Lepi T. Tarmidi Abstract

Ekonomi dan Keuangan Indonesia Volume XLVII Nomor 3, 1999

Masa Teori-Teori Besar Dalam Bidang Ilmu Ekonomi

Pembangunan Telah Berlalu

Lepi T. Tarmidi

A b s t r a c t

Economic development as a field of study started right after the end of World War II, which coincided with the independence declaration of a number' of colonial areas in Asia and Africa. Curiously enough, the founding fathers of this new field of study were Western economists, foremost Americans, driven by the need for experts in rich countries to allocate development aid to developing countries. Economists have for long realized that economic theories developed in the advanced industrialized countries were not suited to be applied to developing countries due to different conditions prevailing in these countries. During the early days, grand theories of economic development were being launched to understand the process of development and to pursue appropriate development strategies.

But in the course of time these grand development theories have lost much of their vigor as the development process in reality is much more complex as can be caught by simple general theories. The paper then explores the further development of development thinking during the past fifty years.

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Lepi T. Tarmidi

1 . PENDAHULUAN

T u j u a n d a r i t u l i s a n i n i a d a l a h m e m b u a t k a j i a n k e p u s t a k a a n m e n g e n a i p e r k e m b a n g a n t e o r i - t e o r i p e m b a n g u n a n e k o n o m i k h u s u s n y a s e j a k b e r a k h i m y a P e r a n g D u n i a I I . D a l a m t u l i s a n i n i t i d a k d i b e d a k a n a n t a r a t e o r i d a n s t r a t e g i , k a r e n a a n t a r a k e d u a n y a s e r i n g t u m p a n g t i n d i h d a n s u l i t u n t u k d i b e d a k a n . S u a t u t e o r i b i s a m e n g a n d u n g s t r a t e g i , k e b a l i k a n n y a s u a t u s t r a t e g i b i s a j u g a m e n g a n d u n g t e o r i . M a k a l a h i n i d i t u l i s k a r e n a s e l a m a l e b i h d a r i 5 0 t a h u n , c u k u p b a n y a k t e r j a d i p e r g e s e r a n - p e r g e s e r a n d a l a m k a j i a n i l m u p e m b a n g u n a n e k o n o m i y a n g m e n a r i k i m t u k d i s i m a k .

2 . LATAR BELAKANG SEJARAH

K h u s u s n y a s e s u d a h P e r a n g D u n i a k e I I , d i m a n a b a n y a k n e g a r a b e r k e m b a n g d i A s i a d a n A f r i k a m e m p e r o l e h k e m e r d e k a a n n y a d a r i n e g a r a - n e g a r a p e n j a j a h E r o p a , p e r h a t i a n s a r j a n a - s a r j a n a e k o n o m i B a r a t t e r h a d a p m a s a l a h - m a s a l a h p e m b a n g u n a n e k o n o m i d i n e g a r a - n e g a r a s e d a n g b e r k e m b a n g a d a l a h s a n g a t b e s a r . H a l i n i d a p a t d i l i h a t d a r i b a n y a k n y a t e o r i - t e o r i e k o n o m i p e m b a n g u n a n y a n g b e r m u n c u l a n p a d a m a s a i t u y a n g m e m a k a i n a m a s a r j a n a B a r a t d a n d a p a t d i k a t a k a n h a m p i r t i d a k a d a y a n g b e r a s a l d a r i n e g a r a - n e g a r a s e d a n g b e r k e m b a n g s e n d i r i y a n g d i k e n a l l u a s s e c a r a i n t e m a s i o n a l . M a s a i n i j u g a d a p a t d i k a t a k a n s e b a g a i m a s a l a h i m y a e k o n o m i p e m b a n g u n a n s e b a g a i b i d a n g i l m u t e r s e n d i r i s e b a g a i a k i b a t d a r i p r o s e s p e m b a n g u n a n d a n d e k o l o n i a l i s a s i ( b a n d i n g k a n M a r t i n , h a l . 2 9 2 , 2 9 9 ; M e i e r , h a l . 3 , 5 ; S t r e e t e n , 1 9 8 2 , h a l . 1 1 ) . P e r h a t i a n t e r h a d a p m a s a l a h p e m b a n g u n a n n e g a r a - n e g a r a s e d a n g b e r k e m b a n g d i n e g a r a - n e g a r a m a j u t i d a k t e r l e p a s d a r i m a s a l a h m e n g e j a r u a n g , k a r e n a m e n g u c u m y a d a n a b a n t u a n y a n g c u k u p b e s a r ( l i h a t K r u g m a n , h a l . 2 6 ) , k a s a m y a scientific interest follows money. I l m u e k o n o m i p e m b a n g u n a n t i d a k t i m b u l s e b a g a i s u a t u d i s i p l i n t e o r i f o r m a l , t e t a p i t i m b u l k a r e n a k e b u t u h a n y a n g p r a k t i s d a r i p a r a p e m b u a t k e b i j a k s a n a a n u n t u k m e m b e r i n a s e h a t k e p a d a p e m e r i n t a h t e n t a n g b a g a i m a n a m e n g a t a s i m a s a l a h k e m i s k i n a n k r o n i s ( M e i e r , h a l . 4 ) . T e t a p i j u g a s e b a g a i k e b u t u h a n d i n e g a r a - n e g a r a s e d a n g b e r k e m b a n g s e n d i r i y a n g h a r u s m e m b a n g u n n e g a r a n y a m a s i n g - m a s i n g d e n g a n m e m b u a t p e r e n c a n a a n -p e r e n c a n a a n d a n m e n e n t u k a n b e r b a g a i k e b i j a k a n e k o n o m i a t a s k e k u a t a n s e n d i r i .

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Masa Teori-Teori Besar Dalam Bidang Ilmu Ekonomi Pembangunan Telah Berlalu

H a l i n i t i d a k b e r a r t i b a h w a s e b e l u m m a s a i t u p a r a s a r j a n a e k o n o m i t i d a k m e n a r u h p e r h a t i a n s a m a s e k a l i t e r h a d a p m a s a l a h - m a s a l a h p e m b a n g u n a n d a n p e r t u m b u h a n e k o n o m i , b a h k a n A d a m S m i t h d i t a h u n 1 7 7 6 m e n u l i s b u k u n y a y a n g s a n g a t t e r k e n a i An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. B u k a n k a h i n i m e r u p a k a n p e r t a n y a a n y a n g p a l i n g m e n d a s a r b a g i p e m b a n g u n a n e k o n o m i s u a t u b a n g s a ; a p a h a k e k a t d a r i k e m a k m u r a n b a n g s a - b a n g s a d a n a p a y a n g m e n j a d i p e n y e b a b n y a ? B i l a k i t a m e n g e t a h u i j a w a b a n n y a , m a k a i n i a k a n m e r u p a k a n k u n c i b a g i p e m b a n g u n a n e k o n o m i n e g a r a - n e g a r a t e r b e i a k a n g s e k a r a n g u n t u k m e n j a d i b a n g s a y a n g m a k m u r . K h u s u s n y a b a g i n e g a r a - n e g a r a y a n g t e r j a j a h , t e r u t a m a s e s u d a h P e r a n g D u n i a I n e g a r a - n e g a r a p e n j a j a h m e r a s a k a n a d a n y a k e b u t u h a n a k a n s u a t u k a j i a n t e r s e n d i r i t e n t a n g p e m b a n g u n a n e k o n o m i , w a l a u p u n m e n g g u n a k a n d a s a r - d a s a r p e m i k i r a n t e o r i e k o n o m i B a r a t , k a r e n a k e a d a a n n y a m a s i h t e r t i n g g a i d e n g a n k o n d i s i d a n s i s t i m s o s i a l y a n g s a n g a t b e r b e d a d e n g a n d i n e g a r a - n e g a r a B a r a t , . d i m a n a t e o r i - t e o r i e k o n o m i B a r a t t i d a k b e g i t u s a j a d a p a t d i t e r a p k a n d i n e g a r a - n e g a r a j a j a h a n t e r s e b u t . K a j i a n i n i k e m u d i a n d i k e n a l s e b a g a i " i l m u e k o n o m i k o l o n i a l " a t a u " i l m u e k o n o m i k o l o n i a l t r o p i s " . ' N a m u n k a j i a n - k a j i a n i n i t i d a k l a g i b i s a d i p a k a i , k a r e n a d i z a m a n p e n j a j a b a n p e m e r i n t a h k o l o n i a l b e r t u j u a n m e n j a g a s t a b i l i t a s , s e d a n g s e t e l a h k e m e r d e k a a n n e g a r a - n e g a r a y a n g b a r u i n i i n g i n m e l a k s a n a k a n p e m b a n g u n a n ( M e i e r , h a l . 6 - 8 ; b a n d i n g k a n j u g a A m d t , 1 9 9 1 ) . B a h k a n B e h r m a n d a n S u n i v a s a n b e r p e n d a p a t b a h w a I a n d a s a n - i a n d a s a n b i d a n g k a j i a n E k o n o n m i P e m b a n g u n a n s u d a h d i l e t a k k a n o l e h N e h r u k e t i k a m a s i h d i p e m j a r a t a h u n 1 9 4 4 d a n 1 9 4 5 d a l a m b e n t u k p e r e n c a n a a n p e m b a n g u n a n y a n g k e m u d i a n d i s a h k a n k o n g r e s I n d i a .

A d a l a h m e n a r i k u n t u k m e n y i m a k p e n d a p a t K r u g m a n b a h w a d e w a s a i n i t e o r i - t e o r i p e m b a n g u n a n b e s a r (high atau grand development theories) y a n g b e r m u n c u l a n s e l a m a d e k a d e t a h i m 1 9 5 0 - a n t e l a h d i k u b u r d a n b a h w a t i d a k a d a l a g i a h l i e k o n o m i y a n g k e l u a r d e n g a n h i p o t e s a -h i p o t e s a a g u n g . S e b a b n y a b u k a n l a h k a r e n a t e o r i - t e o r i i n i k u r a n g b a i k , t e t a p i k a r e n a p a r a a h l i t i d a k m a m p u m e n y a t a k a n p e n d a p a t n y a d a l a m b e n t u k m o d e l y a n g a n a l i t i s y a n g b a n y a k d i p a k a i d e w a s a i n i . ( L i h a t K r u g m a n , h a l . 1 6 , 2 6 ) . M e n u r u t K r u g m a n , t u l i s a n - t u l i s a n H i r s c b m a n d a n

1 Lihat J .H. Boeke, D . H . Burrer (1973), Ekonomi Dualistis: Dialog Antara Boeke dan Burger. Jakarta: Bhratara, hal. 9-18; G.M. Meier, D. Seers (eds.) (1984), Pioneers in Development, World Bank! New York etc.: Oxford UP, hal. 6-7.

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M y r d a l m e r u p a k a n p e n u t u p b a g i t e o r i - t e o r i b e s a r d a l a m p e m b a n g u n a n ( K r u g m a n , h a l . 2 7 ) . L a i n l a g i p e n d a p a t S t i g l i t z d a l a m k o m e n t a r n y a t e r h a d a p a r t i k e l K r u g m a n , i a m e n u l i s b a h w a t e o r i p e m b a n g u n a n t i n g g i t i d a k m a t i , m e r e k a m a s i h h i d u p h i n g g a s e k a r a n g ( S t i g l i t z , h a l . 3 9 , 4 1 ) . P e n d a p a t K r u g m a n a d a b e n a m y a b i l a m e n y i m a k b u k u - b u k u t e k s t e n t a n g e k o n o m i p e m b a n g u n a n . B a n y a k p e n g a r a n g t i d a k l a g i m e m b a h a s t e o r i - t e o r i b e s a r y a n g p e m a h t e r k e n a i d i t a h u n 1 9 5 0 - a n ' , m e s k i p u n j u g a a d a b u k u t e k s y a n g m e m b a h a s n y a ' , k h u s u s n y a y a n g d i t u l i s o l e h p e n g a r a n g I n d o n e s i a ^ . M e m a n g t a m p a k n y a t e o r i - t e o r i y a n g m e n g g u n a k a n m o d e l y a n g t e r u s m e n d a p a t k a n p e r h a t i a n p a r a s a r j a n a e k o n o m i p e m b a n g u n a n d e w a s a i n i s e p e r t i m o d e l d u a l i s t i k d a r i R . P r e b i s c h d a n m o d e l unlimited supply of labour dati W . A . L e w i s . B e g i t u p u n t e o r i big push d a r i R o s e n s t e i n - R o d a n d i b i d u p k a n k e m b a l i d a l a m s e b u a h m o d e l o l e h M u r p h y , S h l e i f e r d a n V i s h n y ( K r u g m a n , h a l . 1 7 ) . K e t i g a p e n g a r a n g i n i m e n g a n a l i s a t e o r i big push d a l a m p a s a r p e r s a i n g a n t i d a k s e m p u m a . N e g a r a - n e g a r a y a n g t e l a h m e n g a l a m i p e r t u m b u h a n p r o d u k f i v i t a s d a n s t a n d a r h i d u p y a n g t i n g g i s e l a m a 2 0 0 t a h u n t e r a k h i r m e n c a p a i n y a m e l a l u i i n d u s t r i a l i s a s i . N a m u n b a n y a k n e g a r a l a i n y a n g t e t a p b e l u m m e m i l i k i b a n y a k i n d u s t r i d a n t e t a p m i s k i n . A p a s e b a b n y a d a n a p a k a b c a m p u r t a n g a n p e m e r i n t a h d a p a t m e m p e r c e p a t p r o s e s n y a ? S a l a h s a t u

2 Lihat a.l. M.P. Todaro, Economic Development, 5* ed.. New York, London: Longman, 1994; I .M.D. Little, Economic Development, New York; Basic Books, Inc., 1982; M. Gillis, et a l . Economics of Development, 4* ed.. New York, London: W . W . Norton & Co., 1996; A.P. Thirlwall, Growth and Development with Special Reference to Developing Economies, ELBS/Macmillan, 1989; ].S. Hogendom, Economic Development, 2"'' ed.. New York, HarperCollins Publishers Inc., 1992.

3 Simak a.l. D. Hunt, Economic Theories of Development, New York etc.: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1989; E.W. Nafziger, The Economics of Developing Countries, 2"'' ed., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-HaU, Inc., 1990; B. Herrick, C P . Kindleberger, Economic Development, 4* ed., Singapore: McGrwa-Hill Book Co., 1988, 3"* printing; M.L. Jhingan, Ekonomi Pembangunan dan Perencanaan, Jakarta: RajaGrafindo Persada, 1994; H.W. Amdt, Economic Development: The EUstory of an Idea, Chicago; University Press, 1987.

4 Sumitro Djojohadikusumo, Dasar Teori Ekonomi Pertumbuhan dan Ekonomi Pembangiman, Jakarta: LP3 ES, 1994; Arief Budiman, Teori Pembangunan Dunia Ketiga, Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama, 1995; Sadono Sukimo, Ekonomi Pembangunan: Proses, Masalah dan Dasar Kebijaksanaan, Jakarta: Lembaga Penerbit F E U I , 1985; Irawan, M. Suparmoko, Ekonomi Pembangunan, edisi ke-3, Yogyakarta: Penerbitan F E U G M , 1981; M. Wiratmo, Ekonomi Pembangunan, Yogyakarta: MW Mandala, 1992; L . Arsyad, EkonomiPembangunan, edisi 2, Yogyakarta: STIE Y K P N , I 992; H . Prayitno, B. Santosa, Ekonomi Pembangunan, Jakarta: Ghalia Indonesia, 1996.

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s e b a b p e n t i n g a d a l a h s e m p i t n y a p a s a r a n d o m e s t i k d a n p e r d a g a n g a n l u a r n e g e r i t i d a k l a h t a n p a b i a y a , s e h i n g g a p e r u s a h a a n d a p a t m e m a n f a a t k a n . t e k n o l o g i y a n g m e m b e r i h a s i l y a n g s e m a k i n b e r t a m b a h . K e m u n g k i n a n -n y a a d a l a h m e n g e m b a n g k a n s a t u s e k t o r p e m e r i n t a h d e n g a n b a n t u a n p e m e r i n t a h u n t u k m e m p e r b e s a r p a s a r d i s e k t o r - s e k t o r l a i n n y a , s e s u a i d e n g a n t e o r i big push. ( L i h a t M u r p h y , S h l e i f e r d a n V i s h n y , h a l . 1 0 0 3 - 4 ) .

T e o r i - t e o r i b e s a r t e n t a n g p e m b a n g u n a n e k o n o m i t e l a h m a t i , s u a r a i n i b a n y a k d i k u m a n d a n g k a n o l e h p a r a e k o n o m y a n g m e n g g e l u t i b i d a n g p e m b a n g u n a n ( l i h a t a n t a r a l a i n M a r t i n , h a l . 2 9 9 ; B o e c k h , h a l . U O ) . K e g a g a l a n d a r i t e o r i - t e o r i k h a s u n t u k n e g a r a n e g a r a s e d a n g b e r k e m b a n g t e r l i h a t d a r i k e n y a t a a n b a h w a t e o r i - t e o r i i n i b e r g a n t i s e l a n g l i m a a t a u e n a m t a h u n s e j a l a n d e n g a n p e r u b a h a n p e m i k i r a n d a l a m t e o r i p e m b a n g u n a n ( F e l d s i e p e r , h a l . 3 0 ) . M e n z e l s e c a r a s i n i s m e n u l i s :

"As far as the debate on development theory is concerned, there are at least considerable doubts as to what actual effect it had on development policy". Lebih lanjut, "Who has benefited from the theories? ... Theories are composed by theorists for theorists." ( M e n z e l , h a l . 70-1). |

3 . T E O R I - T E O R I BESAR PEMBANGUNAN E K O N O M I

E k o n o m i P e m b a n g i m a n s e b a g a i s u a t u b i d a n g d a r i k a j i a n i l m u e k o n o m i y a n g t e r s e n d i r i d i a n g g a p d i m u l a i d e n g a n t u l i s a n P a u l N . R o s e n s t e i n -R o d a n t e n t a n g Problems of Industrialization of Eastern and South Eastern Europe d i t a h u n 1 9 4 3 ( l i h a t M a r t i n , h a l . 2 9 9 ) . P e m i k i r a n R o s e n s t e i n - R o d a n d i k e n a l s e b a g a i t e o r i big-push a t a u j u g a balanced growth. M e n u r u t n y a a g a r p e l a k s a n a a n s u a t u p e m b a n g u n a n b e r h a s i l , d i p e r l u k a n j u m l a h m i n i m u m m o d a l t e r t e n t u u n t u k i n v e s t a s i ( R o s e n s t e i n - R o d a n , h a l . 2 1 0 - 1 1 ) . T e o r i - t e o r i b e s a r b e r m u n c u l a n s e l a m a d a s a w a r s a t a h u n 4 0 - a n d a n 5 0 - a n ( M e i e r , h a l . 4 ) . T e o r i y a n g b e r l a w a n a n d e n g a n balanced growth a d a l a h t e o r i A l b e r t O . H i r s c b m a n t e n t a n g unbalanced growth d a l a m b u k u n y a y a n g t e r k e n a i The Strategy of Economic Development ( N e w H a v e n : Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 5 8 ) .

S t r a t e g i p e m b a n g u n a n n y a a d a l a h m e m a j u k a n i n d u s t r i - i n d u s t r i y a n g m e m i l i k i backward d a n forward linkage y a n g k u a t y a n g d i k e m b a n g k a n s e c a r a b e r t a h a p . N e g a r a - n e g a r a t e r b e i a k a n g m e m e r l u k a n s e m a c a m pressure mechanism a t a u pacing devices u n t u k m e n g e r a h k a n p o t e n s i n y a . ( L i h a t H i r s c b m a n , h a l . 9 4 , 9 6 ) . P a d a s a a t y a n g h a m p i r

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b e r s a m a a n P a u l S t r e e t e n j u g a k e l u a r d e n g a n k o n s e p y a n g h a m p i r s a m a d a l a m s e b u a h a r t i k e l d e n g a n j u d u l Unbalanced Growth ( O x f o r d E c o n o m i c P a p e r s , N . S . , v o l . 2 , J u n e 1 6 7 - 9 0 ) ( l i h a t H i r s c b m a n , h a l . 8 7 c a t a t a n k a k i ) . G a g a s a n unbalanced growth d a n p e m b a n g u n a n b e r t a h a p d a r i H i r s c b m a n i n i t i d a k s e m a t a - m a t a t e r b a t a s p a d a s e k t o r i n d u s t r i s a j a t e t a p i j u g a d i l i h a t d i b i d a n g b i d a n g l a i n n y a s e p e r t i m a s a l a h i n f l a s i , k e t i d a k s e i m b a n g a n n e r a c a p e m b a y a r a n , t e k a n a n p e n d u d u k d a n p e m b a n g u n a n d a e r a h . D a m p a k d a r i p e m b a n g u n a n y a n g t i d a k s e i m b a n g i n i d i k a t a k a n a k a n m e n i m b u l k a n k e j u t a n - k e j u t a n i n f l a s i p a d a p e r e k o n o m i a n . S e d a n g k e t i d a k s e i m b a n g a n n e r a c a p e m b a y a r a n a d a l a h b a g i a n y a n g t a k t e r p i s a h k a n d a r i s t r a t e g i p e m b a n g u n a n y a n g t i d a k s e i m b a n g , ( l i h a t H i r s c b m a n , h a l . 1 0 2 - 3 ) . R a g n a r N u r k s e t e r k e n a i d e n g a n t e o r i n y a m e n g e n a i vicious circle ( s e c a r a p o p u l e r d i t e r j e m a h k a n s e b a g a i l i n g k a r a n s e t a n ) y a n g d i t u a n g k a n d a l a m b u k u n y a d e n g a n j u d u l Some Aspects of Capital Accumulation in Underdeveloped Countries d a n t e r b i t t a h u n 1 9 5 2 . I a m e n e k a n k a n p e r a n s t r a t e g i s d a r i a k u m u l a s i m o d a l p b i s i k d a l a m p e m b a n g u n a n d a n p e r l u n y a p e r t u m b u h a n e k o n o m i y a n g b e r i m b a n g (balanced growth), la m e n e k a n k a n p e n g e m b a n g a n p a s a r d o m e s t i k y a n g b e r i m b a n g s e j a l a n d e n g a n e l a s t i s i t a s p e n d a p a t a n t e r h a d a p p e r m i n t a a n d a n m e m p u n y a i p a n d a n g a n y a n g p e s i m i s t i s t e r h a d a p p e r d a g a n g a n i n t e m a s i o n a l s e b a g a i m e s i n p e r t u m b u h a n . N a m u n b e b e r a p a d a r i p e m i k i r a n N u r k s e d i a n g g a p l a p u k k a r e n a w a k t u . ( L i h a t S t r e e t e n , 1 9 8 4 , h a l . 3 4 7 - 8 ) . W . W . R o s t o w d i t a h u n 1 9 6 0 m e n e r b i t k a n b u k u n y a y a n g t e r k e n a i , y a k n i The Stages of Economic Growth. I a m e m b e d a k a n l i m a t a h a p a n p e r t u m b u h a n e k o n o m i : m a s y a r a k a t t r a d i s i o n a l , p r a s y a r a t i m t u k t i n g g a l l a n d a s , t i n g g a l l a n d a s , d o r o n g a n m e n u j u k e m a t a n g a n , z a m a n k o n s u m s i m a s s a l . T a p i i a j u g a m e n a m b a h k a n t a h a p a n k e e n a m y a n g b e l u m i a b e r i n a m a , k a r e n a b a r u s a t u n e g a r a s a j a y a n g t e l a h m e m a s u k i t a h a p a n i n i , y a k n i A m e r i k a S e r i k a t .

H a r r o d ( 1 9 3 9 ) d a n D o m a r ( 1 9 4 7 ) s e c a r a t e r p i s a h m e n e m u k a n r u m u s y a n g s a n g a t s e d e r h a n a u n t u k m e n g h i t u n g l a j u p e r t u m b u h a n e k o n o m i , y a k n i s e b a g a i a n g k a p e r b a n d i n g - a n a n t a r a t i n g k a t t a b u n g a n n a s i o n a l r a t a - r a t a d e n g a n marginal capital-output ratio. R u m u s i n i d a n p e n g e m b a n g a n n y a b a n y a k d i p a k a i d a l a m p e r e n c a n a a n p e m b a n g u n a n d i n e g a r a - n e g a r a s e d a n g b e r k e m b a n g . D e n g a n r u m u s i n i d a p a t j u g a d i h i t u n g k e b u t u h a n m o d a l i n v e s t a s i , b i l a s a s a r a n l a j u p e r t u m b u h a n e k o n o m i s u d a h d i t e n t u k a n . K e m b a l i t e k a n a n n y a d i s i n i a d a l a h f a k t o r

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m o d a l y a n g m e n e n t u k a n p e r t u m b u h a n e k o n o m i . I m p l i k a s i n y a a d a l a h , m e n a i k k a n t i n g k a t t a b u n g a n n a s i o n a l a t a u m e n c a r i p i n j a m a n m o d a l d a r i l u a r n e g e r i .

M e n u r u t p e n d a p a t p e n u l i s a d a l a h s a n g a t s u l i t u n t u k m e n y u s u n t e o r i - t e o r i e k o n o m i p e m b a n g u n a n y a n g a d a d a l a m k e l o m p o k - k e l o m p o k t e r t e n t u s e c a r a s i s t i m a t i s , k a r e n a b a n y a k r a g a m n y a t e o r i d a n p e n d a p a t d a n s e r i n g k a l i s u l i t u n t u k m e n g k l a s i f i k a s i k a n n y a d e n g a n j e l a s . P a u l S t r e e t e n m i s a l n y a m e n y u s u n b e r b a g a i d i k o t o m i d i a n t a r a b e r b a g a i p e m i k i r a n , m i s a l n y a a n t a r a mutual benefit l a w a n k o n f l i k , s e k t o r i n t e l e k t u a l f o r m a l m e l a w a n n o n - f o r m a l , p a r a d i g m a l i n e a r m e l a w a n n o n l i n e a r , b e s a r ( F . C . M a h a l a n o b i s ) l a w a n k e c i l ( E . F . S c h u m a c h e r ) , Utopians l a w a n pedants, d a n l a i n - l a i n ( S t r e e t e n , h a l . 3 3 7 - 3 6 1 ) . S e d a n g M . P . T o d a r o m e m b a g i - b a g i t e o r i - t e o r i p e m b a n g u n a n e k o n o m i d a l a m l i m a k e l o m p o k b e s a r ( T o d a r o , C h . 3 ) :

1 . Linear-stages theory. T e r m a s u k d i s i n i a d a l a h t e o r i W . W . R o s t o w t e n t a n g t a h a p a n t a h a p a n p e r t u m b u h a n e k o n o m i d a n m o d e l p e r t u m b u h a n e k o n o m i H a r r o d - D o m a r .

2 . M o d e l p e r u b a h a n s t r u k t u r a l . D i a n t a r a n y a a d a l a h m o d e l d u a s e c t o r d a r i W . A . L e w i s t e n t a n g p e r u b a h a n s t r u k t u r a l p a d a p e r e k o n o m i a n y a n g s u b s i s t e n d e n g a n s u p p l y t e n a g a k e r j a y a n g b e r l e b i h a n . M o d e l L e w i s i n i k e m u d i a n d i s e m p u m a k a n o l e h J . P e l d a n G . R a n i s . T e r m a s u k d a l a m k e l o m p o k i n i a d a l a h h a s i l - h a s i l p e n e l i t i a n e m p i r i s d a r i H . B . C h e n e r y t e n t a n g p o l a u m u m p e r u b a h a n e k o n o m i d i b a n y a k n e g a r a s e d a n g b e r k e m b a n g .

3 . R e v o l u s i K e t e r g a n t u n g a n I n t e m a s i o n a l . Y a n g t e r m a s u k d a l a m k e l o m p o k i n i a d a l a h m o d e l k e t e r g a n t u n g a n n e o k o l o n i a l y a n g b e r a l i r a n M a r x i s t a t a u t e o r i dependencia y a n g d i I n d o n e s i a d i k e n a l s e b a g a i p a r a d i g m a k e t e r g a n t u n g a n , t e t a p i j u g a t u l i s a n P a u s J o h a n e s P a u l u s I I d a l a m s u r a t e n s i k l i k a l n y a b e r j u d u l S o l l i c i t u d e r e i s o c i a l i s {The Social Concerns of the Church) t a h u n 1 9 8 8 . K e m u d i a n a p a y a n g d i n a m a k a n T o d a r o d e n g a n m o d e l False Paradigm d a n t h e s i s p e m b a n g u n a n d u a l i s t i k . Y a n g d i m a k s u d T o d a r o d e n g a n m o d e l False-Paradigm a d a l a h b a h w a k e t e r b e l a k a n g a n n e g a r a - n e g a r a s e d a n g b e r k e m b a n g d i s e b a b k a n k a r e n a n a s e h a t - n a s e h a t s a l a h y a n g d i b e r i k a n o l e h p a r a t e n a g a " a h l i " d a r i n e g a r a - n e g a r a m a j u d e n g a n k o n s e p -k o n s e p n y a y a n g c a n g g i b d e n g a n m e n g g u n a k a n m o d e l - m o d e l e k o n o m e t r i k . K e m u d i a n d u a l i s m e , i a a d a l a h s u a t u k o n s e p y a n g

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m e l i h a t a d a n y a j u r a n g y a n g s e m a k i n l e b a r a n t a r a n e g a r a k a y a d e n g a n n e g a r a m i s k i n d a n a n t a r a p e n d u d u k k a y a d e n g a n p e n d u d u k m i s k i n .

4 . K o n t r a r e v o l u s i N e o k l a s i k p a d a d a s a w a r s a t a h u n 1 9 7 0 - a n d a n 1 9 8 0 - a n . A r g u m e n t a s i p o k o k d a r i k e l o m p o k i n i a d a l a h b a h w a k e t e r b e l a k a n g a n d i a k i b a t k a n o l e h a l o k a s i s u m b e r d a y a y a n g s a l a h k a r e n a k e b i j a k a n h a r g a y a n g t i d a k b e n a r d a n c a m p u r t a n g a n n e g a r a y a n g t e r l a l u b a n y a k . T o d a r o m e n y e b u t k a n n a m a - n a m a L o r d P e t e r B a u e r , D e e p a k L a i , I a n L i t t l e , H a r r y J o h n s o n , B e l a B a l a s s a , J u l i a n S i m o n , J a g d i s h B h a g w a t i d a n A n n e K r u e g e r . A n j u r a n o r a n g - o r a n g i n i a d a l a h , m e m b i a r k a n m e k a n i s m e p a s a r b e k e r j a s e c a r a b e b a s . S e b a g i a n d a r i k e l o m p o k i n i d a p a t d i g o l o n g k a n s e b a g a i s e b a g a i traditional (old) neoclassical growth theory y a n g m e n e k a n k a n b a h w a p e r t u m b u h a n e k o n o m i d i a k i b a t k a n o l e h p e n i n g k a t a n j u m l a h d a n m u t u t e n a g a k e r j a , p e n a m b a h a n m o d a l d a n k e m a j u a n t e k n o l o g i . P e n e l i t i a n - p e n e l i t i a n l e b i h d i t e k a n k a n p a d a a p l i k a s i d a n k e r a g a m a n n e g a r a n e g a r a s e d a n g b e r k e m b a n g b e r d a s a r k a n p r i n s i p - p r i n s i p k e b i j a k a n n e o - k l a s i k . P e r h a t i a n j u g a l e b i h b a n y a k d i t u j u k a n p a d a a s p e k m i k r o d a r i p r o s e s p e m b a n g i m a n d a n j a n g k a w a k t u y a n g l e b i h p e n d e k . ( B a n d i n g k a n M e i e r , h a l . 8 7 - 8 ) .

5 . T e o r i p e r t u m b u h a n e k o n o m i b a r u . K e l o m p o k t e o r i i n i b a n y a k k e s a m a a n n y a d e n g a n t e o r i n e o k l a s i k t r a d i s i o n a l , b e d a n y a a d a l a h b a h w a t e o r i p e r t u m b u h a n e k o n o m i b a r u m e m b e r i k a n k e r a n g k a u n t u k m e n g a n a l i s a p e r t u m b u h a n y a n g e n d o g e n . K e m a j u a n t e k n o l o g i d a n p e m b e n t u k a n s u m b e r d a y a m a n u s i a d i m a s u k k a n s e b a g a i f a k t o r e n d o g e n d a l a m m o d e l - m o d e l k e s e i m b a n g a n u m u m d a r i p e r t u m b u h a n e k o n o m i y a n g m e m u n g k i n k a n k e n a i k a n p e r k a p i t a y a n g h e r k e l a n j u t a n d a l a m j a n g k a y a n g p a n j a n g ( M e i e r , h a l . 1 0 2 - 3 ) . A d a t i g a f a k t o r u t a m a y a n g m e m b e d a k a n k e d u a t e o r i : m o d e l - m o d e l p e r t u m b u h a n e k o n o m i e n d o g e n m e n g a b a i k a n a s u m s i n e o k l a s i k t e n t a n g diminishing marginal returns to capital investments, m e m a s u k k a n increasing returns to scale d a l a m p r o d u k s i s e c a r a a g r e g a t , d a n s e r i n g m e m u s a t k a n p e r a n d a r i e k s t e m a l i t a s d a l a m p e n e n t u a n t i n g k a t k e u n t u n g a n d a r i p e n a n a m a n m o d a l . P e r h e d a a n l a i n n y a a d a l a h b a h w a m o d e l p e r t u m b u h a n e k o n o m i e n d o g e n i n i m e n g a n j u r k a n p e r a n a k t i f d a r i p e m e r i n t a h d a l a m m e m a j u k a n p e m b a n g u n a n . K e l e m a h a n d a r i m o d e l i n i a d a l a h b a h w a m o d e l i n i t e t a p t e r g a n t u n g p a d a b e b e r a p a a s u m s i - a s u m s i m o d e l n e o k l a s i k t r a d i s i o n a l y a n g t i d a k c o c o k b a g i n e g a r a - n e g a r a s e d a n g b e r k e m b a n g .

2 9 6


S e j a r a h p e m i k i r a n t e o r i - t e o r i p e m b a n g u n a n d a p a t d i b a g i a t a s b e b e r a p a p e r i o d e . P e r i o d e p e r t a m a a d a l a h d a r i t a h u n 1 9 4 0 - a n h i n g g a l e b i h k u r a n g p e r t e n g a h a n t a h u n 1 9 6 0 - a n , d i m a n a s a s a r a n p e m b a n g u n a n a d a l a h u s a h a m e n c a p a i p e r t u m b u h a n e k o n o m i y a n g s e t i n g g i - t i n g g i n y a y a n g b i s a d i c a p a i m e l a l u i t a b u n g a n m a s y a r a k a t . H a s i l - h a s i l p e m b a n g u n a n a k a n d e n g a n s e n d i r i n y a m e r e m b e s k e b a w a h {trickle-down effect). I n i d i k e n a l s e b a g a i a r t i l a m a d a r s p e m b a n g u n a n . K e m u d i a n t i m b u l k e s a d a r a n , b a h w a p e r t u m b u h a n e k o n o m i b u k a n l a h s e g a l a -g a l a n y a , k a r e n a p e m b a n g u n a n m e m p u n y a i a r h y a n g l u a s y a n g m e n c a k u p j u g a a s p e k - a s p e k e k o n o m i - s o s i a l y a n g d i k e n a l s e b a g a i a r t i b a r u d a r i p e m b a n g u n a n ( b a n d i n g k a n P a r t a d i r e d j a ) . T i t i k b a l i k d a l a m p e m i k i r a n a r t i d a r i p e m b a n g u n a n t e r j a d i k e t i k a B a n k D u n i a m e n g u m u m k a n P e a r s o n R e p o r t t a h u n 1 9 6 8 , y a n g m e m b e r i k a n a r t i b a r u d a r i p e m b a n g u n a n , y a n g l e b i h m e n i t i k b e r a t k a n p a d a m a s a l a h k e m i s k i n a n d a n k e t i d a k m e r a t a a n ( M e i e r , h a l . 8 7 ) . M e n g i k u t i p e r u b a h a n a r t i b a r u i n i d e n g a n m e n g u t i p T o d a r o , m a k a

"Development must therefore be conceived of as a multidimensional process involving major changes in social structures, popular attitudes, and national institutions, as well as the acceleration of economic growth, the reduction of inequality, and the eradication of poverty." ( T o d a r o , h a l . 16).

P e r h a t i a n d a r i p a r a s a r j a n a e k o n o m i p e m b a n g u n a n j u g a b e r a l i h d a r i t e k a n a n p a d a m o d a l p b i s i k k e s u m b e r d a y a m a n u s i a ( M e i e r , h a l . 8 7 ) . D a n s e t e l a h i t u b a n y a k b e r m u n c u l a n p a r a d i g m a b a r u s e p e r t i t e o r i dependencia, basic needs ( B a n d i n g k a n S t r e e t e n , 1 9 8 2 , h a l . 1 2 , 1 6 ) , d a n s e d e r e t a n l a g i s e p e r t i :

"Investment in man, employment orientation, basic needs, growth with equity, a new international economic order, sustainable development.... 'women in development', 'regional development', 'spatial development' 'community development'." ( A r n d t , 1992, h a l . 16-17).

S e r i n g d i k a t a k a n b a h w a t e o r i - t e o r i b e s a r i n i k e b a n y a k a n s u d a h t i d a k a k t u a l l a g i d a n t e r b u k t i k e l i r u ( M a r t i n , h a l . 2 9 9 ) . B i l a t e o r i - t e o r i b e s a r d i b i d a n g e k o n o m i p e m b a n g u n a n d e w a s a i n i k u r a n g m e n d a p a t k a n p e r h a t i a n , i n i b a r a n g k a l i d i s e b a b k a n k a r e n a t e o r i - t e o r i i n i h a n y a m e n e r a n g k a n s e b a g i a n k e c i l s a j a d a r i f e n o m e n a p e m b a n g u n a n y a n g

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s a n g a t k o m p l e k s d a n s u l i t d i t e r a p k a n d a l a m p r a k t e k ( b a n d i n g k a n M a r t i n , h a l . 3 1 3 ) . M e m a n g k e c e n d e r u n g a n s e k a r a n g i n i a d a l a h l e b i h d i t u j u k a n k e p a d a m e m a h a m i d a n m e m e c a h k a n m a s a l a h - m a s a l a h s e k t o r a l d a n p e n t i n g t e r t e n t u , s e d a n g k e c e n d e r u n g a n d a r i a h l i - a h l i m u d a a d a l a h b e r m a i n - m a t n d e n g a n m o d e l - m o d e l e k o n o m e t r i . B i d a n g k a j i a n i l m u e k o n o m i p e m b a n g u n a n d e w a s a i n i j u g a t i d a k t e r l e p a s d a r i r e v o l u s i m o d e l - m o d e l e k o n o m e t r i y a n g m e l a n d a k a j i a n i l m u e k o n o m i p a d a u m u m n y a . M i s a l n y a , d a l a m s u a t u K o n p e r e n s i t e n t a n g p e m b a n g u n a n e k o n o m i s e o r a n g p r o f e s o r m u d a d a r i M I T m e n u l i s t e n t a n g Elephants/ T e o r i - t e o r i y a n g b e r a s a l d a r i n e g a r a - n e g a r a m a j u s e r i n g d i k r i t i k , k a r e n a d i r a s a k a n t i d a k c o c o k u n t u k d i t e r a p k a n d i n e g a r a - n e g a r a s e d a n g b e r k e m b a n g , a p a l a g i y a n g m e n g g u n a k a n m o d e l - m o d e l e k o n o m e t r i y a n g c a n g g i b . K e a d a a n i n i d i k e n a l s e b a g a i / a / s e paradigm model a t a u p u n t e o r i p e r t u m b u h a n b a r u ( T o d a r o , h a l . 8 3 , 8 8 - 9 0 ; b a n d i n g k a n j u g a W i a r d a ) . M o d e l - m o d e l y a n g s e m a k i n c a n g g i b h a n y a s e m a k i n m e m b e r i g e n g s i k e p a d a p e m b u a t n y a , t e t a p i a p a k a b m o d e l - m o d e l i n i d a p a t m e m e c a h k a n m a s a l a h - m a s a l a h b e s a r y a n g d i h a d a p i n e g a r a - n e g a r a s e d a n g b e r k e m b a n g s e p e r t i k e l a p a r a n , k e m i s k i n a n , k e b o d o h a n , p e n g a n g g u r a n , k e k u r a n g a n m o d a l , p e r d a g a n g a n l u a r n e g e r i , k e s e h a t a n y a n g k u r a n g , d l l . , m a s i h m e r u p a k a n p e r t a n y a a n . M e m a n g t u j u a n d a r i p e m b u a t a n m o d e l a d a l a h m e n c a r i j a w a b a n y a n g e k s a k d a r i h u b u n g a n - h u b u n g a n a n t a r a b e r b a g a i v a r i a b e l e k o n o m i , t e t a p i a p a k a b m o d e l - m o d e l i n i b i s a d i p r a k t e k k a n ? T e r u t a m a p a r a a h l i e k o n o m i p e m b a n g u n a n m u d a * s e k a r a n g i n i a s y i k b e r m a i n - m a i n d e n g a n m a s a l a h - m a s a l a h y a n g s e p e l e s e p e r t i c o n t o h " g a j a h " d i a t a s , p a d a h a l m a s a l a h - m a s a l a h y a n g b e s a r m e n u n g g u p e m e c a h a n y a n g m e n d e s a k . Y a n g m e r e k a l a k u k a n a d a l a h m e m b e n a m k a n d i r i d i p e r p u s t a k a a n m e n c a r i d a t a - d a t a d a r i p a d a t u r u n k e l a p a n g a n m e l i h a t k e n y a t a a n d u n i a y a n g a d a .

4. PARADIGMA NEO-MARXIST P e m b a h a s a n m e n g e n a i m a s a l a h - m a s a l a h p e m b a n g u n a n t i d a k b i s a t e r l e p a s d a r i s u m b a n g a n - s u m b a n g a n p i k i r a n k e l o m p o k n e o - M a x i s t s e p e r t i P a u l B a r a n ( 1 9 5 7 ) d a n A n d r e G u n d e r F r a n k ( 1 9 6 7 ) . M e n u r u t

5 M. Kremer, C . Morcom, "Elephants", makalah pada Northeast Universities Development Consortium Conference, Boston, November 1-2,1996.

6 Di Amerika Serikat dewasa ini banyak guru besar ekonomi pembangiman yang masih muda yang berasal dari negara-negara sedang berkembang.

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B a r a n d a n F r a n k , k e t e r b e l a k a n g a n a d a l a h s u a t u p r o s e s p e n g a m b i l a n s u r p l u s y a n g h e r k e l a n j u t a n d a r i n e g a r a - n e g a r a s e d a n g b e r k e m b a n g d a n p e n g a l i h a n n y a k e p u s a t - p u s a t k a p i t a l i s m e d u n i a . P r o s e s i n i m e n y e b a b k a n p e m i s k i n a n m a s s a . S e b a b d a r i k e t e r b e l a k a n g a n t e r l e t a k p a d a k e g a g a l a n k e l a s y a n g d o m i n a n d i n e g a r a - n e g a r a s e d a n g b e r k e m b a n g u n t u k m e m a n f a a t k a n s u r p l u s u n t u k t u j u a n a k u m u l a s i p r o d u k t i f d i p e r e k o n o m i a n d o m e s t i k . S e b a l i k n y a , s u r p l u s y a n g d i p e r o l e h d a r i p e t a n i m i s k i n d a n p e k e r j a d i b a w a k e l u a r a t a u d i p a k a i u n t u k b e l a n j a k o n s u m s i m e w a h , p e m b e l i a n t a n a h d a n s p e k u l a s i t a n a h d i k o t a . B e d a d e n g a n p e r k e m b a n g a n n e g a r a - n e g a r a m a j u , n e g a r a - n e g a r a s e d a n g b e r k e m b a n g m e l o m p a t i t a h a p a n competitive capitalism k a r e n a m e r e k a s u d a h t e r i n t e g r a s i d e n g a n p e r e k o n o m i a n i n t e m a s i o n a l . S e m e n t a r a i t u k e l a s y a n g m e n g u a s a i s u r p l u s j u g a m e n g u a s a i k e k u a s a a n p o l i t i k d a n m e r e k a m e n g g u n a k a n k e k u a s a a n i n i u n t u k m e m p e r t a h a n k a n k e d u d u k a n n y a . S e b a b i t u , j a l a n s a t u - s a t u n y a m e n u j u k e m a j u a n a d a l a h m e l a l u i r e v o l u s i s o s i a l d a n p o l i t i k . A . E m m a n u e l ( 1 9 6 9 ) m e m b e r i s u m b a n g a n p i k i r a n k e p a d a p a r a d i g m a n e o - M a r x i s t i n i m e l a l u i t e o r i p e r t u k a r a n y a n g t i d a k s e i m b a n g . ( L i h a t H u n t , h a l . 6 5 - 6 6 ; c h . 6 ) .

5 . PARADIGMA DEPENDENCIA K e l o m p o k tructuralist p e n g a n u t p a r a d i g m a k e t e r g a n t u n g a n (dependency) b e r k e m b a n g d i A m e r i k a L a t i n d i a k h i r t a h u n 1 9 6 0 - a n , d i m u l a i d e n g a n b u k u A n d r e G u n d e r F r a n k Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America t a h u n 1 9 6 7 ( M e n z e l , h a l . 4 9 ) . P a r a d i g m a i n i a d a l a h p e n g e m b a n g a n l e b i h l a n j u t d a r i t e o r i k l a s i k t e n t a n g i m p e r i a l i s m e d a n j u g a t e o r i - t e o r i p e r d a g a n g a n i n t e m a s i o n a l d a r i R a u l P r e b i s c h d a n H a n s S i n g e r ( M e n z e l , h a l . 4 6 ) . A d a l a h P r e b i s c h y a n g m e r u p a k a n s a l a h s a t u d a r i e k s p o n e n E C L A y a n g p e r t a m a k a l i m e n g g u n a k a n i s t i i a h "centre" u n t u k n e g a r a - n e g a r a m a j u d a n periphery u n t u k n e g a r a - n e g a r a s e d a n g b e r k e m b a n g ( K a g a m i , h a l . 1 6 8 ) , s e d a n g F r a n k m e n g g u n a k a n i s t i i a h satellite d a n metropolis.

A n t a r a a n a l i s i s n e o - M a r x i s t m e m a n g a d a k e s a m a a n n y a d e n g a n a n a l i s i s k e l o m p o k s t r u k t u r a l i s , n a m u n k e d u a n y a t i d a k l a h s a m a . K e l o m p o k n e o - M a r x i s t m e n g g u n a k a n a n a l i s i s p e r h e d a a n k e l a s u n t u k m e n j e l a s k a n k e a d a a n k e t e r b e l a k a n g a n y a n g h e r k e l a n j u t a n , d i s a m p i n g k o n s e p s u r p l u s e k o n o m i . K e b a l i k a n n y a , k e l o m p o k s t m k t u r a l i s m e l i h a t s t r u k t u r e k o n o m i y a n g a d a s e b a g a i s e b a b d a r i k e t e r b e l a k a n g a n .

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K e b a n y a k a n d a r i k e l o m p o k s t r u k t u r a l i s m e n e k a n k a n p e r a n a k t i f d a r i k e b i j a k a n e k o n o m i u n t u k m e r u b a h k e a d a a n , m i s a l n y a m e l a l u i k e b i j a k a n s u b s t i t u s i i m p o r . S e d a n g k a n k e l o m p o k n e o - M a r x i s t m e l i h a t b a h w a m a s s a l a h y a n g h a r u s m e n g a m b i l a l i h k e k u a s a a n , m e n g u a s a i s u r p l u s e k o n o m i d a n m e n g a m b i l j a l a n p e m b a n g u n a n s o s i a l i s d e n g a n m e l e p a s k a n d i r i d a r i s i s t i m k a p i t a l i s i n t e m a s i o n a l . ( L i h a t H u n t , h a l . 6 7 ) .

K e l o m p o k dependencia d a l a m p e m a p a r a n n y a m e n e k a n k a n p e r a n p r o t e k s i s e b a g a i s a t u - s a t u n y a i n s t m m e n u n t u k m e l a k s a n a k a n p r o g r a m i n d u s t r i a l i s a s i . I n d u s t r i a l i s a s i t e r h e n t i s e t e l a h t a h a p s u b s t i t u s i i m p o r d a r i b a r a n g - b a r a n g y a n g p a l i n g m u d a h s u d a h j e n u h . B e b e r a p a p e n g a n u t n y a y a n g p e n t i n g a d a l a h P r e b i s c h , F u r t a d o , S i m k e l d i A m e r i k a L a t i n d a n d i n e g a r a - n e g a r a l a i n a d a l a h S e e r s , H i r s c b m a n . ( M a r t i n , h a l . 3 0 7 ) . L a i n -l a i n n y a a d a l a h A n d r e G u n d e r F r a n k d a n F . H . C a r d o s o d a r i A m e r i k a L a t i n , s e t e r u s n y a S a m i r A m i n , J o h a n G a l t u n g d a r i n e g a r a - n e g a r a l a i n ( S t r e e t e n , h a l . 1 5 ) . B e b e r a p a n a m a t e r k e n a i l a i n n y a d a r i A m e r i k a L a t i n a d a l a h T . d o s S a n t o s , C . F u r t a d o , R . S t a v e n h a g e n . P e n g a n u t - p e n g a n u t i n i t a n p a k e c u a l i b e r a l i r a n M a r x i s t . P a r a d i g m a dependencia" i n i t i d a k m e m p a k a n s a t u t e o r i y a n g b u l a t , t e t a p i d i a n t a r a p e n g a n u t - p e n g a n u t b a n y a k v a r i a s i d a n n u a n s a y a n g t i d a k h a n y a t e r b a t a s p a d a b i d a n g e k o n o m i s a j a , t e t a p i j u g a m e l u a s k e b i d a n g p o l i t i k , s o s i a l d a n b u d a y a .

T h e s i s s e n t r a l d a r i k e l o m p o k i n i a d a l a h b a h w a a p a y a n g t e r j a d i d i n e g a r a - n e g a r a s e d a n g b e r k e m b a n g a d a l a h the development of underdevelopment s e b a g a i m a n a j u d u l d a r i t u l i s a n F r a n k . Y a n g m e n j a d i m a s a l a h b u k a n l a h k e t e r g a n t x m g a n an sich, k a r e n a s e t i a p n e g a r a d a l a m b e n t u k s a t u a t a u l a i n n y a t e r g a n t u n g p a d a n e g a r a - n e g a r a l a i n n y a , t e t a p i k e t e r g a n t u n g a n y a n g t i m p a n g d a r i n e g a r a y a n g l e m a h k e p a d a n e g a r a y a n g k u a t k a r e n a h u b u n g a n i n i h a n y a a k a n m e n g u n t u n g k a n p i h a k y a n g k u a t d a n m e r u g i k a n y a n g l e m a h . N e g a r a - n e g a r a s e p e r t i C h i l i d a n B r a s i l m e m a n g m e n g a l a m i p e r t u m b u h a n e k o n o m i , t e t a p i p e m b a n g u n a r m y a a d a l a h p e m b a n g u n a n s a t e l i t which was neither selfgenerating nor self-perpetuating ( F r a n k , 1 9 9 2 , h a l . 1 1 1 ) . S e b a g a i k o n s e k u e n s i n y a , k e b i j a k a n y a n g d i a n j u r k a n n y a a d a l a h m e l e p a s k a n d i r i d a r i k e t e r g a n t u n g a n i n i y a n g d i k e n a l s e b a g a i autocentric development a t a s d a s a r self-reliance.

M e n u r u t H x m t s u m b a n g a n t e r b e s a r b a g i t e o r i dependence b e r a s a l d a r i d o s S a n t o s ( 1 9 6 9 ) i a m e n d e f i n i s i k a n dependence s e b a g a i :

300


"a conditioning situation in which economies of one group of countries are conditioned by the development and expansion of others. A relationship of interdependence between two or more countries or between such countries and the world trading system becomes a dependent relationship when some countries can expand through self-impulsion while others, being in a dependent position, can only expand as a reflection of the expansion of the dominant countries, which may have positive or negative effects on their immediate development." (Hunt, hal. 200).

P a r a d i g m a k e t e r g a n t u n g a n [dependency) t i d a k c u k u p m e y a k i n k a n d a n b a n y a k m e n d a p a t k r i t i k a n , k a r e n a d a l a m k e n y a t a a n n y a , n e g a r a n e g a r a y a n g d e k a t d e n g a n n e g a r a n e g a r a k a p i t a l i s s e p e r t i the newly industrialising economies y a n g j u s t r u m a j u , s e d a n g n e g a r a - n e g a r a y a n g m e n u t u p d i r i y a n g m e n g a l a m i s t a g n a s i ( P a p a n e k , h a l . 2 7 5 ; l i h a t j u g a S t r e e t e n , h a l . 1 5 ; H u n t , h a l . 6 7 , 2 2 0 ) . Seers s e n d i r i m e n g k r i t i k b a h w a t i d a k a d a s a t u n e g a r a p u n y a n g b e n a r - b e n a r b i s a m a n d i r i t a n p a t e r g a n t u n g p a d a n e g a r a l a i n , k h u s u s n y a d i b i d a n g k e b u t u h a n m i n y a k , b a h a n m a k a n a n d a n t e k n o l o g i . Seers m e l i h a t a d a n y a degrees of dependence. ( L i h a t H u n t , h a l . 2 1 8 ) . P a r a d i g m a i n i m u l a i m e m u d a r p a d a p a r u h p e r t a m a d a r i d a s a w a r s a t a h u n 1 9 8 0 - a n ( M e n z e l , h a l . 4 7 - 4 9 ) .

6. T E O R I BARU

P e r k e m b a n g a n b a r u d i b i d a n g t e o r i p e m b a n g u n a n y a n g b a n y a k m e n a r i k p e r h a t i a n d a t a n g d a r i P e r u o l e h H e r n a n d o d e S o t o y a n g t a h u n 1 9 8 6 m e n u l i s b u k u d e n g a n j u d u l El Otro Sendero (The Other Path). P e m i k i r a n n y a t i d a k t e r l e p a s d a r i k e a d a a n e k o n o m i d i n e g a r a n y a y a n g k h a s . D i s a n a s i s t i m h u k u m n y a b e r b e l i t - b e l i t d a n t e r l a l u b a n y a k p e r a t u r a n , s e h i n g g a u n t u k m e m b u k a s u a t u u s a h a d i b u t u h k a n w a k t u b e r t a h u n - t a h u n d a n b a n y a k u a n g k a r e n a h i r o k r a s i d a n k o r u p s i . K a r e n a i t u b a n y a k o r a n g t e r p a k s a m e n g a m b i l j a l a n p i n t a s , s e b a b t i d a k m e m p u n y a i b a n y a k u a n g u n t u k m e n y o g o k d a n t i d a k m e m i l i k i k o n e k s i d i h i r o k r a s i , d e n g a n m e m b u k a u s a h a s e c a r a g e l a p a t a u s e c a r a i n f o r m a l . A k i h a t n y a s e b a g i a n b e s a r e k o n o m i P e r u b e r t o p a n g p a d a s e k t o r i n f o r m a l i n i . N a m u n k e d u d u k a n s e k t o r i n f o r m a l i n i s a n g a t l e m a h d a l a m h a l i z i n u s a h a , p e m i l i k a n t a n a h d a n b a n g u n a n , p e r o l e h a n k r e d i t p e r b a n k a n , d a n p e m e r a s a n . S e b a b i t u a n j u r a n d e S o t o a d a l a h m e m b e r d a y a k a n s e k t o r

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i n f o r m a l i n i i m t u k m e n c a p a i p e m b a n g u n a n . ( L i h a t I n t e m a t i o n a l H e a l t h & D e v e l o p m e n t , J e r e m y M a i n , M a r i o V a r g a s L l o s a , J u w o n o S u d a r s o n o ) .

6. KAJIAN YANG MULTIDISIPLINER

D a l a m g a r i s b e s a m y a k a j i a n e k o n o m i p e m b a n g u n a n m e m b a h a s s e g a l a p e r m a s a l a h a n y a n g d i h a d a p i n e g a r a - n e g a r a s e d a n g b e r k e m b a n g d i b i d a n g e k o n o m i . P e r k e m b a n g a n p e m b a n g u n a n e k o n o m i s u d a h s e j a k d a r i a w a l n y a d i r a s a k a n p e r l u n y a m e m a s u k k a n b i d a n g - b i d a n g l a i n s e p e r t i p o l i t i k , s o s i a l d a n f a k t o r s o s i a l d i l u a r e k o n o m i ( M a r t i n , h a l . 2 9 9 ) . P e m b a n g u n a n ( t a n p a t a m b a h a n e k o n o m i ) h a r u s d i k a j i d a r i b e r b a g a i a s p e k i l m u - i l m u s o s i a l s e k a l i g u s s e c a r a m u l t i d i s i p l i n e r . S e b a b k i t a t i d a k b i s a m e m a h a m i m a s a l a h - m a s a l a h p e m b a n g u n a n h a n y a d e n g a n m e l i h a t a s p e k e k o n o m i n y a s a j a , b e g i t u p u n k i t a t i d a k b i s a m e m b u a t k e b i j a k a n d a r i s i s i e k o n o m i b e l a k a t a n p a m e m p e r h a t i k a n a s p e k a s p e k s o s i a l l a i n n y a . H a l i n i j u g a s u d a h d i s a d a r i o l e h b e b e r a p a s a r j a n a e k o n o m i p e m b a n g i m a n s e p e r t i a l m a r h u m S e e r s , L e w i s , W e i s s k o p f , M y r d a l , R o s t o w , H a g e n ( U h a t M i n o g u e , h a l . 2 4 1 - 2 ) d a n H o s e l i t z .

E v e r e t t E . H a g e n ' t e l a h m e n y u s u n s u a t u t e o r i u m u m t e n t a n g p e m b a n g u n a n y a n g d i d a s a r k a n p a d a s e r a n g k a i a n f a k t o r s o s i o l o g i s , a n t h r o p o l o g i s d a n p s i k o l o g i s . P e n e k a n a n t e o r i e k o n o m i d a l a m k a j i a n p e m b a n g u n a n k u r a n g b e r g u n a u n t u k m e n j e l a s k a n t e r j a d i n y a k e m a j u a n d a n p e m b a n g u n a n e k o n o m i d i s u a t u m a s y a r a k a t t r a d i s i o n a l . U n t u k m e m a h a m i t e n t a n g a d a a t a u t i d a k n y a k e m u n g k i n a n u n t u k k e m a j u a n e k o n o m i , p r a s y a r a t n y a i a l a h p e n g e r t i a n t e n t a n g s t r u k t u r i n t e r n a l m a s y a r a k a t t r a d i s i o n a l y a n g b e r s a n g k u t a n d a n b u k a n p a d a s e j u m l a h f a k t o r e k s t e m a l . B a r u s e t e l a h a d a p e r u b a h a n p a d a n i l a i - n i l a i b u d a y a d a n p e r i l a k u w a r g a m a s y a r a k a t s e n d i r i , m a k a p e r k e m b a n g a n e k o n o m i y a n g d i t a f i d a i o l e h a k u m u l a s i m o d a l d a n k e m a j u a n t e k n o l o g i b i s a b e r l a n g s u n g . ( L i h a t D j o j o h a d i k u s u m o , h a l . 6 6 - 7 ) . B e r t F . H o s e l i t z * b e r p e n d a p a t b a h w a s e g i s o s i a l b u d a y a d a n s e g i e k o n o m i h a r u s d i l i h a t s e b a g a i s u a t u p r o s e s i n t e r a k s i d a l a m p e r k e m b a n g a n k e a d a a n , s e d a n g r a n g k a i a n f a k t o r n o n - e k o n o m i s i t u s e n d i r i j u g a m e n g a l a m i p e r u b a h a n

7 Everett E. Hagen, On the Theory of Social Change. How Economic Growth Begins, 1964.

8 Bert F. Hosehtz, The Progress of Underdeveloped Areas, 1952, dan Sociological Aspects of Economic Growth, 1960.

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d a n p e n y e s u a i a n d e n g a n k e m a j u a n d a l a m p e r k e m b a n g a n e k o n o m i . K a j i a n m e n g e n a i t r a n s f o r m a s i m a s y a r a k a t d a r i s a t u t i n g k a t e k o n o m i t e r t e n t u k e t i n g k a t e k o n o m i b e r i k u t n y a y a n g l e b i h t i n g g i d i t a n d a i o l e h d i n a m i k a p e r u b a h a n m a s y a r a k a t (dynamics of social change). ( L i h a t D j o j o h a d i k u s u m o , h a l . 8 0 - 1 ) .

B e r i k u t i n i b e b e r a p a c o n t o h d a r i p e r l u n y a d i m a s u k k a n f a k t o r - f a k t o r n o n e k o n o m i s d a l a m m e m b a h a s m a s a l a h d a n s t r a t e g i p e m b a n g u n a n s e r t a d a l a m m e n e n t u k a n k e b i j a k a n p e m b a n g u n a n . S e r i n g a d a k r i t i k a n , t e r u t a m a d a r i p e n j a j a h , b a h w a k e l o m p o k p r i b u m i i t u s i f a t n y a m a l a s . S e o r a n g e k o n o m a k a n m e n g a t a k a n , b a h w a m a l a s b e r k a i t a n d e n g a n t i n g k a t u p a h y a n g d i b a y a r k a n . K a l a u s e s e o r a n g d i u p a h c u k u p t i n g g i , m a k a i a a k a n b e k e r j a d e n g a n k e r a s . A p a k a b b e n a r d e m i k i a n ? S . H . A l a t a s , g u r u b e s a r p a d a N a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y S i n g a p o r e , d a l a m b u k u n y a y a n g b e r j u d u l " M i t o s P r i b u m i M a l a s " m e l i h a t b u d a y a m a l a s s e b a g a i p e n i n g g a l a n d a r i m a s a p e n j a j a b a n y a n g r a t u s a n t a h u n l a m a n y a . J a d i d a r i f a k t o r s e j a r a h . A t a u k a h s i f a t m a l a s a d a l a h f a k t o r b u d a y a , k a l a u m e l i h a t b a h w a b a n g s a J e p a n g d a n K o r e a a d a l a h b a n g s a y a n g d i k e n a l s e b a g a i p e k e r j a k e r a s ? J . H . B o e k e m i s a l n y a m e n e m u k a n b a h w a p e k e r j a - p e k e r j a n e r k e h u n a n m e n g i k u t i p o l a backward-bending supply curve of labour, a r t i n y a m e s k i p u n u p a h d i t i n g k a t k a n t e t a p i j a m k e r j a m a l a h d i k u r a n g i .

M e n u r u t t e o r i e k o n o m i , t i n g k a t u p a h d i t e n t u k a n m e n u r u t k e s e i m b a n g a n a n t a r a p e r m i n t a a n d a n p e n a w a r a n d i p a s a r t e n a g a k e r j a . P a d a t i n g k a t u p a h i n i , t i d a k t e r d a p a t p e n g a n g g u r a n . k a r e n a s e t i a p o r a n g y a n g b e r s e d i a b e k e r j a p a d a t i n g k a t u p a h i n i b i s a m e n d a p a t k a n p e k e r j a a n . T e t a p i b a g a i m a n a b i l a u p a h h a r i a n i n i a d a l a h m i s a l n y a R p . 2 0 0 0 s e h a r i d i J a k a r t a ? A p a k a b i n i b i s a d i t e r i m a s e c a r a s o s i a l d a n p o l i t i s , a p a k a b t i d a k a k a n m e n i m b u l k a n k e r u s u h a n ?

S u a t u k e t i k a M e n t e r i S o s i a l k i t a m e m b a n g u n p e r u m a h a n b a g i p e n d u d u k a s l i d i l e m b a h B a l i e m , I r i a n J a y a . S e t e l a h r u m a h n y a s e l e s a i , p e n d u d u k m e n o l a k m e n e m p a t i r u m a h - r u m a h t e r s e b u t , k a r e n a m e r e k a t i d a k m e n g e n a i s i s t i m k e l u a r g a , m e r e k a b i a s a t i n g g a l d i r u m a h l a k i - l a k i ( h o n a i ) a t a u r u m a h p e r e m p u a n . J a d i f a k t o r a n t h r o p o l o g i j u g a p e r l u d i p e r h i t u n g k a n . j

I t u l a h b e b e r a p a c o n t o h . S e b a b p e m b a n g u n a n h a r u s l a h d i l i h a t s e c a r a u t u h d e n g a n m e l i b a t k a n a h l i - a h l i d a r i b e r b a g a i b i d a n g s e l a i n e k o n o m i s e p e r t i s o s i o l o g i , p o l i t i k , s e j a r a h , a n t h r o p o l o g i , h u k u m , l i n g k u n g a n .

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a g a m a , p s i k o l o g i , d e m o g r a f i , d a n l a i n - l a i n . A k h i r - a k h i r i n i m a s a l a h g e n d e r j u g a b a n y a k m e n d a p a t p e r h a t i a n d a l a m d i s k u s i p e m b a n g u n a n d a n k e l o m p o k p e r e m p u a n b a h k a n d i i d e n t i f i k a s i k a n s e b a g a i k e l o m p o k p e n d u d u k m i s k i n ( T o d a r o , h a l . 1 5 6 - 9 ) . H a n y a s a j a , m e n u r u t W i d j o j o N i t i s a s t r o , a d a d u a a r g u m e n m e n g a p a i l m u - i l m u s o s i a l n o n - e k o n o m i b e l u m c u k u p d i m a n f a a t k a n d a l a m m e r u m u s k a n k e b i j a k s a n a a n p e m b a n g u n a n :

a . I h n u p e n g e t a h u a n s o s i a l b e l u m m e m p u n y a i p e r a l a t a n a n a l i s a s e r t a m e t o d o l o g i y a n g c u k u p b a i k ;

b . B a h a n k e t e r a n g a n a t a u d a t a y a n g d i p e r l u k a n u n t u k a n a l i s a m a s i h s a n g a t t e r b a t a s . P a d a h a l b i d a n g - b i d a n g s o s i a l d a n e k o n o m i i n i t i d a k b i s a d i p i s a h k a n s a t u s a m a l a i n n y a . ( N i t i s a s t r o , 1 9 7 0 ) .

D i F a k u l t a s F k o n o m i U n i v e r s i t a s I n d o n e s i a , a d a m a t a k u l i a h y a n g n a m a n y a F a k t o r - F a k t o r N o n - F k o n o m i d a l a m P e m b a n g u n a n d i s a m p i n g m a t a k u l i a h F k o n o m i P e m b a n g u n a n ( l i h a t N i t i s a s t r o ) . B e b e r a p a b u k u y a n g m e n a r i k u n t u k d i k a j i a d a l a h m i s a l n y a F m i l S a l i m : P e m b a n g u n a n B e r w a w a s a n L i n g k u n g a n ; K o e n t j a r a n i n g r a t : K e b u d a y a a n , M e n t a l i t e t d a n P e m b a n g u n - a n ; S o e d j a t m o k o : D i m e n s i M a n u s i a d a l a m P e m b a n g i m a n d a n Development and Freedom; S a s t r a p r a t e d j a , R i b e r u d a n P a r e r a ( p e n y u n t i n g ) , M e n g u a k M i t o s - m i t o s P e m b a n g u n a n ; a r t i k e l S a r t o n o K a r t o d i r d j o t e n t a n g A s p e k S e j a r a h d a l a m F k o n o m i P e m b a n g u n a n . L i h a t j u g a k u m p u l a n k a r a n g a n d a r i L e e s o n d a n M i n o g u e , Perspectives on Development, Cross-disciplinary Themes in Development.

7. IMPLIKASI BAGI INDONESIA

B a g i p e m e r i n t a h , y a n g m e n y u s u n k e b i j a k s a n a a n p e m b a n g u n a n p e r l u a d a n y a s u a t u p a r a d i g m a p e m b a n g u n a n . S e b a b , b i l a t i d a k , m a k a s e t i a p p e l a k u e k o n o m i a k a n b e r t i n d a k s e n d i r i - s e n d i r i m e n u r u t k e p e n t i n g a n n y a m a s i n g - m a s i n g t a n p a p o l a t e r t e n t u k a r e n a t i d a k a d a p i h a k y a n g m e n g a r a h k a n n y a , s a m a s e p e r t i l a l u - l i n t a s b i l a l a m p u m a t i . L a n g k a h p e n t i n g t e l a h d i a m b i l o l e h C S I S d e n g a n m e m p r a k a r s a i s u a t u s e m i n a r d e n g a n j u d u l M e n c a r i P a r a d i g m a B a r u P e m b a n g u n a n I n d o n e s i a , A g u s t u s 1 9 9 6 , s e k a l i g u s b e r t e p a t a n d e n g a n p e r a y a a n 5 0 t a h u n I n d o n e s i a m e r d e k a . S a y a n g n y a s e m i n a r t a d i h d a k m e n a m p i l k a n p e m i k i r - p e m i k i r d a n p a r a d i g m a b a r u y a n g i n g i n d i c a r i , h i n g g a s e m i n a r b e r a k h i r t i d a k

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j u g a k e l u a r p a r a d i g m a b a r u i n i , s e h i n g g a l e b i h t e p a t j i k a s e m i n a r t e r s e b u t d i b e r i j u d u l P e r e k o n o m i a n I n d o n e s i a M e n j e l a n g E r a L i b e r a l i s a s i . H a n y a b a h a s a n E m i l S a l i m m e n g k a i t k a n p e m b a n g u n a n d e n g a n p o l i t i k , b a h w a k e b e r h a s i l a n p e m b a n g u n a n m e m b u t u h k a n k e b e b a s a n p o l i t i k s e j a l a n d e n g a n k e b e b a s a n e k o n o m i ( P a n g e s t u d a n S e t i a t i , h a l . 1 0 - 1 1 ) . D a n t u l i s a n B u n g a r a n S a r a g i h ( s e b a g a i o r a n g p e r t a n i a n ) y a n g m e r a s a p e r l u n y a p a r a d i g m a p e m b a n g u n a n I n d o n e s i a b a r u d e n g a n p e n e k a n a n p a d a p e n g e m b a n g a n a g r o i n d u s t r i s e b a g a i leading sector ( P a n g e s t u d a n S e t i a t i , h a l . 1 1 9 ) .

8. BAHAN BACAAN

A l a t a s , S . H . 1 9 8 8 . M i t o s Pribumi Malas, Citra Orang }awa, Melayu dan Filipina dalam Kapitalisme Kolonial, J a k a r t a : L P 3 E S .

An Interview with Hernando de Soto, I n t e m a t i o n a l H e a l t h & D e v e l o p m e n t , .. M a r c h / A p r i l 1 9 8 9 .

A m d t , H . W . 1 9 9 1 . Pembangunan Ekonomi, S t u d i T e n t a n g S e j a r a h P e m i k i r a n , J a k a r t a : L P 3 E S . ^

, 1 9 9 2 . The Search for a New Development Paradigm, P a n g l a y k i m M e m o r i a l L e c t u r e , J a k a r t a , M a y 1 4 .

, 1 9 9 3 . 50 Years of Development Studies, C a n b e r r a : N a t i o n a l C e n t r e f o r D e v e l o p m e n t S t u d i e s .

A r s y a d , L . 1 9 9 2 . Ekonomi Pembangunan, e d i s i k e - 2 , Y o g y a k a r t a : B a g i a n P e n e r b i t a n S T I E Y K P N .

B a r d a n , P . 1 9 8 8 . A l t e m a t i v e A p p r o a c h e s A s D e v e l o p m e n t E c o n o m i c s , i n : H . C h e n e r y : T . N . S r i n i v a s a n ( e d s . ) H a n d b o o k o f D e v e l o p m e n t E c o n o m i c s . V o l . I , A m s t e r d a m , e t c . : N o r t h H o l l a n d , h a l 3 9 - 7 1 . 1

B e h r m a n , J . ; T . N . S r i n i v a s a n ( e d s . ) 1 9 9 5 H a n d b o o k o f D e v e l o p m e n t E c o n o m i c s , V o l . I I I A a n d I I I B , A m s t e r d a m : E l s e v i e r . |

B e l l , C . 1 9 8 9 . Development Economics, i n : J . E a t w e l l , M . M i l g a t e , P . N e w m a n ( e d s . ) , E c o n o m i c D e v e l o p m e n t , T h e N e w P a l g r a v e , N e w Y o r k a n d L o n d o n : W . W . N o r t o n & C o . , h a l . 1 - 1 7 .

B h a g w a t i , J . N . 1 9 8 4 . Development Economics: What Have We Learnt?, i n : J . N . B h a g w a t i , W e a l t h a n d P o v e r t y , e d i t e d b y G . G r o s s m a n 1 9 8 5 . E s s a y s i n D e v e l o p m e n t E c o n o m i c s , V o l . I , C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . : T h e M I T

. I

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P r e s s , h a l . 1 3 - 3 1 .

B o e c k h , A . 1 9 9 3 . Entwicklungstheorien: Eine Rueckschau, d a l a m N o h l e n , D . ; F . N u s c h e l e r ( p e n y u n t i n g ) ( 1 9 9 3 ) , H a n d b u c h d e r D r i t t e n W e l t , B a n d 1 . G r u n d p r o b l e m e - T h e o r i e n - S t r a t e g i e n , B o n n : J . H . W . D i e t z N a c h f . G m b H .

B o e k e , J . H . ; D . H . B u r g e r . 1 9 7 3 . Ekonomi Dualistis. D i a l o g A n t a r a B o e k e d a n B u r g e r , J a k a r t a : B h r a t a r a .

B r a u n , G . 1 9 9 0 . The Poverty of Conventional Development Concepts, E c o n o m i c s , V o l . 4 2 , T u e b i n g e n : I n s t i t u t e f o r S c i e n t i f i c C o - o p e r a t i o n .

D j o j o h a d i k u s u m o , S u m i t r o . 1 9 5 5 . Ekonomi Pembangunan, J a k a r t a : P T P e m b a n g u n a n .

, 1 9 9 4 . Dasar Teori Ekonomi Pertumbuhan dan Ekonomi Pembangunan, J a k a r t a : L P 3 E S .

E l g u e a , J . 1 9 8 5 . Paradigms and Scientific Revolutions in Development Theories, D e v e l o p m e n t a n d C h a n g e , V o l . 1 6 N o . 2 , t h e H a g u e : S A G E P u b l i c a t i o n s , h a l . 2 1 3 - 2 3 3 .

F e l d s i e p e r , M . 1 9 9 1 . Development Theory, Development Policy and Polio/ Dialogue, Some Remarks on the Consequences of Thirty Years of Policy Trial and Error(s), E c o n o m i c s , V o l . 4 3 , T u e b i n g a n : I n s t i t u t e f o r S c i e n t i f i c C o - o p e r a t i o n , h a l . 2 8 - 3 9 .

G i l l , R . T . 1 9 6 3 . Economic Development. Past and Present, E n g l e w o o d C l i f f s , N . J . : P r e n t i c e - H a U I n c .

G i l l i s , M ; D . H . P e r k i n s ; M . R o e m e r ; D . R . S n o d g r a s s . 1 9 9 6 . Economics of Development, 4 t h e d . . N e w Y o r k , L o n d o n : W . W . N o r t o n & C o .

H a g e n , E . E . 1 9 7 5 . The Economics of Development, r e v i s e d e d . , H o m e w o o d , 111.: R . D . I r w i n , I n c .

H e r r i c k , B . , C P . K i n d l e b e r g e r . 1 9 8 3 . Economic Development, 4 t h e d . , A u c k l a n d , e t c . : M c G r a w - H i l l I n t e m a t i o n a l B o o k C o .

H i r s c b m a n , A . O . 1 9 8 4 . A Dissenter's Confession: 'The Strategy of Economic Development' Revisited, i n C M . M e i e r , D . S e e r s ( e d s . ) ( 1 9 8 4 ) , P i o n e e r s i n D e v e l o p m e n t , W o r l d B a n k , N e w Y o r k e t c . : O x f o r d U P , h a l . 8 7 - 1 1 1 .

H o g e n d o m , J . S . 1 9 9 2 . Economic Development, 2 n d e d . , N e w Y o r k :

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H a r p e r C o l l i n s P u b l i s h e r s I n c .

H u n t , D . . 1 9 8 9 . Economic Theories of Development, N e w Y o r k , e t c . : H a r v e s t e r W h e a t s h e a f . j

I

I r a w a n ; M . S u p a r m o k o 1 9 8 1 . Ekonomi Pembangunan, e d i s i k e - 3 , Y o g y a k a r t a : B a g i a n P e n e r b i t a n F E U G M .

J h i n g a n , M . L . 1 9 9 4 . Ekonomi Pembangunan dan Perencanaan, e d i s i 1 c e t a k a n 5 , J a k a r t a : R a j a G r a f i n d o P e r s a d a .

K a g a m i , M . . 1 9 9 2 . Latin America: Economic Development Theories and Their Policies i n T . I w a s a k i , T . M o r i , H . Y a m a g u c h i ( e d s . ) . D e v e l o p m e n t S t r a t e g i e s f o r t h e 2 1 s t C e n t u r y , T o k y o : I D E , h a l . 1 6 7 - 1 8 1 .

K a r t o d i r d j o , S a r t o n o 1 9 8 1 . Aspek Sejarah dalam Ekonomi Pembangunan, E k o n o m i d a n K e u a n g a n I n d o n e s i a V o l . X X I X N o . 3 , J a k a r t a : L P E M -F E U I , h a l . 3 2 1 - 3 3 4 . I

K h o n d k e r , H . H . 1 9 9 0 . Development: Some Conceptual and Historical Issues, p a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e S o c i e t y f o r I n t e m a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t , E a s t A s i a a n d t h e P a c i f i c R e g i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e , J a k a r t a , 1 8 - 2 0 J u l y .

K o e n t j a r a n i n g r a t 1 9 7 9 . Kebudayaan, Mentalitet dan Pembangunan, c e t a k a n k e - 6 , J a k a r t a : P T G r a m e d i a .

K r u g m a n , P . 1 9 9 3 . Toward a Counter-Counterrevolution in Development Theory, P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e W o r l d B a n k A n n u a l C o n f e r e n c e o n D e v e l o p m e n t E c o n o m i c s 1 9 9 2 , h a l . 1 5 - 3 8 .

L a g o s , R . 1 9 7 6 . The Old Model and Its Abandonment, i n : T h e D e v e l o p m e n t o f D e v e l o p m e n t T h i n k i n g , B r i g h t o n : I n s t i t u t e o f D e v e l o p m e n t S t u d i e s , h a l . 2 7 - 3 1 .

L a i , D . 1 9 9 2 . The Misconceptions of 'Development Economies', i n : W i l b e r , C . K . , K . P . J a m e s o n ( e d s ) . T h e P o l i t i c a l E c o n o m y o f D e v e l o p m e n t a n d U n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t , 5 t h e d . , S i n g a p o r e : M c G r a w - H i l l , I n c . , h a l . 2 7 - 3 5 .

L e e s o n , P R ; M . M . M i n o g u e . 1 9 8 8 . Perspectives on Development, Cross-disciplinary Themes in Development, M a n c h e s t e r d a n N e w Y o r k : M a n c h e s t e r U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s . I

L e i b e n s t e i n , H . 1 9 6 6 . What Can We Expect from a Theory of Development?, K y k l o s , V o l . 1 9 N o . l , h a l . 1 - 2 1 .

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Lepi T. Tarmidi

L e w i s , J . P . ; V . K a l l a b ( e d s . ) . 1 9 8 6 . Development Strategies Reconsidered, O v e r s e a s D e v e l o p m e n t C o u n c i l .

L e w i s , W . A . 1 9 8 4 . The State of Development Theory, P r e s i d e n t i a l a d d r e s s d e l i v e r e d a t t h e n i n e t y - s i x t h m e e t i n g o f t h e A m e r i c a n E c o n o m i c A s s o c i a t i o n , D e c e m b e r 2 9 , 1 9 8 3 , S a n F r a n c i s c o , C a l i f o r n i a .

, 1 9 8 8 . The Roats of Development Theory, in: H. Chenery; T.N. Srinivisan (eds.), H a n d b o o k o f D e v e l o p m e n t E c o n o m i c s , V o l . I , A m s t e r d a m e t c . : N o r h H o l a n d , h a l . 2 7 - 3 7 .

L i t t l e , I . M . D . 1 9 8 2 . Economic Development, Theory, Policy, and International Relations, N e w Y o r k : B a s i c B o o k s , I n c .

L l o s a , M . V . 1 9 8 9 . The Silent Revolution, I n t e m a t i o n a l H e a l t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t , M a r c h / A p r i l , h a l . 1 7 - 1 9 .

M a i n , J . 1 9 8 9 . The Informal Route to Prosperity, I n t e m a t i o n a l H e a l t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t M a r c h / A p r i l , h a l . 1 4 - 1 7 .

M a r t i n , K . 1 9 8 4 . A Note on the Evolution of Development Thinking, E k o n o m i d a n k e u a n g a n I n d o n e s i a , V o l . X X X I I N o . 3 , S e p t e m b e r , J a k a r t a : L P E M - F E U I , h a l . 2 9 1 - 3 1 5 .

M c K a y , J . 1 9 9 0 . The Development Model, p a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e S o c i e t y f o r I n t e m a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t , E a s t A s i a a n d t h e P a c i f i c R e g i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e , J a k a r t a , 1 8 2 0 J u l y .

M e i e r , C M . 1 9 8 4 . The Formative Period, i n C M . M e i e r , D . S e e r s ( e d s . ) ( 1 9 8 4 ) , P i o n e e r s i n D e v e l o p m e n t , W o r l d B a n k , N e w Y o r k e t c . : O x f o r d U P , h a l . 3 - 2 4 .

M e i e r , C M . ( e d . ) . 1 9 9 5 . Leading Issues in Economic Development, N e w Y o r k , O x f o r d : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

M e n z e l , U . 1 9 9 1 . The End ofthe 'Third World' and the Failure of the Crand Theories L a w a n d S t a t e , V o l 4 4 , T u e b i n g e n : I n s t i t u t e f o r S c i e n t i f i c C o - o p e r a t i o n , h a l . 4 4 7 8 .

M i n o g u e , M . 1 9 8 8 . Problems of Theory and Practice in Development Studies, i n : L e e s o n , P . P . ; M . M . M i n o g u e , Perspectives on Development, Cross-disciplinary Themes in Development, M a r l c h e s t e r d a n N e w Y o r k : M a n c h e s t e r U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

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Masa Teori-Teori Besar Dalam Bidang iimu Ekonomi Pembangunan Teiah Beriaiu

M u r p h y , K . M . ; A . S h l e i f e r ; R . W . V i s h n y . 1 9 8 9 . Industrialization and the Big Push, J o u r n a l o f P o l i t i c a l E c o n o m y , V o l . 9 7 N o . 5 , h a l . 1 0 0 3 - 1 0 2 6 ) .

N a f z i g e r , E . W . 1 9 9 0 . The Economics of Developing Countries, 2 n d e d . , E n g l e w o o d C l i f f s , N . J . : P r e n t i c e - H a U , I n c .

N i t i s a s t r o , W i d j o j o e t a l . . 1 9 6 5 . Masalah-Masalah Ekonomi dan Faktor-Faktor IPOLSOS, D j a k a r t a : L P E M .

, 1 9 7 0 . Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial dan Pembangunan Nasional, s a m b u t a n p a d a S e m i n a r P e r k e m b a n g a n S o s i a l - B u d a y a d a l a m P e m b a n g u n a n N a s i o n a l , L I P I , J a k a r t a , 2 0 - 2 4 J a n u a r i . I

P a n g e s t u , M . ; I . S e t i a t i ( p e n y u n t i n g ) . 1 9 9 7 . Mencari Paradigma Baru Pembangunan Indonesia, J a k a r t a : C S I S .

P a p a n e k , C . F . 1 9 7 7 . Economic Development Theory: The Earnest Search for a Mirage, E c o n o m i c D e v e l o p m e n t a n d C u l t u r a l C h a n g e , V o l . 2 5 , S u p p l e m e n t , h a l . 2 7 0 - 2 8 7 .

P a r t a d i r e d j a , A . 1 9 8 0 . "Arti Baru Pembangunan", E k o n o m i d a n K e u a n g a n I n d o n e s i a , V o l . X X V I I I N o . 4 , J a k a r t a : L P E M - F E U I , h a l . 3 7 3 - 3 8 2 .

P r a y i t n o , H . ; B . S a n t o s a . 1 9 9 6 . Ekonomi Pembangunan, J a k a r t a : C h a l i a I n d o n e s i a .

P r e b i s c h , R . . 1 9 9 0 . Dependence, Development, and Interdependence, i n : C . R a n i s , T . P . S c h u l t z , T h e S t a t e o f D e v e l o p m e n t E c o n o m i c s , P r o g r e s s a n d P e r s p e c t i v e s ( e d s . ) , C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . : B a s i l B l a c k w e l l , I n c . , h a l . 3 1 - 4 8 . I

R a n i s , C u s t a v 1 9 7 7 . Development Theory at Three-Quarters Century, i n : M . N a s h ( e d . ) . E s s a y s o n E c o n o m i c D e v e l o p m e n t a n d C u l t u r a l C h a n g e i n H o n o r o f B e r t F . H o s e l i t z , C h i c a g o : T h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o P r e s s .

, J . C . H . F e i 1 9 9 0 . Development Economics: What Next?, i n : C . R a n i s , T . P . S c h u l t z , T h e S t a t e o f D e v e l o p m e n t E c o n o m i c s , P r o g r e s s a n d P e r s p e c t i v e s ( e d s . ) , C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . : B a s i l B l a c k w e l l , I n c . , h a l . 1 0 0 - 1 3 6 .

R a y , D . 1 9 9 8 . Development Economics, Princeton, N . J . : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s . I

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R o s e n s t e i n - R o d a n , R N . . 1 9 8 4 . Natura Facit Saltum: Analysis of the Disequilibrium Growth Process, i n G . M . M e i e r , D . S e e r s ( e d s . ) ( 1 9 8 4 ) , P i o n e e r s i n D e v e l o p m e n t , W o r l d B a n k , N e w Y o r k e t c . : O x f o r d U P , t i a l . 2 0 7 - 2 2 1 .

R o s t o w , W . W . 1 9 7 7 . The Stages of Economic Growth, 2 n d e d . r e p r i n t e d , L o n d o n , N e w Y o r k : C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

S a l i m , E m i l 1 9 8 6 . Pembangunan Berwawasan Lingkungan, J a k a r t a : L P 3 E S .

S a s t r a p r a t e d j a , M . , J . R i b e r u , P . M . P a r e r a . 1 9 8 6 . Menguak Mitos-Mitos Pembangunan, T e l a a h E t i s d a n K r i t i s , J a k a r t a : P T C r a m e d i a .

S e n , A . 1 9 8 8 . The Concept of Development, in: H. Chenery; T.N. Srinivasan (eds.). H a n d b o o k o f D e v e l o p m e n t E c o n o m i c s V o l . I c h . l , A m s t e r d a m , e t c . : N o r t h H o l l a n d , h a l 1 0 - 2 5 .

S o e d j a t m o k o 1 9 7 9 . Development and Freedom, I s h i z a k a M e m o r i a l L e c t u r e s , s t e n s i l a n .

, 1 9 8 3 . Dimensi Manusia dalam Pembangunan, J a k a r t a : L P 3 E S .

S t i g l i t z , J . E . 1 9 9 3 . Comment on 'Toward a Counter-Counterrevolution in Development Theory, by Krugman, P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e W o r l d B a n k A n n u a l C o n f e r e n c e o n D e v e l o p m e n t E c o n o m i c s 1 9 9 2 , h a l . 3 9 - 4 9 .

S t r e e t e n , P . 1 9 7 7 . Changing Perceptions of Development, F i n a n c e a n d D e v e l o p m e n t , V o l . 1 4 N o . 3 , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . : W o r l d B a n k .

S t r e e t e n , P . P . 1 9 8 2 . Development Ideas in Historical Perspective, E c o n o m i c I m p a c t , N o . 4 0 , 1 9 8 2 / 4 .

, 1 9 8 4 . Development Dichotomies, i n : C M . M e i e r , D . S e e r s ( e d s . ) . P i o n e e r s i n D e v e l o p m e n t , W a s h i n g t o n D . C . : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , A W o r l d B a n k P u b l i c a t i o n , h a l . 3 3 7 - 3 6 1 .

S u d a r s o n o , J u w o n o 1 9 9 0 . Jalan Lain' Hernando de Soto, Perlengkapan dan Pelembagaan Pembangunan, K o m p a s , J a k a r t a , 1 3 J u n i .

S u k i m o , S a d o n o 1 9 8 5 . Ekonomi Pembangunan, Proses, M a s a l a h , d a n D a s a r K e b i j a k s a n a a n , J a k a r t a , L e m b a g a P e n e r b i t F E U I .

S u n k e l , O . 1 9 7 6 . The Development of Development Thinking, i n : T h e D e v e l o p m e n t o f D e v e l o p m e n t T h i n k i n g , B r i g h t o n : I n s t i t u t e o f D e v e l o p m e n t S t u d i e s , h a l . 9 - 1 7 .

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T h i r l w a l l , A . P . . 1 9 8 9 . Growth and Development, With Special Reference to Developing Economies, L o n d o n a n d B a s i n g s t o k e : M a c m i l l a n E d u c a t i o n L t d .

T o d a r o , M . P . 1 9 9 7 . Economic Development, 6 t h e d . , N e w Y o r k , L o n d o n : L o n g m a n .

W a c l b r o e c k , J . 1 9 9 8 . Half a Century of Development Economies, in: T h e W o r l d B a n k E c o n o m i c R e v i e w . V o l . 1 2 , N o . 2 , h a l . 3 2 3 - 5 2 .

W i a r d a , H . J 1 9 9 2 . Toward a Nonethnocentric Theory of Development: Alternative Conceptions from the Third World, i n : W i l b e r , C . K . , K . P . J a m e s o n ( e d s ) . The Political Economy of Development and Underdevelopment, 5 t h e d . , S i n g a p o r e : M c G r a w - H i l l , I n c . , h a l . 5 5 - 7 9 .

W i g n a r a j a , P . 1 9 7 6 . An Annotated Agenda for the Discussion on 'New Development -Strategies, i n : T h e D e v e l o p m e n t o f D e v e l o p m e n t T h i n k i n g , B r i g h t o n : I n s t i t u t e o f D e v e l o p m e n t S t u d i e s , h a l . 3 5 - 4 4 .

W i r a t m o , M . 1 9 9 2 . Ekonomi Pembangunan, Ikhtisar Teori, M a s a l a h d a n K e b i j a k a n , Y o g y a k a r t a : M W M a n d a l a . •

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