Learning is the modification through experience of pre-existing
behavior and understanding.
Slide 2
Habituation is considered a simple form of adaptive learning.
Organisms stop paying attention to stimuli that are often repeated
and that dont signal any important environmental events.
Slide 3
A-PROCESSB-PROCESS The A-Process is an almost reflexive
increase or decrease in some response. The B-Process causes an
opposite or opposing response.
Slide 4
Ivan Pavlovs experiment was the first demonstration of
classical conditioning. Pavlovs experiment had three phases: Phase
One: A natural reflex and a neutral stimulus were established.
Phase Two: The neutral stimulus and the stimulus causing the
natural reflex were repeatedly paired. Third Phase: The neutral
stimulus alone caused some form of the natural reflex to
occur.
Slide 5
In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is paired with a
stimulus that elicits a reflex or other response until the formerly
neutral stimulus elicits a similar response. Elements UCS UCR CS
CR
Slide 6
The CS will continue to elicit a CR only if the UCS continues
to appear at least some of the time. If the CS and UCS are unpaired
(that is, the CS is not followed by the UCS), the CR gets weaker
and weaker and undergoes extinction.
Slide 7
However, the learned relationship between the CS and UCS isnt
completely forgotten. Reconditioningthe relationship between the CS
and UCS is relearned as the stimuli are paired once again. This
time the CS will elicit the CR much more rapidly. Spontaneous
Recoveryoccurs when, after no presentation of either the CS or the
UCS for a period of time, a single presentation of the CS elicits
the CR.
Slide 8
Stimulus generalization occurs when a stimulus similar but not
identical to the original stimulus also elicits the response.
Slide 9
Stimulus discrimination is a complementary process through
which organism learn to differentiate between stimuli that are
similar but not identical to the CS.
Slide 10
In classical condition, the CS acts as a signal that the UCS is
about to appear. Situations that highlight and strengthen the CS-
UCS relationship will produce stronger CRs.
Slide 11
Classical Conditioning produces the strongest CRs when the CS
precedes the UCS by no more than a few seconds.
Slide 12
A strong CR will be developed if a very noticeable CS is
reliably followed by the UCS.
Slide 13
The relationship between the CS and the UCS is learned faster
as the salience or intensity of the CS and UCS increases.
Slide 14
Often more than one CS is associated with a UCS. The Cs that is
most attended to will be the best predictor of the UCS.
Slide 15
Second-Order Conditioning, occurs when a second conditioned
stimulus predicts the presence of the first conditioned stimulus,
which predicts the presence of the UCS.
Slide 16
Humans and animals may be innately likely or biologically
prepared to learn certain adaptive associations. Nausea is likely
to be a conditioned response to an internal stimulus such as taste
(conditioned taste aversion), and pain is likely to be a
conditioned response to an external stimulus such as noise.
Slide 17
Learned Immune Responses. Immune responses can be classically
conditioned by pairing a neutral stimulus (CS) with a drug (UCS)
that, for example, prevents or reduces an allergy attack or
increases circulating natural killer cells. After conditioning, the
CS alone will elicit a conditioned immune response.
Slide 18
Phobias are fears of objects or situations that are not
harmful. Classical conditioning can both produce (via stimulus
generalization) and eliminate (through systematic desensitization)
phobias.
Slide 19
Some Ranchers have set out mutton laced with lithium for wolves
and coyotes. The dizziness and severe nausea (UCR) caused by the
lithium becomes associated with the taste and smell of mutton (CS)
thus making sheep an undesirable meal.
Slide 20
People learn more than just an association between neutral and
unconditioned stimuli. For many behaviors, the stimuli that follow
an action are important. In other words, people learn to respond in
a way that brings about positive consequences.
Slide 21
According to the law of effects, if a response made in the
presence of a particular stimulus is followed by a reward, that
response is more likely to be made the next time the stimulus is
encountered.
Slide 22
Responses that are instrumental meaning they help produce some
rewarding or desired effect, are learned; therefore, Thorndike
called this learning instrumental conditioning. Skinners emphasis
on how an organism learns to operate on its environment to produce
a positive effect led him to rename instrumental conditioning to
operant conditioning.
Slide 23
Operants and Reinforcers. Escape and Avoidance Conditioning
Punishment Discriminative Stimuli Stimulus Control
Slide 24
An operant is a behavioral response that has some effect on an
organisms environment. In operant conditioning people learn the
relationship between the operants and their consequences. A
reinforcer is a consequence that increases the probability that a
behavioral response will occur again.
Slide 25
Positive Reinforcersare positive stimuli that act like rewards.
Negative Reinforcersare negative stimuli that, once removed,
encourage or reinforce behavior.
Slide 26
Negative reinforcements are used in escape conditioning. In
escape conditioning, an organism learns behaviors that lead to an
escape from an unpleasant situation (negative reinforcement)
Slide 27
Negative reinforcements are used in avoidance conditioning. In
avoidance conditioning, an organism learns behaviors that allow it
to completely avoid an unpleasant situation. Avoidance conditioning
is very strong and may prevent an organism from learning new
behaviors.
Slide 28
Punishment presents an aversive stimulus or removes a pleasant
stimulus to decrease the frequency of a behavior.
Slide 29
It does not eliminate learning: it merely suppresses a
behavior. If an organism knows that punishment is not likely, then
the behavior is repeated It is not effective unless it immediately
follows the undesired behavior. May be associated with the punisher
so that eventually the punisher is feared. Organisms being punished
may learn to relate to others in an aggressive manner. Makes clear
what behaviors are incorrect, but it does not provided any
demonstration of desired behavior.
Slide 30
One should punish the behavior not the person. Punish
immediately Use severe enough punishment to eliminate the behavior.
Explain and reinforce more appropriate behaviors.
Slide 31
Discriminative Stimuli signal to an organism that reinforcement
is available if a certain response is made. This response is said
to be under stimulus control.
Slide 32
Recognizing a stimulus that is similar to the original stimulus
that signaled reinforcement.
Slide 33
Shaping Secondary Reinforcement Delay and Size of Reinforcement
Schedules of Reinforcement Schedules and Extinction
Slide 34
Shaping is the creation of new responses never before
displayed. Reinforcing successive approximations (behaviors more
and more like the desired response) of the desired behavior.
Slide 35
Often, operant conditioning will begin with primary
reinforcersevents or stimuli that are intrinsically rewardingfood.
A secondary reinforcer is a previously neutral stimulus that, if
paired with a stimulus that is already reinforcing, will itself
take on reinforcing properties.token economy.
Slide 36
Operant condition is strongest when the delay in receiving a
reinforcer is short, and when the reinforcer is large.
Slide 37
On a continuous reinforcement schedule, every correct response
receives a reward. On partial, or intermittent reinforcement
schedules, reinforcement is received only some of the time.
Slide 38
A reward is given after a fixed number of responses.
Slide 39
A reward is given after an average number of responses.
Slide 40
Rewards the first response displayed after a fixed time
interval.
Slide 41
Rewards the first response after a varying time interval.
Slide 42
Eliminating reinforcers for behavioral responses eventually
causes the behavioral response to cease. Partial reinforcement
extinction effect demonstrates that it is more difficult to
extinguish an operant behavior learned under a partial rather than
a continuous reinforcement schedule.
Slide 43
Primary reinforcers are items that fulfill basic needs or are
inherently rewarding experiences, such as relief from pain.
Slide 44
The Premack Principle asserts that each person has a hierarchy
of behvioral preferences, and that the higher an activity is in
that hierarchy, the greater its reinforcement power.
Slide 45
Contends that any activity can become a reinforcer if access to
it has been restricted for a time.
Slide 46
Biological psychologists have found that stimulation of
pleasure centers in the brain is a powerful reinforcer, suggesting
a physiological component to reinforcement.
Slide 47
Operant conditioning can be used to teach people the rules of
social behavior and to eliminate problematic behavior and reinforce
positive, desired behavior in people afflicted with mental
retardation, autism, and other behavior disorders. Operant
conditioning principles can also be used to help people understand
the stimuli that trigger behaviors they want to eliminate (smoking
or overeating). Understanding and avoiding discriminative stimuli
can reduce undesired behavior.
Slide 48
Cognitive processes, such as how people store, represent and
use information, can influence learning.
Slide 49
Humans and animals placed in situations that eliminate their
control over the environment tend to give up any effort to exert
control over their environment in a new situation. They learn to be
helpless
Slide 50
Learning that is not immediately evident in an organisms
behavior is known as latent learning.
Slide 51
Cognitive maps are mental representations of the
environment.
Slide 52
The cognitive process of insight involves understanding the
global organization of a problem.
Slide 53
A series of experiments by Bandura demonstrated that people
learn by watching others, which is termed observational
learning.
Slide 54
In vicarious conditioning, a type of observational learning, a
person learns new behaviors by observing the consequences
(reinforcement or punishment) of someone elses behavior.
Slide 55
Classrooms Across Cultures Studies show that the average
academic performance of U.S. students tends to lag behind that of
students in other countries. Suggested causes include static
classroom formats, and less time spent on practice. VS
Slide 56
B.F. Skinners machine gave students immediate feedback on their
answers to questions about course material presented in a window.
Today interactive computer programs work on the same
principle.
Slide 57
Active learning exercises improve memory of materials and make
classrooms more enjoyable. Active learning is a more elaborate
processing in which students solve problems in groups, think about
how material relates to what they know, and answer every question
asked by the teacher.
Slide 58
Practice is the most critical component of skill learning. How
much effort is put into practicing the skill, by working on a
variety of difficult problems or movements, will be a critical
factor in performance. Coaching is helpful in limited doses; the
learner should be encouraged to try independent practice in
addition to coaching.
Slide 59
Feedback let the learner know if she or he is correct and may
provide understanding of the cognitive and physical processes used
in the skill. Feedback should be given after a learner is done
practicing and should not be so detailed that the learner doesnt
have to learn from his or her own mistakes.
