9
South African Archaeological Society Later Stone Age Faunal Samples from Heuningneskrans Shelter (Transvaal) and Leopard's Hill Cave (Zambia) Author(s): Richard G. Klein Source: The South African Archaeological Bulletin, Vol. 39, No. 140 (Dec., 1984), pp. 109-116 Published by: South African Archaeological Society Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3888376 . Accessed: 08/09/2013 14:44 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. . South African Archaeological Society is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The South African Archaeological Bulletin. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 129.72.2.27 on Sun, 8 Sep 2013 14:44:04 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Later Stone Age Faunal Samples from Heuningneskrans Shelter (Transvaal) and Leopard's Hill Cave (Zambia)

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South African Archaeological Society

Later Stone Age Faunal Samples from Heuningneskrans Shelter (Transvaal) and Leopard's HillCave (Zambia)Author(s): Richard G. KleinSource: The South African Archaeological Bulletin, Vol. 39, No. 140 (Dec., 1984), pp. 109-116Published by: South African Archaeological SocietyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3888376 .

Accessed: 08/09/2013 14:44

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range ofcontent in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new formsof scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

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The South African Archaeological Bulletin 109

LATER STONE AGE FAUNAL SAMPLES FROM HEUNINGNESKRANS SHELTER (TRANSVAAL) AND LEOPARD'S HILL CAVE (ZAMBIA)*

RICHARD G. KLEIN Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago Chicago, Ii 60637, USA

ABSTRACT

Heuningneskrans Shelter (eastern Transvaal) and Leopard's Hill Cave (south-central Zambia) are among the very few archae- ological sites in southern Africa with levels dating to the closing millennia of the Last Glacial, between 30-20 000 and 12 000 B.P. Although the animal bones from both sites are highly fragmented and the samples are small, each sample is sufficient to suggest that the local Last Glacial environment was broadly similar to the postglacial or historic one. This is in sharp contrast to the situation further south in Africa where fossil bones imply a dramatic difference between Last Glacial and postglacial environments.

The Heuningneskrans sample contains the latest known record of the extinct hyperhypsodont springbok, Antidorcas bondi, represented by a single tooth in a layer radiocarbon-dated to approximately 20 000 B.P. The Leopard's Hill sample reported here contains no totally extinct species, but it does contain bones of two extant species that did not occur near the site historically. These are the blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) and the Thomson's gazelle (Gazella thomsoni), both in levels mainly older than 16 000 B. P. The presence of these species may imply a somewhat different (? more open) environment during the Last Glacial than in postglacial times. Alternatively, it is possible that both species survived in the region until relatively recently and only disappeared as a result of human (? Iron Age) activity.

Unfortunately, both samples are too small for truly substantive or novel inferences about the behaviour of the Stone Age people who occupied the sites. * Manuscript received August 1983, revised April 1984.

Introduction It is now clear that Later Stone Age (LSA) industries replaced

Middle Stone Age (MSA) ones in southern Africa at least 40-30 000 years ago. However, sites containing LSA occupations dating from between 40-30 000 B.P. and 12-10 000 B.P., remain remarkably scarce (Deacon 1984). In fact, there are many sites where MSA layers older than 40-30 000 B.P. are directly overlain by LSA ones younger then 12-10 000 B.P. implying a long occupational hiatus. Although the available palaeoenvironmental evidence is often ambiguous or even contradictory (Butzer 1984b), it seems increasingly likely that the 40-12 000 B.P. interval was too dry to support archaeologically visible populations over much of southern Africa.

Whatever the case, those few sites with LSA layers older than 12- 10 000 B.P. clearly deserve special attention. This is true in part because these sites may contain clues as to why other, like-aged sites are so rare. More generally, they should help us to understand the nature of environmental change between the Last Glacial maximum 40-12 000 years ago and the warming trend that followed.

In this paper, I discuss the palaeoenvironmental, zoogeographic and human behavioural implications of large mammal bones from two pre-12 000 B.P. LSA sites - Heuningneskrans Shelter in the eastern Transvaal and Leopard's Hill Cave in south-central Zambia (Fig. 1). By "large" mammals I mean species in which average adult weight exceeds 0,7 kg. This definition is designed to exclude species of small rodents, insectivores and bats that are commonly introduced to rock shelters by owls rather than by people. Small mammal bones are in any event very rare in the samples from Heuningneskrans and Leopard's Hill.

Heuningneskrans Shelter The Heuningneskrans site (34.36S; 30.39E) is a dolomite rock

shelter near Ohrigstad in the eastern Transvaal. Excavations by P. B. Beaumont in 1968 exposed 6,35 m of deposit overlying dolomite

\ It

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TWIN RIVERS* - v

I\GWISHO , '\*?

ae~~~~~\ - - ------ > ___I 1?~ ~ INYANG3A

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NSWATUGI

ELER * * BULAWAYO WATERWORKS

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CAVE OF HEARTHS *HEUNINGSNESKRANS & BUSHMAN ROCK SHELTER

MLAWULA*

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Fig. 1. The approximate locations of the sites mentioned in the text.

blocks, presumed to lie directly on bedrock. Beaumont (1978, 1981) recognized 12 distinct layers, labelled (from top to bottom) 1A, 1B, 2A, 2B, and 3A to 3H.

Beaumont found Early Iron Age potsherds at the very top of the sequence and a few Middle Stone Age flakes among the dolomite blocks near bedrock. He assigned the artefacts in between to three successive LSA industries. The oldest, in layers 3B to 3H, includes bladelets and associated pyramidal cores similar to those found in the Robberg Industry of the southern Cape. Radiocarbon dates indicate that the Robberg-like industry was present at Heunigneskrans from at least 23 000 B.P. to perhaps 12 500 B.P. Assuming the same sedimentation rate before and after 23 000 B.P., it may have ap- peared at Heuningneskrans about 32 000 B.P.

The youngest industry, in levels 1A and 1B, contains large scrapers and other flake artefacts that resemble ones now often subsumed in the 'Oakhurst Complex' of Sampson (1974). (Similar materials at other Transvaal sites have often been referred to as 'Smithfield A'.) Between the Robberg-like and Oakhurst Complex industries is a third industry which Beaumont regards as typologically and techni- cally intermediate between them. Radiocarbon dates indicate that the makers of the intermediate and Oakhurst Complex industries were present at Heuningneskrans between roughly 12 500 and 9 000 years ago.

Large mammal bones were found throughout the Heuningnesk- rans profile. They were initially examined by J. Kitching, whose identifications were published by Beaumont (1981). The species list resulting from my re-examination differs significantly from Kitch- ing's. In addition, I have estimated the abundance of each species in each level (Table 1).

Leopard's Hill Cave The Leopard's Hill site (15.25S, 28.45E) is a dolomite cave on the

Zambian plateau roughly 55 km south-east of Lusaka. Excavations

S. Afr. archaeol. Bull. 39: 109-116. 1984

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110 The South African Archaeological Bulletin

Table 1. The number of identifiable specimens (NISP)/the minimum number of individuals (MNI) from which they must have come for each species in each level at Heuningsneskrans Shelter. The figures for individual suid and bovid species are based exclusively on teeth. The figures for "Suidae - general" and "Bovidae - general" are based on all skeletal parts including teeth. The MNI's for "Suidae - general" and for each size category within the Bovidae were calculated as if only one species were present.

In the context of the Heuningsneskrans fauna, small bovids include klipspringer (Oreotragus oreotragus) and possibly also steenbok (Raphicerus campestris) or Sharpe's grysbok (R. sharpei), at least one of which is probably represented by postcranial bones, though not by teeth. Small medium bovids include mountain, reedbuck (Redunca fulvorufula), vaalribbok (Pelea capreolus), impala (Aepyceros melampus), Bond's springbok (Antidorcas bondi), common springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis), and grey duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia). Large medium bovids include greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), roan (Hippotragus equinus) and/or sable antelope (Hippotragus niger), hartebeest (Alcelaphus sp(p)) and/or tsessebe (Damaliscus lunatus), and possibly blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) although there are no certain wildebeest teeth. Large bovids include Cape buffalo (Syncerus caffer) and possibly eland (Taurotragus oryx), although there are no eland teeth.

Species in the table whose scientific names have not been presented before are: hare (Leporidae gen. et sp. indet.), porcupine (Hystrix africaeaustralis), baboon (Papio ursinus), people (Homo sapiens), jackal or dog (Canis sp.), brown hyaena (Hyaena brunnea), lion (Panthera leo), aardvark (Orycteropus afer), rock hyrax (Procavia capensis), Burchell's zebra (Equus burchelli), hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius), warthog (Phacochoerus aethiopicus), and bushpig (Potamochoerus porcus).

LAYERS 1A 1B 2A 2B 3A 3B 3C 3D 3E 3F 3G 3H

hare 2/1 1/1 2/1 - 6/2 1/1 5/1 - - - - porcupine - - 1/1 - 2/1 - 1/1 - - -

baboon - 1/1 4/1 - 2/1 - - -

people - 1/1 - jackal or dog 1/1 - - - - - - - - - brown hyaena - - - - - - - - lion - - - - 1/1 - aardvark - 1/1 - - 1/1 - rock hyrax - 3/1 1/1 - - 5/1 1/1 4/1 - - 2/1 Burchell's zebra - - 1/1 - - 5/1 12/3 10/1 3/1 1/1 -

hippopotamus - 1/1 - - 1/1 warthog 1/1 - - - - 1/1 - - 1/1 - - bushpig 1/1 - - - - - - - - - -

Suidae - general 2/1 3/1 - - - 6/1 - - 1/1 - -

greater kudu - 1/1 - - - 10/2 2/1 - 2/1 1/1 - 1/1 roan/sable - 1/1 - - - 2/1 - 6/2 1/1 1/1 1/1 - mountain reedbuck - 1/1 - - 1/1 4/1 1/1 8/2 13/3 1/1 2/1 -

vaalribbok? ? ? ? ? ? ?2/1 - - - hartebeest/tsessebe 1/1 - - - - 1/1 1/1 2/1 13/2 2/1 - -

impala - 1/1 - - - 1/1- common springbok - - - - - - - 1/1 Bond's springbok - - - - - - - -

grey duiker - 1/1 1/1 1/1 - - 1/1 1/1 -

klipspringer - 1/1 1/1 - - 1/1 1/1 1/1 - Cape buffalo - - 1/1 - - 1/1 Bovidae - general

small 6/1 13/1 37/2 6/1 2/1 9/1 3/1 17/1 9/1 - - -

small medium - 5/1 11/1 3/1 2/1 18/2 5/1 53/2 28/4 1/1 - -

large medium 7/1 9/1 12/1 2/1 1/1 36/2 5/2 15/2 10/3 4/1 1/1 1/1 large - 4/1 1/1 - - 1/1 -

directed by L. Hodges and supervised by J. D. Clark in 1958 exposed 3,2 m of deposit overlying weathered bedrock. Artefacts and other debris were catalogued according to arbitrary (760 mm) levels ('spits') rather than natural strata. Miller (1969, 197k) divided the artefact assemblages among four LSA units: 1. A nondescript 'macrolithic' industry (approximately in spits 25-40))

informally referred to as 'Pre-Nachikufan' or 'Proto-LSA'. Brack- eted between roughly 23 500 and 16 500 B.P. by radiocarbon dates from Leopard's Hill.

2. Nachikufan I (approximately in spits 17-24). An industry charac- terized especially by tiny pointed backed bladelets, some large scrapers, and numerous bored stones and grindstones. Radiocar- bon dates from Leopard's Hill and other Zambian sites indicate a duration from roughly 16 500 to perhaps 10 000 B.P.

3. Nachikufan II (approximately in spits 9-16). Similar to the Nachi- kufan I, but with a greater emphasis on small backed flakes (vs bladelets) and on broad geometric microliths. Radiocarbon dates from Leopard's Hill and other Zambian sites indicate a span from roughly 10 000 to 5000 B.P.

4. Nachikufan HI (approximately in spits 1-8). Similar to the Nachi- kufan I and II, but with special emphasis on segments ('crescents') in the microlithic component. Spans the interval from perhaps 5000 B.P. until after the introduction of pottery and iron approxi- mately 2 000 years ago.

The sequence differs from the Heuningneskrans one in two important respects. First, it contains a significant Holocene (post- 9000 B.P.) component. Second, after the initial appearance of microliths, it is 'microlithic' throughout. The absence of a 'macro- lithic' interruption (between roughly 12 000 and 9000 B.P.) now appears to be a feature that distinguishes the LSA sequence of Zambia and East Africa from that of Zimbabwe and South Africa, where such an interruption has been repeatedly recorded (Deacon 1984). The actual dividing line may lie within Zimbabwe, not far north of the Matopo Hills (Walker 1980).

Faunal remains were recovered from all levels at Leopard's Hill. H. B. S. Cooke (1950) described a small sample obtained from non- scientific excavations prior to those of Hodges and Clark. Kaufulu et al. (1978) studied a subsample of the bones from the Hodges/Clark excavation. Table 2 shows the species I identified from the complete sample, together with estimates of their abundance in stratigraphic units defined by artefact content.

Problems in Interpreting the Fossil Samples There are three principal obstacles to maximum interpretation of

the Heuningneskrans and Leopard's Hill faunal samples. First, both samples are small (433 bones identifiable to skeletal part and taxon from Heuningneskrans; 825 from Leopard's Hill). The problem of small overall size is exacerbated when the samples are subdivided for comparisons between layers or culture-stratigraphic units within each site.

Second, the bones from both sites are poorly preserved and highly fragmented. This is especially true of the bones from Heuningnesk- rans. Some of the fragmentation probably reflects butchery and food consumption before deposition. However, most of it is probably a result of post-depositional leaching and profile compaction, which has adversely affected bones at most southern African Stone Age sites. The post-depositional overlay severely restricts the reconstruc- tion of Stone Age butchery and food preparation practices.

Perhaps equally important, poor preservation and bone comminu- tion obscure or obliterate superficial damage marks from stone tools or teeth. This makes it difficult to determine whether other agents besides people contributed to a bone accumulation. At both Heun- ingneskrans and Leopard's Hill, numerous burnt bones, abundant ash from ancient hearths, and the large number of artefacts suggest that people were probably the main bone accumulators, but it remains possible that raptors, porcupines and especially leopards or hyaenas also played a role (Brain 1981).

The third major obstacle to interpretation is the difficulty of comparing the Heuningneskrans and Leopard's Hill samples to others. Detailed comparisons are critical to full interpretation, since they provide the only means for estimating the relative importance of different factors in shaping the samples. For each sample, the relevant factors were: (1) the enviroument in which it accumulated; (2) the behaviour of the accumulator(s); (3) the extent of post- depositional destruction (which would remove some skeletal parts more readily than others); and (4) the recovery (excavation/collec- tion) techniques employed.

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The South African Archaeological Bulletin 111

Table 2. The number of identifiable specimens (NISP)/the minimum number of individuals (MNI) from which they must have come for each species in "spits" grouped according to artefactual content at Leopard's Hill Cave. The figures for individual hyracoid and bovid species are based exclusively on teeth. The figures for "Hyracoidea - general" and "Bovidae - general" are based on all skeletal parts, including teeth. The MNI's for "ALL" units combined were computed as if the bones in any spit or group of spits could come from the same individuals represented in any other spit or group of spits.

In the context of the Leopard's Hill sample, small bovids include Sharpe's grysbok; small medium bovids include impala, Thomson's gazelle (Gazella thom- soni), and grey duiker; large medium bovids include greater kudu, hartebeest and/or tsessebe and blue wil- debeest; and large bovids include Cape buffalo and eland.

Species in the table whose scientific names have not been presented previously are: cane rat (Thryonomys swiderianus), bat-eared fox (Otocyon megalotis), honey badger (Mellivora capensis), clawless otter (Aonyx capensis), genet (Genetta sp.), Egyptian mon- goose (Herpestes ichneumon), banded mongoose (Mungos mungo), indeterminate mongoose (Viver- ridae gen. et sp. indet.), spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta), wildcat (Felis libyca), caracal or serval (Felis caracal or F. serval), yellow-spotted hyrax (Heterohyrax brucei), and indeterminate rhinoceros (Rhinocerotidae gen. et sp. indet.).

NACHIKUFAN PRE- III II I NACHIKUFAN ALL

spits: (1-8) (9-16) (17-24) (25-40)

hare 1/1 - 1/1 6/2 8/3 cane rat - - - 1/1 1/1 porcupine 1/1 1/1 7/2 23/2 32/3 jackal - - - 1/1 1/1 bat-eared fox 1/1 - - 1/1 2/1 honey badger 2/1 - - 4/1 6/2 clawless otter - - 1/1 2/1 3/1 genet 1/1 - - - 1/1 Egyptian mongoose - - - 1/1 1/1 banded mongoose - - 2/1 3/1 5/2 indeterminate mongoose - 1/1 - 1/1 2/1 spotted hyaena - - - 1/1 1/1 wildcat - - 1/1 - 1/1 caracal or serval - - 3/1 6/1 9/2 aardvark 3/1 - - - 3/1 rock hyrax - 2/1 - - 2/1 yellow-spotted hyrax 1/1 1/1 - - 3/2 Hyracoidea - general 3/1 4/1 1/1 1/1 10/3 indeterminate rhinoceros - 1/1 - - 1/1 Burchell's zebra 3/1 5/1 4/1 38/2 50/4 hippopotamus - - - 1/1 1/1 warthog 17/1 12/2 13/2 147/6 191/9 eland 1/1 - 1/1 - 1/1 greater kudu - - 1/1 - 1/1 hartebeest/tsessebe - - - 2/1 2/1 blue wildebeest - - 2/1 43/5 47/5 impala - 2/1 - - 2/1 Thomson's gazelle - - - 1/1 1/1 grey duiker 1/1 1/1 1/1 1/1 4/3 Sharpe's grysbok - - - 3/2 3/2 Cape buffalo - 1/1 - 1/1 2/1 Bovidae - general

small 15/1 14/1 8/1 40/2 77/3 small medium 9/1 8/1 8/1 30/2 55/3 large medium 8/1 12/1 22/1 280/5 324/5 large 1/1 2/1 4/1 31/2 40/3

When only a single sample is available, determining the relative importance of each factor is usually impossible. However, when multiple samples are available it may be possible to compare ones for which three of the four factors were the same. Any differences among the samples may then be attributed to the fourth factor. Thus, if two samples were accumulated by the same agent, have similar post- depositional histories, and were excavated using the same tech- niques, any differences between them probably reflect differences in

the environments of accumulation. This is particularly true if there is sedimentologic or palaeobotanical evidence that the ancient environ- ments differed.

In general, the first comparisons to undertake are between samples accumulated at different times or by different collectors (including different kinds of people) within the same historic ecological zone. Heuningneskrans is located within the continent-wide zone of bush- veld that Devred (in De Vos 1975) has called the Transvaalian Ecozone (Fig. 2). Leopard's Hill is located within the even larger expanse of deciduous woodland that Devred calls the Zambesian Ecozone. The Zambesian and Transvaalian zones are contiguous and grade into each other imperceptibly. Additionally, at least in historic times, they contained very similar faunas, so that compari- sons between sites located in one or other zone might also be fruitful.

\ // ~ GUINEAN /1 - : : EASTERN

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0 J! .~(-' r ZABEaA

a 0 W 4 &-TRANSVAXAL-RN

NAMAQUAUIAN \4 9 /'A7S ASTLIAN

>;S~~~~P

Fig. 2. The modern ecozones of southern Africa (after Devred as cited in De Vos 1975). The principal ungulate species that occurred in each zone historically are shown.

The principle Transvaalian sites with faunal samples that are usefully compared to the Heuningueskrans one are: Border Cave in northern Natal (Klein 1977; Beaumont et al. 1978); Mlawula, Onink and Emambeni shelters in Swaziland (Beaumont unpubl.; Klein unpubl.); Bushman Rock Shelter (Brain 1969; Plug 1981), the Cave of Hearths (Cooke, H. B. 5. 1962; Mason 1962) and Kalkbank in the Transvaal (Cooke, H. B. 5. 1962; Mason 1967; Welbourne 1971); and Pomongwe Cave (Cooke, C. K. 1963; Brain 1981), Nswatugi Cave (Walker 1980), Tshangula Cave (Cooke, C. K. 1963; Walker 1980), Chelmer (Bone & Summers 1951; Cooke, H. B. 5. 1963) and Bulawayo Waterworks (Zealley 1916) in Zimbabwe (Fig. 1).

The principal Zambesian sites providing samples to compare with the one from Leopard's Hill are: Redcliff Cave (Cooke, C. K. 1978; Klein 1978; Cruz-Uribe 1983) and the Inyanga Caves (Cooke, H. B. 5. 1958; Summers 1958) in Zimbabwe; the Gwisho A, B and C spring mounds (Gabel 1965; Fagan & Van Noten 1971), Twin Rivers Kopje (Clark 1971), the Mumbwa Caves (Clark 1942; Cooke, H. B. S. 1950), Makwe, Thandwe and Kalemba shelters (Phillipson 1976) and Nachikufu Cave in Zambia; and Fingira Rock Shelter (Sandelowsky & Robinson 1968) and Chencherere Rock Shelter (Clark 1973; Crader 1984) in Malawi (Fig. 1).

Unfortunately, the number of possible comparisons is not a reliable index of their potential utility. Part of the difficulty is that, like Heuningneskrans and Leopard's Hill, most of the other sites have provided small samples. This means that differences between the

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112 The South African Archaeological Bulletin

samples can be readily attributed to chance rather than to potentially interesting differences in environment or collector behaviour.

Additionally, the other samples have not all been studied or reported in a way that facilitates comparisons. For some, species identifications have been based exclusively on teeth (or only on a portion of the available teeth). For others, all skeletal parts were included. For some, only a species list has been published; for others there are also indices of species abundance. For some, the index is the number of identifiable specimens, for others it is the minimum number of individuals from which the bones must have come. For some, the identifications and counts have been presented by natural strata, for others only by artificial spits. All this means that detailed numerical comparisons are often either impossible or potentially misleading. Yet, without such comparisons, it is impossible to esti- mate the role of chance in causing a difference between samples.

There is the further problem that, unlike Heuningneskrans and Leopard's Hill, none of the listed sites contain samples securely dated to between 23 000 and 12 000 B.P. This rules out independent checks on conclusions drawn from comparisons between the Heuningnesk- rans or Leopard's Hill samples and the others. Even more serious is the fact that many of the other samples are very imprecisely dated, while supplementary sedimentologic or palaeobotanical data are commonly lacking. Imprecise dating and a lack of independent palaeoenvironmental evidence are particularly characteristic of sam- ples for which radiocarbon dates or associated artefacts indicate an age beyond the 40-30 000 B.P. limit of conventional radiocarbon dating. In the absence of secure dates or direct palaeoenvironmental evidence, it is impossible to hold ancient environment constant in order to isolate sample contrasts that reflect differences in collector behaviour.

There is the final problem that the agent of bone accumulation is not well established for all sites. At Chelmer and the Bulawayo Waterworks, the agent was presumably 'natural', since there are no artefacts or other evidence of human presence. At most of the other sites, Stone Age people were probably the main collectors, since artefacts and other cultural debris abound. However, at many sites, non-human collectors may have played a subsidiary role. This is especially likely for Redcliff Cave, where hyaena coprolites abound in the uppermost layers.

In sum, small sample size, poor bone preservation, and the difficulty of undertaking detailed, well-controlled comparisons with other pertinent regional samples limit the amount of palaeoenviron- mental and human behavioural information that can be obtained from the Heuningneskrans and Leopard's Hill samples.

Species Composition of the Samples Tables 1 and 2 show first that the Heuningneskrans and Leopard's

Hill samples are broadly similar in species composition. Most species that are absent at one site are so poorly represented at the other that chance alone could explain the difference. This is especially true with respect to the carnivores.

There are, however, some differences in species composition for which chance seems a less likely explanation. These differences are supplemented by potentially significant differences in relative species abundance. Particularly notable are the presence of roan/sable and mountain reedbuck only at Heuningneskrans, the greater abundance of kudu and hartebeest/tsessebe at Heuningneskrans, the presence of blue wildebeest only at Leopard's Hill, and the greater abundance of warthog at Leopard's Hill.

Blue wildebeest may in fact be represented at Heuningneskrans among some of the fragmentary teeth assigned to hartebeest/tses- sebe. Similarly, roan/sable may be present at Leopard's Hill among bovid dental fragments that could not be firmly identified to species. However, there would still be a contrast in relative abundance, with blue wildebeest more common at Leopard's Hill and roan/sable at Heuningneskrans. Since both samples were accumulated mainly if not entirely by LSA people, principally during the same late Pleisto- cene time interval, it is reasonable to suppose that the differences in species composition or abundance reflect differences in local environ- ment. More particularly, the differences suggest denser bush or woodland near Heuniingneskrans, as was true historically.

The mountain reedbuck probably provides the clearest evidence for a long-term environmental difference between the sites, since it is

the only species listed that was totally absent near one - Leopard's Hill - in historic times. Together with the occurrence of klipspringer and vaalribbok, the abundance of mountain reedbuck in the Heun- ingneskrans sample almost certainly reflects the relatively rugged terrain in the nearby foothills of the Drakensberg mountains. The countryside near Leopard's Hill is by and large much more gentle.

The abundance of mountain reedbuck in the Heuningneskrans sample may further reflect a long-standing vegetational difference from Leopard's Hill. I propose this on data from Redcliff Cave which, like Leopard's Hill, is located in a region of relatively gentle relief. Mountain reedbuck were absent near Redcliff historically, but are well-represented in the late Pleistocene layers, particularly in ones for which other evidence suggests the greatest difference from the historic environment.

The case for an environmental difference between the sites is perhaps most difficult to make with warthog. This is because six of the nine warthog individuals in the Leopard's Hill sample were newborn animals. Fagan (in Phillipson 1976) reports that very young warthog were also remarkably common at Makwe Shelter (eastern Zambia), though older animals dominate heavily in all other samples of which I am aware. This is to be expected, if only because subadult and adult bones and teeth are far more likely to survive the post-depositional destructive forces that have affected all the samples.

The abundance of very young warthog at Leopard's Hill and Makwe suggests special circumstances, perhaps accumulation by a large raptor or a carnivore, or even natural deaths in ancient warthog maternity burrows that were not (? could not) be detected in the excavations. Until these possibilities can be discounted, the contrast in warthog abundance between the sites cannot be interpreted in palaeoenvironmental terms.

At both Heuningneskrans and Leopard's Hill, comparisons be- tween levels that might reflect environmental change through time are impeded by small sample size. This is especially true for Heuning- neskrans, and the situation is not substantially improved when levels are grouped by artefact content (Table 3). However, within the limits imposed by small sample size, the available data do not suggest any significant faunal change through time at either site. The impression of little or no change is strengthened when the samples are compared to ones from other sites of different ages within the same region.

Thus, the Heuningneskrans sample that dates from before 23 000 B.P. to approximately 12 000 B.P. is not only similar to the small 12 000-9000 B.P. sample from the site, but also to the somewhat larger 12 000-9000 B.P. sample from nearby Bushman Rock Shelter (Plug 1981). In addition, the Heuningneskrans and Bushman Rock samples are broadly similar to the mainly post-9000 B.P. samples from Mlawula, Onink and Emambeni shelters in Swaziland. The species lists for these sites are presented here in Table 3, since they have not been published previously.

In fact, in both species composition and in relative species abun- dance, the Heuningneskrans samples are broadly similar to all other (both younger and older) late Quaternary faunal samples in the Transvaalian Ecozone, and also to the historic fauna. Such differ- ences as do occur between the Heuningneskrans sample and others are no greater than ones which occurred between historic faunal communities within the Transvaalian Ecozone. These historic differ- ences were mainly attributable to differences in local topography or in the proximity of a major river or other permanent water source.

In sum, comparisons between the Heuningneskrans sample and other late Quaternary samples in the same ecozone provide no faunal evidence for substantial environmental change through time. The same lack of evidence for dramatic environmental change is apparent in comparisons between the Leopard's Hill faunal samples and the other Zambesian late Quaternary samples mentioned previously or between the Leopard's Hill faunal samples and the modem Zambe- sian fauna.

This result contrasts sharply with the result obtained from the study of like-aged late Quaternary faunal samples in the Cape Ecozone at the south-western tip of Africa. Here, the historic fauna and faunal samples dating from the last 12-10 000 years are dominated by browsing ungulates and mixed feeders, while samples antedating 12- 10 000 B.P. are dominated by grazing ungulates that were rare or absent historically (Klein 1983). The implication is that there was a major change in the regional vegetational mosaic 12-10 000 years

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The South African Archaeological Bulletin 113

Table 3. The number of identifiable specimens (NISP)/the minimum number of individuals (MNI) from which they must have come for each species in levels grouped according to artefact content at Heuningsneskrans Shelter and in the shelter sites of Onink, Emambeni, and Mlawula in Swaziland. The Onink and Emambeni samples probably date from the late Holocene, while the Mlaula sample probably dates mainly from the early Holocene (Beaumont pers. comm.).

The bovid size categories include the same species listed in the caption of Table 2 with the addition of blue duiker (Cephalophus monticola) and oribi (Ourebia ourebi) to the small category and bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) to the small medium category. Species in the table whose scientific names have not been presented previously are tree pangolin (Phataginus temmincki), vervet monkey (Cer- copithecus aethiops), and slender mongoose (Her- pestes sanquineus).

Heuningsneskrans Emam-

1A&1B 2A&2B 3B-3H TOTAL Onink beni Mlawula

hare 3/1 1/1 12/2 17/2 84/7 54/6 15/2 cane rat - - - - 1/1 - -

porcupine - 1/1 3/1 4/1 2/1 4/1 -

tree pangolin - - - - - 2/1 -

baboon - - 7/2 7/2 4/1 6/2 -

vervet monkey - - - - 2/1 1/1 - jackal 1/1 - - 1/1 - - -

honey badger - - - - - - 2/1 Egyptian

mongoose - - - - - - ? 3/1 slender mongoose - - - - - - ? 2/1 brown hyaena - - - 1/1 - - ? 1/1 caracalorserval - - - - - - ? 3/1 lion - - 1/1 1/1 - - -

leopard - - - - - - 2/1 aardvark 1/1 - - 1/1 - - -

rock hyrax 3/1 1/1 12/2 16/2 18/3 31/5 -

Burchell's zebra - 1/1 31/4 32/4 - - 15/1 hippopotamus 1/1 1/1 - 2/1 - -

warthog 1/1 - 2/2 3/2 - -

bushpig 1/1 - - 1/1 8/2 4/1 - Suidae - general 5/1 - 7/2 12/2 19/2 14/2 7/1 greater kudu 1/1 - 16/2 17/2 - - 1/1 bushbuck - - - - - 1/1 - roan/sable 1/1 - 11/2 12/2 - - 3/1 mountain

reedbuck 1/1 1/1 29/4 31/4 10/2 12/2 17/4 vaalribbok - - 2/2 2/1 - - -

hartebeest/ tsessebe 1/1 - 19/2 - - - 3/1

impala 1/1 - 1/1 2/1 - 1/1 17/2 common

springbok - - 1/1 1/1 - - -

Bond's springbok - - 1/1 1/1 - - -

blue duiker - - - - 1/1 2/1 1/1 grey duiker 1/1 2/1 2/1 5/1 - 1/1 - oribi - - - - 1/1 8/2 -

klipspringer 1/1 1/1 3/1 5/1 9/2 14/4 1/1 steenbok/grysbok - - - - - 2/1 3/1 Cape buffalo - 1/1 1/1 2/1 - - -

Bovidae - general small 19/2 45/2 38/2 102/3 101/6 188/9 227/11 small medium 5/1 16/2 105/4 126/4 54/3 102/4 344/8 large medium 16/2 15/1 72/6 103/6 13/2 9/1 68/2 large 4/1 1/1 1/1 6/1 14/2 1/1 3/1

ago. The faunal contrast in the Cape Ecozone is so dramatic that it is apparent even in relatively small samples similar in size to those from Heuningneskrans and Leopard's Hill.

Globally, the 12-10 000 B.P. interval was a time of significant climatic change marking the transition from the Last Glacial (=late Pleistocene) to Present Interglacial (=Holocene) climatic conditions. In southern Africa, the transition was probably marked by a rise in mean temperatures in all subregions and by changes in the amount or seasonality of rainfall in most (Butzer 1984a, 1984b). The details are debatable, partly because the palaeoenvironmental evidence is some- times equivocal and partly because it is not always well dated.

For present purposes, the most pertinent palaeoenvironmental datum in the Zambesian Ecozone is the pollen diagram from Lake

Ishiba Ngandu on the Zambian Plateau (Livingstone 1971). Radio- carbon dates suggest this diagram spans most of the past 22 000 years. In his original analysis, Livingstone did not draw climatic inferences from changes in pollen frequencies through the diagram. However, Scott (1984) suggests that older (? glacial) parts of the diagram may reflect cooler, drier conditions than later (probable postglacial) parts.

In the Transvaalian Ecozone, cooler temperatures in the millennia before 12 000 B.P. are clearly indicated by both pollen data (Scott 1984) and by oxygen-isotope analyses of ancient cave carbonates (Talma et al. 1974). Nonetheless, sediment analyses of the terminal Pleistocene and early Holocene strata in both Heuningneskrans and Bushman Rock Shelter have proven relatively uninformative and provide no evidence of climatic change (Butzer 1984a, 1984b and pers. comm.). This may reflect both the nature of the sites as microenvironments and sediment traps and the fact that real climatic change was too subdued to affect local sedimentary processes.

The faunal data cited here do not bear directly on probable changes in temperature or possible change in precipitation. Howev- er, they do suggest that the climatic change from glacial to interglacial conditions had much less impact on plant and animal distributions in the Zambesian and Transvaalian Ecozones than it did in the Cape Ecozone. This was perhaps an expected result since the Cape Ecozone is much further from the equator. The mean temperature difference between glacial and interglacial was therefore almost certainly greater in the Cape Ecozone. It is also possible that glacials and interglacials contrasted much more in the amount or seasonality of rainfall. Sorting out the alternatives will probably depend more on continuing geomorphic/sedimentologic, geochemical and palynolo- gic studies than on the kind of faunal analysis reported here.

Extinct Species in the Heuningneskrans and Leopard's Hill Samples

Late Quaternary faunal samples from southern Africa contain at least six species of large mammals that were not present historically. These are: the 'giant Cape horse' Equus capensis, the 'giant warthog' Metridiochoerus sp., the 'giant long-horned buffalo' Pelorovis anti- quus, the 'giant hartebeest' Megalotragus priscus, the southern springbok Antidorcas australis, and Bond's springbok Antidorcas bondi. Faunal samples from the Cape Ecozone suggest that the giant Cape horse, giant buffalo, giant hartebeest and southern springbok all made their last appearance at or shortly before 12 000-9 000 years ago. I have hypothesized that their extinction was a joint result of environmental change and human hunting (Klein 1984).

Even in samples where the extinct species occur, they are often rare. Hence, chance alone could explain their absence in small samples like those from Heuningneskrans and Leopard's Hill. I found only one extinct species in the Heuningneskrans sample. This is Bond's springbok, represented by a single tooth (Fig. 3) in a layer radiocarbon-dated to approximately 20 000 B.P. The Heuningnesk- rans record is in fact the latest secure date for the species. At most other sites where it is known (e.g. Redcliff and Border Cave), it occurs in much older deposits, mainly ones clearly beyond the 40-

Antidorcas bondi

(HNK 3d A14 138-141)

C _ _ _ ~~cm Gazella thomsoni (LH 1 -33-B)

Fig. 3. (Left) An upper left first molar of Antidorcas bondi from level 3D at Heuningneskrans. (Right) A lower left third molar of Gazella thomlsoni from spit 33 (square B) at Leopard's Hill Cave.

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114 The South African Archaeological Bulletin

30 000 B.P. limit of conventional radiocarbon dating. At Heuning- neskrans, as at most other sites, Bond's springbok appears to have been sympatric with its closest living relative, the common springbok A. manruspialis.

I found no extinct species in the Leopard's Hill sample. However, H. B. S. Cooke (1950) reported a large hartebeest-like antelope among the bones from an early non-scientific excavation at the site. He identified it as 'Alcelaphus rubustus' which most specialists today would sink into Megalotragus priscus. The stratigraphic provenience of the giant hartebeest bones within the Leopard's Hill profile remains unknown, but they are almost certainly younger than 23 000 years. Assuming a correct identification, the Leopard's Hill record would then be among the youngest for M. priscus.

Extant Species outside their Historic Areas of Distribution With the exception of Bond's springbok, all the species in the

Heuningneskrans sample are extant ones that occurred nearby historically. The Leopard's Hill sample, however, contains at least two extant species that did not occur near the site historically (based on Smithers (1966) and Ansell (1971)). These are the blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus), represented by at least 45 partial dentitions or isolated teeth, mainly in the Pre-Nachikufan levels older than 16 000 B.P., and the Thomson's gazelle (Gazella thomsoni), repre- sented by a single tooth (Fig. 3) in a Pre-Nachikufan layer dated to between 23 000 and 16 000 B.P.

Historically in Zambia, the blue wildebeest populations nearest to Leopard's Hill occurred in two separate localities - 200-300 km to the west (west of the Kafue River) and 150-200 km to the north-east (in the Luangwa Valley). It seems likely that these separate popula- tions were once linked, probably through the area in which Leopard's Hill Cave is located. It remains unclear whether the populations became separated as a result of long-term environmental change (the development of more open vegetational communities) or perhaps as a result of human (? Iron Age) activities. I suggest below that Iron Age people may have been at least indirectly responsible for the regional disappearance of the Thomson's gazelle.

The occurrence of Thomson's gazelle in the Leopard's Hill fauna is more surprising, since the nearest historic record of the species was at least 1 200 km to the north-east in south-central Tanzania. Like the abundance of blue wildebeest, the occurrence of Thomson's gazelle in the late Pleistocene deposits at Leopard's Hill might indicate a different (more open) environment, but this conclusion is problemat- ic for two reasons.

First, not only Thomson's gazelle, but gazelles of any kind (antilo- pine antelopes including the springbok) were absent in the Zambe- sian Ecozone historically. Yet there is nothing obvious in Zambesian climate, vegetation, or faunal communities to exclude them. In fact, in both the Transvaallan Ecozone to the south and the Eastern Ecozone to the north, gazelles (sensu lato) were a regular part of faunal communities otherwise comprising basically the same ungu- late species as in the Zambesian Ecozone. In northern Tanzania, Gwynne and Bell (1968) have even shown that Thomson's gazelle is ecologically linked in a 'grazing succession' with Burchell's zebra and blue wildebeest, both of which were generally common within the Zambesian Ecozone. In short, recent observations suggest there was a 'gazelle niche' in the Zambesian Ecozone and its emptiness is puzzling.

Second, and equally relevant, in addition to its late Pleistocene occurrence at Leopard's Hill, Thomson's gazelle has also been found in a mid-Holocene (LSA) level at Kalemba Rock Shelter in eastern Zambia (Phillipson 1976), in a late Holocene (LSA) deposit at Chencherere Rock Shelter in central Malawi (Crader 1984), and possibly in late Holocene (Iron Age) sites in southern Malawi (Voigt 1973). It may even have occurred in northern Natal (Transvaalian Ecozone) in the very late Holocene, if my tentative identification of gazelle teeth from the Ntshekane Iron Age site (llth century A.D.) is correct (Maggs & Michaels 1976).

In sum, the possibility exists that Thomson's gazelle occurred in the Zambesian Ecozone more or less continuously from the late Pleisto- cene until proto-historic times. Based also on the apparent existence of an unfilled gazelle niche, I suggest that the historic absence of gazelle in the Zambesian Ecozone may be due to the introduction of sheep and goats during the hron Age or to some other environmental

modification initiated by Iron Age people. At least for the moment then, no particular palaeoenvironmental significance can be attribut- ed to the presence of Thomson's gazelle in the Leopard's Hill fossil sample.

Human Behavioural Implications of the Faunal Samples The Heuningneskrans and Leopard's Hill samples are similar to all

other known faunal samples from shelter sites in southern Africa in their general implications for human behaviour. Carnivore bones are relatively rare, probably reflecting a mutual avoidance relationship between carnivores and Stone Age people. Bones of the largest available ungulates - elephant, rhinoceroses and hippopotamus -

are similarly rare or absent, probably because Stone Age hunters found them far more difficult to capture than smaller species. In addition, on those occasions when people did obtain a very large animal, they probably left most of its bones at the kill/butchery site.

The Heuningneskrans and Leopard's Hill faunal samples are further similar to those from other shelter sites in their skeletal part

LEOPARD'S HILL CAVE HEUNINGSNESKRANS SHELTER

scapula & vertebrae (16/2) innominate (3/1)

scapula & | vertebrae (6/1) innominate (6/2) dentilton (6/3) longbones (26/2)

;g'\\\" 11 1 1 1 1 d1 ntition (5/1)

\ 1 11111111 rss > phalanges, carpals,

phalanges, carpals, longbones (27/3) tarsals & tarsals & sesamoids

sesamoids (6/2) (42/3)&seamid SMALL BOVIDS

scapula & vertebrae (2/1) innominate (2/1)

nnominAte (2/1)\ vertebrae (4/1) dentition (46/4) i{ entition (12/3) scapula & Iongbones ( 8 innominate (/1

e ~'p~ialphalanges, carpals, longbones (21/2) phalanges, carpals,

(20/1) (48/3)

SMALL-MEDIUM BOVIDS

vertebrae (7/2) scapula & innominate (12/2)

longbones (66/4) dentition (59/5) dentition (52/6) ^

| | | | || [\\\\X\X|scapula & [\

innominate) phalanges, carpals, (2/2) palanges, carpals, tarsals & sesamoids longbones (7/1 tarsals & sesamoids

LARGE-MEDIUM BOVIDS

longbones (3/2)

dentltion (12/3) dentition (2/ 1)

longbones 1// 1) langes, (2/1l)

phalanges, carpals, phalanges, carpals.

(26/2) (3/1)

LARGE BOVIDS

Fig. 4. Skeletal part representation in bovids of different sizes in the Heuningneskrans and Leopard's Hill faunal samples. Different skel- etal parts have been lumped together on the basis of anatomical proximity or of similarity in form. In each case, "-/-" is the number of identifiable specimens (NISP)/the minimum number of individuals (MNI). The pie slices are proportional to the NISP's.

The figure shows that larger bovids tend to be represented by a narrower range of skeletal parts than smaller ones. This is probably because the inhabitants of both sites tended to bring home only the most useful parts of larger bovid carcasses, while returning smaller carcasses more or less intact.

The figure also suggests some differences between the sites in skeletal part representation. Thus, small boyid carpals, tarsals, pha- langes and sesamoids are relatively more common at Heuningnesk- rans, as are large medium boyid teeth. Large medium boyid longbones are proportionately more common at Leopard's Hill. The difference in small boyid parts perhaps reflects the use of finer mesh screens in the Heuningneskrans excavation, while the difference in large medium boyid parts probably reflects the more intensive post- depositional leaching of bone at Heuningneskrans.

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The South African Archaeological Bulletin 115

composition. To a large extent, the similarity undoubtedly reflects the effects of post-depositional destructive forces which favoured the survival of teeth and small hard postcranial bones (carpals, tarsals, sesamoids and phalanges) over other less durable parts. However, some of the similarity undoubtedly also reflects the tendency for people to butcher larger animals where they died and to bring smaller ones home intact. The result, illustrated for different sized bovids in Fig. 4, is that smaller species tend to be represented by a wider variety of skeletal parts.

The Heuningneskrans and Leopard's Hill faunal samples are too small to permit any further inferences about ancient human behav- iour. Perhaps most unfortunate is that neither sample contains sufficient material to construct age/sex profiles for any species. The warthog from Leopard's Hill is a partial exception, but the peculiar abundance of newborn individuals noted previously may reflect the auxiliary role of a non-human bone collector rather than ancient human hunting abilities or preferences.

Summary and Conclusions Heuningneskrans Shelter and Leopard's Hill Cave are among the

very few sites in southern Africa that have provided faunal remains securely dated to the closing millennia of the Last Glacial period. Although the samples are small, they nonetheless appear broadly similar in species composition and relative species abundance to later (post-glacial or Holocene) samples from the same regions and also to the historic faunas. They are also essentially similar in structure to local, earlier Late Pleistocene faunal samples. This places broad limits on the amount of environmental difference between 'glacial' and 'non-glacial' intervals in the regions of the sites. In particular, it suggests less difference than in other areas further south where 'glacial' and 'non-glacial' faunas contrast sharply in structure.

The Heuningneskrans sample contains the latest known record of the extinct springbok, Antidorcas bondi, in a level radiocarbon-dated to approximately 20 000 B.P. The Leopard's Hill sample described here contains no extinct species, but an earlier sample described by H. B. S. Cooke provided what is probably one of the latest records of the extinct giant hartebeest, Megalotragus priscus.

The occurrence of blue wildebeest and Thomson's gazelle in the late Pleistocene levels of Leopard's Hill Cave may indicate the former occurrence of more open vegetation nearby, but it is also possible that these species only disappeared from the region relatively recently, perhaps as a result of human (? Iron Age) activity. Recent range retraction seems especially likely for Thomson's gazelle, since dis- coveries at other sites indicate it ranged far south of its present southern limit (in Tanzania) well into the Holocene.

The Heuningneskrans and Leopard's Hill faunal samples suggest that the occupants of both sites focused mainly on small and medium- size ungulates, like Stone Age people elsewhere in southern Africa. Also like Stone Age people elsewhere, the Heuningneskrans and Leopard's Hill people apparently butchered larger animals at the spot where they died and only returned selected parts to the shelter. In contrast, they tended to bring smaller animals back more or less intact. Small sample size unfortunately precludes additional, more detailed inferences about ancient human behaviour.

Acknowlegements I thank P. B. Beaumont and J. D. Clark for making the Heuning-

neskrans and Leopard's Hill faunal samples available to me, the Field Museum and the South African Museum for providing study facili- ties, Barbara Johnson for help in labelling and sorting the Leopard's Hill bones, Kathryn Cruz-Uribe for illustrations of Heuningneskrans and Leopard's Hill teeth, P. B. Beaumont, K. W. Butzer, J. Deacon and S. F. Miller for helpful comments on a draft of the manuscript, and the National Science Foundation for financial support.

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