Lexmark Intern., Inc. v. Static Control (Copyright Software)

8/14/2019 Lexmark Intern., Inc. v. Static Control (Copyright Software)

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United States Court of Appeals, SixthCircuit.

LEXMARK INTERNATIONAL, INC.,Plaintiff-Appellee,

v.

STATIC CONTROL COMPONENTS, INC.,Defendant-Appellant.No. 03-5400.

Argued: Jan. 30, 2004.Decided and Filed: Oct. 26, 2004.Rehearing Denied Dec. 29, 2004.

Rehearing En Banc Denied February 15,2005.

Before: MERRITT and SUTTON, Circuit

Judges; FEIKENS, District Judge.

FN*

FN* The Honorable John Feikens,United States District Judge for theEastern District of Michigan, sittingby designation.

SUTTON, J., delivered the opinion of thecourt. MERRITT, J. (pp. 551-53), delivereda separate concurring opinion. FEIKENS,D.J. (pp. 553-65), delivered a separate

opinion concurring in part and dissenting inpart.

OPINION

SUTTON, Circuit Judge.This copyright dispute involves twocomputer programs, two federal statutes andthree theories of liability. The first computer program, known as the Toner LoadingProgram, calculates toner level in printersmanufactured by Lexmark International.The second computer program, known asthe Printer Engine Program, controlsvarious printer functions on Lexmarkprinters.

The first statute, the general copyrightstatute, 17 U.S.C. 101et seq., has been

with us in one form or another since 1790and grants copyright protection to originalworks of authorship fixed in any tangiblemedium of expression,id. 102(a), but doesnot extend to any idea, procedure, process,

system, method of operation, concept, principle, or discovery,id. 102(b). Thesecond federal statute, the Digital MilleniumCopyright Act (DMCA), 17 U.S.C. 1201et seq., was enacted in 1998 andproscribes the sale of products that may beused to circumvent a technological measurethat effectively controls access to a workprotected by the copyright statute.

These statutes became relevant to these

computer programs when Lexmark beganselling discount toner cartridges for itsprinters that only Lexmark could re-fill andthat contained a microchip designed toprevent Lexmark printers from functioningwith toner cartridges that Lexmark had notre-filled. In an effort to support the marketfor competing toner cartridges, StaticControl Components (SCC) mimickedLexmark's computer chip and sold it tocompanies interested in selling

remanufactured toner cartridges.

Lexmark brought this action to enjoin thesale of SCC's computer chips and raisedthree theories of liability in doing so.Lexmark claimed that SCC's chip copied theToner Loading Program in violation of thefederal copyright statute. It claimed thatSCC's chip violated the DMCA bycircumventing a technological measuredesigned to control access to the TonerLoading Program. And it claimed that SCC'schip violated the DMCA by circumventing atechnological measure designed to controlaccess to the Printer Engine Program.

After an evidentiary hearing, the districtcourt decided that Lexmark had shown alikelihood of success on each claim and
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entered a preliminary injunction againstSCC. As we view Lexmark's prospects forsuccess on each of these claims differently,we vacate the preliminary injunction andremand the case for further proceedings.

I.

A.

The Parties. Headquartered in Lexington,Kentucky, Lexmark is a leadingmanufacturer of laser and inkjet printers andhas sold printers and toner cartridges for itsprinters since 1991. Lexmark is a publiclytraded corporation and reported $4.8 billion

in revenue for 2003.

Static Control Components is a privatelyheld company headquartered in Sanford,North Carolina. Started in 1987, it currentlyemploys approximately 1,000 workers andmakes a wide range of technology products,including microchips that it sells to third-party companies for use in remanufacturedtoner cartridges.

The Two Computer Programs. The first program at issue is Lexmark's TonerLoading Program, which measures theamount of toner remaining in the cartridgebased on the amount of torque (rotationalforce) sensed on the toner cartridge wheel.Maggs Aff. 24, JA 709. The Toner LoadingProgram relies upon eight programcommands-add, sub (an abbreviation forsubtract), mul (multiply), pct (take apercent), jump, if, load, and exit-toexecute one of several mathematicalequations that convert the torque readinginto an approximation of toner level.Goldberg Aff. 21, JA 578; Maggs Aff. 24, JA 709. If the torque is less than acertain threshold value, the programexecutes one equation to calculate the tonerlevel, and if the torque equals or exceeds

that threshold, the program executes adifferent equation to calculate the tonerlevel. Goldberg Aff. 19, JA 576-77. Theexact code of the Toner Loading Programvaries slightly for each printer model, and

this case involves two versions of theprogram-one for Lexmark's T520 and T522printer models and another for Lexmark'sT620 and T622 printer models. The TonerLoading Program for the T520/522 printerscomprises 33 program instructions andoccupies 37 bytes of memory, while theToner Loading Program for the T620/622 printers comprises 45 program commandsand uses 55 bytes of memory. To illustratethe modest size of this computer program,

the phrase Lexmark International, Inc. vs.Static Control Components, Inc. in ASCIIformat would occupy more memory thaneither version of the Toner LoadingProgram. Burchette Aff. 13, JA 106. TheToner Loading Program is located on amicrochip contained in Lexmark's tonercartridges.

The second program is Lexmark's PrinterEngine Program. The Printer EngineProgram occupies far more memory than theToner Loading Program and translates intoover 20 printed pages of programcommands. The program controls a varietyof functions on each printer-e.g., paper feedand movement, and printer motor control. D.Ct. Op. 24, at 5. Unlike the Toner LoadingProgram, the Printer Engine Program islocated within Lexmark's printers.

Lexmark obtained Certificates ofRegistration from the Copyright Office for both programs. Neither program isencrypted and each can be read (and copied)directly from its respective memory chip.Id. 44, at 8.

Lexmark's Prebate and Non-Prebate

Cartridges. Lexmark markets two types of

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toner cartridges for its laser printers:Prebate and Non-Prebate. Prebatecartridges are sold to business consumers atan up-front discount. In exchange,consumers agree to use the cartridge just

once, then return the empty unit to Lexmark;a shrink-wrap agreement on the top ofeach cartridge box spells out theserestrictions and confirms that using thecartridge constitutes acceptance of theseterms. Id. 13-14, at 3. Non-Prebatecartridges are sold without any discount, arenot subject to any restrictive agreements andmay be re-filled with toner and reused by theconsumer or a third-party remanufacturer.Id. 15-18, at 3-4.

To ensure that consumers adhere to thePrebate agreement, Lexmark uses anauthentication sequence that performs asecret handshake between each Lexmarkprinter and a microchip on each Lexmarktoner cartridge. Both the printer and the chipemploy a publicly available encryptionalgorithm known as Secure HashAlgorigthm-1 or SHA-1, whichcalculates a Message Authentication Codebased on data in the microchip's memory. Ifthe code calculated by the microchipmatches the code calculated by the printer,the printer functions normally. If the twovalues do not match, the printer returns anerror message and will not operate, blockingconsumers from using toner cartridges thatLexmark has not authorized. Yaro Decl. 7,JA 82 (To prevent unauthorized tonercartridges from being used with Lexmark'sT520/522 and T620/622 laser printers,Lexmark utilizes an authenticationsequence.).

SCC's Competing Microchip. SCC sellsits own microchip-the SMARTEK chip-that permits consumers to satisfy Lexmark'sauthentication sequence each time it wouldotherwise be performed, i.e., when the

printer is turned on or the printer door isopened and shut. SCC's advertising boaststhat its chip breaks Lexmark's secret code(the authentication sequence), which evenon the fastest computer available today ...

would take Years to run through all of thepossible 8-byte combinations to break. D.Ct. Op. 103, at 19. SCC sells these chips tothird-party cartridge remanufacturers,permitting them to replace Lexmark's chipwith the SMARTEK chip on refurbishedPrebate cartridges. These recycled cartridgesare in turn sold to consumers as a low-costalternative to new Lexmark toner cartridges.

Each of SCC's SMARTEK chips also

contains a copy of Lexmark's Toner LoadingProgram, which SCC claims is necessary tomake its product compatible with Lexmark'sprinters. The SMARTEK chips thus containan identical copy of the Toner LoadingProgram that is appropriate for eachLexmark printer, and SCC acknowledgesthat it slavishly copied the Toner LoadingProgram in the exact format and orderfound on Lexmark's cartridge chip. Id. 92, 96, at 18. A side-by-side comparison ofthe two data sequences reveals nodifferences between them. Able Decl. 10-15, JA 502-05.

The parties agree that Lexmark's printersperform a second calculation independent ofthe authentication sequence. After theauthentication sequence concludes, thePrinter Engine Program downloads a copyof the Toner Loading Program from thetoner cartridge chip onto the printer in orderto measure toner levels. Before the printerruns the Toner Loading Program, it performsa checksum operation, a commonly usedtechnique to ensure the integrity of thedata downloaded from the toner cartridgemicrochip. D. Ct. Op. 77, at 14. Under thisoperation, the printer compares the result ofa calculation performed on the data bytes of

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the transferred copy of the Toner LoadingProgram with the checksum value locatedelsewhere on the toner cartridge microchip.If the two values do not match, the printerassumes that the data was corrupted in the

program download, displays an errormessage and ceases functioning. If the twovalues do match, the printer continues tooperate.

The Lawsuit. On December 30, 2002,Lexmark filed a complaint in the UnitedStates District Court for the Eastern Districtof Kentucky seeking to enjoin SCC (on a preliminary and permanent basis) fromdistributing the SMARTEK chips. The

complaint contained three theories ofliability. First, Lexmark alleged that SCCviolated the copyright statute, 17 U.S.C. 106, by reproducing the Toner LoadingProgram on its SMARTEK chip. Second, italleged that SCC violated the DMCA byselling a product that circumvents accesscontrols on the Toner Loading Program.Third, it alleged that SCC violated theDMCA by selling a product that circumventsaccess controls on the Printer EngineProgram.

B.

The district court initially concluded thatLexmark had established a likelihood ofsuccess on its copyright infringement claimfor SCC's copying of its Toner LoadingProgram. Computer programs are literaryworks entitled to copyright protection, thecourt reasoned, and the requisite level ofcreativity necessary to establish theoriginality of the programs is extremelylow. D. Ct. Op. 9, 11, at 23. Because theToner Loading Program could be written inmultiple ways, the district court added, SCChad not rebutted the presumption of validitycreated by Lexmark's copyright registrationfor the Toner Loading Program.Id. 13-14,

at 24;see also17 U.S.C. 410(c).

In coming to this conclusion, the districtcourt rejected each of the defenses assertedby SCC. First, the district court determined

that the Toner Loading Program was not alock-out code (and unprotectable becauseits elements are dictated by functionalcompatibility requirements) since the useof any Toner Loading Program could stillresult in a valid authentication sequence anda valid checksum. Id. 22, at 26. But evenif the Toner Loading Program were a lock-out code, the district court believedcopyright infringement had still taken place because [s]ecurity systems are just like

any other computer program and are notinherently unprotectable. Id. 25, at 27(quoting Atari Games Corp. v. Nintendo of Am., Inc., Nos. 88-4805 & 89-0027, 1993WL 214886, at *7 (N.D.Cal. Apr.15, 1993)( Atari II )). Second, the court rejectedSCC's fair use defense in view of thecommercial purpose of the copying, thewholesale nature of the copying and theeffect of the copying on the toner cartridgemarket.Id. at 28-30. Third, the district courtrejected SCC's argument that Lexmark wasmisus[ing] the copyright laws to securean exclusive right or limited monopoly notexpressly granted by copyright law. Id. at38-39.

The district court next determined thatLexmark had established a likelihood ofsuccess on its two DMCA claims, onerelating to the Toner Loading Program, theother relating to the Printer Engine Program.Observing that the anti-trafficking provisionof the DMCA, 17 U.S.C. 1201(a)(2),prohibits any product or device thatcircumvents a technological measure that prevents unauthorized access to acopyrighted work, D. Ct. Op. 64, at 40,the district court concluded that Lexmarkhad established a likelihood of success that

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SCC's SMARTEK chip did this very thing.In the district court's view, Lexmark'sauthentication sequence (not the checksumcalculation) constitutes a technologicalmeasure that effectively controls access

to two copyrighted works-the Toner LoadingProgram and the Printer Engine Program.The authentication sequence, it determined,controls access because it controls theconsumer's ability to make use of theseprograms. Id. 71, at 41. Because SCCdesigned the SMARTEK chip to circumventLexmark's authentication sequence, becausecircumvention was the sole commercialpurpose of the SMARTEK chip and becauseSCC markets these chips as performing that

function, the court reasoned that SCC likelyhad violated the DMCA's prohibitions onmarketing circumvention devices. Id. at 42-43. See17 U.S.C. 1201(a)(2).

Finally, the district court determined that theDMCA's reverse engineering exception toliability did not apply. D. Ct. Op. at 47-48;see17 U.S.C. 1201(f)(2), (3). Under theexception, circumvention devices may be produced and made available to otherssolely for the purpose of enablinginteroperability of an independently createdprogram with other programs. 17 U.S.C. 1201(f)(3). The court deemed this defenseinapplicable because SCC's SMARTEKmicrochips cannot be consideredindependently created computer programs.D. Ct. Op. 94, at 47.

Because Lexmark had established alikelihood of success on the merits, thedistrict court presumed irreparable harm, id.at 48-49, and concluded that the publicinterest would favor an injunction againstSCC, id. at 50-51. After weighing other potential hardships, the district courtconcluded that the preliminary injunctionshould issue.

II.

[1] [2] We apply an abuse-of-discretionstandard in reviewing a district court's entryof a preliminary injunction. Performance

Unlimited, Inc. v. Questar Publishers, Inc.,52 F.3d 1373, 1378 (6th Cir.1995). A districtcourt abuses its discretion if it relies uponclearly erroneous findings of fact, employsan incorrect legal standard or improperlyapplies the correct law to the facts. See id.

[3][4][5] Four factors govern whether adistrict court should enter a preliminaryinjunction: (1) the plaintiff's likelihood ofsuccess on the merits; (2) the possibility of

irreparable harm to the plaintiff in theabsence of an injunction; (3) public interestconsiderations; and (4) potential harm tothird parties. Forry, Inc. v. Neundorfer,Inc., 837 F.2d 259, 262 (6th Cir.1988). In thecopyright context, much rests on the firstfactor because irreparable harm is presumedonce a likelihood of success has beenestablished, id. at 267, and because aninjunction likely will serve the publicinterest once a claimant has demonstrated alikelihood of success in this setting,Concrete Mach. Co. v. Classic Lawn

Ornaments, Inc., 843 F.2d 600, 612 (1stCir.1988). We see no reason why a similarpresumption of irreparable harm should notapply to claims under the DMCA. SeeUniversal City Studios, Inc. v. Reimerdes,

82 F.Supp.2d 211, 215 (S.D.N.Y.2000). Likethe district court before us, we accordinglyfocus on the likelihood that Lexmark willsucceed on its claims under the generalcopyright statute and the DMCA.

III.

A.

The Constitution expressly gives Congressthe power to grant protection to original

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works of authorship. See U.S. Const. art. I, 8, cl. 8. Relying on that authority,Congress has established the followingstandard forcopyright protection:

(a) Copyright protection subsists ... inoriginal works of authorship fixed in anytangible medium of expression .... Works ofauthorship include the following categories:(1) literary works; (2) musical works ...;(3) dramatic works ...; (4) pantomimes andchoreographic works; (5) pictorial, graphic,and sculptural works; (6) motion picturesand other audiovisual works; (7) soundrecordings; and (8) architectural works.

(b) In no case does copyright protection foran original work of authorship extend to anyidea, procedure, process, system, method ofoperation, concept, principle, or discovery,regardless of the form in which it isdescribed, explained, illustrated, orembodied in such work.

17 U.S.C. 102 (emphasis added). Thecopyright statute grants owners of protectedworks the exclusive right to use them incertain ways. See id. 106 (grantingcopyright owners the exclusive right toreproduce copyrighted works, to createderivative works based on original works, todistribute copies of the works, and toperform or display the works publicly).

[6] As this case comes to the court, the parties agree that computer programs may be entitled to copyright protection asliterary works under17 U.S.C. 101 andmay be protected from infringement under17 U.S.C. 106. And that is true withrespect to a computer program's object code(the binary code-a series of zeros and ones-that computers can read) and its source code(the spelled-out program commands thathumans can read). See17 U.S.C. 101(defining computer program[s] as set[s]

of statements or instructions to be useddirectly or indirectly in a computer in orderto bring about a certain result); 17 U.S.C. 117(a) (describing limitations on exclusiverights for computer programs and

providing that infringement does not occurwhen a copy of a computer program is madeeither as an essential step in the utilizationof the computer program or for archival purposes); H.R.Rep. No. 1476 (1976),reprinted in 1976 U.S.C.C.A.N. 5659, 5667[hereinafter House Report ] (The termliterary works' ... includes ... computerprograms to the extent that they incorporateauthorship in the programmer's expressionof original ideas, as distinguished from the

ideas themselves.); accord Atari GamesCorp. v. Nintendo of Am., Inc., 975 F.2d 832,838 (Fed.Cir.1992) (Atari I ); Johnson Controls, Inc. v. Phoenix Control Sys., Inc.,

886 F.2d 1173, 1175 (9th Cir.1989); AppleComputer, Inc. v. Franklin Computer Corp.,

714 F.2d 1240, 1247-49 (3d Cir.1983).

The parties also agree that Lexmark hasregistered the Toner Loading Program withthe Copyright Office, which is aninfringement suit prerequisite, see17 U.S.C. 411(a), and which constitutes prima facieevidence of the copyright's validity,see id.410(c). And the parties agree that SCCshoulders the burden of rebutting the presumptive validity of Lexmark'scopyright. See Hi-Tech Video Prods., Inc. v. Capital Cities/ABC, Inc., 58 F.3d 1093,1095 (6th Cir.1995).

[7] [8] The parties also share commonground when it comes to most of the general principles of copyright infringementapplicable to this case. A plaintiff mayestablish a claim ofcopyright infringement by showing (1) ownership of a validcopyright in the computer program at issue(here, the Toner Loading Program) and (2)that the defendant copied protectable

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elements of the work. See Feist Publ'ns,Inc. v. Rural Tel. Serv. Co., 499 U.S. 340,361, 111 S.Ct. 1282, 113 L.Ed.2d 358(1991); Kohus v. Mariol, 328 F.3d 848, 853(6th Cir.2003). The first prong tests the

originality and non-functionality of thework,see M.M. Bus. Forms Corp. v. Uarco, Inc., 472 F.2d 1137, 1139 (6th Cir.1973),both of which are presumptively established by the copyright registration. The secondprong tests whether any copying occurred (afactual matter) and whether the portions ofthe work copied were entitled to copyrightprotection (a legal matter). See Kepner-Tregoe, Inc. v. Leadership Software, Inc., 12F.3d 527, 534-35 & n. 14 (5th Cir.1994);see

generally M. Nimmer & D. Nimmer,Nimmer on Copyright 13.01[B] (2003)[hereinafter Nimmer]. If no direct evidenceof copying is available, a claimant mayestablish this element by showing that thedefendant had access to the copyrightedwork and that the copyrighted work and theallegedly copied work are substantiallysimilar. Kohus, 328 F.3d at 853-54.

[9] As to the first prong, the Supreme Courthas instructed that [o]riginal ... means onlythat the work was independently created bythe author (as opposed to copied from otherworks), and that it possesses at least someminimal degree of creativity, even if thework is not a novel one.Feist, 499 U.S. at345-46 (originality requires bothindependent creation plus a modicum ofcreativity). And although constitutionallymandated, the threshold showing oforiginality is not a demanding one. Id. at345, 111 S.Ct. 1282 (To be sure, therequisite level of creativity is extremely low;even a slight amount will suffice.).

[10] [11] But even if a work is in some senseoriginal under 102(a), it still may not becopyrightable because 102(b) providesthat [i]n no case does copyright protection

for an original work of authorship extend toany idea, procedure, process, system,method of operation, concept, principle, ordiscovery, regardless of [its] form. 17U.S.C. 102(b). This provision embodies

the common-law idea-expression dichotomythat distinguishes the spheres of copyrightand patent law. [U]nlike a patent, acopyright gives no exclusive right to the artdisclosed; protection is given only to theexpression of the idea-not the idea itself.Mazer v. Stein, 347 U.S. 201, 217, 74 S.Ct.460, 98 L.Ed. 630 (1954);see also Baker v. Selden, 101 U.S. 99, 101-02, 25 L.Ed. 841(1879) (explaining that while a bookdescribing a bookkeeping system is worthy

of copyright protection, the underlyingmethod described is not); ComputerAssocs. Int'l, Inc. v. Altai, Inc., 982 F.2d 693,703 (2d Cir.1992) (It is a fundamentalprinciple ofcopyright law that a copyrightdoes not protect an idea, but only theexpression of the idea.). While this general principle applies equally to computerprograms, id.; see also House Report at5667 (extending copyright protection tocomputer programs only to the extent thatthey incorporate authorship in programmer'sexpression of original ideas, as distinguishedfrom ideas themselves), the task ofseparating expression from idea in thissetting is a vexing one, see Altai, 982 F.2dat 704 (The essentially utilitarian nature ofa computer program further complicates thetask of distilling its idea from itsexpression.); Sega Enters., Ltd. v. Accolade, Inc., 977 F.2d 1510, 1524 (9thCir.1992); see also Lotus Dev. Corp. v.BorlandInt'l, Inc., 49 F.3d 807, 819-20 (1stCir.1995) (Boudin, J., concurring).[C]ompared to aesthetic works, computer programs hover even more closely to theelusive boundary line described in 102(b). Altai, 982 F.2d at 704.

[12] [13] In ascertaining this elusive

7
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boundary line between idea and expression, between process and non-functionalexpression, courts have looked to two otherstaples of copyright law-the doctrines ofmerger and scenes a faire. Where the

expression is essential to the statement ofthe idea, CCC Info. Servs., Inc. v. Maclean Hunter Mkt. Reports, Inc., 44 F.3d 61, 68(2d Cir.1994); see also Lotus Dev., 49 F.3dat 816 (If specific words are essential tooperating something, then they are part of amethod of operation and, as such, areunprotectable.), or where there is only oneway or very few ways of expressing theidea, Warren Publ'g, Inc. v. Microdos Data Corp., 115 F.3d 1509, 1519 n. 27 (11th

Cir.1997), the idea and expression are saidto have merged. In these instances,copyright protection does not exist becausegranting protection to the expressivecomponent of the work necessarily wouldextend protection to the work'suncopyrightable ideas as well. See GatesRubber Co. v. Bando Chem. Indus., Ltd., 9F.3d 823, 838 (10th Cir.1993); see alsoMurray Hill Publ'ns, Inc. v. Twentieth

Century Fox Film Corp., 361 F.3d 312, 319n. 2 (6th Cir.2004) (noting that where ideaand expression are intertwined and wherenon-protectable ideas predominate,expression is not protected); see generally Nimmer 13.03[B][3]. For computer programs, if the patentable process isembodied inextricably in the line-by-lineinstructions of the computer program, [ ]then the process merges with the expressionand precludes copyright protection. Atari I, 975 F.2d at 839-40; see, e.g.,PRG-Schultz Int'l, Inc. v. Kirix Corp., No.03 C 1867, 2003 WL 22232771, at *4(N.D.Ill. Sept.22, 2003) (determining thatcopyright infringement claim failed becauseexpression merged with process in computersoftware that performed auditing tasks).

[14][15][16] For similar reasons, when

external factors constrain the choice ofexpressive vehicle, the doctrine of scenes afaire-scenes, in other words, that mustbe done-precludes copyright protection.See Twentieth Century Fox Film, 361 F.3d

at 319-20; see generally Nimmer 13.03[B][4]. In the literary context, thedoctrine means that certain phrases that arestandard, stock, ... or that necessarilyfollow from a common theme or settingmay not obtain copyright protection.Gates Rubber, 9 F.3d at 838. In thecomputer-software context, the doctrinemeans that the elements of a programdictated by practical realities-e.g., byhardware standards and mechanical

specifications, software standards andcompatibility requirements, computermanufacturer design standards, targetindustry practices, and standard computer programming practices-may not obtainprotection. Id. (citing case examples); seeSega Enters., 977 F.2d at 1524 (To theextent that a work is functional or factual, itmay be copied.); Brown BagSoftware v.Symantec Corp., 960 F.2d 1465, 1473 (9thCir.1992) (affirming district court's findingthat [p]laintiffs may not claim copyrightprotection of an ... expression that is, if notstandard, then commonplace in thecomputer software industry). As anindustry-wide goal, programming[e]fficiency represents an externalconstraint that figures prominently in thecopyrightability of computer programs.Altai, 982 F.2d at 708.

[17] Generally speaking, lock-out codesfall on the functional-idea rather than theoriginal-expression side of the copyrightline. Manufacturers of interoperable devicessuch as computers and software, gameconsoles and video games, printers and tonercartridges, or automobiles and replacementparts may employ a security system to barthe use of unauthorized components. To

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unlock and permit operation of theprimary device (i.e., the computer, the gameconsole, the printer, the car), the componentmust contain either a certain code sequenceor be able to respond appropriately to an

authentication process. To the extentcompatibility requires that a particular codesequence be included in the componentdevice to permit its use, the merger andscenes a faire doctrines generally precludethe code sequence from obtaining copyrightprotection. See Sega Enters., 977 F.2d at1524 (When specific instructions, eventhough previously copyrighted, are the onlyand essential means of accomplishing agiven task, their later use by another will not

amount to infringement.) (quoting NationalCommission on New Technological Uses ofCopyrighted Works, Final Report 20 (1979))(emphasis added); Atari Games Corp. v.Nintendo of Am., Inc., Nos. 88-4805 & 89-0027, 1993 WL 207548, at *1 (N.D.Cal.May 18, 1993) (Atari III) (Program codethat is strictly necessary to achieve currentcompatibility presents a merger problem,almost by definition, and is thus excludedfrom the scope of any copyright.).

[18] [19] In trying to discern whether thesedoctrines apply, courts tend to focus onwhether the idea is capable of various modesof expression. Mason v. Montgomery Data, Inc., 967 F.2d 135, 138 (5th Cir.1992)(quoting Franklin Computer, 714 F.2d at1253); Atari I, 975 F.2d at 840 (Theunique arrangement of computer programexpression which generates [the] data streamdoes not merge with the process so long asalternate expressions are available.). Thequestion, however, is not whether anyalternatives theoretically exist; it is whetherother options practically exist under thecircumstances. See Altai, 982 F.2d at 708(While, hypothetically, there might be amyriad of ways in which a programmer mayeffectuate certain functions within a

program ... efficiency concerns may sonarrow the practical range of choice as tomake only one or two forms of expressionworkable options.); Atari I, 975 F.2d at840 (noting that no external factor dictated

the bulk of the program and finding the program copyrightable). In order tocharacterize a choice between allegedprogramming alternatives as expressive, inshort, the alternatives must be feasiblewithin real-world constraints.

The Supreme Court's decision in Feisthelpsto illustrate the point. In Feist, the allegedinfringer had included 1,309 of the plaintiff'salphabetically-organized telephone book

listings in its own telephone directory. 499U.S. at 344, 111 S.Ct. 1282. The factscomprising these listings, it was clear,theoretically could have been organized inother ways-for instance, by street address orphone number, or by the age or height of theindividual. But by virtue of tradition andsettled expectations, the familiaralphab

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