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Collaborative methodFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Collaborative methods are processes, behaviors and conversations that relate to

collaboration between individuals.[1] These methods specifically aim to increase the

success of teams as they engage in collaborative problem solving. Forms, rubrics, charts

and graphs are useful in these situations to objectively document personal traits with the

goal improving performance in current and future projects.

History of collaboration

Main article:Collaboration#History

Group Setup

Contents[hide]

1 History of collaboration

2 Group Setup

3 Group models3.1 Spence's basic rules

3.2 Katzenbach and Smith's "team basics"

3.3 Working styles

3.4 Acuity

3.5 Thinking styles

3.5.1 Creation of ideas

3.5.2 Application of ideas

3.6 Learning styles

3.7 Values

4 Group functions

4.1 Interpersonal communication

4.2 Respect

4.3 Ideation

4.3.1 Exercises

4.4 Consensus

4.4.1 Voting

4.5 Performance analysis

5 Barriers to effective collaboration

6 Group conclusion7 See also

8 References

9 Further reading

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Deliberate setup of a teambefore beginning workincreases the potential for high

performance. To do so, the following components of collaboration should be an initial

focus:

Group models

Four group models are common in collaboration: [1]

Chance

Collaboration by chanceis the most basic model and underlies all four. The team is a

random pick of whoever is available without any specific regard for the skills or needs

of each member.

Acuity

Collaboration by acuityestablishes a team with balanced skill sets. The goal is to pick

team members so each of the four acuities exist on the team. However, this does not

mean a team of four is required as people can have varying levels of each acuity and

even excel at more than one.

Interest

Collaboration by interestforms a team of persons with similar hobbies, curiosities or

careers. Typically, this common interest is related to the problem the team plans to

solve. While acuity is still important in this group, their common, unique knowledge

may be able to overcome any weakness.

Leader

Collaboration by leaderis a team model where the members are chosen by a leader.

While the leader has common leadership qualities, those who assemble high

performing teams also understand the process of collaboration. The goal is to pick

team members with compatible values, schedules and working environments while also

addressing interest and acuity.

Spence's basic rules

Spence identifies[1] seven rules for all collaboration:

Look for common ground: find shared values, consider shared personal

experiences, pay attention to and give feedback, be yourself and expect the same of

others, be willing to accept differences in perception and opinions

Learn about others: consider their perspectives and needs, appeal to the highest

motives, let others express themselves freely

Critique results, not people: do not waste time on personal hostility, make other

people feel good, avoid criticism and put downs

Give and get respect: show respect for others' opinions, be considerate and friendly

put yourself in the other person's shoes, be responsive to emotions, speak with

confidence but remain tactful

Proceed slowly: present one idea at a time, check for understanding and acceptanc

of each idea before moving on to the next. Speak in an organized and logical

sequence.

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Be explicit and clear:share your ideas and feelings, pay attention to nonverbal

communication, speak clearly and make eye contact, select words that have meaning

for your listeners

Remember the five "Cs" of communication: clarity, completeness, conciseness,

concreteness, and correctness

Katzenbach and Smith's "team basics"

In research since 1993, Katzenbach and Smith have identified six fundamentals ofcollaboration that are necessary for high performing groups:[2]

Small numbers of peopletypically less than twelve

Complementary skills in group members

Common purposes for working

Specific performance goals that are commonly agreed upon

Shared working approaches

Mutual accountability amongst all members

Working styles

Two primary types of working styles exist, each benefiting from contributions of the other:

1. Alone/Quiet/Focused workers are typically self-paced, internal thinkers who are

driven by goals and are conscious of ownership issues. They are usually best at

expressing themselves in writing.

2. Shared/High-Energy/Dynamic workers are typically fast-paced, external thinkers

who are conceptual/visionary and work towards building consensus in real-time.

They are usually best at expressing themselves verbally.

Conflict between these groups typically occurs when group one becomes passive

aggressive or group two becomes outwardly aggressive. Managing expectations, building

consensus and communicating well are ways to avoid conflict.

Acuity

Main article:Theory of multiple intelligences

While psychologist Howard Gardner identified seven

major realms of intelligence, a more simple set of

acuitiesmay be more useful within smaller groups. Four

roles have been identified and are defined as follows

(note that individuals may score high in more than one

category):

The conceptualist role typically provides ideas,

concepts and the 'visionary' direction of the group

The formalist role typically excels at production

tasks that relate to organization of content,

adherence to formal requirements and quality of

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A chart used to identify the

acuities of people, particularly for


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craft

The operations role typically offers professional

demeanor, documentation of process and

articulation of verbal and/or visual presentation

The technician role often excels at performing research and using technology

Higher performing teams often have a diverse set of skills and an appropriate number of

persons in each roleas required by the goal of the team.

Thinking styles

There are two main components of thinking styles:

internal and external, they share similarities to the

extraversion and introversion traits seen in human

personalities. The two thinking styles are dichotomies

and can be used as axes when charting personal

evaluation; note that "there is no 'right' place on the

grid." [1]

Creation of ideas

Internal thinkers typically express themselves best

through writing and take longer to develop and express

ideas.

External thinkers typically express themselves best

through speech and are faster at developing and

expressing ideas.

Application of ideasDetailed thinkers typically focus on specific, existing situations and start small, eventually

working towards solving the greater whole of a given problem.

Visionary thinkers typically focus on broad, potential situations and start big, eventually

working towards solving the more specific parts of a given problem

With both thinking styles, each benefits from the existence of the other; internal thinkers

'feed' off of the rapid-fire ideas of external thinkers and, conversely, external thinkers are

'grounded' by the deliberate pace at which internal thinkers operate (Note that the speed at

which each functions has no correlation to intelligence). Detailed and visionary thinkers

succeed in opposite realms and collaboratively can produce results faster and better than

alone.

Learning styles

use in assigning roles in

collaboration.

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A chart used to evaluate the

thinking style of persons,

particularly for use in

collaborative teams.

[edit]

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Main article:Representational systems (NLP)

For collaboration purposes, three learning styles are

typically identified:

Auditory learning occurs through hearing the

spoken word and represents approximately 25% of

the population[1]

Kinesthetic learning occurs through doing,

touching and interacting and representsapproximately 40% of the population[1]

Visual learning occurs through images,

demonstrations and body language and represents

approximately 30% of the population[1]

Through the use of varied (or redundant)

communication styles, collaborative groups can

communicate better both internally and externally.

ValuesMain article:Value (personal and cultural)

Agreeing upon group values is a step that "sets the

tone" for further work. This is a convenient warm-up

activity for a group and most commonly involves

brainstorming a list and then picking a "top-ten."

Spence recommends[1] that this is a high-priority item

for the first meeting. Values may be grouped into

categories, but each is up to debate:

Healthy values and habits(Sensual and

Operational Values) Sensual values are

individual values and are functional or dysfunctional

to an individual's emotional survival. They are

sensitiveor insensitivedepending upon an

individual's emotional maturity. Operational values

are individual values and are functional or

dysfunctional to an individual's physical survival.

They are activeor inactivedepending upon an

individual's physical development. Healthy values and habits are acquired throughpersonal satisfaction, practiceand personal experience.

Moral values and norms(Social and Religious/Traditional Values) Social values

are family/group values and are functional or dysfunctional to the survival of the

family/group. They are nurturingor aggressivedepending upon the family/group's

social maturity. Religious/Traditional values are interpersonal values and are functiona

or dysfunctional to impersonal survival outside the family/group. They are tolerantor

intolerantdepending upon the religion's/tradition's maturity. Moral values are acquired

through encouragement, instructionand interpersonal experience.

A chart used to identify the

learning styles of people,

particularly for use in analyzing

communication needs in

collaboration.

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Group values, when

contributed to and accepted by

all, are an excellent way to

increase morale and

performance within collaborative

group settings.


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Ethical values and behavior(Economic and Political Values) Economic values

are national values and are functional or dysfunctional to the survival of the nation.

They are productiveor unproductivedepending upon the nation's economic

development. Political values are national values and are functional or dysfunctional to

national survival. They are progressiveor regressivedepending upon a nation's

political development. Ethical values are acquired through rewards, educationand

impersonal experience.

Group functions

Collaborative groups often work together in the same environment but may also utilize

information technologycollaborative software in particularto overcome geographic

limitations. As a group works to meet its goals, the following components should be

included to sustain effective collaboration:

Interpersonal communication

Main article:Interpersonal communication

Spence states[1] that communication is composed of the following:

52% based on body language

37% based on the tone of voice

11% based on words

In collaborative groups, two styles of communication are likely to be found:

Indirect communicators are typically persons who use intuitive means to understand

the needs and desires of others. They find direct questions difficult to answer and

direct communication rude and insensitive.

Direct communicators are typically persons who use conscious thought to understandthe needs and desires of others, they ask questions directly and expect direct

responses

Spence adds[1] that there are three major steps to listening that facilitate learning and show

respect for the speaker:

1. Focus your mind on the person speaking

2. Use body language to signal attention and interests

3. Verbally reflect and respond to what the speaker feels and says

RespectMain article:Respect

In collaboration, respect is a critical component of group performance and is given and/or

received in two distinctly different ways:

The give none model of collaborative respect is seen when individuals or teams expect

others to earn respect based on the actions of those persons. This often occurs inside

organizations, businesses and other groups where there is an existing commonality.

Persons joining a collaborative team must prove what they can do and how they are

valuable to the group to gain respect and continue working with the group.

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The give all model of collaborative respect occurs when individuals or teams provide other

with respect andthrough interactionmay lose or maintain their level of respect. This

often occurs when already established and functioning collaborative teams invite a new

group or team to join. These new members have often already shown their work to be of

high quality and face expectations to deliver such quality for their new team.

Ideation

Main article:Brainstorming

This divergent stage of collaboration is where ideas are developed. Group activities in this

stage are typically called brainstorming. There are four basic rules in brainstorming. [3]

These are intended to reduce the social inhibitions that occur in groups and therefore

stimulate the generation of new ideas. The expected result is a dynamic synergy that will

dramatically increase the creativity of the group.

Focus on quantity: This rule is a means of enhancing divergent production, aiming t

facilitate problem solving through the maxim, quantity breeds quality. The assumption

is that the greater the number of ideas generated, the greater the chance of producing

a radical and effective solution.

No criticism: It is often emphasized that in group brainstorming, criticism should be

put 'on hold'. Instead of immediately stating what might be wrong with an idea, the

participants focus on extending or adding to it, reserving criticism for a later 'critical

stage' of the process. By suspending judgment, one creates a supportive atmosphere

where participants feel free to generate unusual ideas.

Unusual ideas are welcome: To get a good and long list of ideas, unusual ideas are

welcomed. They may open new ways of thinking and provide better solutions than

regular ideas. They can be generated by looking from another perspective or setting

aside assumptions.

Combine and improve ideas: Good ideas can be combined to form a single very

good idea, as suggested by the slogan "1+1=3". This approach is assumed to lead to

better and more complete ideas than merely generating new ideas alone. It is believed

to stimulate the building of ideas by a process of association.

Exercises

Clustering is often used to define and understand the basic thematicsof the topic (such

as 'danger,' as seen in the image). What follows is approximately 1015 minutes of

clustering and writing of anything and everything that comes to mindwhether related orunrelated and opposing or supporting. Next, to move forward and solidify group

understanding, a voting process is used to identify the most thought-provoking or

applicable statements about each basic thematic;finally, the group shares and discusses

observations. The critical caveat of the writing and voting portion is that they both are

performed silently, unjudging, divergently and done with confidence that every contribution

is critical.[4]

Grouping is often used to agree on actions, items and properties within specific

categories of a project. In creative problem solvinggame design, for examplethe

categories "Duration, Purpose/Goal, Theme, Primary Activity, Physicality, Challenge,

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Audience and Location/Environment" might be used.

Listing

Looping

Consensus

This convergent stage of collaboration is necessary to move forward from stages of

ideation.

Voting

Polling the opinions of all group members is necessary

to equalize ownership of the collaborative project. There

are two principal ways to do this through voting:

Written voting is a more formal method of

establishing consensus that is useful to avoid conflict

and pick specific means of proceeding. This is

typically done in silence and is particularly valuable

to engage internal thinkers.

Verbal voting can be useful to informally make

decisions that are not conflict-prone. This method

works well for debate of abstract topics or as a

means of "checking-in," if consensus is already

suspected.

Varying means of voting exist, each having their strengths and weaknesses:

A single vote per person is most useful to make final decisions where only a limited

number of options exist

N votes per person can be given, where N is the desired number of 'surviving' options

One hundred votes per person can be given in total and works like "percentages,"

where any number of votes can be given to an option. This is best suited for initial

decision-making when a large number of diverse options exist.

Performance analysis

In Katzenbach and Smith's research, five team

classifications have been established:[2]

1. Working group: a group where noperformance need or opportunity exists that

requires a team. Members interact to share

information but have specific areas of

responsibility and little mutual accountability.

2. Pseudo-team: a group where there could be an

existing performance need or opportunity that

requires a team but there has not been a focus

on collective performance. Interactions between

members detract from each individuals

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Collaborative writing exercises("clustering" is shown here) can

be used for development of

ideas. Colored tabs of paper

attached to the large pageare

used in a collaborative voting

exercise to gain consensus.

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A chart to measure the


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contribution.

3. Potential team: a group where a significant

performance need exists and attempts are being made to improve performance.

This group typically requires more clarity about purpose, goals or outcomes and

needs more discipline.

4. Real team: a group with complementary skills, equal commitment and is mutually

accountable.

5. Extraordinary team: a real team that also has a deep commitment for one

anothers personal growth and success.

Barriers to effective collaboration

A main barrier to collaboration may be the difficulty in achieving agreement when diverse

viewpoints exist. This can make effective decision-making more difficult. Even if

collaboration members do manage to agree they are very likely to be agreeing from a

different perspective. This is often called a cultural boundary. For example:

A culture where rank or job title is important makes it hard for a lower rank person who

may be more qualified than their superior for the job it had to collaborate. The lowerrank person is told what to do. This is not collaboration

"stranger danger"; which can be expressed as a reluctance to share with others

unknown to you

"needle in a haystack"; people believe that others may have already solved your

problem but how do you find them

"hoarding"; where people do not want to share knowledge because they see hoarding

as a source of power

"Not Invented Here"; the avoidance of previously performed research or knowledge tha

was not originally developed within the group/institution.

Group conclusion

When a group has completed their objectives,

introspection and self-critique are necessary to provide

growth from the collaborative work experience. This

stage also can be used to identify further work to be

performed. Documentation of previous group actions

become particularly useful at this stage. Spence

recommends[1] that to evaluate collaborative output,individuals must "attack projects, not people." Using the

values and goals agreed upon in the 'setup' phase

allows group members to make objective, authoritative

critique of performance.

Spence states[1] that group members who have worked

as Katzenbach and Smith's "real team" will typically

experience a strong desire to continue working

collaboratively and may even find that performance as

an individual unit may suffer.

performance of a group

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A chart to evaluate four

aspects of communication

materials.


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See also

Appreciative inquiry

Attitude (psychology)

Competency model

Conflict resolution

Devil's advocate

Game theory

General theory of collaboration

Group dynamics

Polytely

Icebreaker (facilitation)

Industrial and organizational psychology

Leadership

Managerial grid model

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Metacognition

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Organizational studies

Social psychology

Sociomapping

References

1. ^ abcdefghijklSpence, Muneera U. "Graphic Design: Collaborative

Processes = Understanding Self and Others."(lecture) Art 325: CollaborativeProcesses. Fairbanks Hall, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon. 13 Apr.

2006.

2. ^ ab Katzenbach, Jon R., and Douglas K. Smith. The Wisdom of Teams. New

York, NY: HarperCollins, 2003.

3. ^ Osborn, A.F. (1963) Applied imagination: Principles and procedures of creative

problem solving(Third Revised Edition). New York, NY: Charles Scribners Sons.

4. ^ Marks, Andrea. "The Role of Writing in a Design Curriculum." AIGA: Design

Education (2004). 26 July 2007 [1]

Further reading

Bennis, Warren, and Patricia W. Biederman. Organizing Genius. Cambridge, MA:

Perseus, 1997.

Marcum, James W. After the Information Age: A Dynamic Learning Manifesto. Vol.

231. Counterpoints: Studies in the Postmodern Theory of Education. New York, NY:

Peter Lang, 2006.

Spence, Muneera U. "Graphic Design Collaborative Processes: a Course in

Collaboration."Oregon State University. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: AIGA, 2005.

http://revolutionphiladelphia.aiga.org/resources/content/2/5/7/0/documents/MSpence.pd

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