 1592 and in 1613, are often erroneously attributed toJacob Bartsch and Augustin Royer

57.

Frisians, specifically West Frisians, are an ethnic group; present in the North of the Netherlands; mainlyconcentrating in the Province of Friesland. Culturally, modern Frisians and the (Northern) Dutch are rathersimilar; the main and generally most important difference being that Frisians speak West Frisian, one of the threesub-branches of the Frisian languages, alongside Dutch.West Frisians in the general do not feel or see themselves as part of a larger group of Frisians, and, according toa 1970 inquiry, identify themselves more with the Dutch than with East or North Frisians. Because of centuriesof cohabitation and active participation in Dutch society, as well as being bilingual, the Frisians are not treatedas a separate group in Dutch official statistics.

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Kirby, David; Hinkkanen, Merja-Liisa (2000). The Baltic and the North Seas, p. 61-62122. Buisseret, David (2003). The Mapmakers' Quest: Depicting New Worlds in Renaissance Europe123. Harwood, Jeremy (2006). To the Ends of the Earth: 100 Maps that Changed the World, p. 88124. Lasater, Brian (2007). The Dream of the West, Part II, p. 317125.

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Kieding, Robert B. (2011). Scuttlebutt: Tales and Experiences of a Life at Sea, p. 290127. Harwood, Jeremy (2006). To the Ends of the Earth: 100 Maps that Changed the World, p. 81128. Ian Ridpath. "Bayer's southern star chart".129. Ian Ridpath. "Lacaille's southern planisphere".130. Sun, Xiaochun (1997). Helaine Selin, ed. Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine inNon-Western Cultures. Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 910. ISBN 0-7923-4066-3.

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Bessant, John; Tidd, Joe (2007). Innovation and Entrepreneurship, p. 407134. Rumsey, Francis; McCormick, Tim (2009). Sound and Recording, p. 185-186135. Sethi, Anand Kumar (2013). The Business of Electronics: A Concise History, p. 91-92136. U.S. Patent 3,430,966 (https://www.google.com/patents/US3430966) Transparent recording disc, 1969.137. U.S. Patent 3,530,258 (https://www.google.com/patents/US3530258) Video signal transducer, 1970.U.S. Patent 4,893,297 (https://www.google.com/patents/US4893297) Disc-shaped member, 1990.

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Gelderblom, Oscar; De Jong, Abe; Jonker, Joost (2012)198. De Vries, Jan; Van der Woude, Ad (1997). The First Modern Economy: Success, Failure, and Perseverance ofthe Dutch Economy, 1500-1815, p. 385

199.

Van der Hoeven, Marco (1997). Exercise of Arms: Warfare in the Netherlands, 1568-1648, p. 3-4200. Micklethwait, John; Wooldridge, Adrian (2003). The Company: A Short History of a Revolutionary Idea201. Ferguson, Niall (2008). The Ascent of Money: A Financial History of the World202. Koppell, Jonathan GS (2011). Origins of Shareholder Advocacy, p. 29-31203. Brose, Margarita S.; Flood, Mark D.; Krishna, Dilip; Nichols, Bill (2014). Handbook of Financial Data andRisk Information I: Principles and Context, p. 14

204.

Hannan, Daniel (16 November 2013). "I've realised why I like the Dutch so much: they invented capitalism".Telegraph Blogs. Retrieved 31 March 2014.

205.

Micklethwait, John; Wooldridge, Adrian (2003). The Company: A Short History of a Revolutionary Idea. “TheDutch East India Company, alternatively known as the VOC (for Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie) or theSeventeen (after its seventeen-strong board)—became the model for all chartered firms. Whereas the EnglishEast India Company initially treated each voyage as a separate venture, with different shareholders, the VOCmade all the voyages part of a twenty-one-year venture (something the English imitated a decade later). TheVOC's charter also explicitly told investors that they had limited liability.”

206.

Nadesan, Majia Holmer (2008). Governmentality, Biopower, and Everyday Life, p. 48207. Queen Máxima of the Netherlands (27 March 2014). "Toespraak van Koningin Máxima bij de MorningstarInvestment Conference Europe in Amsterdam". Het Koninklijk Huis. Retrieved 10 October 2014. "The charterof the Dutch East India Company stipulated that any Dutch citizen could buy shares in the company. Many didgrasp this opportunity. And they were not only wealthy merchants! Among these first shareholders were corndealers, grocers, bakers, brewers, tailors, seamstresses, sail makers, carpenters, cobblers and servants. One ofthe most modest participants was the Mayor of Amsterdam's maid. Her name was Grietje Dirksdochter.Grietje saw a tipping point in Dutch history. This new opening provided ordinary people like her not only withthe opportunity of becoming a shareholder of a mere shipping company. It provided her with the opportunity ofbecoming a shareholder of the Dutch Golden Age. Of an exciting era of social development and economicgrowth. She was taking part in a new, dynamic economy."

208.

Brook, Timothy (2009). Vermeer's Hat: The Seventeenth Century and the Dawn of the Global World, p. 16209.

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Shinkai, Tetsuya; Ohkawa, Takao; Okamura, Makoto; Harimaya, Kozo (5 December 2012). Why did the DutchEast India Co. outperform the British East India Co.? A theoretical explanation based on the objective of thefirm and limited liability. (No 96, Discussion Paper Series, School of Economics, Kwansei Gakuin University).“The Dutch company sent a governor-general with full authority over all of the company's officers to Indonesia.The British East India Company was even more decentralized, however, and acted less as a trading companythan as a guild. It allowed each of its members to trade on his account, owning only the ships in common withother members. Bernstein (2008) also describes the behavior of the employees of the British East IndiaCompany, the employee of the East India Company treated its ships as their own, transporting large amountsof trade goods for their accounts to and from Asia. From these historical facts, the objective of the Dutch EastIndia Company was likely to maximize profits, whereas the British East India Company tried to maximize salessince the employee of it transported large amounts of trade goods not only for the company's but their ownaccounts to and from Asia.”

210.

Brook, Timothy (2009). Vermeer's Hat: The Seventeenth Century and the Dawn of the Global World, p. 15211. Atsushi, Ota (18 September 2013). "The Dutch East India Company and the Rise of Intra-Asian Commerce".Nippon.com (Nippon Communications Foundation). Retrieved 20 April 2015.

212.

Hagel III, John; Brown, John Seely (12 March 2013). "Institutional Innovation: Creating smarterOrganizations". Deloitte University Press. Retrieved 11 April 2014.

213.

Hawley, James P.; Williams, Andrew T. (2000). The Rise of Fiduciary Capitalism: How Institutional InvestorsCan Make Corporate America More Democratic, p. 44

214.

Ferguson, Niall (2002). Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for GlobalPower, p. 15. “Moreover, their company [the Dutch East India Company] was a permanent joint-stock company,unlike the English company, which did not become permanent until 1650.”

215.

Smith, B. Mark (2003). A History of the Global Stock Market: From Ancient Rome to Silicon Valley, p. 17.“The first joint-stock companies had actually been created in England in the sixteenth century. These earlyjoint-stock firms, however, possessed only temporary charters from the government, in some cases for onevoyage only. (One example was the Muscovy Company, chartered in England in 1533 for trade with Russia;another, chartered the same year, was a company with the intriguing title Guinea Adventurers.) The Dutch EastIndia Company was the first joint-stock company to have a permanent charter.”

216.

Frankfurter, George; Wood, Bob G.; Wansley, James (2003). Dividend Policy: Theory and Practice, p. 12217. Baker, H. Kent (2009). Dividends and Dividend Policy, p. 23218. Clarke, Thomas; Branson, Douglas (2012). The SAGE Handbook of Corporate Governance (Sage Handbooks),p. 431. “The EIC first issued permanent shares in 1657 (Harris, 2005: 45).”

219.

Shorto, Russell (2013). Amsterdam: A History of the World's Most Liberal City. “What made the Dutch EastIndia Company different from all previous companies was it permanence. Where companies before had alwaysformed around a particular venture and dissolved when the venture was complete, the VOC continued.(Technically, it was granted an initial charter for twenty-one years, but the charter was perennially renewed.)This was more than just a novelty: it meant that investors were buying not into a voyage but into the companyitself. And it allowed for a far-reaching innovation, for Amsterdammers who signed the subscription book couldread, on the first page, that they were entitled to sell their shares to someone else. They were further assuredthat if they did so the transfer would be rigorously monitored, and the subscription book stipulated the processfor selling shares.”

220.

Brook, Timothy (2008). Vermeer's Hat: The Seventeenth Century and the Dawn of the Global World221. Shorto, Russell (2013). Amsterdam: A History of the World's Most Liberal City. “Like the oceans it mastered,the VOC had a scope that is hard to fathom. One could craft a defensible argument that no company in historyhas had such an impact on the world. It surviving archives—in Cape Town, Colombo, Chennai, Jakarta, and TheHague—have been measured (by a consortium applying for a UNESCO grant to preserve them) in kilometers.In innumerable ways the VOC both expanded the world and brought its far-flung regions together. It introducedEurope to Asia and Africa, and vice versa (while its sister multinational, the West India Company, set New YorkCity in motion and colonized Brazil and the Caribbean Islands). It pioneered globalization and invented whatmight be the first modern bureaucracy. It advanced cartography and shipbuilding. It fostered disease, slavery,and exploitation on a scale never before imaged.”

222.

Anderson, Clare; Frykma, Niklas; van Voss, Lex Heerma; Rediker, Marcus (2013). Mutiny and MaritimeRadicalism in the Age of Revolution: A Global Survey, p. 113-114

223.

De Vries, Jan; Van der Woude, Ad (1997). The First Modern Economy: Success, Failure, and Perseverance ofthe Dutch Economy, 1500-1815, p. 462

224.

Howard, Michael C. (2011). Transnationalism and Society: An Introduction, p. 121225.

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A transnational corporation differs from a traditional multinational corporation in that it does not identify itselfwith one national home. While traditional multinational corporations are national companies with foreignsubsidiaries, transnational corporations spread out their operations in many countries sustaining high levels oflocal responsiveness. An example of a transnational corporation is the Royal Dutch Shell corporation whoseheadquarters may be in The Hague, Netherlands but its registered office and main executive body isheadquartered in London, United Kingdom. Another example of a transnational corporation is Nestlé whoemploy senior executives from many countries and try to make decisions from a global perspective rather thanfrom one centralized headquarters.

226.

Van Daelen, Marijn; Van der Elst, Christoph (2010). Risk Management and Corporate Governance:Interconnections in Law, Accounting and Tax, p. 57

227.

Kaiser, Kevin; Young, S. David (2013). The Blue Line Imperative: What Managing for Value Really Means, p.26. “There are other claimants to the title of first public company, including a twelfth-century water mill inFrance and a thirteenth-century company intended to control the English wool trade, Staple of London. Itsshares, however, and the manner in which those shares were traded, did not truly allow public ownership byanyone who happened to be able to afford a share. The arrival of VOC shares was therefore momentous,because as Fernand Braudel pointed out, it opened up the ownership of companies and the ideas they generated,beyond the ranks of the aristocracy and the very rich, so that everyone could finally participate in thespeculative freedom of transactions. By expanding ownership of its company pie for a certain price and atentative return, the Dutch had done something historic: they had created a capital market.”

228.

Bahnemann, Bastian (2008). Rights Issue Related Discounts in France, Germany, Switzerland, and the UnitedKingdom, p. 6

229.

Gourevitch, Peter A.; Shinn, James (2005). Political Power and Corporate Control: The New Global Politicsof Corporate Governance, p. xiii

230.

Wilson, Eric Michael (2008). The Savage Republic: De Indis of Hugo Grotius, Republicanism and DutchHegemony Within the Early Modern World-System (c.1600-1619), p. 215-217. “The defining characteristics ofthe modern corporation, all of which emerged during the Dutch cycle, include: limited liability for investors, freetransferability of investor interests, legal personality and centralised management. Although some of thesecharacteristics were present to a certain extent in the fourteenth-century Genose societas comperarum of thefirst cycle, the first wholly cognisable modern limited liability public company was the VOC. The organisationalstructures and corporate practices of the VOC were closely paralleled by the English East India Company andserved as the direct model for all of the later mercantile trading companies of the second cycle, including thoseof Italy, France, Portugal, Denmark, and Brandenburg-Prussia.”

231.

Bishop, Matthew; Green, Michael (2010). The Road from Ruin: A New Capitalism for a Big Society, p. 48232. Daly, Jonathan (2014). The Rise of Western Power: A Comparative History of Western Civilization, p. 136233. Soll, Jacob (2014). The Reckoning: Financial Accountability and the Rise and Fall of Nations, p. 79234. Cater, Nick (14 Feb 2014). "Conversation with Daniel Hannan (Nick Cater in conversation with DanielHannan MEP)". The Centre for Independent Studies. Retrieved 12 September 2014. "Daniel Hannan: TheNetherlands and the British Isles were developing very much in parallel towards individualism and free trade.In fact, the Dutch beat us to it in one important sense. They got the modern system of capitalism—if we defineit as limited liability and joint stock ventures—slightly before us.""

235.

De Vries and Van der Woude, p. 385236. Lucas, Gavin (2006). An Archaeology of Colonial Identity: Power and Material Culture in the Dwars Valley,South Africa (Contributions To Global Historical Archaeology), p. 28

237.

Van Boven, M. W. "Towards A New Age of Partnership (TANAP): An Ambitious World Heritage Project(UNESCO Memory of the World – reg.form, 2002)". VOC Archives Appendix 2, p.14.

238.

The share price had appreciated significantly, so in that respect the dividend was less impressive239. Sarna, David E. Y. (2010). History of Greed: Financial Fraud from Tulip Mania to Bernie Madoff240. "Most valuable companies in history, adjusted for inflation". Yahoo! Finance Canada. 1 Nov 2012. Retrieved12 June 2014.

241.

Wilson, Paula (21 Apr 2014). "What's The Most Valuable Company In History?". Celebrity Net Worth.Retrieved 12 June 2014.

242.

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"Press Conference on the occasion of Their Majesties' visit to the Kingdom of the Netherlands and theKingdom of Sweden (2000)". The Imperial Household Agency. 8 May 2000. Retrieved 30 May 2014."Response by the Emperor of Japan, Akihito: "When I look back on the path that Japan has followed so far, it isclear to me that the long history of 400 years of relations with the Netherlands has been significant. In particular,during the period of national isolation, the people of Japan learned many things from the Netherlands, which wasour only window on Europe. The Government obtained information on the situation in the world through theDutch trade office in Nagasaki, and, Japanese physicians and others learned about the development of thesciences in Europe from "Rangaku" or Dutch Learning. Even after Japan opened itself to relations with othernations it benefited greatly from the work of Dutch people, especially in the fields of riparian improvements andnautical engineering. The relations Japan thus maintained with the Netherlands played an important backgroundrole in helping Japan to establish diplomatic relations, protect its independence, and develop itself as a modernnation in response to advancement toward Japan and neighboring areas by foreign countries.""

243.

"Press Conference on the occasion of Their Majesties' visit to the Kingdom of the Netherlands and theKingdom of Sweden (2000)". The Imperial Household Agency. 8 May 2000. Retrieved 30 May 2014."Response by the Empress of Japan, Michiko: "Japan and the Netherlands have between them a long history ofunique relations. I once visited Tekijuku school on one of our trips to Osaka and I still remember how moved Iwas when I learned of the determined aspirations of many young men who, at the end of the Edo Period,gathered there from all over the country to pursue 'Rangaku', Dutch studies. When I reflect on the later activitiesof the students of Tekijuku, such as Fukuzawa Yukichi and others, I cannot but think of the great role laterplayed in the modernization of our country by Dutch studies learned by those young men with high aspirations.From the beginning of the Meiji Era also, Van Doorn, De Rijke and Escher in the fields of agriculturalengineering and riparian works made a great contribution to Japan. Again, the guidance of Naval CommanderGerhardus Fabius in the final years of the Tokugawa Shogunate, in every aspect of maritime affairs, built up theJapanese navy which was thereafter an immense help in defending the country and maintaining its independence.It is said that Fabius wrote in his diary the caution that those dealing with the Japanese should be armed withprobity and dignity but should never seek to exert influence by weapons of war. The foregoing was made knownto Japan by the incumbent Japanese Ambassador, Mr. Ikeda, after he obtained the translation by Mrs. MiyakoVos, now residing in the Netherlands.""

244.

"The AOTM Landings List 1606 – 1814". history and heritage division of the Australasian HydrographicSociety. Australia on the Map. 6 February 2008. Archived from the original on 2 April 2013. Retrieved 2 April2013. "After leaving Banda on 18 November 1605, at about the end of March 1606 VOC Captain WillemJanszoon,* Supercargo Jan Lodewijkszoon van Rosingeyn and their crew onboard the Duyfken, charted about300 km of the west coast of Cape York Peninsula in Queensland. First documented visit of Europeans to theshores of Australia."

245.

North, Michael (1999). Art and Commerce in the Dutch Golden Age. Translated by Catherine Hill. (YaleUniversity Press)

246.

Bennett, Will (6 Jun 2006). "A very modern 17th-century art dealer". Telegraph. Retrieved 16 April 2014.247. Gelderblom, Oscar; De Jong, Abe; Jonker, Joost (2010). Putting Le Maire into Perspective: BusinessOrganization and the Evolution of Corporate Governance in the Dutch Republic, 1590-1610, in J. Koppell,ed., Origins of Shareholder Advocacy. (New York: Palgrave Macmillian)

248.

McRitchie, James l (6 October 2011). "Will UNFI Go Virtual-Only Again? Not if Shareowners Just Say No".CorpGov.net. Retrieved 28 December 2014. "Four centuries ago, Isaac Le Maire’s submitted the first recordedexpression of shareowner advocacy at a publicly traded corporation."

249.

Mueller, Dennis C. (ed.), (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Capitalism, p. 333. (New York: Oxford UniversityPress)

250.

Frentrop, P. (2009). The First Known Shareholder Activist: The Colorful Life and Times of Isaac le Maire(1559–1624), in Frentrop/Jonker/Davis 2009, 11–26

251.

Frentrop, P.; Jonker, J; Davis, S. (ed.), (2009). Shareholder Rights at 400: Commemorating Isaac Le Maire andthe First Recorded Expression of Investor Advocacy (The Hague: Remix Business Communications, 2009)

252.

Hansmann, Henry; Pargendler, Mariana (2013). The Evolution of Shareholder Voting Rights: Separation ofOwnership and Consumption. (Yale Law Journal, Vol. 123, pp. 100-165, 2014)

253.

Soll, Jacob (27 April 2014). "No Accounting Skills? No Moral Reckoning". The New York Times. Retrieved10 April 2015.

254.

De Jongh, Matthijs (2010). Shareholder Activism at the Dutch East India Company 1622-1625, in Origins ofShareholder Advocacy (Palgrave Macmillan, 2011)

255.

De Vries and Van der Woude, pp. 301–302256. Wallerstein, Immanuel (2011). The Modern World-System II: Mercantilism and the Consolidation of theEuropean World-Economy, 1600–1750, p. 43-44

257.

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Kotilane, J. T. (2005). Russia's Foreign Trade and Economic Expansion in the Seventeenth Century: Windowson the World (Northern World) (No. 13), p. 65

258.

Goldfrank, Walter L.; Goodman, David; Szasz, Andrew (1999). Ecology and the World-System, p. 110-111259. Hoving, A. J.; Wildeman, Diederick (2011). Nicolaes Witsen and Shipbuilding in the Dutch Golden Age (EdRachal Foundation Nautical Archaeology Series)

260.

Griswold, Mac (2013). The Manor: Three Centuries at a Slave Plantation on Long Island, p. 56-57261. Wiesner, Merry E. (2013). Early Modern Europe, 1450-1789, p. 220262. Delgado, James P. (2009). Gold Rush Port: The Maritime Archaeology of San Francisco's Waterfront, p. 17263. Virginia W. Lunsford (2005). Piracy and Privateering in the Golden Age Netherlands, p. 69264. "Putin recalls Russian-Dutch historic links". Voice of Russia. 6 April 2013. Retrieved 30 May 2014.265. "Russia and the Netherlands: traditions, historical continuity and new prospects for partnership". RussianPresidential Executive Office. 6 April 2013. Retrieved 30 May 2014. "In an interview with Dutch newspaperDe Telegraaf, the President of Russia Vladimir Putin said: "The people of Russia are well aware that the Dutchwere the ones who taught seamanship to Peter the Great; 400 years ago Holland was a leading maritime andtrade power, and its natives left a major imprint in the world’s history, including Russian""

266.

Siegal, Nina (22 May 2013). "A Slice of Russia in Amsterdam". NYTimes.com. Retrieved 18 April 2014."After his trip to what is now the Netherlands in 1697 to 1698, the young czar returned home singing thecountry’s praises and famously declared that he wanted to build a city in Amsterdam’s image. “If God gives melife time,” he was quoted as saying in 1703, “I shall make of Petersburg a second Amsterdam.”"

267.

Verhoogt, Robert (2007). Art in Reproduction: Nineteenth-Century Prints after Lawrence Alma-Tadema, JozefIsraëls and Ary Scheffer, p. 165

268.

Wuthnow, Robert (2009). Communities of Discourse: Ideology and Social Structure in the Reformation, theEnlightenment, and European Socialism, p. 265

269.

Klaesson, Johan; Johansson, Borje; Karlsson, Charlie (2013). Metropolitan Regions: Knowledge Infrastructuresof the Global Economy, p. 360

270.

Reinders, Michel (2013). Printed Pandemonium: Popular Print and Politics in the Netherlands 1650-72(Library of the Written Word), p. 37-38

271.

Deen, Femke; Onnekink, David; Reinders, Michel (2010). Pamphlets and Politics in the Dutch Republic, p. 20272. Zahedieh, Nuala (2010). The Capital and the Colonies: London and the Atlantic Economy 1660-1700(Cambridge University Press), p. 152

273.

Mead, Walter Russell (18 Apr 2009). "The Debt We Owe the Dutch: Blue-eyed bankers have given us morethan the current financial crisis". Newsweek Magazine. Retrieved 31 March 2014.

274.

Gordon, John Steele l (19 Sep 2009). "Don't Bet Against New York". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved28 May 2014. "The Dutch—who invented many aspects of modern capitalism and became immensely rich inthe process—came to Manhattan to make money. And they didn't much care who else came to do the same.Indeed, they were so busy trading beaver pelts they didn't even get around to building a church for 17 years."

275.

Soll, Jacob (27 Apr 2014). "The Great Divide: No Accounting Skills? No Moral Reckoning". The New YorkTimes. Retrieved 18 May 2014. "If we want to know how to make our own country and companies moreaccountable, we would do well to study the Dutch. In 1602, they invented modern capitalism with thefoundation of the first publicly traded company — the Dutch East India Company — and the first official stockmarket in Amsterdam."

276.

MacDonald, Scott B.; Gastmann, Albert L. (2001), p. 95277. Sheng, Andrew (21 Aug 2013). "Why Nations Fail or Succeed?". Fung Global Institute. Retrieved 14 May2014.

278.

Molyneux, John (5 Nov 2005). "Rubens — his brush was the sword of counter revolution". Socialist Worker.Retrieved 6 May 2014.

279.

Brandon, Pepijn (1 October 2007). "The Dutch Revolt: A Social Analysis". International Socialism. Retrieved14 May 2014.

280.

Shorto, Russell (27 September 2013). "The Ghosts of Amsterdam". New York Times. Retrieved 7 April 2014."But when I’m on the Nes I feel I’m about to run into a tall, handsome, wily man who in his day favored lacecollars and a twisty little mustache. His name was Dirck van Os, and, while history has forgotten him, his houseon this street (which, alas, no longer exists) could be considered the birthplace of capitalism.For four months in 1602, Amsterdammers streamed into his parlor to buy pieces of a new kind of corporation,one that allowed backers to sell their portion at a later date, at a higher (or lower) value. The Dutch East IndiaCompany transformed the world, and it made Amsterdam, briefly and improbably, the most powerful city in theworld.But its biggest contribution to history may be in the fact that in this little alley van Os and his merchantcolleagues gave birth to the concept of “shares of stock.” A few years later, a little farther down the street, camethe first stock exchange. Things would never be the same."

281.

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Andrew Roberts in his book A History of the English-Speaking Peoples Since 1900 (2010), observed: “TheEnglish-speaking peoples did not invent the ideas that nonetheless made them great: the Romans invented theconcept of Law, the Greeks one-freeman-one-vote democracy, the Dutch modern capitalism...”

282.

Manning, Patrick; Gills, Barry K. (2013). Andre Gunder Frank and Global Development: Visions,Remembrances, and Explorations , p.107

283.

Hall, Thomas D. (2000). A World-Systems Reader: New Perspectives on Gender, Urbanism, Cultures,Indigenous Peoples, and Ecology, p. 32

284.

Kuzminski, Adrian (2013). The Ecology of Money: Debt, Growth, and Sustainability, p. 38285. Brenner, Reuven (1994). Labyrinths of Prosperity: Economic Follies, Democratic Remedies, p. 60286. Moore, Jason W. (2010a). “‘Amsterdam is Standing on Norway’ Part I: The Alchemy of Capital, Empire, andNature in the Diaspora of Silver, 1545–1648,” Journal of Agrarian Change, 10, 1, p. 35–71

287.

Moore, Jason W. (2010b). “‘Amsterdam is Standing on Norway’ Part II: The Global North Atlantic in theEcological Revolution of the Long Seventeenth Century,” Journal of Agrarian Change, 10, 2, p. 188–227

288.

Sombart, Werner (1930). The Quintessence of Capitalism: A Study of the History and Psychology of theModern Business Man, p. 144. As Werner Sombart noted: “In all probability the United Provinces were the landin which the capitalist spirit for the first time attained its fullest maturity ; where this maturity related to all itsaspects, which were equally developed; and where this development had never been done comprehensivebefore. Moreover, in the Netherlands an entire people became imbued with the capitalist spirit ; so much so, thatin the 17th century Holland was universally regarded as the land of capitalism par exellence ; it was envied byall other nations, who put forth their keenest endeavours in their desire to emulate it...”

289.

Brenner, Robert P. (2001). The Low Countries in the Transition to Capitalism. “The Dutch economy thusdifferentiated itself from the leading economies that preceded it (Flanders, Brabant, the city-states of northernItaly) in its capitalist modernity, manifested most tellingly in its advanced, capital-intensive agricul-tural sector.But it shared those economies’ imbrication in, and dependence upon, the pre-capitalist economy of Europe as awhole.”

290.

Lefer, David (2013). The Founding Conservatives: How a Group of Unsung Heroes Saved the AmericanRevolution. “Along with his army, William brought something even more formidable to England—a series ofDutch financial innovations that we now call capitalism. Capitalism needs to be understood as more than justmaking money. Commerce is as old as human history, as Lycurgus' s decision to ban it in the ninth century B.C.shows. Modern capitalism, on the other hand, was invented in the early seventeenth century as a way of poolingmoney to lit risk in large-scale investments. If there was on thing that distinguished this new financial systemfrom anything that had come before, it was the sheer scale on which it operated. Capitalism was big andsystematic in its approach to making money.”

291.

Congleton, Roger D. (2007)292. Van Zanden, J. L. (1993). The Rise and Decline of Holland's Economy: Merchant Capitalism and the LabourMarket, p. 3

293.

Van der Linden, Marcel (1997). Marx and Engels, Dutch Marxism and the “Model Capitalist Nation of theSeventeenth Century. (Science and Society, 61, p. 161-192)

294.

Jan Lucassen (2007). Wages and Currency: Global Comparisons from Antiquity to the Twentieth Century(International and Comparative Social History), p. 7

295.

Wilson, Eric Michael (2008). Savage Republic: De Indis of Hugo Grotius, Republicanism and DutchHegemony within the Early Modern World-System (c. 1600–1619), p. 151

296.

Sprague, Ted (30 March 2011). "History of Capitalist Development in Indonesia: Part One - DutchColonisation". Marxist.com. Retrieved 10 December 2014.

297.

Moore, Jason W. (2012). Dutch Capitalism and the Europe’s Great Frontier: The Baltic in the EcologicalRevolution of the Long Seventeenth Century, in The Longue Duree and World-Systems Analysis, edited byRichard E. Lee, p. 65-97

298.

Migchels, Anthony (5 June 2014). "Capitalism Is Jewish Usury". Real Currencies. Retrieved 12 June 2014."Modern Capitalism was first clearly visible in the Dutch Republic, where Italian Banking, expelled IberianJews, the Reformation, naval power and the acquisition of huge trade fortunes came together in the AmsterdamEmpire, which would outshine its much bigger Spanish, British and even French competitors until the midseventeenth century. Everything that defines modern Capitalism was either invented or came to fruition inAmsterdam. The first Stock Exchange, Multinationals (the East Indies Company, which would rule overIndonesia with unrestrained Corporatocracy for centuries), and most importantly, a Central Bank, the‘Amsterdamsche Wisselbank’. And of course a huge pile of money, that would be the envy of Europe even longafter its ‘glory’ had subsided."

299.

Gordon, John Steele (1999)300. Brooke, Peter A. (2009). A Vision for Venture Capital: Realizing the Promise of Global Venture Capital andPrivate Equity, p. 59

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Robertson, Jeffrey; Funnell, Warwick N. (2012). The Dutch East-India Company and Accounting for SocialCapital at the Dawn of Modern Capitalism 1602-1623. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 37 (5). pp.342-360

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Cocks, Doug (2013). Global Overshoot: Contemplating the World's Converging Problems, p. 230303. Brook, Timothy (2009)304. Israel, Jonathan (1989). Dutch Primacy in World Trade, 1585–1740, p. 409305. Arrighi, Giovanni; Silver, Beverly (1999). Chaos and Governance in the Modern World System (Contradictionsof Modernity), p. 39

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Lachmann, Richard (2000). Capitalists in Spite of Themselves: Elite Conflict and European Transitions inEarly Modern Europe, p. 158

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Taylor, Peter J. (2002). Dutch Hegemony and Contemporary Globalization (Paper prepared for PoliticalEconomy of World-Systems Conference, Riverside, California). This research bulletin has been published inHegemonic Decline: Present and Past (Political Economy of the World-System Annuals), edited by ChristopherChase-Dunn and Jonathan Friedman (2005)

308.

Wallerstein, Immanuel (2011). The Modern World-System II: Mercantilism and the Consolidation of theEuropean World-Economy, 1600–1750, p. 36

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Palumbo-Liu, David; Robbins, Bruce W.; Tanoukhi, Nirvana (2011). Immanuel Wallerstein and the Problem ofthe World: System, Scale, Culture, p. 28

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Lee, Richard E. (2012). The Longue Duree and World-Systems Analysis, p. 65311. Sobel, Andrew C. (2012). Birth of Hegemony: Crisis, Financial Revolution, and Emerging Global Networks,p. 54-88

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Swart, K.W (24 May 2012). "The Miracle of the Dutch Republic as Seen in the Seventeenth Century: AnInaugural Lecture Delivered at University College London 6 November 1967". Retrieved 16 May 2014.

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Kaletsky, Anatole (2010). Capitalism 4.0: The Birth of a New Economy in the Aftermath of Crisis, p. 109. “In1602, exploiting their advantage against the declining Spanish and Portuguese maritime powers, the citizens ofHolland founded the Dutch East India Company, quickly gaining a monopoly over most of Europe's trade withAsia. This incredible commercial opportunity inspired and financially underpinned the creation in Holland of thefirst mercantile capitalist nation. This was arguably the most important event in the economic history of theworld up to that point.”

314.

Raico, Ralph (1994). The Theory of Economic Development and the European Miracle in The Collapse ofDevelopment Planning, edited by Peter J. Boettke, pp. 47-48

315.

Brenner, Reuven (1994). Labyrinths of Prosperity: Economic Follies, Democratic Remedies, p. 51-65316. Brenner, Reuven (May–June 1998). "The Causes of Economic Growth" (PDF). Cato Institute. Retrieved30 August 2014.

317.

Sayle, Murray. "Japan goes Dutch". London Riview of Books, Vol. 23 No. 7, 5 April 2001. Retrieved 31 March2014.

318.

Muhlberger, Steve. "Nipissing University -- History 2155 -- Early Modern Europe: The Dutch Miracle".Nipissing University. Retrieved 30 August 2014.

319.

Davids, Karel; Lucassen, Jan (1995). A Miracle Mirrored: The Dutch Republic in European Perspective, p. 370320. Dingsdale, Alan (2002). Mapping Modernities, p. 8321. Babones, Salvatore; Chase-Dunn, Christopher (2012). Routledge Handbook of World-Systems Analysis(Routledge International Handbooks), p. 181-182

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Daly, Jonathan (2014). The Rise of Western Power: A Comparative History of Western Civilization, p. 228-229323. Freist, Dagmar (17 Oct 2012). "The Dutch Century (Das niederländische Jahrhundert)". EGO. Retrieved30 August 2014.

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Lucas, Sam (23 October 2013). "The Dutch Financial Golden Age". CorporateLiveWire. Retrieved 30 August2014.

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Lucas, Sam (1 November 2013). "European Business Travel: Central Europe". CorporateLiveWire. Retrieved30 August 2014.

326.

Brenner, Reuven (1994), p. 57327. The preponderance of the Dutch population lived in two provinces, Holland and Zeeland. This area experienceda population explosion between 1500 and 1650, with a growth from 350,000 to 1,000,000 inhabitants.Thereafter the growth leveled off, so that the population of the whole country remained at the 2 million levelthroughout the 18th century; De Vries and Van der Woude, pp. 51–52

328.

At the beginning of the 17th century, England and Wales contained more than four million people. It was about 4million in 1600 and it grew to about 5 1/2 million by 1700.

329.

Gieseking, Jen Jack; Mangold, William; Katz, Cindi; Low, Setha; Saegert, Susan (2014). The People, Place, andSpace Reader, p. 151

330.

Steckel, Richard H.; Floud, Roderick (1997). Health and Welfare during Industrialization, p. 332331.

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De Decker, Kris (29 Sep 2011). "Medieval smokestacks: fossil fuels in pre-industrial times". Low-techMagazine. Retrieved 30 August 2014.

332.

Wilson, Charles (1968)333. Soll, Jacob (2014). The Reckoning: Financial Accountability and the Rise and Fall of Nations, p. 79. As JacobSoll notes, “of which 20 percent of its [the Dutch Republic's] landmass was below sea level and another 40percent was exposed to tides and flooding.”

334.

Kaletsky, Anatole (2010). Capitalism 4.0: The Birth of a New Economy in the Aftermath of Crisis, p. 109-110.“The bursting of the tulip bubble in 1637 did not end Dutch economic hegemony. Far from it. Tulipmania wasfollowed by a century of Dutch leadership in almost every branch of global commerce, finance, andmanufacturing.”

335.

The business activities around the world by Dutch companies (such as Noordsche Compagnie, Dutch East IndiaCompany and Dutch West India Company) and Dutch merchants (like Louis de Geer) are referred to as theearliest cases of outward foreign direct investment (FDI) in history of world economy.

336.

The Dutch merchants laid the foundations for modern capital markets with the birth of the Amsterdam StockExchange in 1602.

337.

Israel, Jonathan Irvine (1990). Dutch Primacy in World Trade, 1585–1740338. Cipolla, Carlo (2004). Before the Industrial Revolution: European Society and Economy, 1000-1700, p.200-201. “Whether one looks at the agricultural, commercial, or manufacturing sector, one finds that the Dutchhad a genius, if not an obsession, for reducing costs. They succeeded in selling anything to anybody anywherein the world because they sold it more cheaply than anybody else, and their prices were competitively lowbecause their costs of production were more compressed than elsewhere.”“In sacrificing quality for the sake of reducing price, the Dutch departed from a tradition that had prevailed inthe Middle Ages and the early Renaissance and heralded a principle which was to prevail in modern times. Themedieval merchant had normally tried to maximize profit per unit of production—thus his insistence on highquality. The Dutch, however, made a decisive move toward mass production. In an increasing number ofactivities they endeavoured to maximize their profit by maximizing the volume of sales... Even Dutch paintersproduced their masterpieces at low prices and in prolific quantities... Dutch success evoked admiration amongsome, envy among others, and great interest everywhere. Holland held all Europe fascinated, but more thananyone else their neighbors across the Channel, the English.”

339.

Kraska, James (2011). Maritime Power and the Law of the Sea: Expeditionary Operations in World Politics, p.50

340.

Rybczynski, Witold (1987)341. Bourse. (http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=bourse&allowed_in_frame=0) Online EtymologyDictionary

342.

"World's oldest share". The World’s Oldest Share. Retrieved 30 May 2014.343. "Dutch history student finds world's oldest share". Guinness World Records Limited 2014. 10 Sep 2010.Retrieved 30 May 2014.

344.

"Student finds oldest Dutch share". Radio Netherlands Worldwide. 10 Sep 2010. Retrieved 30 May 2014.345. Dunkley, Jamie (11 Sep 2010). "Dutch student finds world's oldest share certificate". Telegraph.co.uk.Retrieved 30 May 2014.

346.

Chambers, Clem (14 Jul 2006). "Who needs stock exchanges?". Mondo Visione. Retrieved 20 December 2014.347. Goetzmann, William N.; Rouwenhorst, K. Geert (2005). The Origins of Value: The Financial Innovations thatCreated Modern Capital Markets, p. 165

348.

Leopold, Les (2009). The Looting of America: How Wall Street's Game of Fantasy Finance Destroyed OurJobs, Pensions, and Prosperity—and What We Can Do about It, p. 31. “While Italy produced the firsttransferable government bonds, it didn't develop the other ingredient necessary to produce a fully fledgedcapital market: corporate shareholders. The Dutch East India Company, founded in 1602, became the first tooffer shares... This buying and selling of shares in the Dutch East India Company became the basis of the firststock market.”

349.

Shorto, Russell (2013). Amsterdam: A History of the World's Most Liberal City. “The truly revolutionaryinnovation of Amsterdam's stock market lay in the fact that it became the world's first market in the sale ofcompany shares: a secondary securities market. If a company's shares of stock are frozen, its ownership isfrozen and the business is a private affair. But if those shares, or derivatives based on them, can be resold, thenyou have a financial marketplace, which is a kind of living thing, constantly churning. It can then become ameans of individual expression and power, allowing for anyone with a few extra coins to play a part in the greateconomic drama society.”

350.

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Brooks, John (1968). “The Fluctuation: The Little Crash in '62” in “Business Adventures: Twelve Classic Talesfrom the World of Wall Street”. (New York: Weybright & Talley). “What is truly extraordinary is the speed withwhich this pattern emerged full blown following the establishment, in 1611, of the world’s first important stockexchange — a roofless courtyard in Amsterdam — and the degree to which it persists (with variations, it is true)on the New York Stock Exchange in the nineteen-sixties. Present-day stock trading in the United States — abewilderingly vast enterprise, involving millions of miles of private telegraph wires, computers that can read andcopy the Manhattan Telephone Directory in three minutes, and over twenty million stockholder participants —would seem to be a far cry from a handful of seventeenth-century Dutchmen haggling in the rain. But the fieldmarks are much the same. The first stock exchange was, inadvertently, a laboratory in which new humanreactions were revealed. By the same token, the New York Stock Exchange is also a sociological test tube,forever contributing to the human species’ self-understanding. The behaviour of the pioneering Dutch stocktraders is ably documented in a book entitled “Confusion of Confusions,” written by a plunger on theAmsterdam market named Joseph de la Vega; originally published in 1688, it was reprinted in Englishtranslation a few years ago by the Harvard Business School.”

351.

Petram, Lodewijk (2014). The World's First Stock Exchange (Columbia Business School Publishing)352. Reszat, Beate (2005). European Financial Systems in the Global Economy, p. 7353. Braudel, Fernand (1982). Civilization and Capitalism, 15th-18th Century: The Wheels of Commerce, p. 101.“All evidence points to the Mediterranean as the cradle of the stock market. But what was new in Amsterdamwas the volume, the fluidity of the market and publicity it received, and the speculative freedom oftransactions.”

354.

Poitras, Geoffrey (2013). Commodity Risk Management: Theory and Application, p. 59-83. (New York:Routledge). “The use of the term ‘bourse’ (beurs) is indicative of the historical development, the term beingtaken from a square in Bruges, named for an inn on the square owned at one time by the van Beurs family,where the Florentines, Genoese and Venetians had their consular houses. This inn was a popular meeting placefor foreign merchants. Though exchange trading of derivative securities was yet to come, some essentialcharacteristics of exchange trading are discernible at the beginnings of the bourses: a self-regulating collectionof merchants – both brokers and dealers – meeting for the mutual gain of enhanced liquidity... In 1531, Antwerpopened a new exchange building designed exclusively for trading of commodities and bills of exchange...Exchange trading in Amsterdam marks the beginning of the distinction between derivative securities for bulkcommodities versus financial assets, in particular shares in joint stock companies... Amsterdam is the firstinstance in the history of exchange traded derivative securities where the distinction between financial assetsand bulk commodities as deliverables assumes importance.”

355.

MacDonald, Scott B.; Gastmann, Albert L. (2001). A History of Credit and Power in the Western World, p. 98356. Rothwell, Kevin (2007). Handbook of Investment Administration, p. 78357. Israel, Jonathan I. (1989). Dutch Primacy in World Trade, 1585-1740, p. 75358. Law, Jonathan (2010). A Dictionary of Accounting, p. 399359. Ban, Zoltan (2011). Sustainable Trade: Changing the Environment the Market Operates in, ThroughStandardized Global Trade Tariffs, p. 219

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Westbrook, Ian (2014). Strategic Financial and Investor Communication: The Stock Price Story, p. 25361. Stringham, Edward (2003). "The Extralegal Development of Securities Trading in Seventeenth CenturyAmsterdam". Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance43 (2): 321. doi:10.1016/s1062-9769(02)00153-9.Retrieved 12 January 2015.

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Poitras, Geoffrey (2012). Handbook of Research on Stock Market Globalization (Edward Elgar PublishingLimited), p. 39. “By the end of the seventeenth century a small but relatively sophisticated stock market existedin Amsterdam, and certainly one of sufficient importantance as to be worthy of a description by a contemporary,Joseph de la Vega, in 1688. What emerges from that description is that the main stock traded remained theshares of the Dutch East India Company but the techniques in use included spot and future contracts; call, putand straddle options; margin trading, hedging and short-selling; and the ability to defer both payment anddelivery. Such was the level of trust that existed in this market that buying and selling was done for a monthlysettlement when the outstanding differences in the money owed were cleared through the debiting and creditingof accounts at the Bank of Amsterdam.”

363.

Hassan, Fabien (2 April 2013). "Lessons from history I: Not so innovative financial innovations". FinanceWatch. Retrieved 20 February 2015.

364.

Giroux, Gary (2013). Business Scandals, Corruption, and Reform: An Encyclopedia [2 volumes], p. 95365. Negishi, Takashi; Mino, Kazuo; Ramachandran, Rama V. (2001). Economic Theory, Dynamics and Markets:Essay in Honor of Ryuzo Sato, p. 498

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Heckman, James J.; Nelson, Robert L.; Cabatingan, Lee (2010). Global Perspectives on the Rule of Law.(Routledge-Cavendish, 2010), p. 152

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Cable, Richard (11 July 2012). "Who invented the National Debt?". BBC News. Retrieved 20 December 2014.368.

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Jonker, Joost; Gelderblom, Oscar: Completing a Financial Revolution: The Finance of the Dutch East IndiaTrade and the Rise of the Amsterdam Capital Market, 1595-1612. (The Journal of Economic History, 2004,vol. 64, issue 03, pages 641-672)

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Cross, Frank B.; Prentice, Robert A. (2007). Law and Corporate Finance, p. 130374. Levich, Richard M.; Majnoni, Giovanni; Reinhart, Carmen (2002). Ratings, Rating Agencies and the GlobalFinancial System, p. 20

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Goetzmann, William N.; Rouwenhorst, K. Geert (2005). The Origins of Value: The Financial Innovations thatCreated Modern Capital Markets, p. 301

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Quinn, Stephen; Roberds, William (2006), "An Economic Explanation of the Early Bank of Amsterdam,Debasement, Bills of Exchange, and the Emergence of the First Central Bank" (http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=934871), Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta, Working Paper 2006–13

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Atack, Jeremy; Neal, Larry (2009). The Origins and Development of Financial Markets and Institutions: Fromthe Seventeenth Century to the Present, p. 46-47

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Franks, Sandy; Nunnally, Sara (2011). Barbarians of Wealth: Protecting Yourself from Today's FinancialAttilas, p. 57-58

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Liu, Henry C.K. (8 November 2002). "Global Economy, Banking Bunkum, Part 2: The European Experience".Asia Times. Retrieved 20 December 2014.

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Quinn, Stephen; Roberds, William (2005). The Big Problem of Large Bills: The Bank of Amsterdam and theOrigins of Central Banking. Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta (Working Paper 2005–16)

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Quinn, Stephen; Roberds, William (2007). The Bank of Amsterdam and the Leap to Central Bank Money.American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings 97, p262-5

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Quinn, Stephen; Roberds, William (2008). Domestic Coinage and the Bank of Amsterdam. (August 2008 Draftof Chapter 7 of the Wisselbankboek)

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Quinn, Stephen; Roberds, William (2010). How Amsterdam Got Fiat Money. (Working Paper 2010-17,December 2010)

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Quinn, Stephen; Roberds, William (2012). The Bank of Amsterdam through the Lens of Monetary Competition.(Working Paper 2012-14, September 2012)

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Westbrook, Ian (2014)394. Joseph de la Vega, Confusión de Confusiones, 1688395. Nison, Steve (1991). Japanese Candlestick Charting Techniques. pp. 15–18. ISBN 0-13-931650-7.396. Nison, Steve (1994). Beyond Candlesticks: New Japanese Charting Techniques Revealed, John Wiley and Sons,p. 14. ISBN 0-471-00720-X

397.

The birth of the VOC is often considered to be the beginning of the rise of modern corporations as significantpolitical-economic forces that affect human lives in every corner of the world today.Theodore Roosevelt once said “I believe in corporations. They are indispensable instruments of our moderncivilization…” .In “The Age of Uncertainty” (1977), John Kenneth Galbraith, writes, “The institution that most changes our liveswe least understand or, more correctly, seek most elaborately to misunderstand. That is the modern corporation.Week by week, month by month, year by year, it exercises a greater influence on our livelihood and the way welive than unions, universities, politicians, the government.”

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Murphy, Richard McGill (1 Jul 2014). "Is Asia the next financial center of the world?". CNBC.com. Retrieved11 Jan 2015. "In 1602 the Dutch East India Company opened the world's first stock exchange in Amsterdam...It's worth remembering the original Amsterdam Bourse because it established the template for the modernfinancial center, a physical place where finance professionals help companies access the capital they need togrow. Location obviously matters somewhat less in an era of exchange consolidation, globalized capital and24/7 electronic trading. Even so, the complex infrastructure of modern finance is still clustered in a few majorcities around the world."

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Kennedy, Paul (1989). The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers400. Bindemann, Kirsten (1999). The Future of European Financial Centres401. Cassis, Youssef (2010), p. 9402. Mead, Walter Russell (18 Apr 2009). "Walter Russell Mead On Why Lula Was Right (The Debt We Owe theDutch: Blue-Eyed Bankers Have Given Us More Than the Current Financial Crisis)". Newsweek Magazine.Retrieved 11 June 2014.

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Mead, Walter Russell (18 Apr 2009). "Walter Russell Mead On Why Lula Was Right (The Debt We Owe theDutch: Blue-Eyed Bankers Have Given Us More Than the Current Financial Crisis)". Newsweek Magazine.Retrieved 11 June 2014. "The modern financial system grows out of a series of innovations in 17th-centuryNetherlands, and the Dutch were, on the whole, as Lula describes them. From the Netherlands, what the Englishcalled "Dutch finance" traveled over the English Channel, as the English borrowed Dutch ideas to build a stockmarket, promote global trade and establish the Bank of England, going on to build a maritime empire ofcommerce and sea power that dominated the world until World War II. Dutch finance became "Anglo-Saxoncapitalism," but otherwise went on as before. When the British system fell apart, the center of world financecrossed the water again, and New York and Washington replaced London and Amsterdam as centers of globalpolitics and finance. This financial and political system is the operating system on which the world runs; theDutch introduced version 1.0 in about 1620; the British introduced 2.0 in about 1700; the Americans upgradedto version 3.0 in 1945, and as an operating system, it works pretty well—most of the time. The 300 years ofliberal, global capitalism have seen an extraordinary explosion in knowledge and human affluence."

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William Buckels (http://www.aboutus.org/William_Buckels)410. Willem Beuckelszoon411. Herring (http://us.holland.com/e/7775/Herring.php)412. Origins of Gin, Bluecoat American Dry Gin, retrieved 5 April 2009413. Gin, tasteoftx.com, retrieved 5 April 2009414. Genever, FlemishLion.com, retrieved 3 June 2013415. www.Belgiangenever.com] (http://www.Belgiangenever.com)416. Satre, Lowell Joseph (2005). Chocolate on Trial: Slavery, Politics, and the Ethics of Business, p. 14417. Grivetti, Louis E.; Shapiro, Howard-Yana (2011). Chocolate: History, Culture, and Heritage418. Wilson, Philip K.; Hurst, William Jeffrey (2012). Chocolate as Medicine: A Quest Over the Centuries, p. 81419. "Chocolate History". Middleborough Public Schools. 2008. Retrieved June 26, 2008.420. Ensminger, Marion Eugene; Ensminger, Audrey H. (1994). Foods & Nutrition Encyclopedia, 2 Volumes, p. 435421. Varnam, Alan; Sutherland, Jane M. (1999). Beverages: Technology, Chemistry and Microbiology (FoodProducts Series), p. 257

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Gomelsky, Victoria (24 April 2013). "Swiss Watch Houses Embrace Technology". NYTimes.com. Retrieved10 June 2014.

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Davies, Angus (2014-02-21). "TAG Heuer Carrera Mikropendulum". Escapementmagazine.com. Retrieved10 June 2014.

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T.D. McGee (1988) Principles and Methods of Temperature Measurement page 3, ISBN 0-471-62767-4487. J.E. Drinkwater (1832)Life of Galileo Galilei page 41488. The Galileo Project: Santorio Santorio (http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/santorio.html)489. Lydolph, Paul E. (1985). Weather and Climate, p. 13490. Allaby, Michael (2002). Encyclopedia of Weather and Climate, p. 204491. Don Rittner (2003). A to Z of Scientists in Weather and Climate, p. 53-54492. Richard Myers (2003). The Basics of Chemistry, p. 104493. Allaby, Michael (2004). A Chronology of Weather, p. 92494. Haven, Kendall (2005). 100 Greatest Science Inventions of All Time, p. 66495. Brown, Larisa (28 Aug 2012). "Rare mercury thermometer made by Daniel Fahrenheit in early 1700s set tofetch £100,000 at auction". Dailymail. Retrieved 16 April 2014.

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Dicker, Ron (10 Oct 2012). "Fahrenheit Thermometer Auctioned For $107,802". The Huffington Post.Retrieved 16 April 2014.

497.

Snellen, H. A. (1995). Willem Einthoven (1860–1927), Father of Electrocardiography: Life and Work,Ancestors and Contemporaries

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Bud, Robert; Warner, Deborah Jean (1998). Instruments of Science: An Historical Encyclopedia, p. 204-206499. Stein, Emanuel (1999). Rapid Analysis of Electrocardiograms: A Self-Study Program, p. 5500. Oberg, P. Ake; Togawa, Tatsuo; Spelman, Francis A. (2004). Sensors Applications: Sensors in Medicine andHealth Care, volume 3 p. 3-5

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Jevon, Philip (2009). ECGs for Nurses, p. 11502. Gacek, Adam; Pedrycz, Witold (2011). ECG Signal Processing, Classification and Interpretation: AComprehensive, p. 21

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Smith, Denise L.; Fernhall, Bo (2011). Advanced Cardiovascular Exercise Physiology, p. 59504. de Luna, Antoni Bayés (2012). Clinical Electrocardiography: A Textbook, p. 13505. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins (1 August 2009). ECG Facts Made Incredibly Quick!. Lippincott Williams &Wilkins. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-60547-476-2.

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Understanding Electrocardiography. Elsevier Health Sciences. 2003. p. 4. ISBN 0-323-01905-6.507. Katz, Jay; Capron, Alexander Morgan (1975). Catastrophic Diseases: Who Decides What?, p.35-36508. Simmons, John G. (2002). Doctors and Discoveries: Lives that Created Today's Medicine, p. 275-279509. Lindsay, Robert M. (2004). Daily and Nocturnal Hemodialysis, p. 2510. Somasundaran, P. (2006). Encyclopedia of Surface and Colloid Science, p. 3565511. Hakim, Nadey S. (2009). Artificial Organs, p. 44512.

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Stam, Lawrence E. (2010). 100 Questions & Answers About Kidney Dialysis513. Tal, Joseph (2011). Strategy and Statistics in Clinical Trials: A Non-Statisticians Guide to Thinking, Designingand Executing, p. 204-205

514.

Johnson, Arthur T. (2011). Biology for Engineers, p. 569-570515. Wei, James (2012). Great Inventions that Changed the World516. Kallenbach, Judith Z. (2012). Review of Hemodialysis for Nurses and Dialysis Personnel517. Ratner, Buddy D.; Hoffman, Allan S.; Schoen, Frederick J.; Lemons, Jack E. (2012). Biomaterials Science: AnIntroduction to Materials in Medicine

518.

Lerma, Edgar V.; Rosner, Mitchell (2013). Clinical Decisions in Nephrology, Hypertension and KidneyTransplantation, p. 333

519.

Orlando, Giuseppe (2013). Regenerative Medicine Applications in Organ Transplantation, p. 3520. Mead, Walter Russell (2007). God and Gold: Britain, America and the Making of the Modern World521. Holmes, James (21 Jul 2009). "Dutch history augurs PRC’s future". The Taipei Times. Retrieved14 September 2014.

522.

Kraska, James (2011). Maritime Power and the Law of the Sea: Expeditionary Operations in World Politics, p.46-50

523.

Eizenstat, Stuart E. (2012). The Future of the Jews: How Global Forces are Impacting the Jewish People,Israel, and Its Relationship with the United States, p. 12. As Eizenstat observes, “since the Dutch inventedmodern capitalism in the seventeenth century, global powers have thrived by combining economic and militaryforces.”

524.

Glete, Jan (2000). Warfare at Sea, 1500-1650: Maritime Conflicts and the Transformation of Europe.(Routledge)

525.

Glete, Jan (2001). The Dutch Navy, Dutch State Formation and the Rise of Dutch Maritime Supremacy. (Paperfor the Anglo-American Conference for Historians:The Sea, 4–6 July 2001, University of London, Institute ofHistorical Research)

526.

Mead, Walter Russell (2007). God and Gold: Britain, America and the Making of the Modern World. “ThatDutch system was like version 1.0 of the operating software on which much of the world still runs. At the turnof eighteenth century the British introduced version 2.0; there were several incremental upgrades along the wayuntil the Americans introduced version 3.0 after the Second World War.”

527.

Mead, Walter Russell. "A Conversation with Walter Russell Mead". Random House Inc. Retrieved14 September 2014. "This global system, which I call the ‘maritime system’ because it is based on global tradeand sea power, was actually invented by the Dutch almost 400 years ago. Think of this system as the softwarethat runs the global economy. The Dutch introduced version 1.0 in about 1600. The British introduced version2.0 in 1700 and the United States introduced version 3.0 during World War II. Ever since 1600 the country thatsets up the operating system has been the world’s most important power, and that is how I get to the ten letters.The official name for the Netherlands is actually the United Provinces of the Netherlands and Britain is formallyknown as the United Kingdom. Using these initials gets you a summary of world leadership for 400 years: U.P.to U.K. to U.S."

528.

Tuchman, Barbara W. (1988). The First Salute: A View of the American Revolution529. Wrathall, Claire (10 August 2012). "St Petersburg’s cultural revolution". The Financial Times. Retrieved10 June 2015. "Yet the city’s real inspiration lay in Amsterdam, where Peter the Great had studied shipbuilding.And it is Dutch rather than Venetian influences that define much of the city’s architecture: the spires of theAdmiralty and the cathedral of the Saints Peter and Paul, and the Kunstkammer, for instance. They are evidentin the prevalence of Delft tiles too: on the stoves at the Catherine Palace, on the walls and ceilings of the gabledMenshikov Palace... Even certain place names have a Dutch flavour: the palaces of Peterhof and Oranienbaumand, in the centre of town, a little triangular islet bordered by the Moika river and the Kryukov andAdmiralteysky canals, known as Novaya Gollandiya, literally “New Holland”."

530.

Brook, Daniel (January 2013). "Heirs Apparent". Harper's Magazine. Retrieved 10 June 2015. "When Peter theGreat ordered his future capital into existence in 1703, he modeled it on Amsterdam, the city that had mostimpressed him on his secret journey to the West a few years earlier... Peter even gave his city a Dutch name —Sankt Pieter Burkh — to signal its repudiation of Eastern backwardness."

531.

Kishkovsky, Sophia (4 September 2007). "St. Petersburg island gets new attention". The New York Times.Retrieved 10 June 2015. "New Holland, Novaya Gollandiya in Russian, was named to reflect Peter's love ofHolland, where he studied shipbuilding."

532.

Karsten, Peter (2013). The Military-State-Society Symbiosis, p. 37-60533. Haycock, R. G (The Royal Military College of Canada). "Prince Maurice (1567-1625) and the DutchContribution to the Art of War" (PDF). Canadian Journal of Netherlandic Studies. Retrieved 20 May 2014.

534.

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Weller, Thomas (3 Dec 2010). "The "Spanish Century"". Europäische Geschichte Online – EGO. Retrieved20 May 2014. "The influence of the Dutch military reform on European warfare in the 17th and 18th centuries isundisputed, but without the confrontation with overmighty Spain it would probably never have come about inthis way. In part, the Dutch developed Spanish models further in the process..."

535.

Steinmetz, George (1999). State/Culture: State-Formation after the Cultural Turn, p. 164-165536. Gorski, Philip S. (2003). The Disciplinary Revolution: Calvinism and the Rise of the State in Early ModernEurope, p. 72-77

537.

Weigley, Russell F. (2004). The Age of Battles: The Quest for Decisive Warfare from Breitenfeld to Waterloo,p. 9-17

538.

Dolman, Everett C. (2005). The Warrior State: How Military Organization Structures Politics, p. 94-97539. Weir, William (2006). 50 Military Leaders Who Changed the World, p.127-130540. Lawrence, David R. (2009). The Complete Soldier: Military Books and Military Culture in Early StuartEngland, 1603-1645 (History of Warfare), p. 137-156

541.

Van Nimwegen, Olaf (2010). The Dutch Army and the Military Revolutions, 1588-1688542. Andrade, Tonio (2011). Lost Colony: The Untold Story of China's First Great Victory Over the West, p. 125543. Messenger, Charles (2013). Reader's Guide to Military History, p. 347-348544. Karsten, Luchien (2013). Globalization and Time545. Andrade, Tonio (8 February 2012). "The West's First War with China". The Diplomat. Retrieved 18 May 2014."The Dutch were known throughout Europe as the inventors of modern military drill, and, indeed, Dutchinnovations revolutionized warfare in Europe. Dutch drilling regimes — in which musketmen were trained tomarch in lockstep, carry out intricate maneuvers, and act as one coordinated unit — spread throughout the West,prompting military historians to argue that Europeans possessed a special “Western Way of War,” making themthe most effective fighting troops in the world."

546.

Andrade, Tonio (1 March 2012). "Lessons from Europe’s First War with China ". Berfrois.com. Retrieved18 May 2014. "The Dutch were famous in Europe for their military organization and leadership. The Dutchinvented modern military drill, training their men to march in lockstep, to conduct intricate maneuvers inconcert. This ability to make many men act as one unit was considered until recently a special hallmark of the“Western Way of War,” making westerners more effective on battlefields, acting as a force multiplier. Indeed,Dutch drill instructors were sought after throughout Europe, and Dutch military manuals were translated intoEnglish, Spanish, German, French, Italian, and many other European languages."

547.

Karsten, Luchien (2012). Globalization and Time548. Apel, Willi (1969). Harvard Dictionary of Music, p. 523549. Karp, Theodore (1973). Dictionary of Music, p. 238550. Rona, Jeffrey Carl (1990). Synchronization from Reel to Reel: A Complete Guide for the Synchronization ofAudio, Film and Video, p. 22

551.

Lampl, Hans (1996). Turning Notes Into Music: An Introduction to Musical Interpretation, p. 39552. Sembos, Evangelos C. (2006). Theory of Music, p. 29553. Sembos, Evangelos C. (2006). Principles of Music Theory, p. 17554. Rapoport, Katharine (2012). Violin For Dummies, 2nd Edition555. Ullmann-Margalit, Edna; Margalit, Avishai (1991). Isaiah Berlin: A Celebration, p. 16556. Feuer, Lewis S. (1987). Spinoza and the Rise of Liberalism557. Dunthorne, H. (2004). The Dutch Republic: ‘that Mother Nation of Liberty’, in The Enlightenment World, M.Fitzpatrick, P. Jones, C. Knellwolf and I. McCalman eds. London: Routledge, pp. 87-103

558.

McCloskey, Deirdre (17 Mar 2011). "Chapter 10 of the Bourgeois Revaluation: And the Dutch BourgeoisieWas Virtuous". Deirdremccloskey.com. Retrieved 18 April 2014. "Zagorin’s fourteen-man list of honor is in aidof showing that ideas mattered as much as did prudent reaction to disorder. The fourteen names are theseventeenth- and eighteenth-century men to whom he accords chapter sections in his book, How the Idea ofReligious Toleration Came to the West (2003). Six of the 14 were Dutch, and the Frenchman Bayle spent mostof his adult life as a professor in Rotterdam... The Netherlands was the European frontier of liberalism. Locke,finally publishing in the late 1680s, was in many respects a culmination of Dutch thinking, and more, ofpracticing. He spent five years in worried exile in Holland, before returning to England with the Dutchstadhouder William, now also the English King, having absorbed in Amsterdam, Utrecht, and Rotterdam theresults of the country’s liberal thought and practice from Erasmus through Episcopius to Bayle. He stayed twoyears in Rotterdam with the English Quaker merchant, Benjamin Furly and was friendly with the Arminiantheologian Philip van Limborch, both of whom typified the liberal side of opinion gathered in a tolerant Hollandof the 1680s. Locke’s very first published writings saw light in the Netherlands in the 1680s."

559.

Shorto, Russell. "Amsterdam: A History of the World's Most Liberal City (book overview)". Russellshorto.com.Retrieved 12 June 2014.

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"Amsterdam: A History of the World’s Most Liberal City (book overview)". Publishers Weekly. 12 Aug 2013.Retrieved 12 June 2014.

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Brantley, Fritz (30 Aug 2013). "Going Dutch: PW Talks with Russell Shorto (Publishers Weekly interview)".Publishers Weekly. Retrieved 12 June 2014.

563.

Iyer, Pico (26 Dec 2013). "Russell Shorto’s ‘Amsterdam’: The City at the Center of the World". NYTimes.com.Retrieved 12 June 2014.

564.

Frijhoff, Willem; Spies, Marijke (2004). Dutch Culture in a European Perspective 1: 1650: Hard-Won Unity, p.294

565.

Israel, Jonathan Irvine; Schwartz, Stuart B. (2007). The Expansion of Tolerance: Religion in Dutch Brazil(1624-1654), p. 13

566.

Congregation Shearith Israel. "America's First Jewish Congregation (Congregational History)". CongregationShearith Israel. Retrieved 20 May 2014.

567.

King, Henry C. (1955). The History of the Telescope, pages 30-32568. Blue, Jennifer (25 July 2007). "Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature". USGS. Retrieved 5 August 2007.569. Philip S. Harrington, "Star Ware", page 181 (http://books.google.com/books?id=2lIwU313wgkC&pg=PA181&dq=Huygens+eyepiece)

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Thompson, Allyn J. (2003). Making Your Own Telescope, p. 133571. Dijksterhuis, Fokko Jan (2004). Lenses and Waves: Christiaan Huygens and the Mathematical Science ofOptics in the Seventeenth Century, p. 64

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Muktavat, Kshamata; Upadhayaya, Arun. K. (2010). Applied Physics, p. 303-304573. Paolini, William (2013). Choosing and Using Astronomical Eyepieces, p. 5574. astro-tom.com -Huygens (http://www.astro-tom.com/telescopes/eyepieces.htm)575. Blume, Frank (2005). Applied Calculus for Scientists and Engineers: A Journey in Dialogues, p. 634576. Gindikin, Simon (2007). Tales of Mathematicians and Physicists, Christiaan Huygens and Pendulum Clocks, p.79-91

577.

Shell-Gellasch, Amy (2007). Hands on History: A Resource for Teaching Mathematics, p. 145-152578. Bechmann, Gotthard (2009). The Social Integration of Science: Institutional and Epistemological Aspects of theTransformation of Knowledge in Modern Society, p. 266-268

579.

Beatty, Millard F. (2010). Principles of Engineering Mechanics: Volume 2 Dynamics -- The Analysis of Motion,p. 277-278

580.

Stillwell, John (2010). Mathematics and Its History, p. 258-259581. Emmerson, Alan. "Christiaan Huygens, the Pendulum and the Cycloid" (PDF). Retrieved 28 April 2014.582. Hebert, Luke (January 1, 1839). ": Engineer's And Mechanic's Encyclopaedia". Retrieved 1 January 2011.583. Heilbron, J. L. (1979). Electricity in the 17th and 18th Centuries: A Study of Early Modern Physics, p. 309-316584. Baigrie, Brian Scott (2007). Electricity and Magnetism: A Historical Perspective, p. 29585. Janardhan, Vikram; Fesmire, Bob (2011). Energy Explained: Conventional Energy and Alternative, Volume 1,p. 140

586.

Gregersen, Erik (2011). The Britannica Guide to Electricity and Magnetism, p. 6587. Bard, Allen J.; Inzelt, György; Scholz, Fritz (2012). Electrochemical Dictionary, 2nd edition, p. 556588. Deshpande, R. P. (2012). Capacitors: Technology and Trends, p.1589. Saggio, Giovanni (2014). Principles of Analog Electronics, p. 122590. "Some key dates in ISU history". International Skating Union (ISU). Retrieved 20 April 2015.591. Winner, David (2000). Brilliant Orange: The Neurotic Genius of Dutch Football592. Kraba, Milile (2010). The Story Has Been Told, p. 99593. Richards, Ted (2010). Soccer and Philosophy: Beautiful Thoughts on the Beautiful Game (Popular Culture andPhilosophy)

594.

Winner, David (6 March 2005). "Football: Hail Michels, total genius". The Observer. Retrieved 24 May 2014.595. Phillips, Brian (8 July 2010). "Orange Devolution: Why all soccer fans should root for Holland to lose toSpain.". Slate.com. Retrieved 12 June 2014.

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Winner, David (29 April 2012). "Barcelona and the gospel of Guardiola". The Guardian. Retrieved 24 May2014.

597.

Wilson, Jonathan (22 May 2013). "The great European Cup teams: Ajax 1971-73". The Guardian. Retrieved12 June 2014.

598.

With regards to role models, Brazilian football manager and former player Telê Santana has mentioned in oneinterview (1992) that he had no idols, though: “My greatest satisfaction would be to manage a team such as1974 Holland. It was a team where you could pick [Johan] Cruyff and place him on the right wing. If I had toput him in the left-wing, he would still play [the same]. I could choose Neeskens, who played both to the rightand to the left of the midfield. Thus, everyone played in any position.”

599.

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Jensen, Ric (2014). Looking at the extraordinary success of the ‘Clockwork Orange’: examining the brillianceof total football played by the Netherlands. [Special Issue: Heroes, Icons, Legends: Legacies of Great Men inWorld Soccer] (Soccer & Society, Volume 15, Issue 5, 2014)

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"Tactics: Were Holland 1974 the last true innovators?". Football Further. 14 July 2010. Retrieved 18 October2010.

601.

Forns, Vanessa (8 April 2010). "Recognition of the man who created a style". fcbarcelona.cat. Retrieved12 June 2014. "FC Barcelona president Joan Laporta: "As a player he turned football into an art form. Johancame along and revolutionised everything. The modern-day Barca started with him, he is the expression of ouridentity, he brought us a style of football we love.""

602.

Lowe, Sid (11 February 2011). "I'm a romantic, says Xavi, heartbeat of Barcelona and Spain". The Guardian.Retrieved 12 June 2014. "Xavi Hernández: "Our model was imposed by [Johan] Cruyff; it's an Ajax model. It'sall about rondos [piggy in the middle]. Rondo, rondo, rondo.""

603.

Coerts, Stefan (1 May 2013). "Cruyff the man behind Barcelona's success, says Guardiola". Goal.com.Retrieved 12 June 2014. "Josep Guardiola told El Tiempo: "Cruyff is the one who started it all. He has been theclub's most influential figure... I cannot imagine the current Barcelona without Cruyff's work 20 years ago.Everybody who came after him added a personal touch, but I will be eternally grateful to him.""

604.

Lawton, James (9 July 2010). "Dutch heroes on the sidelines will be an inspiration, not intimidation".Independent.co.uk. Retrieved 30 May 2014.

605.

Marcus, Jeffrey (10 July 2010). "A Dutch Great Helped Transform Spain’s Game". New York Times.Retrieved 30 May 2014.

606.

Martinez, Roberto (11 Jul 2010). "World Cup final: Johan Cruyff sowed seeds for revolution in Spain'sfortunes". Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 30 May 2014.

607.

Murphy, Chris (29 June 2012). "Football culture: Who are you? Warrior or tika taka technician?". Vision.Retrieved 30 May 2014.

608.

In the Netherlands, one of the earliest large-scale land reclamation projects was the Beemster Polder, realized in1612 adding 70 km2 of land. The Flevopolder, reclaimed from the IJsselmeer, is the largest reclaimed artificialisland in the world. Dutch hydraulic engineering (flood control, drainage, land reclamation, and canal building)helped form many urban areas of the world such as Friedrichstadt, Gdańsk/Danzig, Gothenburg, Jakarta, andSaint Petersburg. Skilled in the art of land reclamation, the Dutch were in demand all over Europe. With theirexperiences in land reclamation and farming, Dutch Mennonites were invited to farm the wetlands in the VistulaDelta of Prussia. Dutch hydraulic engineer Cornelius Vermuyden introduced Dutch land-reclamation methods inEngland and drained the Fens, the low marshy lands in the east of England. The Palm Islands (Dubai, UnitedArab Emirates) are artificial islands constructed from sand dredged from the bottom of the Persian Gulf by theDutch company, Van Oord and the Belgian company, Jan De Nul.

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Carlisle, Rodney (2004). Scientific American Inventions and Discoveries: All the Milestones in Ingenuity Fromthe Discovery of Fire to the Invention of the Microwave Oven, p. 93-94

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Beniger, James R. (1986). The Control Revolution: Technological and Economic Origins of the InformationSociety, p. 175

611.

Kelly, Kevin (1994). Out of Control: The New Biology of Machines, Social Systems, & the Economic World, p.113-114

612.

Polderman, Jan Willem; Willems, Jan C. (1998). Introduction to Mathematical Systems Theory: A BehavioralApproach, p. viii

613.

Lucertini, Mario; Gasca, Ana Millàn; Nicolò, Fernando (2004). Technological Concepts and MathematicalModels in the Evolution of Modern Engineering Systems, p. 134

614.

Moran, Jeffrey B. (2011). How Do We Know the Laws of Thermodynamics, p. 28-29615. Stebbing, Tony (2011). A Cybernetic View of Biological Growth: The Maia Hypothesis, p. 46616. Pfragner, Julius. “Index.” The Motion Picture: From Magic Lantern to Sound. Great Britain: Bailey Brothers andSwinfen Ltd. 226. Print.

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Musser, Charles (1990). The Emergence of Cinema: The American Screen to 1907, Volume 1, p. 20618. Hankins, Thomas L.; Silverman, Robert J. (1995). Instruments and the Imagination, p.43-46619. Stafford, Barbara Maria; Terpak, Frances (2001). Devices of Wonder: From the World in a Box to Images on aScreen, p.297-298

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During, Simon (2002). Modern Enchantments: The Cultural Power of Secular Magic, p. 262621. Kittler, Friedrich (2002). Optical Media, p. 71-72622. Swiderski, Richard M. (2012). X-Ray Vision: A Way of Looking, p. 21-22623. Waddington, Damer. “Introduction.” Panoramas, Magic Lanterns and Cinemas. Channel Islands, NJ: TocanBooks. xiii-xv. Print.

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Mokyr, Joel (1990). The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress, p. 131627. Inkster, Ian (2004). History of Technology, Volume 25, p. 145628. Rockman, Howard B. (2004). Intellectual Property Law for Engineers and Scientists, p. 171629. Singh, Onkar (2006). Applied Thermodynamics, p. 846630. O'Brien, Martin (2008). A Crisis of Waste?: Understanding the Rubbish Society, p. 65631. Linde, Arvid (2011). Preston Tucker & Others - Tales of Brilliant Automotive Innovators & Innovations, p.135-136

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Ewing, J. Alfred (1926). The Steam-Engine and Other Heat-Engines, p. 6-7633. Arcoumanis, Constantine (1988). Internal Combustion Engines (Combustion Treatise Series), p. 2-3634. Lay, M. G. (1992). Ways of the World: A History of the World's Roads and of the Vehicles that Used Them, p.149

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Kelly, Jack (2004). Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, and Pyrotechnics: The History of the Explosive thatChanged the World, p. 117

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Okamura, Sōgo (1994). History of Electron Tubes, p. 108645. Huurdeman, Anton A. (2003). The Worldwide History of Telecommunications, p. 227646. Iniewski, Krzysztof (2008). Wireless Technologies: Circuits, Systems, and Devices, p. 377647. Nebeker, Frederik (2009). Dawn of the Electronic Age: Electrical Technologies in the Shaping of the ModernWorld, 1914 to 1945, p. 152

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Dorf, Richard C. (1997). The Electrical Engineering Handbook (2nd Edition), p. 892649. Lee, Thomas H. (2004). The Design of CMOS Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits (2nd Edition), p. 721650. Buschow, K. H. J. (2011). Handbook of Magnetic Materials, p. 221651. Callegaro, Luca (2013). Electrical Impedance: Principles, Measurement, and Applications, p .16652. [1] (http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199900/ldhansrd/pdvn/lds05/text/50608-10.htm)653. De Vries and Van der Woude, p. 244654. Gereffi, Gary; Korzeniewicz, Miguel (1994). Commodity Chains and Global Capitalism (Contributions inEconomics and Economic History), p. 25-26

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Hoving, Ab; Emke, Cor (2000). The Ships of Abel Tasman, p. 34656. Tellier, Luc-Normand (2009). Urban World History: An Economic and Geographical Perspective, p. 318657. Headrick, Daniel R. (2012). Power over Peoples: Technology, Environments, and Western Imperialism, 1400to the Present (The Princeton Economic History of the Western World), p. 41-42

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Marquardt, p. 21666. Marquardt, p. 8667. Boesky, Amy (1996). Founding Fictions: Utopias in Early Modern England, p. 56-57668. Gray, Edwyn (1996). Few Survived: A History of Submarine Disasters, p. 18669. Poluhowich, John (1999). Argonaut: The Submarine Legacy of Simon Lake, p. 25670. Fontenoy, Paul E. (2007). Submarines: An Illustrated History of Their Impact (Weapons and Warfare), p. 1671. Cartmell, Donald (2004). The Civil War Up Close: Thousands of Curious, Obscure, and Fascinating Facts, p.117

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Stefoff, Rebecca (2006). Submarines, p. 22-23673. Kinder, Gary (2009). Ship of Gold in the Deep Blue Sea, p. 94674. Curley, Robert (2009). The Britannica Guide to Inventions That Changed the Modern World, p. 284675.

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Sohn Ji-ae (19 Nov 2013). "Blue-eyed Korean Bak Yeon loves Joseon". Korea.net. Retrieved 26 May 2014.887. Lach, Donald F.; Van Kley, Edwin J. (1993). Asia in the Making of Europe, Volume III: A Century of Advance.Book 1: Trade, Missions, Literature, p. 486-487

888.

Gunn, Geoffrey C. (2003). First Globalization: The Eurasian Exchange, 1500-1800, p. 152-153889. Nahm, Andrew C.; Hoare, James (2004). Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Korea, p. 241890.

External links

Daily Dutch Innovation (http://www.dailydutchinnovation.com/about/)Cosmos: A Personal Voyage, Episode 6: Travellers' Tales (Documentary TV Series by Carl Sagan):

Part 1 (YouTube link) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GvY8dQQI13Q)Part 2 (YouTube link) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AMzDGLROEWY)Part 3 (YouTube link) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TMet9fwerF8)Full (YouTube link) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EbljFJERflA)

Civilisation, chapter 8/13: The Light of Experience (Documentary TV Series by Kenneth Clark)(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IaWhX54jstU)

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Categories: Dutch inventionsHistory of science and technology in the NetherlandsLists of inventions or discoveriesScientific revolution Maritime historyExpeditions from the NetherlandsNetherlands-related lists

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