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7/21/2019 Learner Strategies in Second Language Acquisition
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Learner Strategies In Second Language Acquisition
TUNKU MOHANI TUNKU MOHTAR
University of Malaya
Introduction
It is every teacher's wish to help his or her students become proficient in English.
More often than not ESL teachers find students having difficulty in learning
English. After using several approaches, methods or techniues, teachers often
wonder why students do not learn what teachers teach. !here is a gap between
teaching and learning. !eaching strategies may not be compatible with learningstrategies. "hile teachers develop strategies of teaching, students have their own
strategies of learning.
It is the ob#ective of this paper to put forward some learning strategies employed
by the learner and discuss their importance in terms of teaching and learning.
Learner strategies have been described to include any set of operations, steps,
plans or routines used by the learner to facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval
and use of information $%'Malley et al., &()* +rown et al., &(), that is, what
learners do to learn and do to regulate their learning $-ubin, &(. Learnerstrategies include metacognitive and cognitive activities. Metacognitive learning
strategies are generally applicable to a variety of learning tas/s and include the
/nowledge of cognitive operations of oneself or others and planning, monitoring
and evaluating a learning activity $+rown, &(0. 1ognitive strategies are often
specific to distinct learning activities and include steps in learning that reuire
direct analysis, transformation or synthesis of learning materials $+rown, &(0.
!he strategies used by learners are observable in the classroom. 2owever such a
display is observable among active students. !he learning strategies of the uiet
ones remain un/nown. 2ow do they learn3 2ow much control over learning dothese learners e4ercise3
!o gain a better insight into the learning process, it might be worthwhile
e4amining some theoretical constructs. !he learning process includes both
e4plicit and implicit /nowledge. +oth types of /nowledge facilitate the process
of getting, storing, retrieving and using information $+ialysto/, &(*
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McLaughlin, &(* Smith, &(&. 5or some learners and some tas/s, it is
assumed that conscious attention to the learning process is the first step to
ma/ing language automatic $-ubin, &(. +ialysto/ clarifies the learning
process and the learner's strategies in a model of second language learning.
According to +ialysto/, the learner ma/es use of three types of information in the
learning process. !hey are e4plicit /nowledge, implicit /nowledge and other
/nowledge. E4plicit /nowledge refers to conscious facts about the language such
as rules of grammar. Implicit /nowledge is intuitive information upon which the
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learner operates to produce responses such as comprehension or production.
%ther information includes information the learner brings to the language tas/
such as the cultural conte4t associated with particular words or e4pressions. !he
learner's responses can be spontaneous and immediate as in spea/ing $type & or
they can be deliberated and occur after a delay as in reading $type 0.
+ialysto/ identifies four strategies which the learner uses. !he formal and
functional practising enables the learner to increase his e4posure to the language.
In formal practising he focuses on the language code. !he learner would thus
refer to grammar boo/s, dictionaries and so on. 2e operates on information
already in e4plicit /nowledge for automising it and transferring it to implicit
/nowledge by means such as language drills. In functional practising, the learner
uses the language in communicative situations. Meaning is of primary
importance here. !he learner also monitors or uses conscious /nowledge of the
language to e4amine and modify or correct linguistic output. !his concept of
monitoring is similar to that postulated by 6rashen $& in his 7Monitor7theory. Since time is reuired for this conscious /nowledge to be utilised,
monitoring can only affect output after some delay. !he learner also uses
inferencing as a strategy whereby he may arrive at particular linguistic
information which was previously un/nown. Inferencing is an effective way to
increase comprehension of linguistic material $+ialysto/. &(. !he learner also
uses inferencing in e4ploiting information from other /nowledge, for e4ample,
getting cues from the environment, gestures and /nowledge of other languages
and the li/e. Inferencing from implicit /nowledge may be unconscious. !he
learner may be unaware that adverbs end in 7ly7 but may implicitly use this
information to infer that some previously un/nown word is an adverb and hence
arrive at the meaning of the word. Inferring from e4plicit /nowledge may occur
by means of using the conte4t of the passage or message to obtain meanings of
words or forms.
Rationale
It is worthwhile investigating the metacognitive and cognitive strategies of the
learner as they are useful for school8based learning and they also have the potential for informal learning environments $"enden, &(). According to
-ubin $&(, once the learners have developed an ability to evaluate their own
learning process, they become the best #udge of how to approach the learning
tas/.
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It is not possible for a teacher to follow the learning path of each of her students
because much of it is not readily accessible to the teacher. Since teachers find it
difficult to determine how each student learns best, students must be taught to
help themselves $-ubin, &(. Some learners are more successful than others.
!his success can be attributed to particular sets of cognitive processes and
behaviours which they use to enable them to be successful. Some learners aremore analytic in their approach to the learning tas/s, others are intuitive. Some
prefer to use written materials in learning a foreign language while others prefer
to hear the language. In his study of learner preferences, "illing $&(9
discovered four different types of learners, mainly:
• concrete learners: the learners who prefer learning by using games,
pictures, films and videos, tal/ing in pairs, learning through the use of
cassette and going on e4cursions.
• analytic learners: the learners who li/e studying grammar, studying
English boo/s, studying alone, finding their own mista/es, having
problems to wor/ on, learning through reading newspapers.
• communicative learners: the learners who li/e observing and listening to
native spea/ers, tal/ing to friends in English, watching !; in English,
using English in shops etc., learning English words by hearing them and
learning by conversation.
•
authorityoriented learners: the learners who li/e the teacher to e4plaineverything, writing everything in a noteboo/, having their own te4tboo/,
learning to read, studying grammar and learning English words by seeing
them.
In recent years attempts at remediating the strategies of unsuccessful language
learners have proliferated. Some e4amples are studies conducted by "enden and
-ubin $&(, %'Malley and 1harmot $&<, %4ford $&< and ;an and
Abraham $&<. !he strategies employed by the more successful learners could
perhaps be taught to the less successful ones. Learning strategies are used by
7good7 language learners to assist them in gaining command over reuired s/ills$=aiman et al. &9 and are associated with language acuisition $>olit?er and
Mc@roarty, &(). !hese strategies are applicable to a variety of language tas/s
$+ialysto/, &(& and can be adapted to the language proficiencies of individual
learners $1ohen and Asphe/, &(<. Learning strategies are relatively easy to use
and are teachable to learners who are not familiar with them $-ubin and
!hompson, &(0. !eaching the use of learning strategies in reading has been
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relatively successful $"ittroc/ et al., &9 and e4tensions to second language
learning would be fruitful $%'Malley et al., &(9.
Learners need to be aware of different learning strategies so that they can become
autonomous language learners $"enden, &(. !hey will become not only
efficient at learning and using their second language but also capable of self8directing these endeavours. In self8directed learning, learners will be able to ta/e
the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning
needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for
learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and
evaluating learning outcomes $6nowles, &9.
In fostering autonomy, 2olec $&(< stresses the importance of critical reflection.
If learners are to be weaned away from their state of dependence to one of
autonomy, they must not on&y acuire a number of relevant strategies but also
e4perience a change of psychological attitudes towards what learning is. !hismeans they must have very clear ideas of what a language is, what learning a
language means, the roles of the teacher and the learner, the materials which are
necessary and so on.
Self8direction promotes learning both inside and outside the classroom. If
students are dependent on teachers to shape language to suit them and to provide
them with proper input, they will not be able to ta/e control of their own learning
when the teacher is not there $-ubin, &(. !hus if the learner can e4ert control
over the learning process and use of the correct strategies, he will be able to
increase his efficiency. As discovered in ;an and Abraham's $&< study,learners were unsuccessful because they failed to apply strategies appropriately
to the tas/ at hand and not because they lac/ed strategies.
;arious research studies have identified strategies used by good language
learners. =aiman et al. $&( suggest that good language learners will:
• actively involve themselves in the learning tas/ by responding positively
to the given learning opportunity, by identifying and see/ing preferred
learning environments and e4ploiting them.
• develop or e4ploit an awareness of language as a system by referring to
their native language or analysing the target language and ma/ing
inferences about it.
• develop and e4ploit an awareness of language as a means of
communication and interaction.
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• accept and cope with effective demands of the second language.
• constantly revise their second language system by inferencing and
monitoring.
More specific techniues uncovered by =aiman et al. include repeating aloud
after the teacher andor native spea/er, following rules as given by the grammar
boo/s or te4tboo/s, ma/ing up vocabulary charts and memorising them, listening
to radio, !;, records etc., having contact with native spea/ers and reading
anything 8 maga?ines, newspapers, comics etc.
-ubin $&(& studied adult learners' learning strategies and concentrated on the
cognitive processes they used. !he strategies they employed were:
• clarificationverification: the learner as/s for e4amples of how to use a
word or e4pression, as/s for correct forms to see and loo/s up words in the
dictionary.
• monitoring: the learner corrects his or her own or others' pronunciation,
vocabulary, spelling, grammar etc.
• memorisation: the learner ta/es note of new items and finds some
association with them for purposes of storage and retrieval.
•
guessinginductive inferencing: the learner uses clues to guess rules.
• deductive reasoning: the learner loo/s for and uses general rules. 2e
compares his language to the target language to identify similarities and
differences.
• practice: the learner e4periments with new sounds, uses a mirror to
practise, tal/s to himself in the target language and drills himself on words
in different forms.
In a study of ESL learners, %'Malley et al. identified 0B learning strategies. !hemetacognitive strategies were to use advance organisers, directed attention,
selective attention, self8management, advance preparation, self8monitoring,
delayed production, self8evaluation and self8reinforcement. !he cognitive
strategies were: repetition, resourcing $using target language reference materials,
directed physical attention, translation, grouping or classifying materials, note8
ta/ing, consciously applying rules, combining /nown elements of language in a
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new way, imagery, auditory representation, using /ey words, conte4tualisation,
elaboration* transfer, inferencing and uestions for clarification and cooperation.
Im!lications "or teaching and learning
%nce the range of possible learner strategies has been obtained, the teacher would
be able to provide an environment which would enable students to identify those
strategies that wor/ best for them. Any strategy sincerely adopted by the learner
is more li/ely to help him if he considers assuming responsibility for his own
learning a fundamental reuirement for success in language learning $1arver,
&(C. Some learner strategies are better than others. !he learner will improve his
command of the language by using efficient strategies in performing a particular
tas/.
!he teacher does not have to depend on others for new techniues. 5urthermore,
a techniue which is effective in engendering learning in one class may not
produce the same result when used in another class. "hen the teacher has
identified the learning strategy that would benefit the learner she can develop
andor use the techniue that is compatible with that learning strategy.
!he classroom teacher /nows her students best. !herefore investigations into
learner strategies can easily be conducted by the teacher. She can observe both
the active and the inactive students and find out the strategies they use in
learning. !o get more information about learning, a learner may be as/ed to 'thin/ aloud' as he performs a tas/, that is, he is as/ed to let his thoughts flow verbally
$2osenfeld, &B. !he teacher then records what the student says. She may
probe the sub#ect's thoughts if they are not being e4pressed.
!eachers can also ma/e learners aware of learning strategies through discussions
and comments as a means of helping the learners decide on the strategies to use
with materials given $1aver, &(C. Allwright $&(< suggests that learners be
as/ed to describe the strategies they employ and rate them in terms of freuency
of use, en#oyment, usefulness and efficiency. -esearch regarding learning
strategies $-ubin, &(* "enden, &(B* %'Malley et al., &(9* 2osenfeld, &Bhave shown that learners are able to describe their choice of strategies, their
setting of priorities and the way they evaluate the effectiveness of these strategies
$1ohen, &(.
-ubin $&(& provides some helpful guidelines in ma/ing use of student reports
of their own strategies. !his serves as a means of recording possibilities of what a
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learner might do in the future. It can also help the learner increase his techniues
by discovering strategies used by others.
!eachers can also encourage their students to develop learning strategies which
are efficient in ensuring successful learning. !eachers should allow students to
give feedbac/ on their learning difficulties so that teaching strategies could bedesigned to develop certain learning strategies.
According to %'Malley et al. $&(9: C)
1lassroom instruction has the potential to influence a wide range of s/ills to
which the strategies can be applied teachers can go beyond their traditional role
of providing information and create circumstances in which students become
acuainted with and apply strategies that are appropriate for the type of learning
activities being presented. 5urthermore, the teacher can encourage and assist
students in applying the strategies to an e4panded range of language activitiesand materials so that the strategies are transferred to new activities and are used
by students independently of the teacher's support.
!o understand further the cognitive and metacognitive strategies of students,
teachers can e4perience learning a second or foreign language themselves.
Strategies which are effective in enhancing learning can then be suggested to
others.
Learning strategies can be taught to learners. 2owever, learners need to be
informed of the value and significance of the strategies. !hey need to be taught
both the metacognitive and cognitive strategies.
#onclusion
-esearch on learner strategies has been motivated partly by the desire to discover
how successful learners learn (< that this information can be used to help less
effective learners $"enden, &(B. !he activities used should not only be limited
to transmitting effective strategies but also to discovering what the learners
believe or /now about their learning. -esearch. on mental states in secondlanguage learning is becoming important and the findings can benefit learners,
that is, ma/e them more successful learners. Learners themselves may have
important insights into how they learn $1ohen and 2osenfeld, &(&. 2owever,
individuals differ in their cognitive s/ills. !hey also differ in their ability to get
the reuired e4posure to the language and in the amount of help they need from
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others in order to learn. If the teaching strategy is compatible with the learning
strategy, then learning is facilitated, if not, then learning will be impeded.
Re"erences
Allwright, -.L.$&(<,7"hat Do "e "ant !eaching Materials 5or73 >aper
presented at the 14th Annual TESOL Conference 1980.
+ialysto/, E. $&(, 7A !heoretical Model of Second Language
Learning.7 Language Learning . 0(:&. B8().
$&(9,7!he 1ompatibility of !eaching and Learning Strategies.7 Alie!
Linguistics. B:). 09980B0.
+rown, A.L.$&(0, 7Inducing Strategies Learning from !e4ts by Means of
Informed, Self81ontrol !raining.7 Toics in Learning an! Learning
"isa#ilities 0. &8&.
+ransford, F.D., 5errara, -.A. and 1ampione, F.1. $&(), 7Learning,
-emembering and Gnderstanding.7 In 1armichael's Manual of Chil! $sychology.
;ol.&.
1arver, D. $&(C, >lans, Learner Strategies and Self Direction in Language
Learning. Syste%. &0:0. &0)8&)&.
1ohen, A.D.$&(, 7Student >rocessing of 5eedbac/ on !heir 1ompositions.7 In
A."enden and F.-ubin $eds.. Learner Strategies in Language Learning .
Englewood 1liffs >rentice82all. 98B.
and Aphe/, E. $&(<, 7-etention of Second Language ;ocabulary over
time: Investigating the -ole of Mnemonic Associations. Syste% (. 00 &80)9.
and 2osenfeld, 1.$&(&, 7Some Gses of Metalinguistic Data in Second
Language -esearch.7 Language Learning . )&:0. 0(98)&).
2olec,2.$&(<, 7Learner !raining: Meeting =eeds in Self8Directed Learning.7
In 2.+. Altman and 1;. Fames $eds.. &oreign Language Teaching' Meeting
(n!ivi!ual )ee!s %4ford: >ergamon >ress.
2osenfeld, 1.$&B, 7Learning about Learning: Discovering our Students
Strategies.7 &oreign Language Annals . &&8&0.