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London Review of Education DOI: 10.18546/LRE.14.2.10 Volume 14, Number 2, September 2016 Language planning and education of adult immigrants in Canada: Contrasting the provinces of Quebec and British Columbia, and the cities of Montreal and Vancouver Catherine Ellyson Bem & Co. Caroline Andrew and Richard Clément * University of Ottawa Combining policy analysis with language policy and planning analysis, our article comparatively assesses two models of adult immigrants’ language education in two very different provinces of the same federal country. In order to do so, we focus specifically on two questions:‘Why do governments provide language education to adults?’ and ‘How is it provided in the concrete setting of two of the biggest cities in Canada?’ Beyond describing the two models of adult immigrants’ language education in Quebec, British Columbia, and their respective largest cities, our article ponders whether and in what sense demography, language history, and the common federal framework can explain the similarities and differences between the two.These contextual elements can explain why cities continue to have so few responsibilities regarding the settlement, integration, and language education of newcomers. Only such understanding will eventually allow for proper reforms in terms of cities’ responsibilities regarding immigration. Keywords: multilingual cities; multiculturalism; adult education; immigration; language laws Introduction Canada is a very large country with much variation between provinces and cities in many dimensions. One such aspect, which remains a current hot topic for demographic and historical reasons, is language; more specifically, why and how language planning and policy are enacted throughout the country.Whereas the province of Quebec and its most important city – Montreal – has French as the only official language, the federal government has both English and French, and most provinces and cities have English as their only official language. Furthermore, 21.3 per cent of Canadians, 78.1 per cent of Québécois, and 1.3 per cent of British Columbians have French as their mother tongue (Statistics Canada, 2011a). Linguistic diversity across Canada is further increased as a result of continuing high rates of immigration. Indeed, during the past decade, Canada has maintained one of the highest per capita immigration rates in the world (CIC, 2012). Close to 250,000 immigrants arrive each year, settling mostly in the provinces of Ontario (42 per cent in 2012), Quebec (19 per cent in 2012), and British Columbia (16 per cent in 2012) (ibid.); and in the cities ofToronto (32 per cent in 2010), Montreal (17 per cent in 2010), and Vancouver (14 per cent in 2010) (FCM, 2011).As of 2011, more than one in five Canadians (20.6 per cent) were foreign-born, a proportion well above other G8 countries like Germany and the United States (both around 13 per cent in 2010) (Statistics Canada, 2011b). * Corresponding author – email: [email protected] ©Copyright 2016 Ellyson, Andrew, and Clément.This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Licence, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,provided the original author and source are credited.

Language planning and education of adult immigrants in ... · Furthermore, 21.3 per cent of Canadians, 78.1 per cent of Québécois, and 1.3 per cent of British Columbians have French

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Page 1: Language planning and education of adult immigrants in ... · Furthermore, 21.3 per cent of Canadians, 78.1 per cent of Québécois, and 1.3 per cent of British Columbians have French

London Review of Education DOI1018546LRE14210Volume14Number2September2016

Language planning and education of adult immigrants in Canada Contrasting the provinces of Quebec and British Columbia and the cities of Montreal and Vancouver

CatherineEllysonBem amp Co

CarolineAndrewandRichardCleacutementUniversity of Ottawa

CombiningpolicyanalysiswithlanguagepolicyandplanninganalysisourarticlecomparativelyassessestwomodelsofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationintwoverydifferentprovincesofthesamefederalcountryInordertodosowefocusspecificallyontwoquestionslsquoWhydogovernmentsprovidelanguageeducationtoadultsrsquoandlsquoHow is itprovidedintheconcretesettingof twoof thebiggestcities inCanadarsquoBeyonddescribing the twomodelsofadultimmigrantsrsquo language education in Quebec British Columbia and their respective largestcitiesourarticleponderswhetherandinwhatsensedemographylanguagehistoryandthecommonfederalframeworkcanexplainthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthetwoThesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchunderstandingwilleventuallyallowforproperreformsintermsofcitiesrsquoresponsibilitiesregardingimmigration

Keywords multilingualcitiesmulticulturalismadulteducationimmigrationlanguagelaws

Introduction

Canada is a very large country with much variation between provinces and cities in manydimensionsOnesuchaspectwhichremainsacurrenthottopicfordemographicandhistoricalreasons is languagemorespecificallywhyandhow languageplanningandpolicyareenactedthroughoutthecountryWhereastheprovinceofQuebecanditsmostimportantcityndashMontrealndashhasFrenchastheonlyofficiallanguagethefederalgovernmenthasbothEnglishandFrenchandmostprovincesandcitieshaveEnglishastheironlyofficiallanguageFurthermore213percentofCanadians781percentofQueacutebeacutecoisand13percentofBritishColumbianshaveFrenchastheirmothertongue(StatisticsCanada2011a)

LinguisticdiversityacrossCanadaisfurtherincreasedasaresultofcontinuinghighratesofimmigrationIndeedduringthepastdecadeCanadahasmaintainedoneofthehighestpercapitaimmigrationratesintheworld(CIC2012)Closeto250000immigrantsarriveeachyearsettlingmostlyintheprovincesofOntario(42percentin2012)Quebec(19percentin2012)andBritishColumbia(16percentin2012)(ibid)andinthecitiesofToronto(32percentin2010)Montreal(17percentin2010)andVancouver(14percentin2010)(FCM2011)Asof2011more thanone infiveCanadians (206percent)were foreign-born aproportionwellaboveotherG8countrieslikeGermanyandtheUnitedStates(botharound13percentin2010)(StatisticsCanada2011b)

Correspondingauthorndashemailrclementuottawaca copyCopyright2016EllysonAndrewandCleacutementThis isanOpenAccessarticledistributedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttributionLicencewhichpermitsunrestrictedusedistributionandreproductioninanymediumprovidedtheoriginalauthorandsourcearecredited

London Review of Education 135

Such high rates of immigration imply that important efforts and resources need to beinvestedinthesettlementandintegrationofnewcomersincludinginprovidingeducationinthelocallanguageIndeedmanystudiesemphasizehowlocallanguageproficiencyisacrucialpartofintegrationinthevariousspheresoflife(egseeAdamuti-Trache2012)includinginrelationtotransportationandhousing(Kilbrideet al2011)tothejobmarket(DerwingandWaugh2012Chiswick2008)andtohealthcare(Nget al2011Battagliniet al2007GagnonandSaillant2000Olazabalet al2010SouliegraveresandOuellette2012)

WhileCanadianprovincesoperatewithinonesinglerelativelyinfluentialfederalstructuretheirdemographyandlinguistichistoryvaryinsuchawaythatonewouldconfidentlyexpectimportant variation inprovincesrsquo languagepolicies and inwhy andhow languageeducation isprovided to adult immigrants Moreover the Canadian constitution allocates education as aprovincialjurisdictionandimmigrationasasharedjurisdictionbetweenthefederalandprovincialgovernments

TakingintoconsiderationthecontextualelementsatplayourarticledescribesandtriestounderstandthesimilaritiesanddifferencesastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsintwoverydifferentprovincesandtheirbiggestcitiesndashtheprovinceofQuebecandthecityofMontrealandtheprovinceofBritishColumbiaandthecityofVancouver

Comparing adult immigrantsrsquo language education Framework approach and context

InthisfirstsectionwepresenttheanalyticalframeworkourapproachtotheresearchquestionsandthemaincontextualelementsatplaytounderstandvariationsinlanguagepolicyandplanninginCanada

The analytical framework

AdultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationsitsatthecrossroadsofvariouspolicydomainscitizenshipandimmigrationeducationeconomicpolicyandemployabilityAsGazzolaandGrinputitlsquojustlikepublicpoliciesarearesponsetoldquopublicproblemsrdquo languagepoliciescanbeviewedasaresponse toldquolanguageproblemsrsquorsquorsquo (20105)Asonecomponentofabroader languagepolicyadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationcanbeassessedasanyotherpublicpolicythatisinrelationto thedifferentphasesof thepolicyprocesspolicy formulation implementationcompliancereaction evaluationmodification (Morris 2010 379ndash83) Similarly researchers in the fieldoflanguage policy and planning asklsquoWhat actors attempt to influencewhat behaviour ofwhichpeopleforwhatendsunderwhatconditionsbywhatmeansthroughwhatdecision-making processwithwhateffectsrsquo(Cooper19898)Amongthemainandcentralgoalsofusingcomparativeapproachesisthatoflsquoassessingrivalexplanationsrsquoonagivenpublicpolicy(Collier1993105)

The approach

InordertoassessthetwomodelsofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationourarticlefocusesspecificallyontwoquestionslsquoWhydogovernmentsprovidelanguageeducationtoadultsrsquoandlsquoHowisitprovidedintheconcretesettingoftwoofthelargestcitiesinCanadarsquo

136 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

Why

AreportbytheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipdefinessettlementandintegrationasacontinuumthatinvolvesmeetingtheneedsoftheimmigrants(iehousingeducationnutritionandhealthcare)fullandgratifyingparticipationinthelabourmarketandorlocaleconomycivicandcommunityparticipation anda senseofbelonging in thecommunity (Murphy201011)Similarly Omidvar and Richmond (2003) define social integration as the lsquorealization of fullandequalparticipationintheeconomicsocialculturalandpoliticaldimensionsoflifein[theimmigrantsrsquo]newcountryrsquo(DerwingandWaugh20123)Inevaluatingresearchonwhylanguageeducation isprovided to immigrantsweprimarilynote thatproficiency in the local languageisonevery importantaspectofsettlementand integration Indeedthelsquolackofknowledgeofone ofCanadarsquos official languageswas still themost serious problem faced by refugees andothereconomicimmigrants4yearsafterlandingrsquo(Xue2007asquotedbyDerwingandWaugh20127)Moreoverlsquoacriticalingredientofnewcomersrsquoactiveparticipationinthehostsocietyaretheirlanguageskillsrsquo(Adamuti-Trache2012103)Inshortthreemainstreamsofreasonsastowhylanguageeducationisprovidedtoadultimmigrantsarefoundintheliteraturendashthatisreasonsrelatingto(1)citizenshipandnationalism(2)jobsindustryandeconomicbenefitsofimmigrationand(3)socialwelfareandintegration(Cleghorn 2000)

First local language competency is often amarker of national identity andor belonging(Clarkson 2014) and thusproficiency in the local language is conceivedas aprerequisite inordertolsquounderstandthenormsofthehostsociety[andto]likelygrowasenseofattachmentto[thehost society]rsquo(Adamuti-Trache2012109)AsSimpsonandWhitesideput itlsquotheonenationonelanguageideologyisinterlacedwithotherbeliefsaboutnationalidentityforexamplethe ideal that thenation state shouldbe ashomogeneous aspossible and that adimensionof that homogeneity ismonolingualismrsquo (2015 2) Following this ideology proficiency in thelocal language alonewould allow full belonging and participation in the community FurtherimmigrationndashandthuslocallanguageeducationndashisrelatedtocitizenshipandnationalisminthecontextofdecliningfertilityandcurrentpopulationageingAbodyofliteraturendashoftenwrittenby francophones fromQuebec Ontario and New Brunswick ndash stresses the importance offrancophoneimmigrationandoflinguisticandsocialintegrationofimmigrantsintofrancophonecommunitiesinstoppingthesteadydemographicdeclineofthesecommunitiesinCanada(egseeBelkhodja2008Bursteinet al2014Ferron2008Fourot2016FraserandBoileau2014MarmenetCorbeil1999VatzLaaroussi2008)InordertoachievethisobjectivehowevernotonlydoimmigrantshavetochooseFrenchastheirpreferredofficiallanguagendashandeventuallyfortheirlinguistictransferndashbuttheyhavetostayinQuebecorinotherfrancophonecommunitiesLearningthelocallanguagewouldthusbeafirststepforimmigrantstocontributeinthisgrandcollectiveobjectiveForotherauthorslsquoadesiretolearnCanadarsquostwoofficiallanguagesmaybegroundedinimmigrantsrsquopursuitofastrongersenseofbelongingrsquo(BurtonandPhipps2010asquotedbyMadyandTurnbull2012132)orofgreatereconomicwellbeing(PicotandSweetman2005ibid)

Second adult immigrantsrsquo language education is often justified as crucial in achievingimmigrantsrsquofulleconomicpotentialIntegrationonthejobmarkethasoftenbeensingledoutasthemostimportantaspectofimmigrantsrsquointegrationintotheirnewsocietyStudiesshowthatimmigrantsrsquogreaterlocallinguisticskillsareassociatedwithfewerdifficultiesfindingajobandhigherearningsandproductivity(Chiswick2008)Anotherreportstatesthatin2003inCanadatheemploymentratesforindividualswithpoorandweakliteracyinthelocallanguagewere57percentand70percentrespectivelylsquocomparedto76forthedesiredlevelofliteracyrsquo(TDBankFinancialGroup200911)Finallyeconomistsarguethatgreaterlocallinguisticskillsare

London Review of Education 137

associatedwithincreasedproductivityofotherinvestmentinhumancapitalincludingeducationandtraining(Chiswick2008)

Thethirdmainsetofreasonsforproviding languageeducationtoadult immigrants isasaprerequisiteforgreatersocialwelfareandintegrationinthecommunityOneelementoftenemphasized in the literature ishowa lackofknowledgeorproficiency in the local languageis connected to smaller and less diversified personal networks (Rose 2006Thomas 2011)Thesenetworksconveypoorer information leading todisadvantages in a varietyof spheresDamarisRose(2006)arguesforexamplethatimmigrantswithsmallerandmoreundiversifiednetworkshavegreaterdifficultiesfindingsuitablehousingProficiencyinthelocallanguagealsohaspositivebenefitswithregardtoeducationParentsrsquolinguisticskillshavebeenassociatedwitha similar levelof successat school in theirchildren (GouvernementduQueacutebec2014TCRI2011) Further a higher level of language proficiency is associatedwith greater engagementinpost-secondaryeducationuponarrival(Adamuti-Trache2012109)whichinturnprovidesgreaterjobsandsocialintegrationopportunities(DerwingandWaugh20127)Lowlevelsoflocallanguageskillsalsohavenegativeimpactsonself-reportedhealth(Nget al201119)andonimmigrantsrsquoaccesstothehealthcaresystem(Battagliniet al2007GagnonandSaillant2000Olazabalet al2010SouliegraveresandOuellette2012)Lowlanguageproficiencyisalsoidentifiedasariskfactoroffamilyviolenceamongimmigrantwomen(Ahmadet al2004Rinfret-Raynoret al20136)Finallystudiesshowthatimmigrantsrsquogreaterlocallinguisticskillsareassociatedwithgreaterpoliticalinvolvement(Chiswick2008)

How

Differences and similarities in the reasons why language education is provided to adultimmigrantsdonotnecessarily translate intocorrespondingdifferencesandsimilarities in thewaythiseducationisprovidedonthegroundIndeedwhilethesereasonsmaydiffer(andcanbeexplainedpartlybythedifferencesindemographyandlanguagehistory) it ispossiblethatmanycomponentsremainthesameatthelevelofserviceprovision(andcanbeexplainedinlargepartbyacommonhistoryofsettlementservicesandfederalframework)ThuswhatlevelofgovernmentndashamongthefederalprovincialandlocallevelsndashisresponsibleforprovidinglocallanguageeducationtoadultimmigrantsWhatactorsareconsultedinelaboratingandmakingdecisions over service provisionWhat language is taught Finallywhat actors are providinglanguageeducationtoadultimmigrants

In sum beyond exploring to what extent reasons andmotivations to provide languageeducationtoadultimmigrantsvarybetweenprovincesweexplorewhetherthesevariationsareaccompaniedbycorrespondingvariationsinhowthiseducationisprovided

The context

InadditiontodescribingthemodelsofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationinQuebecBritishColumbiaandtheirbiggestcitiesourarticleponderswhetherandinwhatsensedemographylanguagehistoryandthecommonfederalframeworkcanexplainthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthetwoprovinces

Demography and language history

Asmentionedintheintroductiondemographyandlanguagehistoryvarygreatlyfromonepartof the country to another potentially impactingon languagepolicy andplanning andon the

138 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

language education provided to adult immigrantsTable 1 outlines the linguistic compositioninCanadaQuebec (and its largest cityMontreal) andBritishColumbia (and its largest cityVancouver)intermsofmothertonguesin2011

Table 1Mothertonguebyprovincesandcensusmetropolitanarea(CMA)

Mother tongues

English French Other Multiple

Quebec Total 77 781 123 19

Montreal(CMA) 116 633 220 31

BritishColumbia Total 703 13 265 19

Vancouver(CMA) 560 11 403 27

Canada Total 569 213 198 20

StatisticsCanada(2011d)Table 2 shows that it is not only the proportionof people having French and a non-officiallanguageastheirmothertonguethatvariesacrossCanadaandbetweencitiesbutalsothenon-officiallanguagesspokenthemselves

Table 2MostspokenmothertonguesinMontrealandVancouver

CMA Montreal Vancouver

English 2(116) 1(560)

French 1(633) 11(11)

Spanish 4(29) 9(14)

Italian 5(29)

Chinese(nototherwisespecified) 7(10) 4(49)

Cantonese 3(56)

Mandarin 5(39)

Punjabi 2(61)

Tagalog 6(21)

Arabic 3(34)

Creoles 6(13)

StatisticsCanada(2011d)

IndeedwhileChineselanguagesandPunjabiarebyfarthemostfrequentinVancouvertheyrankmuchlowerinMontrealConverselyArabicSpanishandItalianarethemostspokennon-officiallanguagesinMontreal

Behind these numbers come important variations in terms of the linguistic history ofCanadaFirsttheoriginalsettlersandcolonizersofCanadacameverylargelyfromtwoEuropeancountries speaking different languages French and English Although aboriginal people andlanguagesarenotdiscussedinourarticleitisusefultoberemindedthatCanadawasestablishedbyEuropeansettlersonalandinhabitedpriortocolonizationbyindigenouspeopleOneimpactof European colonization of theCanadian territory ndash beyond the dramatic decrease of theaboriginalpopulationitselfndashhasbeentheneardisappearanceofmostindigenouslanguagesIn2011only63000personsdeclaredanindigenouslanguageastheirmothertongueinCanadaandonly172percentofindigenouspersonsreportedbeingabletoconverseinanindigenous

London Review of Education 139

languageFurthertheproportionofindigenouspersonsabletodosodecreasedby2percentbetween2006and2011while theirpopulation grewby awhole201per cent in the sameperiod(StatisticsCanada2011c)

TheBritishconquestofFrenchNorthAmericain1760wasfollowedbymultipleattemptsat assimilating French-speaking residentsWhereas the pursuit of the linguistic and culturalassimilationoftheFrenchCanadianslessenedonceCanadawascreatedin1867thedemographicweightofFrenchasamothertongueamongtheCanadianpopulationhasbeensteadilydecliningForexamplea1912regulationbannedelementaryschoolteachersfromspeakingFrenchforwhichOntariorsquospremierKathleenWynneissuedaformalapologytofrancophonesthroughtheprovinciallegislatureinFebruary2016lsquoRegulation17showedadisregardforFranco-OntarianidentityandequalityandonbehalfofthegovernmentofOntarioIofferanapologyrsquo(The Canadian Press2016)

Frenchspeakersrepresented29percentofthepopulationin1951and217percentin2011ForthecityofMontrealalone(notthemetropolitanarea)themajorityofresidentswithFrenchasamothertonguehasbeendecliningaswellfrom68percentin1951to524percentin2011(DominionBureauofStatistics1953VilledeMontreacutealnd)withtheproportionbeing635percentfortheentiremetropolitanarea(StatisticsCanada2016)ThedemographicweightofQuebecamongallCanadianprovinceshasalsobeendecliningfrom279percentin1971to23percentin2015(ISQ201523)AsaconsequenceQuebecseatsinthefederalparliamentdecreasedfrom266percentin1976to233percentin2015(ElectionsCanada 2010ElectionsCanada2012)

InadditiontoahistoryofconquestandasteadydemographicdeclineofbothfrancophonesacrossthecountryandofQuebecrsquosweightamongtheprovincesthehistoryofsocioeconomicinequalities experienced by francophones ndash even in Quebec ndash must be mentioned Indeeduntilthe1960sdespiteamajorityoffrancophonesintheprovinceofQuebecthelanguageofcommerceandofworkwasmainlyEnglishIndeedfrancophoneswerelessinstructedunder-representedamonghigherprofessionallevelsandgainedsmallerrevenues(DickinsonandYoung2008PCO1970)

FinallyasafrancophoneprovincewithinnotonlyamajorityEnglish-speakingcountrybutanevenlargermajorityEnglish-speakingNorthAmericancontinentQuebecstrugglestoconveytoitsnewcomerstheimportanceofpreservingFrenchasthecommonlanguageUntilthe1970s90percentofnewcomerstoQuebecchoselsquoto integrate intotheminorityEnglishspeakingcommunityrsquo(Bouffard201550)TheappealofEnglishremainsunderstandabletodayinacountryandlsquoinacontinentwheretheoverwhelmingmajorityspeaksnotonlyadifferentlanguagebut thelanguageofglobalizationrsquo(ibid49)

In sum the history of conquest and of socioeconomic inequalities the harsh reality oflinguisticdemographicdeclineandthehistoricaltendencyofimmigrantstointegrateintotheanglophonecommunityhavehad verydeep impacts inQuebec In thatprovince the fearofEnglishandndashtoacertainextentndashofotherlanguageshasbeenquitestrongparticularlyregardingitsmostpopulatedcityandmainreceiverofimmigrationMontreal

TheBritishColumbian linguistichistory isverydifferentTheFrenchminorityhasalwaysbeenverysmallinnumberItaccountedfor1percentofthepopulationin1951andstilldoestodayTheFrenchndashEnglish strugglehas thusbeenmuchquieterndash if not absentWhereas thepercentageofBritishColumbianswithEnglishastheirmothertonguehasdeclinedsubstantiallymost notably inVancouver (from 86 per cent in 1951 to 56 per cent in 2011) the Englishlanguage has never been fundamentally threatenedCompared to French inQuebec Englishremains incontestably thefirstofficial language learnedby immigrants inBritishColumbia IntermsofdemographicweightamongCanadianprovincesBritishColumbiarsquosgrewfrom102per

140 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

centin1971to131percentin2015(ISQ201523)AsaconsequenceBritishColumbiarsquosseatsinthefederalparliamentincreasedfrom7percentin1976to125percentin2015(ElectionsCanada 2010ElectionsCanada2012)

In sum we observe extremely different demographic and language histories inQuebecandBritishColumbiaThesemajordifferencescanclearlybeexpectedtohaveimpactsoneachprovincersquoslanguagepolicyandplanning

The federal framework and immigration

InCanadabeing a federationofprovinces jurisdictions are allocated toone levelor sharedbetween two Immigration is shared whereas education and municipal affairs come underprovincialjurisdiction

MajortransformationshavetakenplacewithregardtoimmigrationinCanadainthelastdecadesFirsttheimmigrantselectionprocesswasalteredfollowingtheadoptionoftheBillofRights1960whichmade inevitablelsquotheremovalof immigrationregulationsrestrictingaccessofnon-Europeansrsquo(CardozoandPendakur200823)Referencestoraceorregionsoforiginwerethusreplacedintheselectioncriteriawithskillsandqualificationsand incertaincaseslanguages spoken (ibid) Second the ideaofmulticulturalismemerged in the1960s andwasformalizedintheCanadianMulticulturalismAct adoptedin1971AllCanadianprovinceshavesinceembracedimmigrationasasourceofhumananddemographicaswellasfinancialcapital(Paquet2016)Furtherlsquothefederalgovernmentandseveralofitsprovincialcounterpartshaveplaced a priority on immigrationmatters in recent years linking it to amultitude of otherprominent policy areasrsquo (Tolley et al 2011 3 as quoted byGunn 2012 3) In otherwordsquestions relating to immigration were introduced in many policy domains outside that ofcitizenshipandimmigrationperseincludingeducationworkandeconomyMostimportantlywhereasprovincialgovernmentshadbeenquiteshytoundertakeresponsibilitiesregardingtheshared jurisdiction of immigration they have becomemore interested in the field since the1970s(Gunn20123)andincreasinglyactivesincethe1990sIndeed ledbytheinterventionof the province ofQuebec all Canadian provinces have sincewith the federal governmentsigned bilateral agreements regarding immigration adopted immigration policies taken partintheselectionof immigrantsandcontributedtotheestablishmentofvariousorganizationspromotinggreaterintegrationamongnewcomers(Paquet2016)

ProvinceshavefurtherdevelopedvariousprogrammesforthesettlementandintegrationofimmigrantsAsdiscussedbelowadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationisoneimportantaspectofthesemodelsDespiteallthisthefederalagencyoverseeingsettlementandintegrationinthecountryisCitizenshipandImmigrationCanada(CIC)AlthoughQuebecManitobaandBritishColumbialsquoareresponsibleforthedesigndeliveryandadministrationofsettlementservicesrsquothisresponsibilityistransferredwiththelsquoobjectiveofachievingcomparablenewcomersrsquosettlementoutcomesrsquo (CICnd(a))ThebilateralaccordshaveattributedQuebecaspecialright fortheintegrationofnewcomers in theprovinceFinancialcompensationsareprovided forQuebectoprovideintegrationandsettlementserviceslsquoaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountryandaslongasallpermanentresidentsoftheprovincewhethertheywereselectedbyQuebecornotcanhaveaccesstothemrsquo(HouseofCommonsofCanada20101)

London Review of Education 141

Municipal affairs

In Canada the 1867 Constitutional Act assigned to the provincial governments exclusivejurisdictionovermunicipalitiesThusmunicipalitiesarenotconstitutionallyrecognizedanddonotndashat least formallyndashconstituteanorderofgovernmentof theirown inCanada (Young2009 106) One impact of this provincially exclusive jurisdiction is that provincial-municipalsystems vary considerably across the countryWhileCanadianmunicipalities have no formalresponsibilities except in Ontario regarding education healthcare and social services ndash allprovincialjurisdictionsndashtheyareoftenkeyactorsinimplementingfederalandprovincialpoliciesandprogrammes (ibid 115) Immigration is clearlyoneof thepolicydomains inwhich localgovernmentsandmunicipalitieshavebeenincreasinglyactiveIndeedmostimmigrantstoCanadachoosetosettleinbigcitiesTheFederationofCanadianMunicipalitiesstressedthatin2010two-thirdsofimmigrantssettledinCanadarsquosthreemostimportantmetropolitanareasTorontoMontrealandVancouverIn201117percentofimmigrantstoCanada(FCM2011)and76percentofimmigrantstoQuebecchosetosettleinMontreal(EmploiNexus2016)makingup344percentoftheresidentsofthecityofMontrealInthesameyear14percentofimmigrantstoCanadachosetosettleinVancouver(FCM2011)

Inpractice itmeansthatlsquoday-to-day issuesofmulticulturalismare renegotiatedandsettledin only a few citiesrsquo (Good 2008 1)Thus Canadarsquos biggest cities are active in the field ofimmigrationbecausetheyarelsquothefirstpointofcontactbetweennewcomersandgovernmentdue to the day-to-day dependence of immigrants on various local public servicesrsquo (Gunn20121)AccordingtoGood(2008)somemunicipalitieshavebeenveryresponsivetoincreasingnumbersofnewcomersintheirterritoriesndashforexamplethroughcontributinglsquotocommunitycapacitybuildingbyfundingcommunityorganizationsthatserveimmigrantsandethno-culturalminoritiesrsquothroughestablishinglsquoseparateunitsintheircivilservicetofacilitateaccessandequityin governance and service delivery aswell as tomanage diversityrsquo and through establishinglsquogovernancerelationshipsthatsupporttheireffortsinequitypolicyrsquoincludingwiththebusinesscommunity(ibid7)

Despitethefactthatmunicipallsquofront-lineserviceprovidersarekeyplayersinthesuccessfulsettlementattractionandretentionofimmigrantsmunicipalitieshavebeenleftonthesidelinesofimmigrantpolicyandfundingdecisionsrsquo(Gunn20124ndash5)withseniorlevelsofgovernmentsdealingmore frequentlywithlsquospecial-purpose non-profit societiesrsquo (Kataoka andMagnusson200720)

Finallyalthoughmunicipalitiesareformallyajurisdictionoftheprovincesthereisageneraltrend towardsmore direct relationships betweenmunicipalities and the federal government(Andrew 2014 Stoney andGraham 2009)Multiple reasons explain this trend including theimportanceofcontemporaryurbanchallengesandtheexplosionofmunicipalcostsasapartialconsequence of decentralization and of relatively low recent investments in infrastructure(Lalonde2016)Reviewingtheliteratureonthetopicofmunicipal-federalrelationshipsLalondenotes that most federal funding transits in provincial hands before landing in municipalitiesFurthermoremunicipalitiesrsquorolesandrelationshipwithfederalagencieslargelydependontherelationshipbetweentheirrespectiveprovincialgovernmentandthefederalgovernment(ibid)

InsumwhiletheCanadianfederalframeworkcanbeaunifyingfactoritleavesroomforconsiderablevariationndash forexample in thefieldsof immigrationandmunicipal affairsndashandevenforprovincialemulationThesepossibilitieshaveimpactsonlanguagepolicyandplanningndashandmostimportantlyforusintermsofwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoadultimmigrants

142 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

The analytical framework A summary

FollowingpolicyanalysisframeworksandspecificallylanguagepolicyandplanningourenquiryintolanguageeducationforadultimmigrantscompareswhyandhowitisprovidedinQuebecandBritishColumbiatwoverydifferentprovincesofCanadaandintheirbiggestcitiesOurultimategoal istopondertheimpactsofdemography languagehistoryandthefederalframeworkonthesepoliciesTable 3summarizestheelementsaddressedhere

Table 3Analyticalframeworkandapproach

Describing and comparing Pondering the impacts of vectors of differences and similarities

WhyWhatarethemainreasonsforprovidinglanguageeducationtoadultimmigrants

bull Citizenshipandnationalismreasons

bull Jobsindustryandeconomicbenefitsreasons

bull Socialwelfareandintegrationreasons

Demography and language history

bull Languagersquosminorityormajoritystatusinthecountryandcontinent

bull Languagersquospowerofattractionasfirstofficiallanguagelearned

bull LanguagersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull ProvincersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull Otherhistoricalelements(historyofconquestandofsocio-

economicdomination)

Federalism as vector of differences

bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Increasedprovincialinterventiono Bilateralaccordsbetweenprovincesandthefederal

governmento Provincialchoiceofcriteriafortheselectionof

immigrants(levelandtypeofskillslanguagesspokenetc)

bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipalitiesascreaturesoftheprovinces

Federalism as vector of similarities

bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Billofrightso MulticulturalismActo CICinterventions

bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipal-federalrelationshipo Municipalitiesconceivedasalevelofgovernmento Municipalitiesrsquoexclusionofpolicydesign

HowWhatarethemaininternalfeaturesofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducation

bull Languagetaughtbull Responsiblelevelof

governmentbull Languageeducationservice

providers

Language education for adult immigrants in Quebec British Columbia and their respective largest cities

WiththeaboveframeworkandapproachinmindwenowturntodescribingandcomparingwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecBritishColumbiaMontrealandVancouver

London Review of Education 143

Language laws and official languages

InordertoprotectFrenchoutsideofQuebecandEnglishwithinQuebecthefoundinglawofCanadathe1867ConstitutionalActalreadycontainedlanguageprovisionsthebulkofwhichrelatestochildrenrsquoseducationTheActalsorecognizedbothFrenchandEnglishasformallyequalinCanadaHowevertheconclusionofthereportoftheRoyalCommissiononBilingualismandBiculturalism(alsocalledtheLaurendeau-DuntonCommission)heldbythefederalgovernmentofCanadainthe1960semphasizedthatbilingualismhadbeenlsquomostlysymbolic(stampsbanknotesetc)andmeretranslationoflawsandcertainadministrativedocumentsrsquo(SLMCnd(a))RespondingdirectlytothecommissionrsquosrecommendationtheOfficialLanguagesActof1969 statesthat

TheEnglishandFrench languagesare theofficial languagesofCanada forallpurposesof theParliamentandgovernmentofCanadaandpossessandenjoyqualityofstatusandequalrightsandprivilegesastotheiruseinalltheinstitutionsoftheParliamentandgovernmentofCanada

(SLMCnd(a))

Coherentwith the notionof a federation theOfficial LanguagesAct appliesonly to federaljurisdictions and institutions Provinces can also be active in the accessory field of languageinsofarastheyareinterveningwithinthescopeoftheirjurisdiction

The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal

Montreal is theeconomicandcultural centreof theprovinceofQuebecandalso themostpopulousfrancophonecityintheAmericasItspopulationisapproximately16 millionandthatofGreaterMontreal38 millionQuebecistheonlyprovincetohaveFrenchasitssoleofficiallanguageThe second articleof the cityofMontrealrsquos charter categorically states that it is afrancophonecity(GouvernementduQueacutebec2000)

InresponsetoincreasinglyvocalandorganizedgroupsinfavourofvalorizingandprotectingtheFrenchlanguagewithinQuebecthegovernmentadoptedin1974QuebecrsquosfirstlanguagelawtheLoi sur la langue officielle(LawoftheOfficialLanguageBill 22)Howeverthisbillrequiringpublic signs tobe in French andpromotingbilingualismwas consideredunable tomeet thelinguisticchallengesthatQuebecincreasinglyfaced(BourhisandLandry2002)ThegovernmentoftheseparatistPartiQueacutebeacutecoisthusadoptedin1977themuchmorepowerfulCharte de la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec (Bill 101)Thecharterrsquosmainobjectiveswere(1)tohalttheassimilationofFrenchspeakerstoEnglish(2)toensurethesocioeconomicpredominanceofthefrancophonemajority and (3) to promote the assertion of the French fact (ie all that concerns FrenchSLMCnd(b))TodaythecharterrequirescommercialsignstobepredominantlyinFrenchandimmigrantchildreninQuebectoattendFrenchschoolsreversingtheimmigrantsrsquotendencytosendtheirchildrentoEnglishschools(McAndrew200270)Manyother lawsinQuebecaresignificantintermsoflanguageincludingafewregardingmunicipalitiesndashwithMontrealamongthemndashandimmigration(SLMCnd(c))

The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver

VancouveristheeconomiccentreofthewesternprovinceofBritishColumbiaWhilethecityitselfwashome toonly603502people in2011 (theeighth largest city inCanada)GreaterVancouver was home to over 23 million residents (the third largest metropolitan area inCanada)Between2006and2011thepopulationofVancouvergrewby44percentwhilethatofGreaterVancouvergrewby93percent(MetroVancouver2012)Likemostotherprovinces

144 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

andcitiesandcoherentwiththeverylowproportionoffrancophonesinboththeprovinceandcityBritishColumbiaandVancouverhaveEnglishastheironlyofficiallanguage

British Columbiarsquos laws and programmes relevant to languages have been scarce if notwhollyabsentInfactthelegislaturehasneveradoptedalanguagelawTheprovincersquoslegislationhoweverdoescontainasmallnumberoflanguageprovisionsandreferencestolanguageMostofthesedealwiththerequirementforpeopletounderstandandexpressthemselvesinproperEnglishandthepossibilityofusingatranslatorOtherreferencesareinsimpledeclarationsofnon-discriminationonthegroundsof languageplaceoforiginandsoonTheonlyreferencetolanguageinwhichthestatemakesacommitmentinvolvesaboriginal languagesIndeedtheFirstPeoplesrsquoHeritageLanguageandCultureAct ismeant tolsquosupport andadviseministriesof governmenton initiatives programs and services related toNativeheritage language andculturersquo(SLMCnd(d))

Immigrantsrsquo settlement integration and adult language education

The federal government of Canada has provided language instruction for newcomers since1947atthesametimeastheCitizenshipActwasadopted(CIMSS20127Cleghorn 2000)The focusof languageeducationwasthuscitizenshipandtoacertainextentassimilationtotheAnglo-SaxonandEnglish-speakingmajority(Ciccarelli1997Cleghorn2000)AsCleghornnoteslsquopriortoQuebecrsquoscontroloverimmigrationbeginninginthe1960slanguagetrainingforadultimmigrantswasEnglishonlyrsquo(200028)From1965tothemid-1980slanguageeducationevolvedfromafocusoncitizenshipintotwodifferentstreamsofclassesfortwodifferenttypesofimmigrantsTheDepartmentofManpowerandImmigrationprovidedlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsinthelabourforcewhiletheCitizenshipBranchoftheDepartmentofSecretaryofStatendashwithamuchsmallerbudgetndashprovidedlanguageclassestoimmigrantsnotplanningtojointhelabourforce(ibid27ndash30)Althoughthefederalgovernmenthadbeenactiveinlanguageeducationsince1947itextendeditsinterventiontosettlementservicesonlyin1979withitsImmigrantSettlementandAdaptationProgramUntilthenthesettlementandintegrationneedsofimmigrantsweremetndashifsondashlsquobyvoluntaryorganizationssuchascommunitycentresethnicorganizationschurchgroupsandwomenrsquosorganizationsrsquo(ibid32)Alongwiththisprogrammeand the current merged settlement and integration programme CIC has been overseeingimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationItspreferredpatternofserviceprovisionhasbeenandremainsoutsourcingtocommunityserviceproviders

The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal

AsmentionedQuebecbecamemoredirectlyinvolvedinthefieldofimmigrationinthe1970sand was then followed by the other Canadian provincesThe first bilateral agreement onimmigrationbetween thegovernmentofCanadaandaprovincewas signedwithQuebec in1971WiththecurrentagreementndashImmigrationTheCanadandashQuebecAccordndashsignedin1991Canadacommitsitself

towithdrawfromthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionandlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsCanadaprovidescompensationtoQuebecforsuchservicesaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountry

(Beacutechard20113)

London Review of Education 145

TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofQuebecfortheseservicesamountedto$320millionin2013ndash14WhilesimilaragreementsexistwitheachprovincenoneismoreextensiveandmatchedwithasmuchfederalgrantsastheonewithQuebec(Beacutechard2011)

AdultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationiscalledfrancizationinQuebecsuggestingaprocessthroughwhichapersonappropriatesprogressivelytheFrenchlanguageuntilitbecomespartofherorhisidentityOnlyFrenchlanguageclassesndashandnoEnglishonesndashareprovidedforfreetoimmigrantsinQuebecFrancizationclassesareavailabletoimmigrantsinvariousformatsandtheymayqualifyforallowancesthatincertaincasesevencovertransportationandchildcarecosts(MIDI 2015a)No comparable programme exists outside ofQuebec to support immigrantswhileattending languageclasses(CIC2012)Quebecrsquossettlementandintegrationframeworkincludes two programmes of language education and of financial aid for adult immigrants(Programme drsquointeacutegration linguistique pour les immigrants and Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants)andtwoprogrammesforsettlementperse(Programme drsquoaccompagnement des nouveaux arrivantsandProgramme reacutegional drsquointeacutegration)

TheproportionofnewcomersknowingFrenchupontheirarrivalgrewfrom368percentinthe1994ndash8periodto623percentforthe2009ndash13period(MIDI2014a)Itwas586 percentin2015(MIDI2014b24)AnewimmigrationpolicywasadoptedbyQuebecinMarch2016(MIDI2015b)andthepreparatorydocumenttothepolicymadeclearhowmuchofapriorityfrancizationwasamongthevariousinterventionsinsettlementandintegration

InadditiontotherecentincreaseofFrenchimmigrationthefrancizationofimmigrantpeople isoneofthestrategiesthattheGovernmentofQuebecimplementstoensuretheperennialityoftheFrenchfactonitsterritoryaswellasthesuccessfulintegrationofimmigrantpeople

(MIDI2014a15ourtranslation)

ThefirsttenetofthepolicyisthatlsquoimmigrationplaysanimportantroleinboostingQueacutebecrsquosprosperityandinthevitalityoftheFrenchlanguagersquo(MIDI2015b)Francizationismeanttomakethese two priorities and objectives of the policy overlap Indeedlsquoimmigrantsrsquo ability to fullyparticipateinQueacutebecsocietyisdeeplyintertwinedwiththelanguageissuersquo(ibid5)

InQuebecndashlikeintherestofCanadandashmostcontactsrelatingtoandservicesregardingsettlement and language education areprovidedby communityorganizationsOutof the51service providers listed on CICrsquoS website in Montreal 43 (84 per cent) were communityorganizations The services they most frequently provided were general French languageeducation(725percent)servicesforfrancophonenewcomers(549percent)andhelpwithdaily life (314 per cent)Nomunicipal organizationwas however listed as service providerincludinglanguageeducationservices(CICnd(b))

WhileevaluatingtheoutcomesoftheimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationprogrammesinQuebecinrelationtosimilarservicesavailableacrossCanadaCICwrites

TohelpindividualsprepareforlifeinCanadaandthecitizenshiptestinformationisoftenprovidedthrough settlement services particularly via language training curricula Language curricula inQuebecalsofollowsthisapproachhoweverthefocusisonprovidinginformationaboutQuebecculture

(CICnd(c))

InretrospectPaquet(2016)suggeststhatQuebecrsquosapproachtoimmigrationhasbeenholisticseenasacollectiveprojectinselectingimmigrantsovereconomicaswellassocialcriteria

ThecityofMontreallikemostregionsinQuebecconcludesimmigrationagreementswiththeprovincersquosMinistryofImmigrationDiversityandIntegration(Ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusionMIDI)andthuscontributestoassessingneedsandplanninginterventioninthisfieldMunicipalitiesndashincludingMontrealndasharerarelymentionedinprogrammesregarding

146 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

immigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationTherearenomentionsofMontrealandmunicipalitiesintheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccordTheonlyreferencetothecityofMontrealintheMIDIannualreportof2014ndash15isrelatedtotheobjectiveofregionalizingimmigrationthatisreducingthe proportion of immigrants settling inMontreal MIDIrsquos (2008) adult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationactionplanPour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieux(To enrich Quebec Make more French integrate better)makesnomentionofmunicipalitiesorofMontrealOneopeningtocitiesrsquo and regionsrsquo roles in thefieldof immigration is however found in thepreparatorydocumenttothenewQuebecimmigrationpolicyItstatestheirrolein(1)buildingwelcomingandinclusivecommunities(2)gatheringconcreteinformationandknowledgeonactualneedsandchallengesasmetinday-to-dayactivitiesand(3)workingagainstracismanddiscrimination(MIDI2014a54)

Inabriefon immigrationmanagementsubmittedtothegovernmentofQuebec in2011thecityofMontrealaskedfor(1)anofficialrecognitionof itsroleinimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegration(2)anincreasedbudgetforthefrancizationofimmigrantsinMontreal(3)theautomatic transfer toMontreal of 10 per cent of federal grants for immigrantsrsquo settlementand integration and (4) increased budgets for immigrantsrsquo social housing (Ville deMontreacuteal20116)DespitethegovernmentofQuebecrsquosrarementionofMontrealinimmigrationpoliciesandprogrammesthecityhasbeenrelativelyresponsivetoimmigrationinthesensediscussedbyGood (2008) First the city ofMontreal has contributed to community capacity-buildingthroughfundingvariouscommunitygroupsbeinganactivememberofvariouscollaborationsonimmigrationadoptingacharterofrightsandresponsibilityandcreatinganinterculturaladvisorycouncilSecondthecityhasaPlandrsquoaccegraves agrave lrsquoeacutegaliteacute agrave lrsquoemploi(PAEacuteEacute)ThirdthecityhascreatedtheNexusprogrammewhichisamunicipalprogrammeinMontrealthatprovidesbusinesseswithinformationtoolssupportandreferencesregardingtherecruitmentandsustainedemploymentofprofessionalstrainedabroad(EmploiNexus2016)Hencethecityintervenesthroughnotonlycollaboratingwithserviceprovidersbutalsobyfundingthem(VilledeMontreacuteal2011)

The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver

The first bilateral agreement on immigration between the governments of BritishColumbiaandofCanadawassignedin1998andthecurrentagreementndashtheCanadandashBritishColumbiaImmigrationAgreementndashwassignedin2015ContrarytotheprevalentmodelintherestofCanada(exceptQuebecandManitoba)theaccordoperatesatransferofresponsibilityinthefieldofsettlementandintegrationservices(Paquet2016)HoweverwhereastheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccord stipulates the federal governmentrsquoswithdrawal from thedeliveryofservices for the reception linguistic and cultural integration and placements of immigrantsthe CanadandashBritish Columbia ImmigrationAgreement emphasizes collaboration negotiationconsultationandcooperationratherthanstrictdivisionofauthoritybetweentheprovinceandthefederalgovernmentForexamplelsquocollaborationrsquolsquotocollaboratersquoisusedseventimes(nonein theQuebec accord)lsquonegotiationrsquolsquoto negotiatersquo is used seven times (once in the accord)lsquoconsultationrsquolsquoto consultrsquo is used sixteen times (none in the accord) and lsquocooperationrsquolsquotocooperatersquoisusedfivetimes(fiveintheaccordaswell)

TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofBritishColumbiaforthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsamountedto$114millionin2010ndash11(DerwingandWaugh20124)ndasharoundhalfofwhichwasallocatedto language education In addition federal funds were also allocated to Enhanced LanguageTraining a smaller language education initiative (ibid)WelcomeBC and the Settlement andIntegrationProgram arethemainprogrammesthroughwhichsettlementintegrationhappensin

London Review of Education 147

BritishColumbiaTheWelcomingandInclusiveCommunitiesandWorkplacesProgramandtheVulnerableImmigrantPopulationsProgramcompletethepicture

TheproportionofnewcomersspeakingeitherFrenchorEnglishwas73percentin2011ndash12(GovernmentofBritishColumbia2013)muchhigherthantheproportionofnewcomersspeakingFrenchinQuebecInitsannualreportof2011ndash12WelcomeBCwritesthatlanguageabilityiscriticaltothesuccessofimmigrantsintheprovincersquoslabourmarketandcommunitiesAccordingtotheprogrammethoughmostnewcomersarehighlyskilledandeducatedlsquoalackofEnglishlanguageabilitycorrelateswithimmigrantunemploymentandunderemploymentwhichcosts theeconomy inproductivityandeconomicgrowth and impacts immigrantsrsquo successfulsocialandeconomic integrationrsquo(ibid10)Furthermoretheyestimatethatlsquoa1increase inliteracyproducesa25increaseintheleveloflabourproductivityandthatevery1comparativeincreaseinnationalliteracyscoreswouldboostnationalincomeby$32 billionrsquo(ibid8)Inthisexplanationofwhylanguageproficiencyisimportantwenoticeaphrasingthatisfinancialandeconomicratherthansocialorcitizenship-related

English language services for adults (deliveredmostly by community organizations) andEnglishasasecondlanguage(deliveredbypubliclyfundedpost-secondaryinstitutions)arethemain vehicles of adult immigrant training in the province (Government of BritishColumbia2013)Ofthe36serviceproviders inVancouver listedontheCICwebsite fourwere intheeducationsectoronewasaprivatecompanyandtheremaining31(84percent)werecommunityorganizationsTheservices theyprovidedmost frequentlywerehelpwithdaily life (722percent)helpfindingjobs(417percent)mentoring(389percent)andgenerallanguageeducation(306percent)Afewmunicipallibrarieswerealsolistedassettlementandintegrationserviceproviders(CICnd(b))WenoticeherethatamuchlowerproportionofserviceprovidersofferlanguageeducationthanisthecaseinQuebec

British Columbiarsquos settlement and integration policies and programmes refer morefrequentlytoVancouverandmunicipalitiesthandoesQuebecrsquostoMontrealForexampletheimportance of consultingmunicipalities and local governments ismentioned in theCanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration Agreement lsquoThe Parties agree to cooperate to work withLocalGovernmentsinBritishColumbiatoexploreissuesrelatedtotheirrespectiveinterestsin immigration and pursue opportunities related to communitiesrsquo interests in immigrationrsquo(Government ofCanada 2015)Whereas the city ofVancouver is not directlymentioned intheBritishColumbiaImmigrationTaskForcereportoneofitsrecommendationsislsquotoengageindustry local governments and non-governmental organizations in settling and integratingimmigrantsrsquo(MinisterofStateforMulticulturalism201220)FurthermoreBritishColumbiarsquosWelcoming and InclusiveCommunities andWorkplacesProgramlsquohas actively recognized theroleandparticipationofmunicipalgovernmentsintheimmigrantsettlementprocessrsquo(Dicksonet al201323)MunicipalitieshavethuslsquofeltthatacloserpartnershipbetweenBCandmunicipalgovernmentsofsomemajorimmigrantreceptioncitieshasbeenestablishedrsquo(ibid)

In2014VancouverfinallyenteredintoanagreementwiththegovernmentofCanadarsquosCIClsquotoundertakeaLocal ImmigrationPartnership (LIP)rsquo (CityofVancouvernd)TheVancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP2016)isafirststeptowardsestablishingndashwiththecollaborationofdozensoflocalorganizationsandcommunityleadersndashtheveryfirstVancouverImmigrantSettlement and Integration Strategy TheVIPrsquos main focuses are (1) the strengthening ofinterculturalandcivicengagement(2)thecreationofwelcomingandinclusiveworkplacesand(3)theassessmentofnewcomersrsquoneedsinareassuchashousinghealthandaccesstolocalandmunicipalservices

Vancouverhasbeenresponsive to immigration (CityofVancouver201414)first ithascontributedtothecommunitythroughactivelyconsultingcommunitygroupsandleadersfunding

148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)

Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants

Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation

Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries

Conclusion

AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants

London Review of Education 149

Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy

ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec

ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues

Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the

150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated

Notes on the contributors

Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012

CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa

RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada

References

Adamuti-Trache M (2012) lsquoLanguage acquisition among adult immigrants in Canada The effect ofpremigrationlanguagecapitalrsquoAdult Education Quarterly63(2)103ndash26

AhmadFRiazSBarataPandStewartDE(2004)lsquoPatriarchalbeliefsandperceptionsofabuseamongSouthAsianimmigrantwomenrsquoViolence Against Women10(3)262ndash82

AndrewC(2014)lsquoFederalpoliciesonimmigrantsettlementrsquoInGrahamKandAndrewC(eds)Canada in Cities The politics and policy of federal-local governanceMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversity Press227ndash49

BattagliniADeacutesyMDorvalDPoirierL-RFournierMCamirandHandFecteauD(2007)Lrsquointervention de premiegravere ligne agrave Montreacuteal aupregraves des personnes immigrantes Estimeacute des ressources neacutecessaires pour une intervention adeacutequateMontrealDirectiondesanteacutepubliqueOnlinehttppublicationssantemontrealqccauploadstx_asssmpublications978-2-89494-571-1pdf(accessed1March2016)

Beacutechard J (2011) Immigration The CanadandashQuebec Accord Background paper publication no 2011-89-EOttawaLibraryofParliamentOnlinewwwparlgccaContentLOPResearchPublications2011-89-epdf (accessed1March2016)

BelkhodjaC(2008)lsquoIntroductionImmigrationetdiversiteacutedanslescommunauteacutesfrancophonesensituationminoritairersquo In BelkhodjaC (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaire Thegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies3ndash6

BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65

BourhisRandLandryR(2002)lsquoLaloi 101etlrsquoameacutenagementdupaysagelinguistiqueauQueacutebecrsquoOfficede la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_bourhis_vf_1pdf(accessed6April2016)

BursteinM Clement G and Petty S (2014) Pratiques drsquointeacutegration prometteuses dans les communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireOttawaCIC

London Review of Education 151

Canadian Press(2016)lsquoPremierWynneapologizesfor1912regulationbanningFrenchinOntarioschoolsrsquoOnlinewwwthecanadianpresscomenglishonlineOnlineFullStoryaspxfilename=DOR-MNN-CPd2732aaf15964e269a42e66a46cec9daCPKEY2008111303ampnewsitemid=36470080amplanguageid=1(accessed1March2016)

CardozoAandPendakurR(2008)Canadarsquos Visible Minority Population 1967ndash2017WorkingpaperseriesVancouver Metropolis British Columbia Online httpmbcmetropolisnetassetsuploadsfileswp2008WP08-05pdf(accessed1March2016)

CentreforInternationalMigrationandSettlementStudies(CIMSS)(2012)lsquoIntroductionStateoftheartandfuturedirectionsinsettlementlanguagetrainingrsquoInternational Settlement CanadaSpecial issue on settlement language training SpringOnlinewww3carletoncacimssinscan-ev24_sepdf (accessed1March2016)

ChiswickBR (2008)The Economics of Language An introduction and overviewDiscussionpaperno3568 BonnInstitutefortheStudyofLaborOnlinehttpftpizaorgdp3568pdf(accessed1March2016)

Ciccarelli SB (1997)lsquoESL for nation-buildingThe origins of federally-funded ESL inCanadarsquoMA dissOntarioInstituteforStudiesinEducationUniversityofToronto

Citizenship and ImmigrationCanada (CIC) (2012)Canada Faits et chiffres 2012 Aperccedilu de lrsquoimmigration Reacutesidents permanents et temporaires Ottawa CIC Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2013cicCi1-8-2012-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd(a)) lsquoStrategic outcomes and program activity architecturersquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentpaaactivity-05asp(accessed6April2016)

ndashndash (nd(b)) lsquoFindingsrsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishresourcesevaluationgrant-quebecsection4asp(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd(c)) lsquoLanguage classes funded by the Government of Canadarsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishnewcomerslivelanguageasp(accessed1March2016)

CityofVancouver(2014)lsquoCulturalCommunitiesAdvisoryCommitteersquo Onlinehttpvancouvercayour-governmentcultural-communities-advisory-committeeaspx(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd) Vancouver City Local Immigration PartnershipVancouver Community Services Online httpvancouvercafilescovvancouver-city-local-immigration-partnership-overviewpdf (accessed 6 April2016)

ndashndashMulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee (2014)Committee Term SummaryOnlinehttpvancouvercafilescovcouncil-of-councils-presentation-mac-2014pdf(accessed1March2016)

ClarksonA (2014)Belonging The paradox of citizenshipCBCMasseyLecture SeriesTorontoHouseofAnansiPress

CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)

CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20

CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants

Montreal Institute forResearchonPublicPolicyOnline httpirpporgwp-contentuploadsassetsresearchdiversity-immigration-and-integrationlanguage-skills-and-the-social-integration-of-canadas-adult-immigrantsIRPP-Study-no31pdf(accessed1March2016)

Dickinson JA andYoung B (2008) Bregraveve histoire socio-historique du Queacutebec Montreal BibliothegravequeQueacutebeacutecoise

DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)

DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS

152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)

ndashndash(2012)lsquoReacutepartitiondessiegravegesagrave laChambredescommunesparprovincersquo Onlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredalloampdocument=indexamplang=f(accessed6April2016)

EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant

settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19

FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48

Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario

Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan

GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45

GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)

GouvernementduQueacutebec(1977)lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11C11_Ahtml(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2000)lsquoChartedelaVilledeMontreacutealrsquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11_4C11_4html(accessed6April2014)

ndashndash (2014) lsquoCommunauteacutes culturellesrsquo Online wwweducationgouvqccaenseignantsaide-et-soutiencommunautes-culturelles(accessed1March2016)

Government of British Columbia (2013) 2011ndash12 Annual ReportWelcomeBC Settlement and Integration Services Online wwwllbclegbccapublicpubdocsbcdocs20114717852011_2012pdf (accessed 1March2016)

GovernmentofCanada(1960)Canadian Bill of RightsOnlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaengactsc-123page-1html(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(1985)Official Languages Act (4th Supp)Onlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaPDFO-301pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(1991)CanadandashQuebec Accord Relating to Immigration and Temporary Admission of AliensOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsquebeccan-queasp(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2015)CanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration AgreementOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsbcbc-2015asp(accessed1March2016)

GunnA (2012) Immigration and Multi-level Governance in Canada and Europe The role of municipalities as integration policy innovators PolicyPaperCanadandashEuropeTransatlanticDialogueSeekingtransnationalsolutionsto21stcenturyproblemsOnlinehttplabscarletoncacanadaeuropewp-contentuploadssites92012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalitiespdf(accessed1March2016)

HouseofCommonsofCanada(2010)Best Practices in Settlement Services Report of the Standing Committee on Citizenship and ImmigrationOttawaGovernmentofCanadaOnlinewwwparlgccacontenthocCommittee403CIMMReportsRP4388396cimmrp02cimmrp02-epdf(accessed6April2016)

InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)

London Review of Education 153

KataokaSandMagnussonW(2007)Settling the Unsettled Migrants municipalities and multilevel governance in British Columbia Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the Urban Affairs AssociationSeattleWA 26April 2007Victoria BC University ofVictoria Online httpppm-ppmcaPapersKataokaMagnusson2007pdf(accessed1March2016)

KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)

LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)

MadyCandTurnbullM(2012)lsquoOfficiallanguagebilingualismforallophonesinCanadaExploringfutureresearchrsquo TESL Canada Journal 29 (2) 131ndash42 Online httpfilesericedgovfulltextEJ981500pdf(accessed1March2016)

Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada

McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)

MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)

MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)

MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2015a)Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants 2015ndash2016MontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdiversPafilipdf (accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2015b)lsquoPolitiquequeacutebeacutecoiseenmatiegraveredrsquoimmigrationdeparticipationetdrsquoinclusionrsquoGouvernementdu Queacutebec Online wwwmidigouvqccafrdossiersconsultation-publiquehtml (accessed 6 April2016)

MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress

MurphyJ(2010)The Settlement amp Integration Needs of Immigrants A literature reviewOttawaTheOttawaLocalImmigration Partnership Online httpolip-pliocaknowledge-basewp-contentuploads201303Olip-Review-of-Literature-Final-ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec

154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)

PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook

3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)

Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)

RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)

SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge

SiteforLanguageManagementinCanada(SLMC)(nd(a))lsquoFederallegislationandlanguagerights(1969and1988)rsquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=federal_legislation_1969_1988(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash(nd(b))lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_linguistic_law(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)

SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)

Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)

ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)

ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)

StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94

SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI

London Review of Education 155

Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)

TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)

ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246

VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)

VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7

Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)

XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)

YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35

Related articles published in the London Review of Education

In this issue

Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)

Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33

156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21

MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73

Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85

Elsewhere in this issue

HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98

Page 2: Language planning and education of adult immigrants in ... · Furthermore, 21.3 per cent of Canadians, 78.1 per cent of Québécois, and 1.3 per cent of British Columbians have French

London Review of Education 135

Such high rates of immigration imply that important efforts and resources need to beinvestedinthesettlementandintegrationofnewcomersincludinginprovidingeducationinthelocallanguageIndeedmanystudiesemphasizehowlocallanguageproficiencyisacrucialpartofintegrationinthevariousspheresoflife(egseeAdamuti-Trache2012)includinginrelationtotransportationandhousing(Kilbrideet al2011)tothejobmarket(DerwingandWaugh2012Chiswick2008)andtohealthcare(Nget al2011Battagliniet al2007GagnonandSaillant2000Olazabalet al2010SouliegraveresandOuellette2012)

WhileCanadianprovincesoperatewithinonesinglerelativelyinfluentialfederalstructuretheirdemographyandlinguistichistoryvaryinsuchawaythatonewouldconfidentlyexpectimportant variation inprovincesrsquo languagepolicies and inwhy andhow languageeducation isprovided to adult immigrants Moreover the Canadian constitution allocates education as aprovincialjurisdictionandimmigrationasasharedjurisdictionbetweenthefederalandprovincialgovernments

TakingintoconsiderationthecontextualelementsatplayourarticledescribesandtriestounderstandthesimilaritiesanddifferencesastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsintwoverydifferentprovincesandtheirbiggestcitiesndashtheprovinceofQuebecandthecityofMontrealandtheprovinceofBritishColumbiaandthecityofVancouver

Comparing adult immigrantsrsquo language education Framework approach and context

InthisfirstsectionwepresenttheanalyticalframeworkourapproachtotheresearchquestionsandthemaincontextualelementsatplaytounderstandvariationsinlanguagepolicyandplanninginCanada

The analytical framework

AdultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationsitsatthecrossroadsofvariouspolicydomainscitizenshipandimmigrationeducationeconomicpolicyandemployabilityAsGazzolaandGrinputitlsquojustlikepublicpoliciesarearesponsetoldquopublicproblemsrdquo languagepoliciescanbeviewedasaresponse toldquolanguageproblemsrsquorsquorsquo (20105)Asonecomponentofabroader languagepolicyadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationcanbeassessedasanyotherpublicpolicythatisinrelationto thedifferentphasesof thepolicyprocesspolicy formulation implementationcompliancereaction evaluationmodification (Morris 2010 379ndash83) Similarly researchers in the fieldoflanguage policy and planning asklsquoWhat actors attempt to influencewhat behaviour ofwhichpeopleforwhatendsunderwhatconditionsbywhatmeansthroughwhatdecision-making processwithwhateffectsrsquo(Cooper19898)Amongthemainandcentralgoalsofusingcomparativeapproachesisthatoflsquoassessingrivalexplanationsrsquoonagivenpublicpolicy(Collier1993105)

The approach

InordertoassessthetwomodelsofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationourarticlefocusesspecificallyontwoquestionslsquoWhydogovernmentsprovidelanguageeducationtoadultsrsquoandlsquoHowisitprovidedintheconcretesettingoftwoofthelargestcitiesinCanadarsquo

136 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

Why

AreportbytheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipdefinessettlementandintegrationasacontinuumthatinvolvesmeetingtheneedsoftheimmigrants(iehousingeducationnutritionandhealthcare)fullandgratifyingparticipationinthelabourmarketandorlocaleconomycivicandcommunityparticipation anda senseofbelonging in thecommunity (Murphy201011)Similarly Omidvar and Richmond (2003) define social integration as the lsquorealization of fullandequalparticipationintheeconomicsocialculturalandpoliticaldimensionsoflifein[theimmigrantsrsquo]newcountryrsquo(DerwingandWaugh20123)Inevaluatingresearchonwhylanguageeducation isprovided to immigrantsweprimarilynote thatproficiency in the local languageisonevery importantaspectofsettlementand integration Indeedthelsquolackofknowledgeofone ofCanadarsquos official languageswas still themost serious problem faced by refugees andothereconomicimmigrants4yearsafterlandingrsquo(Xue2007asquotedbyDerwingandWaugh20127)Moreoverlsquoacriticalingredientofnewcomersrsquoactiveparticipationinthehostsocietyaretheirlanguageskillsrsquo(Adamuti-Trache2012103)Inshortthreemainstreamsofreasonsastowhylanguageeducationisprovidedtoadultimmigrantsarefoundintheliteraturendashthatisreasonsrelatingto(1)citizenshipandnationalism(2)jobsindustryandeconomicbenefitsofimmigrationand(3)socialwelfareandintegration(Cleghorn 2000)

First local language competency is often amarker of national identity andor belonging(Clarkson 2014) and thusproficiency in the local language is conceivedas aprerequisite inordertolsquounderstandthenormsofthehostsociety[andto]likelygrowasenseofattachmentto[thehost society]rsquo(Adamuti-Trache2012109)AsSimpsonandWhitesideput itlsquotheonenationonelanguageideologyisinterlacedwithotherbeliefsaboutnationalidentityforexamplethe ideal that thenation state shouldbe ashomogeneous aspossible and that adimensionof that homogeneity ismonolingualismrsquo (2015 2) Following this ideology proficiency in thelocal language alonewould allow full belonging and participation in the community FurtherimmigrationndashandthuslocallanguageeducationndashisrelatedtocitizenshipandnationalisminthecontextofdecliningfertilityandcurrentpopulationageingAbodyofliteraturendashoftenwrittenby francophones fromQuebec Ontario and New Brunswick ndash stresses the importance offrancophoneimmigrationandoflinguisticandsocialintegrationofimmigrantsintofrancophonecommunitiesinstoppingthesteadydemographicdeclineofthesecommunitiesinCanada(egseeBelkhodja2008Bursteinet al2014Ferron2008Fourot2016FraserandBoileau2014MarmenetCorbeil1999VatzLaaroussi2008)InordertoachievethisobjectivehowevernotonlydoimmigrantshavetochooseFrenchastheirpreferredofficiallanguagendashandeventuallyfortheirlinguistictransferndashbuttheyhavetostayinQuebecorinotherfrancophonecommunitiesLearningthelocallanguagewouldthusbeafirststepforimmigrantstocontributeinthisgrandcollectiveobjectiveForotherauthorslsquoadesiretolearnCanadarsquostwoofficiallanguagesmaybegroundedinimmigrantsrsquopursuitofastrongersenseofbelongingrsquo(BurtonandPhipps2010asquotedbyMadyandTurnbull2012132)orofgreatereconomicwellbeing(PicotandSweetman2005ibid)

Second adult immigrantsrsquo language education is often justified as crucial in achievingimmigrantsrsquofulleconomicpotentialIntegrationonthejobmarkethasoftenbeensingledoutasthemostimportantaspectofimmigrantsrsquointegrationintotheirnewsocietyStudiesshowthatimmigrantsrsquogreaterlocallinguisticskillsareassociatedwithfewerdifficultiesfindingajobandhigherearningsandproductivity(Chiswick2008)Anotherreportstatesthatin2003inCanadatheemploymentratesforindividualswithpoorandweakliteracyinthelocallanguagewere57percentand70percentrespectivelylsquocomparedto76forthedesiredlevelofliteracyrsquo(TDBankFinancialGroup200911)Finallyeconomistsarguethatgreaterlocallinguisticskillsare

London Review of Education 137

associatedwithincreasedproductivityofotherinvestmentinhumancapitalincludingeducationandtraining(Chiswick2008)

Thethirdmainsetofreasonsforproviding languageeducationtoadult immigrants isasaprerequisiteforgreatersocialwelfareandintegrationinthecommunityOneelementoftenemphasized in the literature ishowa lackofknowledgeorproficiency in the local languageis connected to smaller and less diversified personal networks (Rose 2006Thomas 2011)Thesenetworksconveypoorer information leading todisadvantages in a varietyof spheresDamarisRose(2006)arguesforexamplethatimmigrantswithsmallerandmoreundiversifiednetworkshavegreaterdifficultiesfindingsuitablehousingProficiencyinthelocallanguagealsohaspositivebenefitswithregardtoeducationParentsrsquolinguisticskillshavebeenassociatedwitha similar levelof successat school in theirchildren (GouvernementduQueacutebec2014TCRI2011) Further a higher level of language proficiency is associatedwith greater engagementinpost-secondaryeducationuponarrival(Adamuti-Trache2012109)whichinturnprovidesgreaterjobsandsocialintegrationopportunities(DerwingandWaugh20127)Lowlevelsoflocallanguageskillsalsohavenegativeimpactsonself-reportedhealth(Nget al201119)andonimmigrantsrsquoaccesstothehealthcaresystem(Battagliniet al2007GagnonandSaillant2000Olazabalet al2010SouliegraveresandOuellette2012)Lowlanguageproficiencyisalsoidentifiedasariskfactoroffamilyviolenceamongimmigrantwomen(Ahmadet al2004Rinfret-Raynoret al20136)Finallystudiesshowthatimmigrantsrsquogreaterlocallinguisticskillsareassociatedwithgreaterpoliticalinvolvement(Chiswick2008)

How

Differences and similarities in the reasons why language education is provided to adultimmigrantsdonotnecessarily translate intocorrespondingdifferencesandsimilarities in thewaythiseducationisprovidedonthegroundIndeedwhilethesereasonsmaydiffer(andcanbeexplainedpartlybythedifferencesindemographyandlanguagehistory) it ispossiblethatmanycomponentsremainthesameatthelevelofserviceprovision(andcanbeexplainedinlargepartbyacommonhistoryofsettlementservicesandfederalframework)ThuswhatlevelofgovernmentndashamongthefederalprovincialandlocallevelsndashisresponsibleforprovidinglocallanguageeducationtoadultimmigrantsWhatactorsareconsultedinelaboratingandmakingdecisions over service provisionWhat language is taught Finallywhat actors are providinglanguageeducationtoadultimmigrants

In sum beyond exploring to what extent reasons andmotivations to provide languageeducationtoadultimmigrantsvarybetweenprovincesweexplorewhetherthesevariationsareaccompaniedbycorrespondingvariationsinhowthiseducationisprovided

The context

InadditiontodescribingthemodelsofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationinQuebecBritishColumbiaandtheirbiggestcitiesourarticleponderswhetherandinwhatsensedemographylanguagehistoryandthecommonfederalframeworkcanexplainthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthetwoprovinces

Demography and language history

Asmentionedintheintroductiondemographyandlanguagehistoryvarygreatlyfromonepartof the country to another potentially impactingon languagepolicy andplanning andon the

138 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

language education provided to adult immigrantsTable 1 outlines the linguistic compositioninCanadaQuebec (and its largest cityMontreal) andBritishColumbia (and its largest cityVancouver)intermsofmothertonguesin2011

Table 1Mothertonguebyprovincesandcensusmetropolitanarea(CMA)

Mother tongues

English French Other Multiple

Quebec Total 77 781 123 19

Montreal(CMA) 116 633 220 31

BritishColumbia Total 703 13 265 19

Vancouver(CMA) 560 11 403 27

Canada Total 569 213 198 20

StatisticsCanada(2011d)Table 2 shows that it is not only the proportionof people having French and a non-officiallanguageastheirmothertonguethatvariesacrossCanadaandbetweencitiesbutalsothenon-officiallanguagesspokenthemselves

Table 2MostspokenmothertonguesinMontrealandVancouver

CMA Montreal Vancouver

English 2(116) 1(560)

French 1(633) 11(11)

Spanish 4(29) 9(14)

Italian 5(29)

Chinese(nototherwisespecified) 7(10) 4(49)

Cantonese 3(56)

Mandarin 5(39)

Punjabi 2(61)

Tagalog 6(21)

Arabic 3(34)

Creoles 6(13)

StatisticsCanada(2011d)

IndeedwhileChineselanguagesandPunjabiarebyfarthemostfrequentinVancouvertheyrankmuchlowerinMontrealConverselyArabicSpanishandItalianarethemostspokennon-officiallanguagesinMontreal

Behind these numbers come important variations in terms of the linguistic history ofCanadaFirsttheoriginalsettlersandcolonizersofCanadacameverylargelyfromtwoEuropeancountries speaking different languages French and English Although aboriginal people andlanguagesarenotdiscussedinourarticleitisusefultoberemindedthatCanadawasestablishedbyEuropeansettlersonalandinhabitedpriortocolonizationbyindigenouspeopleOneimpactof European colonization of theCanadian territory ndash beyond the dramatic decrease of theaboriginalpopulationitselfndashhasbeentheneardisappearanceofmostindigenouslanguagesIn2011only63000personsdeclaredanindigenouslanguageastheirmothertongueinCanadaandonly172percentofindigenouspersonsreportedbeingabletoconverseinanindigenous

London Review of Education 139

languageFurthertheproportionofindigenouspersonsabletodosodecreasedby2percentbetween2006and2011while theirpopulation grewby awhole201per cent in the sameperiod(StatisticsCanada2011c)

TheBritishconquestofFrenchNorthAmericain1760wasfollowedbymultipleattemptsat assimilating French-speaking residentsWhereas the pursuit of the linguistic and culturalassimilationoftheFrenchCanadianslessenedonceCanadawascreatedin1867thedemographicweightofFrenchasamothertongueamongtheCanadianpopulationhasbeensteadilydecliningForexamplea1912regulationbannedelementaryschoolteachersfromspeakingFrenchforwhichOntariorsquospremierKathleenWynneissuedaformalapologytofrancophonesthroughtheprovinciallegislatureinFebruary2016lsquoRegulation17showedadisregardforFranco-OntarianidentityandequalityandonbehalfofthegovernmentofOntarioIofferanapologyrsquo(The Canadian Press2016)

Frenchspeakersrepresented29percentofthepopulationin1951and217percentin2011ForthecityofMontrealalone(notthemetropolitanarea)themajorityofresidentswithFrenchasamothertonguehasbeendecliningaswellfrom68percentin1951to524percentin2011(DominionBureauofStatistics1953VilledeMontreacutealnd)withtheproportionbeing635percentfortheentiremetropolitanarea(StatisticsCanada2016)ThedemographicweightofQuebecamongallCanadianprovinceshasalsobeendecliningfrom279percentin1971to23percentin2015(ISQ201523)AsaconsequenceQuebecseatsinthefederalparliamentdecreasedfrom266percentin1976to233percentin2015(ElectionsCanada 2010ElectionsCanada2012)

InadditiontoahistoryofconquestandasteadydemographicdeclineofbothfrancophonesacrossthecountryandofQuebecrsquosweightamongtheprovincesthehistoryofsocioeconomicinequalities experienced by francophones ndash even in Quebec ndash must be mentioned Indeeduntilthe1960sdespiteamajorityoffrancophonesintheprovinceofQuebecthelanguageofcommerceandofworkwasmainlyEnglishIndeedfrancophoneswerelessinstructedunder-representedamonghigherprofessionallevelsandgainedsmallerrevenues(DickinsonandYoung2008PCO1970)

FinallyasafrancophoneprovincewithinnotonlyamajorityEnglish-speakingcountrybutanevenlargermajorityEnglish-speakingNorthAmericancontinentQuebecstrugglestoconveytoitsnewcomerstheimportanceofpreservingFrenchasthecommonlanguageUntilthe1970s90percentofnewcomerstoQuebecchoselsquoto integrate intotheminorityEnglishspeakingcommunityrsquo(Bouffard201550)TheappealofEnglishremainsunderstandabletodayinacountryandlsquoinacontinentwheretheoverwhelmingmajorityspeaksnotonlyadifferentlanguagebut thelanguageofglobalizationrsquo(ibid49)

In sum the history of conquest and of socioeconomic inequalities the harsh reality oflinguisticdemographicdeclineandthehistoricaltendencyofimmigrantstointegrateintotheanglophonecommunityhavehad verydeep impacts inQuebec In thatprovince the fearofEnglishandndashtoacertainextentndashofotherlanguageshasbeenquitestrongparticularlyregardingitsmostpopulatedcityandmainreceiverofimmigrationMontreal

TheBritishColumbian linguistichistory isverydifferentTheFrenchminorityhasalwaysbeenverysmallinnumberItaccountedfor1percentofthepopulationin1951andstilldoestodayTheFrenchndashEnglish strugglehas thusbeenmuchquieterndash if not absentWhereas thepercentageofBritishColumbianswithEnglishastheirmothertonguehasdeclinedsubstantiallymost notably inVancouver (from 86 per cent in 1951 to 56 per cent in 2011) the Englishlanguage has never been fundamentally threatenedCompared to French inQuebec Englishremains incontestably thefirstofficial language learnedby immigrants inBritishColumbia IntermsofdemographicweightamongCanadianprovincesBritishColumbiarsquosgrewfrom102per

140 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

centin1971to131percentin2015(ISQ201523)AsaconsequenceBritishColumbiarsquosseatsinthefederalparliamentincreasedfrom7percentin1976to125percentin2015(ElectionsCanada 2010ElectionsCanada2012)

In sum we observe extremely different demographic and language histories inQuebecandBritishColumbiaThesemajordifferencescanclearlybeexpectedtohaveimpactsoneachprovincersquoslanguagepolicyandplanning

The federal framework and immigration

InCanadabeing a federationofprovinces jurisdictions are allocated toone levelor sharedbetween two Immigration is shared whereas education and municipal affairs come underprovincialjurisdiction

MajortransformationshavetakenplacewithregardtoimmigrationinCanadainthelastdecadesFirsttheimmigrantselectionprocesswasalteredfollowingtheadoptionoftheBillofRights1960whichmade inevitablelsquotheremovalof immigrationregulationsrestrictingaccessofnon-Europeansrsquo(CardozoandPendakur200823)Referencestoraceorregionsoforiginwerethusreplacedintheselectioncriteriawithskillsandqualificationsand incertaincaseslanguages spoken (ibid) Second the ideaofmulticulturalismemerged in the1960s andwasformalizedintheCanadianMulticulturalismAct adoptedin1971AllCanadianprovinceshavesinceembracedimmigrationasasourceofhumananddemographicaswellasfinancialcapital(Paquet2016)Furtherlsquothefederalgovernmentandseveralofitsprovincialcounterpartshaveplaced a priority on immigrationmatters in recent years linking it to amultitude of otherprominent policy areasrsquo (Tolley et al 2011 3 as quoted byGunn 2012 3) In otherwordsquestions relating to immigration were introduced in many policy domains outside that ofcitizenshipandimmigrationperseincludingeducationworkandeconomyMostimportantlywhereasprovincialgovernmentshadbeenquiteshytoundertakeresponsibilitiesregardingtheshared jurisdiction of immigration they have becomemore interested in the field since the1970s(Gunn20123)andincreasinglyactivesincethe1990sIndeed ledbytheinterventionof the province ofQuebec all Canadian provinces have sincewith the federal governmentsigned bilateral agreements regarding immigration adopted immigration policies taken partintheselectionof immigrantsandcontributedtotheestablishmentofvariousorganizationspromotinggreaterintegrationamongnewcomers(Paquet2016)

ProvinceshavefurtherdevelopedvariousprogrammesforthesettlementandintegrationofimmigrantsAsdiscussedbelowadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationisoneimportantaspectofthesemodelsDespiteallthisthefederalagencyoverseeingsettlementandintegrationinthecountryisCitizenshipandImmigrationCanada(CIC)AlthoughQuebecManitobaandBritishColumbialsquoareresponsibleforthedesigndeliveryandadministrationofsettlementservicesrsquothisresponsibilityistransferredwiththelsquoobjectiveofachievingcomparablenewcomersrsquosettlementoutcomesrsquo (CICnd(a))ThebilateralaccordshaveattributedQuebecaspecialright fortheintegrationofnewcomers in theprovinceFinancialcompensationsareprovided forQuebectoprovideintegrationandsettlementserviceslsquoaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountryandaslongasallpermanentresidentsoftheprovincewhethertheywereselectedbyQuebecornotcanhaveaccesstothemrsquo(HouseofCommonsofCanada20101)

London Review of Education 141

Municipal affairs

In Canada the 1867 Constitutional Act assigned to the provincial governments exclusivejurisdictionovermunicipalitiesThusmunicipalitiesarenotconstitutionallyrecognizedanddonotndashat least formallyndashconstituteanorderofgovernmentof theirown inCanada (Young2009 106) One impact of this provincially exclusive jurisdiction is that provincial-municipalsystems vary considerably across the countryWhileCanadianmunicipalities have no formalresponsibilities except in Ontario regarding education healthcare and social services ndash allprovincialjurisdictionsndashtheyareoftenkeyactorsinimplementingfederalandprovincialpoliciesandprogrammes (ibid 115) Immigration is clearlyoneof thepolicydomains inwhich localgovernmentsandmunicipalitieshavebeenincreasinglyactiveIndeedmostimmigrantstoCanadachoosetosettleinbigcitiesTheFederationofCanadianMunicipalitiesstressedthatin2010two-thirdsofimmigrantssettledinCanadarsquosthreemostimportantmetropolitanareasTorontoMontrealandVancouverIn201117percentofimmigrantstoCanada(FCM2011)and76percentofimmigrantstoQuebecchosetosettleinMontreal(EmploiNexus2016)makingup344percentoftheresidentsofthecityofMontrealInthesameyear14percentofimmigrantstoCanadachosetosettleinVancouver(FCM2011)

Inpractice itmeansthatlsquoday-to-day issuesofmulticulturalismare renegotiatedandsettledin only a few citiesrsquo (Good 2008 1)Thus Canadarsquos biggest cities are active in the field ofimmigrationbecausetheyarelsquothefirstpointofcontactbetweennewcomersandgovernmentdue to the day-to-day dependence of immigrants on various local public servicesrsquo (Gunn20121)AccordingtoGood(2008)somemunicipalitieshavebeenveryresponsivetoincreasingnumbersofnewcomersintheirterritoriesndashforexamplethroughcontributinglsquotocommunitycapacitybuildingbyfundingcommunityorganizationsthatserveimmigrantsandethno-culturalminoritiesrsquothroughestablishinglsquoseparateunitsintheircivilservicetofacilitateaccessandequityin governance and service delivery aswell as tomanage diversityrsquo and through establishinglsquogovernancerelationshipsthatsupporttheireffortsinequitypolicyrsquoincludingwiththebusinesscommunity(ibid7)

Despitethefactthatmunicipallsquofront-lineserviceprovidersarekeyplayersinthesuccessfulsettlementattractionandretentionofimmigrantsmunicipalitieshavebeenleftonthesidelinesofimmigrantpolicyandfundingdecisionsrsquo(Gunn20124ndash5)withseniorlevelsofgovernmentsdealingmore frequentlywithlsquospecial-purpose non-profit societiesrsquo (Kataoka andMagnusson200720)

Finallyalthoughmunicipalitiesareformallyajurisdictionoftheprovincesthereisageneraltrend towardsmore direct relationships betweenmunicipalities and the federal government(Andrew 2014 Stoney andGraham 2009)Multiple reasons explain this trend including theimportanceofcontemporaryurbanchallengesandtheexplosionofmunicipalcostsasapartialconsequence of decentralization and of relatively low recent investments in infrastructure(Lalonde2016)Reviewingtheliteratureonthetopicofmunicipal-federalrelationshipsLalondenotes that most federal funding transits in provincial hands before landing in municipalitiesFurthermoremunicipalitiesrsquorolesandrelationshipwithfederalagencieslargelydependontherelationshipbetweentheirrespectiveprovincialgovernmentandthefederalgovernment(ibid)

InsumwhiletheCanadianfederalframeworkcanbeaunifyingfactoritleavesroomforconsiderablevariationndash forexample in thefieldsof immigrationandmunicipal affairsndashandevenforprovincialemulationThesepossibilitieshaveimpactsonlanguagepolicyandplanningndashandmostimportantlyforusintermsofwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoadultimmigrants

142 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

The analytical framework A summary

FollowingpolicyanalysisframeworksandspecificallylanguagepolicyandplanningourenquiryintolanguageeducationforadultimmigrantscompareswhyandhowitisprovidedinQuebecandBritishColumbiatwoverydifferentprovincesofCanadaandintheirbiggestcitiesOurultimategoal istopondertheimpactsofdemography languagehistoryandthefederalframeworkonthesepoliciesTable 3summarizestheelementsaddressedhere

Table 3Analyticalframeworkandapproach

Describing and comparing Pondering the impacts of vectors of differences and similarities

WhyWhatarethemainreasonsforprovidinglanguageeducationtoadultimmigrants

bull Citizenshipandnationalismreasons

bull Jobsindustryandeconomicbenefitsreasons

bull Socialwelfareandintegrationreasons

Demography and language history

bull Languagersquosminorityormajoritystatusinthecountryandcontinent

bull Languagersquospowerofattractionasfirstofficiallanguagelearned

bull LanguagersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull ProvincersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull Otherhistoricalelements(historyofconquestandofsocio-

economicdomination)

Federalism as vector of differences

bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Increasedprovincialinterventiono Bilateralaccordsbetweenprovincesandthefederal

governmento Provincialchoiceofcriteriafortheselectionof

immigrants(levelandtypeofskillslanguagesspokenetc)

bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipalitiesascreaturesoftheprovinces

Federalism as vector of similarities

bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Billofrightso MulticulturalismActo CICinterventions

bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipal-federalrelationshipo Municipalitiesconceivedasalevelofgovernmento Municipalitiesrsquoexclusionofpolicydesign

HowWhatarethemaininternalfeaturesofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducation

bull Languagetaughtbull Responsiblelevelof

governmentbull Languageeducationservice

providers

Language education for adult immigrants in Quebec British Columbia and their respective largest cities

WiththeaboveframeworkandapproachinmindwenowturntodescribingandcomparingwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecBritishColumbiaMontrealandVancouver

London Review of Education 143

Language laws and official languages

InordertoprotectFrenchoutsideofQuebecandEnglishwithinQuebecthefoundinglawofCanadathe1867ConstitutionalActalreadycontainedlanguageprovisionsthebulkofwhichrelatestochildrenrsquoseducationTheActalsorecognizedbothFrenchandEnglishasformallyequalinCanadaHowevertheconclusionofthereportoftheRoyalCommissiononBilingualismandBiculturalism(alsocalledtheLaurendeau-DuntonCommission)heldbythefederalgovernmentofCanadainthe1960semphasizedthatbilingualismhadbeenlsquomostlysymbolic(stampsbanknotesetc)andmeretranslationoflawsandcertainadministrativedocumentsrsquo(SLMCnd(a))RespondingdirectlytothecommissionrsquosrecommendationtheOfficialLanguagesActof1969 statesthat

TheEnglishandFrench languagesare theofficial languagesofCanada forallpurposesof theParliamentandgovernmentofCanadaandpossessandenjoyqualityofstatusandequalrightsandprivilegesastotheiruseinalltheinstitutionsoftheParliamentandgovernmentofCanada

(SLMCnd(a))

Coherentwith the notionof a federation theOfficial LanguagesAct appliesonly to federaljurisdictions and institutions Provinces can also be active in the accessory field of languageinsofarastheyareinterveningwithinthescopeoftheirjurisdiction

The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal

Montreal is theeconomicandcultural centreof theprovinceofQuebecandalso themostpopulousfrancophonecityintheAmericasItspopulationisapproximately16 millionandthatofGreaterMontreal38 millionQuebecistheonlyprovincetohaveFrenchasitssoleofficiallanguageThe second articleof the cityofMontrealrsquos charter categorically states that it is afrancophonecity(GouvernementduQueacutebec2000)

InresponsetoincreasinglyvocalandorganizedgroupsinfavourofvalorizingandprotectingtheFrenchlanguagewithinQuebecthegovernmentadoptedin1974QuebecrsquosfirstlanguagelawtheLoi sur la langue officielle(LawoftheOfficialLanguageBill 22)Howeverthisbillrequiringpublic signs tobe in French andpromotingbilingualismwas consideredunable tomeet thelinguisticchallengesthatQuebecincreasinglyfaced(BourhisandLandry2002)ThegovernmentoftheseparatistPartiQueacutebeacutecoisthusadoptedin1977themuchmorepowerfulCharte de la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec (Bill 101)Thecharterrsquosmainobjectiveswere(1)tohalttheassimilationofFrenchspeakerstoEnglish(2)toensurethesocioeconomicpredominanceofthefrancophonemajority and (3) to promote the assertion of the French fact (ie all that concerns FrenchSLMCnd(b))TodaythecharterrequirescommercialsignstobepredominantlyinFrenchandimmigrantchildreninQuebectoattendFrenchschoolsreversingtheimmigrantsrsquotendencytosendtheirchildrentoEnglishschools(McAndrew200270)Manyother lawsinQuebecaresignificantintermsoflanguageincludingafewregardingmunicipalitiesndashwithMontrealamongthemndashandimmigration(SLMCnd(c))

The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver

VancouveristheeconomiccentreofthewesternprovinceofBritishColumbiaWhilethecityitselfwashome toonly603502people in2011 (theeighth largest city inCanada)GreaterVancouver was home to over 23 million residents (the third largest metropolitan area inCanada)Between2006and2011thepopulationofVancouvergrewby44percentwhilethatofGreaterVancouvergrewby93percent(MetroVancouver2012)Likemostotherprovinces

144 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

andcitiesandcoherentwiththeverylowproportionoffrancophonesinboththeprovinceandcityBritishColumbiaandVancouverhaveEnglishastheironlyofficiallanguage

British Columbiarsquos laws and programmes relevant to languages have been scarce if notwhollyabsentInfactthelegislaturehasneveradoptedalanguagelawTheprovincersquoslegislationhoweverdoescontainasmallnumberoflanguageprovisionsandreferencestolanguageMostofthesedealwiththerequirementforpeopletounderstandandexpressthemselvesinproperEnglishandthepossibilityofusingatranslatorOtherreferencesareinsimpledeclarationsofnon-discriminationonthegroundsof languageplaceoforiginandsoonTheonlyreferencetolanguageinwhichthestatemakesacommitmentinvolvesaboriginal languagesIndeedtheFirstPeoplesrsquoHeritageLanguageandCultureAct ismeant tolsquosupport andadviseministriesof governmenton initiatives programs and services related toNativeheritage language andculturersquo(SLMCnd(d))

Immigrantsrsquo settlement integration and adult language education

The federal government of Canada has provided language instruction for newcomers since1947atthesametimeastheCitizenshipActwasadopted(CIMSS20127Cleghorn 2000)The focusof languageeducationwasthuscitizenshipandtoacertainextentassimilationtotheAnglo-SaxonandEnglish-speakingmajority(Ciccarelli1997Cleghorn2000)AsCleghornnoteslsquopriortoQuebecrsquoscontroloverimmigrationbeginninginthe1960slanguagetrainingforadultimmigrantswasEnglishonlyrsquo(200028)From1965tothemid-1980slanguageeducationevolvedfromafocusoncitizenshipintotwodifferentstreamsofclassesfortwodifferenttypesofimmigrantsTheDepartmentofManpowerandImmigrationprovidedlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsinthelabourforcewhiletheCitizenshipBranchoftheDepartmentofSecretaryofStatendashwithamuchsmallerbudgetndashprovidedlanguageclassestoimmigrantsnotplanningtojointhelabourforce(ibid27ndash30)Althoughthefederalgovernmenthadbeenactiveinlanguageeducationsince1947itextendeditsinterventiontosettlementservicesonlyin1979withitsImmigrantSettlementandAdaptationProgramUntilthenthesettlementandintegrationneedsofimmigrantsweremetndashifsondashlsquobyvoluntaryorganizationssuchascommunitycentresethnicorganizationschurchgroupsandwomenrsquosorganizationsrsquo(ibid32)Alongwiththisprogrammeand the current merged settlement and integration programme CIC has been overseeingimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationItspreferredpatternofserviceprovisionhasbeenandremainsoutsourcingtocommunityserviceproviders

The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal

AsmentionedQuebecbecamemoredirectlyinvolvedinthefieldofimmigrationinthe1970sand was then followed by the other Canadian provincesThe first bilateral agreement onimmigrationbetween thegovernmentofCanadaandaprovincewas signedwithQuebec in1971WiththecurrentagreementndashImmigrationTheCanadandashQuebecAccordndashsignedin1991Canadacommitsitself

towithdrawfromthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionandlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsCanadaprovidescompensationtoQuebecforsuchservicesaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountry

(Beacutechard20113)

London Review of Education 145

TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofQuebecfortheseservicesamountedto$320millionin2013ndash14WhilesimilaragreementsexistwitheachprovincenoneismoreextensiveandmatchedwithasmuchfederalgrantsastheonewithQuebec(Beacutechard2011)

AdultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationiscalledfrancizationinQuebecsuggestingaprocessthroughwhichapersonappropriatesprogressivelytheFrenchlanguageuntilitbecomespartofherorhisidentityOnlyFrenchlanguageclassesndashandnoEnglishonesndashareprovidedforfreetoimmigrantsinQuebecFrancizationclassesareavailabletoimmigrantsinvariousformatsandtheymayqualifyforallowancesthatincertaincasesevencovertransportationandchildcarecosts(MIDI 2015a)No comparable programme exists outside ofQuebec to support immigrantswhileattending languageclasses(CIC2012)Quebecrsquossettlementandintegrationframeworkincludes two programmes of language education and of financial aid for adult immigrants(Programme drsquointeacutegration linguistique pour les immigrants and Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants)andtwoprogrammesforsettlementperse(Programme drsquoaccompagnement des nouveaux arrivantsandProgramme reacutegional drsquointeacutegration)

TheproportionofnewcomersknowingFrenchupontheirarrivalgrewfrom368percentinthe1994ndash8periodto623percentforthe2009ndash13period(MIDI2014a)Itwas586 percentin2015(MIDI2014b24)AnewimmigrationpolicywasadoptedbyQuebecinMarch2016(MIDI2015b)andthepreparatorydocumenttothepolicymadeclearhowmuchofapriorityfrancizationwasamongthevariousinterventionsinsettlementandintegration

InadditiontotherecentincreaseofFrenchimmigrationthefrancizationofimmigrantpeople isoneofthestrategiesthattheGovernmentofQuebecimplementstoensuretheperennialityoftheFrenchfactonitsterritoryaswellasthesuccessfulintegrationofimmigrantpeople

(MIDI2014a15ourtranslation)

ThefirsttenetofthepolicyisthatlsquoimmigrationplaysanimportantroleinboostingQueacutebecrsquosprosperityandinthevitalityoftheFrenchlanguagersquo(MIDI2015b)Francizationismeanttomakethese two priorities and objectives of the policy overlap Indeedlsquoimmigrantsrsquo ability to fullyparticipateinQueacutebecsocietyisdeeplyintertwinedwiththelanguageissuersquo(ibid5)

InQuebecndashlikeintherestofCanadandashmostcontactsrelatingtoandservicesregardingsettlement and language education areprovidedby communityorganizationsOutof the51service providers listed on CICrsquoS website in Montreal 43 (84 per cent) were communityorganizations The services they most frequently provided were general French languageeducation(725percent)servicesforfrancophonenewcomers(549percent)andhelpwithdaily life (314 per cent)Nomunicipal organizationwas however listed as service providerincludinglanguageeducationservices(CICnd(b))

WhileevaluatingtheoutcomesoftheimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationprogrammesinQuebecinrelationtosimilarservicesavailableacrossCanadaCICwrites

TohelpindividualsprepareforlifeinCanadaandthecitizenshiptestinformationisoftenprovidedthrough settlement services particularly via language training curricula Language curricula inQuebecalsofollowsthisapproachhoweverthefocusisonprovidinginformationaboutQuebecculture

(CICnd(c))

InretrospectPaquet(2016)suggeststhatQuebecrsquosapproachtoimmigrationhasbeenholisticseenasacollectiveprojectinselectingimmigrantsovereconomicaswellassocialcriteria

ThecityofMontreallikemostregionsinQuebecconcludesimmigrationagreementswiththeprovincersquosMinistryofImmigrationDiversityandIntegration(Ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusionMIDI)andthuscontributestoassessingneedsandplanninginterventioninthisfieldMunicipalitiesndashincludingMontrealndasharerarelymentionedinprogrammesregarding

146 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

immigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationTherearenomentionsofMontrealandmunicipalitiesintheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccordTheonlyreferencetothecityofMontrealintheMIDIannualreportof2014ndash15isrelatedtotheobjectiveofregionalizingimmigrationthatisreducingthe proportion of immigrants settling inMontreal MIDIrsquos (2008) adult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationactionplanPour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieux(To enrich Quebec Make more French integrate better)makesnomentionofmunicipalitiesorofMontrealOneopeningtocitiesrsquo and regionsrsquo roles in thefieldof immigration is however found in thepreparatorydocumenttothenewQuebecimmigrationpolicyItstatestheirrolein(1)buildingwelcomingandinclusivecommunities(2)gatheringconcreteinformationandknowledgeonactualneedsandchallengesasmetinday-to-dayactivitiesand(3)workingagainstracismanddiscrimination(MIDI2014a54)

Inabriefon immigrationmanagementsubmittedtothegovernmentofQuebec in2011thecityofMontrealaskedfor(1)anofficialrecognitionof itsroleinimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegration(2)anincreasedbudgetforthefrancizationofimmigrantsinMontreal(3)theautomatic transfer toMontreal of 10 per cent of federal grants for immigrantsrsquo settlementand integration and (4) increased budgets for immigrantsrsquo social housing (Ville deMontreacuteal20116)DespitethegovernmentofQuebecrsquosrarementionofMontrealinimmigrationpoliciesandprogrammesthecityhasbeenrelativelyresponsivetoimmigrationinthesensediscussedbyGood (2008) First the city ofMontreal has contributed to community capacity-buildingthroughfundingvariouscommunitygroupsbeinganactivememberofvariouscollaborationsonimmigrationadoptingacharterofrightsandresponsibilityandcreatinganinterculturaladvisorycouncilSecondthecityhasaPlandrsquoaccegraves agrave lrsquoeacutegaliteacute agrave lrsquoemploi(PAEacuteEacute)ThirdthecityhascreatedtheNexusprogrammewhichisamunicipalprogrammeinMontrealthatprovidesbusinesseswithinformationtoolssupportandreferencesregardingtherecruitmentandsustainedemploymentofprofessionalstrainedabroad(EmploiNexus2016)Hencethecityintervenesthroughnotonlycollaboratingwithserviceprovidersbutalsobyfundingthem(VilledeMontreacuteal2011)

The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver

The first bilateral agreement on immigration between the governments of BritishColumbiaandofCanadawassignedin1998andthecurrentagreementndashtheCanadandashBritishColumbiaImmigrationAgreementndashwassignedin2015ContrarytotheprevalentmodelintherestofCanada(exceptQuebecandManitoba)theaccordoperatesatransferofresponsibilityinthefieldofsettlementandintegrationservices(Paquet2016)HoweverwhereastheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccord stipulates the federal governmentrsquoswithdrawal from thedeliveryofservices for the reception linguistic and cultural integration and placements of immigrantsthe CanadandashBritish Columbia ImmigrationAgreement emphasizes collaboration negotiationconsultationandcooperationratherthanstrictdivisionofauthoritybetweentheprovinceandthefederalgovernmentForexamplelsquocollaborationrsquolsquotocollaboratersquoisusedseventimes(nonein theQuebec accord)lsquonegotiationrsquolsquoto negotiatersquo is used seven times (once in the accord)lsquoconsultationrsquolsquoto consultrsquo is used sixteen times (none in the accord) and lsquocooperationrsquolsquotocooperatersquoisusedfivetimes(fiveintheaccordaswell)

TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofBritishColumbiaforthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsamountedto$114millionin2010ndash11(DerwingandWaugh20124)ndasharoundhalfofwhichwasallocatedto language education In addition federal funds were also allocated to Enhanced LanguageTraining a smaller language education initiative (ibid)WelcomeBC and the Settlement andIntegrationProgram arethemainprogrammesthroughwhichsettlementintegrationhappensin

London Review of Education 147

BritishColumbiaTheWelcomingandInclusiveCommunitiesandWorkplacesProgramandtheVulnerableImmigrantPopulationsProgramcompletethepicture

TheproportionofnewcomersspeakingeitherFrenchorEnglishwas73percentin2011ndash12(GovernmentofBritishColumbia2013)muchhigherthantheproportionofnewcomersspeakingFrenchinQuebecInitsannualreportof2011ndash12WelcomeBCwritesthatlanguageabilityiscriticaltothesuccessofimmigrantsintheprovincersquoslabourmarketandcommunitiesAccordingtotheprogrammethoughmostnewcomersarehighlyskilledandeducatedlsquoalackofEnglishlanguageabilitycorrelateswithimmigrantunemploymentandunderemploymentwhichcosts theeconomy inproductivityandeconomicgrowth and impacts immigrantsrsquo successfulsocialandeconomic integrationrsquo(ibid10)Furthermoretheyestimatethatlsquoa1increase inliteracyproducesa25increaseintheleveloflabourproductivityandthatevery1comparativeincreaseinnationalliteracyscoreswouldboostnationalincomeby$32 billionrsquo(ibid8)Inthisexplanationofwhylanguageproficiencyisimportantwenoticeaphrasingthatisfinancialandeconomicratherthansocialorcitizenship-related

English language services for adults (deliveredmostly by community organizations) andEnglishasasecondlanguage(deliveredbypubliclyfundedpost-secondaryinstitutions)arethemain vehicles of adult immigrant training in the province (Government of BritishColumbia2013)Ofthe36serviceproviders inVancouver listedontheCICwebsite fourwere intheeducationsectoronewasaprivatecompanyandtheremaining31(84percent)werecommunityorganizationsTheservices theyprovidedmost frequentlywerehelpwithdaily life (722percent)helpfindingjobs(417percent)mentoring(389percent)andgenerallanguageeducation(306percent)Afewmunicipallibrarieswerealsolistedassettlementandintegrationserviceproviders(CICnd(b))WenoticeherethatamuchlowerproportionofserviceprovidersofferlanguageeducationthanisthecaseinQuebec

British Columbiarsquos settlement and integration policies and programmes refer morefrequentlytoVancouverandmunicipalitiesthandoesQuebecrsquostoMontrealForexampletheimportance of consultingmunicipalities and local governments ismentioned in theCanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration Agreement lsquoThe Parties agree to cooperate to work withLocalGovernmentsinBritishColumbiatoexploreissuesrelatedtotheirrespectiveinterestsin immigration and pursue opportunities related to communitiesrsquo interests in immigrationrsquo(Government ofCanada 2015)Whereas the city ofVancouver is not directlymentioned intheBritishColumbiaImmigrationTaskForcereportoneofitsrecommendationsislsquotoengageindustry local governments and non-governmental organizations in settling and integratingimmigrantsrsquo(MinisterofStateforMulticulturalism201220)FurthermoreBritishColumbiarsquosWelcoming and InclusiveCommunities andWorkplacesProgramlsquohas actively recognized theroleandparticipationofmunicipalgovernmentsintheimmigrantsettlementprocessrsquo(Dicksonet al201323)MunicipalitieshavethuslsquofeltthatacloserpartnershipbetweenBCandmunicipalgovernmentsofsomemajorimmigrantreceptioncitieshasbeenestablishedrsquo(ibid)

In2014VancouverfinallyenteredintoanagreementwiththegovernmentofCanadarsquosCIClsquotoundertakeaLocal ImmigrationPartnership (LIP)rsquo (CityofVancouvernd)TheVancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP2016)isafirststeptowardsestablishingndashwiththecollaborationofdozensoflocalorganizationsandcommunityleadersndashtheveryfirstVancouverImmigrantSettlement and Integration Strategy TheVIPrsquos main focuses are (1) the strengthening ofinterculturalandcivicengagement(2)thecreationofwelcomingandinclusiveworkplacesand(3)theassessmentofnewcomersrsquoneedsinareassuchashousinghealthandaccesstolocalandmunicipalservices

Vancouverhasbeenresponsive to immigration (CityofVancouver201414)first ithascontributedtothecommunitythroughactivelyconsultingcommunitygroupsandleadersfunding

148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)

Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants

Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation

Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries

Conclusion

AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants

London Review of Education 149

Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy

ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec

ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues

Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the

150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated

Notes on the contributors

Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012

CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa

RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada

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BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65

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CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20

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DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)

DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS

152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

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FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19

FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48

Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario

Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan

GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45

GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)

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KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)

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MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)

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ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246

VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)

VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7

Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)

XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)

YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35

Related articles published in the London Review of Education

In this issue

Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)

Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33

156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21

MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73

Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85

Elsewhere in this issue

HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98

Page 3: Language planning and education of adult immigrants in ... · Furthermore, 21.3 per cent of Canadians, 78.1 per cent of Québécois, and 1.3 per cent of British Columbians have French

136 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

Why

AreportbytheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipdefinessettlementandintegrationasacontinuumthatinvolvesmeetingtheneedsoftheimmigrants(iehousingeducationnutritionandhealthcare)fullandgratifyingparticipationinthelabourmarketandorlocaleconomycivicandcommunityparticipation anda senseofbelonging in thecommunity (Murphy201011)Similarly Omidvar and Richmond (2003) define social integration as the lsquorealization of fullandequalparticipationintheeconomicsocialculturalandpoliticaldimensionsoflifein[theimmigrantsrsquo]newcountryrsquo(DerwingandWaugh20123)Inevaluatingresearchonwhylanguageeducation isprovided to immigrantsweprimarilynote thatproficiency in the local languageisonevery importantaspectofsettlementand integration Indeedthelsquolackofknowledgeofone ofCanadarsquos official languageswas still themost serious problem faced by refugees andothereconomicimmigrants4yearsafterlandingrsquo(Xue2007asquotedbyDerwingandWaugh20127)Moreoverlsquoacriticalingredientofnewcomersrsquoactiveparticipationinthehostsocietyaretheirlanguageskillsrsquo(Adamuti-Trache2012103)Inshortthreemainstreamsofreasonsastowhylanguageeducationisprovidedtoadultimmigrantsarefoundintheliteraturendashthatisreasonsrelatingto(1)citizenshipandnationalism(2)jobsindustryandeconomicbenefitsofimmigrationand(3)socialwelfareandintegration(Cleghorn 2000)

First local language competency is often amarker of national identity andor belonging(Clarkson 2014) and thusproficiency in the local language is conceivedas aprerequisite inordertolsquounderstandthenormsofthehostsociety[andto]likelygrowasenseofattachmentto[thehost society]rsquo(Adamuti-Trache2012109)AsSimpsonandWhitesideput itlsquotheonenationonelanguageideologyisinterlacedwithotherbeliefsaboutnationalidentityforexamplethe ideal that thenation state shouldbe ashomogeneous aspossible and that adimensionof that homogeneity ismonolingualismrsquo (2015 2) Following this ideology proficiency in thelocal language alonewould allow full belonging and participation in the community FurtherimmigrationndashandthuslocallanguageeducationndashisrelatedtocitizenshipandnationalisminthecontextofdecliningfertilityandcurrentpopulationageingAbodyofliteraturendashoftenwrittenby francophones fromQuebec Ontario and New Brunswick ndash stresses the importance offrancophoneimmigrationandoflinguisticandsocialintegrationofimmigrantsintofrancophonecommunitiesinstoppingthesteadydemographicdeclineofthesecommunitiesinCanada(egseeBelkhodja2008Bursteinet al2014Ferron2008Fourot2016FraserandBoileau2014MarmenetCorbeil1999VatzLaaroussi2008)InordertoachievethisobjectivehowevernotonlydoimmigrantshavetochooseFrenchastheirpreferredofficiallanguagendashandeventuallyfortheirlinguistictransferndashbuttheyhavetostayinQuebecorinotherfrancophonecommunitiesLearningthelocallanguagewouldthusbeafirststepforimmigrantstocontributeinthisgrandcollectiveobjectiveForotherauthorslsquoadesiretolearnCanadarsquostwoofficiallanguagesmaybegroundedinimmigrantsrsquopursuitofastrongersenseofbelongingrsquo(BurtonandPhipps2010asquotedbyMadyandTurnbull2012132)orofgreatereconomicwellbeing(PicotandSweetman2005ibid)

Second adult immigrantsrsquo language education is often justified as crucial in achievingimmigrantsrsquofulleconomicpotentialIntegrationonthejobmarkethasoftenbeensingledoutasthemostimportantaspectofimmigrantsrsquointegrationintotheirnewsocietyStudiesshowthatimmigrantsrsquogreaterlocallinguisticskillsareassociatedwithfewerdifficultiesfindingajobandhigherearningsandproductivity(Chiswick2008)Anotherreportstatesthatin2003inCanadatheemploymentratesforindividualswithpoorandweakliteracyinthelocallanguagewere57percentand70percentrespectivelylsquocomparedto76forthedesiredlevelofliteracyrsquo(TDBankFinancialGroup200911)Finallyeconomistsarguethatgreaterlocallinguisticskillsare

London Review of Education 137

associatedwithincreasedproductivityofotherinvestmentinhumancapitalincludingeducationandtraining(Chiswick2008)

Thethirdmainsetofreasonsforproviding languageeducationtoadult immigrants isasaprerequisiteforgreatersocialwelfareandintegrationinthecommunityOneelementoftenemphasized in the literature ishowa lackofknowledgeorproficiency in the local languageis connected to smaller and less diversified personal networks (Rose 2006Thomas 2011)Thesenetworksconveypoorer information leading todisadvantages in a varietyof spheresDamarisRose(2006)arguesforexamplethatimmigrantswithsmallerandmoreundiversifiednetworkshavegreaterdifficultiesfindingsuitablehousingProficiencyinthelocallanguagealsohaspositivebenefitswithregardtoeducationParentsrsquolinguisticskillshavebeenassociatedwitha similar levelof successat school in theirchildren (GouvernementduQueacutebec2014TCRI2011) Further a higher level of language proficiency is associatedwith greater engagementinpost-secondaryeducationuponarrival(Adamuti-Trache2012109)whichinturnprovidesgreaterjobsandsocialintegrationopportunities(DerwingandWaugh20127)Lowlevelsoflocallanguageskillsalsohavenegativeimpactsonself-reportedhealth(Nget al201119)andonimmigrantsrsquoaccesstothehealthcaresystem(Battagliniet al2007GagnonandSaillant2000Olazabalet al2010SouliegraveresandOuellette2012)Lowlanguageproficiencyisalsoidentifiedasariskfactoroffamilyviolenceamongimmigrantwomen(Ahmadet al2004Rinfret-Raynoret al20136)Finallystudiesshowthatimmigrantsrsquogreaterlocallinguisticskillsareassociatedwithgreaterpoliticalinvolvement(Chiswick2008)

How

Differences and similarities in the reasons why language education is provided to adultimmigrantsdonotnecessarily translate intocorrespondingdifferencesandsimilarities in thewaythiseducationisprovidedonthegroundIndeedwhilethesereasonsmaydiffer(andcanbeexplainedpartlybythedifferencesindemographyandlanguagehistory) it ispossiblethatmanycomponentsremainthesameatthelevelofserviceprovision(andcanbeexplainedinlargepartbyacommonhistoryofsettlementservicesandfederalframework)ThuswhatlevelofgovernmentndashamongthefederalprovincialandlocallevelsndashisresponsibleforprovidinglocallanguageeducationtoadultimmigrantsWhatactorsareconsultedinelaboratingandmakingdecisions over service provisionWhat language is taught Finallywhat actors are providinglanguageeducationtoadultimmigrants

In sum beyond exploring to what extent reasons andmotivations to provide languageeducationtoadultimmigrantsvarybetweenprovincesweexplorewhetherthesevariationsareaccompaniedbycorrespondingvariationsinhowthiseducationisprovided

The context

InadditiontodescribingthemodelsofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationinQuebecBritishColumbiaandtheirbiggestcitiesourarticleponderswhetherandinwhatsensedemographylanguagehistoryandthecommonfederalframeworkcanexplainthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthetwoprovinces

Demography and language history

Asmentionedintheintroductiondemographyandlanguagehistoryvarygreatlyfromonepartof the country to another potentially impactingon languagepolicy andplanning andon the

138 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

language education provided to adult immigrantsTable 1 outlines the linguistic compositioninCanadaQuebec (and its largest cityMontreal) andBritishColumbia (and its largest cityVancouver)intermsofmothertonguesin2011

Table 1Mothertonguebyprovincesandcensusmetropolitanarea(CMA)

Mother tongues

English French Other Multiple

Quebec Total 77 781 123 19

Montreal(CMA) 116 633 220 31

BritishColumbia Total 703 13 265 19

Vancouver(CMA) 560 11 403 27

Canada Total 569 213 198 20

StatisticsCanada(2011d)Table 2 shows that it is not only the proportionof people having French and a non-officiallanguageastheirmothertonguethatvariesacrossCanadaandbetweencitiesbutalsothenon-officiallanguagesspokenthemselves

Table 2MostspokenmothertonguesinMontrealandVancouver

CMA Montreal Vancouver

English 2(116) 1(560)

French 1(633) 11(11)

Spanish 4(29) 9(14)

Italian 5(29)

Chinese(nototherwisespecified) 7(10) 4(49)

Cantonese 3(56)

Mandarin 5(39)

Punjabi 2(61)

Tagalog 6(21)

Arabic 3(34)

Creoles 6(13)

StatisticsCanada(2011d)

IndeedwhileChineselanguagesandPunjabiarebyfarthemostfrequentinVancouvertheyrankmuchlowerinMontrealConverselyArabicSpanishandItalianarethemostspokennon-officiallanguagesinMontreal

Behind these numbers come important variations in terms of the linguistic history ofCanadaFirsttheoriginalsettlersandcolonizersofCanadacameverylargelyfromtwoEuropeancountries speaking different languages French and English Although aboriginal people andlanguagesarenotdiscussedinourarticleitisusefultoberemindedthatCanadawasestablishedbyEuropeansettlersonalandinhabitedpriortocolonizationbyindigenouspeopleOneimpactof European colonization of theCanadian territory ndash beyond the dramatic decrease of theaboriginalpopulationitselfndashhasbeentheneardisappearanceofmostindigenouslanguagesIn2011only63000personsdeclaredanindigenouslanguageastheirmothertongueinCanadaandonly172percentofindigenouspersonsreportedbeingabletoconverseinanindigenous

London Review of Education 139

languageFurthertheproportionofindigenouspersonsabletodosodecreasedby2percentbetween2006and2011while theirpopulation grewby awhole201per cent in the sameperiod(StatisticsCanada2011c)

TheBritishconquestofFrenchNorthAmericain1760wasfollowedbymultipleattemptsat assimilating French-speaking residentsWhereas the pursuit of the linguistic and culturalassimilationoftheFrenchCanadianslessenedonceCanadawascreatedin1867thedemographicweightofFrenchasamothertongueamongtheCanadianpopulationhasbeensteadilydecliningForexamplea1912regulationbannedelementaryschoolteachersfromspeakingFrenchforwhichOntariorsquospremierKathleenWynneissuedaformalapologytofrancophonesthroughtheprovinciallegislatureinFebruary2016lsquoRegulation17showedadisregardforFranco-OntarianidentityandequalityandonbehalfofthegovernmentofOntarioIofferanapologyrsquo(The Canadian Press2016)

Frenchspeakersrepresented29percentofthepopulationin1951and217percentin2011ForthecityofMontrealalone(notthemetropolitanarea)themajorityofresidentswithFrenchasamothertonguehasbeendecliningaswellfrom68percentin1951to524percentin2011(DominionBureauofStatistics1953VilledeMontreacutealnd)withtheproportionbeing635percentfortheentiremetropolitanarea(StatisticsCanada2016)ThedemographicweightofQuebecamongallCanadianprovinceshasalsobeendecliningfrom279percentin1971to23percentin2015(ISQ201523)AsaconsequenceQuebecseatsinthefederalparliamentdecreasedfrom266percentin1976to233percentin2015(ElectionsCanada 2010ElectionsCanada2012)

InadditiontoahistoryofconquestandasteadydemographicdeclineofbothfrancophonesacrossthecountryandofQuebecrsquosweightamongtheprovincesthehistoryofsocioeconomicinequalities experienced by francophones ndash even in Quebec ndash must be mentioned Indeeduntilthe1960sdespiteamajorityoffrancophonesintheprovinceofQuebecthelanguageofcommerceandofworkwasmainlyEnglishIndeedfrancophoneswerelessinstructedunder-representedamonghigherprofessionallevelsandgainedsmallerrevenues(DickinsonandYoung2008PCO1970)

FinallyasafrancophoneprovincewithinnotonlyamajorityEnglish-speakingcountrybutanevenlargermajorityEnglish-speakingNorthAmericancontinentQuebecstrugglestoconveytoitsnewcomerstheimportanceofpreservingFrenchasthecommonlanguageUntilthe1970s90percentofnewcomerstoQuebecchoselsquoto integrate intotheminorityEnglishspeakingcommunityrsquo(Bouffard201550)TheappealofEnglishremainsunderstandabletodayinacountryandlsquoinacontinentwheretheoverwhelmingmajorityspeaksnotonlyadifferentlanguagebut thelanguageofglobalizationrsquo(ibid49)

In sum the history of conquest and of socioeconomic inequalities the harsh reality oflinguisticdemographicdeclineandthehistoricaltendencyofimmigrantstointegrateintotheanglophonecommunityhavehad verydeep impacts inQuebec In thatprovince the fearofEnglishandndashtoacertainextentndashofotherlanguageshasbeenquitestrongparticularlyregardingitsmostpopulatedcityandmainreceiverofimmigrationMontreal

TheBritishColumbian linguistichistory isverydifferentTheFrenchminorityhasalwaysbeenverysmallinnumberItaccountedfor1percentofthepopulationin1951andstilldoestodayTheFrenchndashEnglish strugglehas thusbeenmuchquieterndash if not absentWhereas thepercentageofBritishColumbianswithEnglishastheirmothertonguehasdeclinedsubstantiallymost notably inVancouver (from 86 per cent in 1951 to 56 per cent in 2011) the Englishlanguage has never been fundamentally threatenedCompared to French inQuebec Englishremains incontestably thefirstofficial language learnedby immigrants inBritishColumbia IntermsofdemographicweightamongCanadianprovincesBritishColumbiarsquosgrewfrom102per

140 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

centin1971to131percentin2015(ISQ201523)AsaconsequenceBritishColumbiarsquosseatsinthefederalparliamentincreasedfrom7percentin1976to125percentin2015(ElectionsCanada 2010ElectionsCanada2012)

In sum we observe extremely different demographic and language histories inQuebecandBritishColumbiaThesemajordifferencescanclearlybeexpectedtohaveimpactsoneachprovincersquoslanguagepolicyandplanning

The federal framework and immigration

InCanadabeing a federationofprovinces jurisdictions are allocated toone levelor sharedbetween two Immigration is shared whereas education and municipal affairs come underprovincialjurisdiction

MajortransformationshavetakenplacewithregardtoimmigrationinCanadainthelastdecadesFirsttheimmigrantselectionprocesswasalteredfollowingtheadoptionoftheBillofRights1960whichmade inevitablelsquotheremovalof immigrationregulationsrestrictingaccessofnon-Europeansrsquo(CardozoandPendakur200823)Referencestoraceorregionsoforiginwerethusreplacedintheselectioncriteriawithskillsandqualificationsand incertaincaseslanguages spoken (ibid) Second the ideaofmulticulturalismemerged in the1960s andwasformalizedintheCanadianMulticulturalismAct adoptedin1971AllCanadianprovinceshavesinceembracedimmigrationasasourceofhumananddemographicaswellasfinancialcapital(Paquet2016)Furtherlsquothefederalgovernmentandseveralofitsprovincialcounterpartshaveplaced a priority on immigrationmatters in recent years linking it to amultitude of otherprominent policy areasrsquo (Tolley et al 2011 3 as quoted byGunn 2012 3) In otherwordsquestions relating to immigration were introduced in many policy domains outside that ofcitizenshipandimmigrationperseincludingeducationworkandeconomyMostimportantlywhereasprovincialgovernmentshadbeenquiteshytoundertakeresponsibilitiesregardingtheshared jurisdiction of immigration they have becomemore interested in the field since the1970s(Gunn20123)andincreasinglyactivesincethe1990sIndeed ledbytheinterventionof the province ofQuebec all Canadian provinces have sincewith the federal governmentsigned bilateral agreements regarding immigration adopted immigration policies taken partintheselectionof immigrantsandcontributedtotheestablishmentofvariousorganizationspromotinggreaterintegrationamongnewcomers(Paquet2016)

ProvinceshavefurtherdevelopedvariousprogrammesforthesettlementandintegrationofimmigrantsAsdiscussedbelowadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationisoneimportantaspectofthesemodelsDespiteallthisthefederalagencyoverseeingsettlementandintegrationinthecountryisCitizenshipandImmigrationCanada(CIC)AlthoughQuebecManitobaandBritishColumbialsquoareresponsibleforthedesigndeliveryandadministrationofsettlementservicesrsquothisresponsibilityistransferredwiththelsquoobjectiveofachievingcomparablenewcomersrsquosettlementoutcomesrsquo (CICnd(a))ThebilateralaccordshaveattributedQuebecaspecialright fortheintegrationofnewcomers in theprovinceFinancialcompensationsareprovided forQuebectoprovideintegrationandsettlementserviceslsquoaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountryandaslongasallpermanentresidentsoftheprovincewhethertheywereselectedbyQuebecornotcanhaveaccesstothemrsquo(HouseofCommonsofCanada20101)

London Review of Education 141

Municipal affairs

In Canada the 1867 Constitutional Act assigned to the provincial governments exclusivejurisdictionovermunicipalitiesThusmunicipalitiesarenotconstitutionallyrecognizedanddonotndashat least formallyndashconstituteanorderofgovernmentof theirown inCanada (Young2009 106) One impact of this provincially exclusive jurisdiction is that provincial-municipalsystems vary considerably across the countryWhileCanadianmunicipalities have no formalresponsibilities except in Ontario regarding education healthcare and social services ndash allprovincialjurisdictionsndashtheyareoftenkeyactorsinimplementingfederalandprovincialpoliciesandprogrammes (ibid 115) Immigration is clearlyoneof thepolicydomains inwhich localgovernmentsandmunicipalitieshavebeenincreasinglyactiveIndeedmostimmigrantstoCanadachoosetosettleinbigcitiesTheFederationofCanadianMunicipalitiesstressedthatin2010two-thirdsofimmigrantssettledinCanadarsquosthreemostimportantmetropolitanareasTorontoMontrealandVancouverIn201117percentofimmigrantstoCanada(FCM2011)and76percentofimmigrantstoQuebecchosetosettleinMontreal(EmploiNexus2016)makingup344percentoftheresidentsofthecityofMontrealInthesameyear14percentofimmigrantstoCanadachosetosettleinVancouver(FCM2011)

Inpractice itmeansthatlsquoday-to-day issuesofmulticulturalismare renegotiatedandsettledin only a few citiesrsquo (Good 2008 1)Thus Canadarsquos biggest cities are active in the field ofimmigrationbecausetheyarelsquothefirstpointofcontactbetweennewcomersandgovernmentdue to the day-to-day dependence of immigrants on various local public servicesrsquo (Gunn20121)AccordingtoGood(2008)somemunicipalitieshavebeenveryresponsivetoincreasingnumbersofnewcomersintheirterritoriesndashforexamplethroughcontributinglsquotocommunitycapacitybuildingbyfundingcommunityorganizationsthatserveimmigrantsandethno-culturalminoritiesrsquothroughestablishinglsquoseparateunitsintheircivilservicetofacilitateaccessandequityin governance and service delivery aswell as tomanage diversityrsquo and through establishinglsquogovernancerelationshipsthatsupporttheireffortsinequitypolicyrsquoincludingwiththebusinesscommunity(ibid7)

Despitethefactthatmunicipallsquofront-lineserviceprovidersarekeyplayersinthesuccessfulsettlementattractionandretentionofimmigrantsmunicipalitieshavebeenleftonthesidelinesofimmigrantpolicyandfundingdecisionsrsquo(Gunn20124ndash5)withseniorlevelsofgovernmentsdealingmore frequentlywithlsquospecial-purpose non-profit societiesrsquo (Kataoka andMagnusson200720)

Finallyalthoughmunicipalitiesareformallyajurisdictionoftheprovincesthereisageneraltrend towardsmore direct relationships betweenmunicipalities and the federal government(Andrew 2014 Stoney andGraham 2009)Multiple reasons explain this trend including theimportanceofcontemporaryurbanchallengesandtheexplosionofmunicipalcostsasapartialconsequence of decentralization and of relatively low recent investments in infrastructure(Lalonde2016)Reviewingtheliteratureonthetopicofmunicipal-federalrelationshipsLalondenotes that most federal funding transits in provincial hands before landing in municipalitiesFurthermoremunicipalitiesrsquorolesandrelationshipwithfederalagencieslargelydependontherelationshipbetweentheirrespectiveprovincialgovernmentandthefederalgovernment(ibid)

InsumwhiletheCanadianfederalframeworkcanbeaunifyingfactoritleavesroomforconsiderablevariationndash forexample in thefieldsof immigrationandmunicipal affairsndashandevenforprovincialemulationThesepossibilitieshaveimpactsonlanguagepolicyandplanningndashandmostimportantlyforusintermsofwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoadultimmigrants

142 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

The analytical framework A summary

FollowingpolicyanalysisframeworksandspecificallylanguagepolicyandplanningourenquiryintolanguageeducationforadultimmigrantscompareswhyandhowitisprovidedinQuebecandBritishColumbiatwoverydifferentprovincesofCanadaandintheirbiggestcitiesOurultimategoal istopondertheimpactsofdemography languagehistoryandthefederalframeworkonthesepoliciesTable 3summarizestheelementsaddressedhere

Table 3Analyticalframeworkandapproach

Describing and comparing Pondering the impacts of vectors of differences and similarities

WhyWhatarethemainreasonsforprovidinglanguageeducationtoadultimmigrants

bull Citizenshipandnationalismreasons

bull Jobsindustryandeconomicbenefitsreasons

bull Socialwelfareandintegrationreasons

Demography and language history

bull Languagersquosminorityormajoritystatusinthecountryandcontinent

bull Languagersquospowerofattractionasfirstofficiallanguagelearned

bull LanguagersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull ProvincersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull Otherhistoricalelements(historyofconquestandofsocio-

economicdomination)

Federalism as vector of differences

bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Increasedprovincialinterventiono Bilateralaccordsbetweenprovincesandthefederal

governmento Provincialchoiceofcriteriafortheselectionof

immigrants(levelandtypeofskillslanguagesspokenetc)

bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipalitiesascreaturesoftheprovinces

Federalism as vector of similarities

bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Billofrightso MulticulturalismActo CICinterventions

bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipal-federalrelationshipo Municipalitiesconceivedasalevelofgovernmento Municipalitiesrsquoexclusionofpolicydesign

HowWhatarethemaininternalfeaturesofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducation

bull Languagetaughtbull Responsiblelevelof

governmentbull Languageeducationservice

providers

Language education for adult immigrants in Quebec British Columbia and their respective largest cities

WiththeaboveframeworkandapproachinmindwenowturntodescribingandcomparingwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecBritishColumbiaMontrealandVancouver

London Review of Education 143

Language laws and official languages

InordertoprotectFrenchoutsideofQuebecandEnglishwithinQuebecthefoundinglawofCanadathe1867ConstitutionalActalreadycontainedlanguageprovisionsthebulkofwhichrelatestochildrenrsquoseducationTheActalsorecognizedbothFrenchandEnglishasformallyequalinCanadaHowevertheconclusionofthereportoftheRoyalCommissiononBilingualismandBiculturalism(alsocalledtheLaurendeau-DuntonCommission)heldbythefederalgovernmentofCanadainthe1960semphasizedthatbilingualismhadbeenlsquomostlysymbolic(stampsbanknotesetc)andmeretranslationoflawsandcertainadministrativedocumentsrsquo(SLMCnd(a))RespondingdirectlytothecommissionrsquosrecommendationtheOfficialLanguagesActof1969 statesthat

TheEnglishandFrench languagesare theofficial languagesofCanada forallpurposesof theParliamentandgovernmentofCanadaandpossessandenjoyqualityofstatusandequalrightsandprivilegesastotheiruseinalltheinstitutionsoftheParliamentandgovernmentofCanada

(SLMCnd(a))

Coherentwith the notionof a federation theOfficial LanguagesAct appliesonly to federaljurisdictions and institutions Provinces can also be active in the accessory field of languageinsofarastheyareinterveningwithinthescopeoftheirjurisdiction

The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal

Montreal is theeconomicandcultural centreof theprovinceofQuebecandalso themostpopulousfrancophonecityintheAmericasItspopulationisapproximately16 millionandthatofGreaterMontreal38 millionQuebecistheonlyprovincetohaveFrenchasitssoleofficiallanguageThe second articleof the cityofMontrealrsquos charter categorically states that it is afrancophonecity(GouvernementduQueacutebec2000)

InresponsetoincreasinglyvocalandorganizedgroupsinfavourofvalorizingandprotectingtheFrenchlanguagewithinQuebecthegovernmentadoptedin1974QuebecrsquosfirstlanguagelawtheLoi sur la langue officielle(LawoftheOfficialLanguageBill 22)Howeverthisbillrequiringpublic signs tobe in French andpromotingbilingualismwas consideredunable tomeet thelinguisticchallengesthatQuebecincreasinglyfaced(BourhisandLandry2002)ThegovernmentoftheseparatistPartiQueacutebeacutecoisthusadoptedin1977themuchmorepowerfulCharte de la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec (Bill 101)Thecharterrsquosmainobjectiveswere(1)tohalttheassimilationofFrenchspeakerstoEnglish(2)toensurethesocioeconomicpredominanceofthefrancophonemajority and (3) to promote the assertion of the French fact (ie all that concerns FrenchSLMCnd(b))TodaythecharterrequirescommercialsignstobepredominantlyinFrenchandimmigrantchildreninQuebectoattendFrenchschoolsreversingtheimmigrantsrsquotendencytosendtheirchildrentoEnglishschools(McAndrew200270)Manyother lawsinQuebecaresignificantintermsoflanguageincludingafewregardingmunicipalitiesndashwithMontrealamongthemndashandimmigration(SLMCnd(c))

The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver

VancouveristheeconomiccentreofthewesternprovinceofBritishColumbiaWhilethecityitselfwashome toonly603502people in2011 (theeighth largest city inCanada)GreaterVancouver was home to over 23 million residents (the third largest metropolitan area inCanada)Between2006and2011thepopulationofVancouvergrewby44percentwhilethatofGreaterVancouvergrewby93percent(MetroVancouver2012)Likemostotherprovinces

144 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

andcitiesandcoherentwiththeverylowproportionoffrancophonesinboththeprovinceandcityBritishColumbiaandVancouverhaveEnglishastheironlyofficiallanguage

British Columbiarsquos laws and programmes relevant to languages have been scarce if notwhollyabsentInfactthelegislaturehasneveradoptedalanguagelawTheprovincersquoslegislationhoweverdoescontainasmallnumberoflanguageprovisionsandreferencestolanguageMostofthesedealwiththerequirementforpeopletounderstandandexpressthemselvesinproperEnglishandthepossibilityofusingatranslatorOtherreferencesareinsimpledeclarationsofnon-discriminationonthegroundsof languageplaceoforiginandsoonTheonlyreferencetolanguageinwhichthestatemakesacommitmentinvolvesaboriginal languagesIndeedtheFirstPeoplesrsquoHeritageLanguageandCultureAct ismeant tolsquosupport andadviseministriesof governmenton initiatives programs and services related toNativeheritage language andculturersquo(SLMCnd(d))

Immigrantsrsquo settlement integration and adult language education

The federal government of Canada has provided language instruction for newcomers since1947atthesametimeastheCitizenshipActwasadopted(CIMSS20127Cleghorn 2000)The focusof languageeducationwasthuscitizenshipandtoacertainextentassimilationtotheAnglo-SaxonandEnglish-speakingmajority(Ciccarelli1997Cleghorn2000)AsCleghornnoteslsquopriortoQuebecrsquoscontroloverimmigrationbeginninginthe1960slanguagetrainingforadultimmigrantswasEnglishonlyrsquo(200028)From1965tothemid-1980slanguageeducationevolvedfromafocusoncitizenshipintotwodifferentstreamsofclassesfortwodifferenttypesofimmigrantsTheDepartmentofManpowerandImmigrationprovidedlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsinthelabourforcewhiletheCitizenshipBranchoftheDepartmentofSecretaryofStatendashwithamuchsmallerbudgetndashprovidedlanguageclassestoimmigrantsnotplanningtojointhelabourforce(ibid27ndash30)Althoughthefederalgovernmenthadbeenactiveinlanguageeducationsince1947itextendeditsinterventiontosettlementservicesonlyin1979withitsImmigrantSettlementandAdaptationProgramUntilthenthesettlementandintegrationneedsofimmigrantsweremetndashifsondashlsquobyvoluntaryorganizationssuchascommunitycentresethnicorganizationschurchgroupsandwomenrsquosorganizationsrsquo(ibid32)Alongwiththisprogrammeand the current merged settlement and integration programme CIC has been overseeingimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationItspreferredpatternofserviceprovisionhasbeenandremainsoutsourcingtocommunityserviceproviders

The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal

AsmentionedQuebecbecamemoredirectlyinvolvedinthefieldofimmigrationinthe1970sand was then followed by the other Canadian provincesThe first bilateral agreement onimmigrationbetween thegovernmentofCanadaandaprovincewas signedwithQuebec in1971WiththecurrentagreementndashImmigrationTheCanadandashQuebecAccordndashsignedin1991Canadacommitsitself

towithdrawfromthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionandlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsCanadaprovidescompensationtoQuebecforsuchservicesaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountry

(Beacutechard20113)

London Review of Education 145

TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofQuebecfortheseservicesamountedto$320millionin2013ndash14WhilesimilaragreementsexistwitheachprovincenoneismoreextensiveandmatchedwithasmuchfederalgrantsastheonewithQuebec(Beacutechard2011)

AdultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationiscalledfrancizationinQuebecsuggestingaprocessthroughwhichapersonappropriatesprogressivelytheFrenchlanguageuntilitbecomespartofherorhisidentityOnlyFrenchlanguageclassesndashandnoEnglishonesndashareprovidedforfreetoimmigrantsinQuebecFrancizationclassesareavailabletoimmigrantsinvariousformatsandtheymayqualifyforallowancesthatincertaincasesevencovertransportationandchildcarecosts(MIDI 2015a)No comparable programme exists outside ofQuebec to support immigrantswhileattending languageclasses(CIC2012)Quebecrsquossettlementandintegrationframeworkincludes two programmes of language education and of financial aid for adult immigrants(Programme drsquointeacutegration linguistique pour les immigrants and Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants)andtwoprogrammesforsettlementperse(Programme drsquoaccompagnement des nouveaux arrivantsandProgramme reacutegional drsquointeacutegration)

TheproportionofnewcomersknowingFrenchupontheirarrivalgrewfrom368percentinthe1994ndash8periodto623percentforthe2009ndash13period(MIDI2014a)Itwas586 percentin2015(MIDI2014b24)AnewimmigrationpolicywasadoptedbyQuebecinMarch2016(MIDI2015b)andthepreparatorydocumenttothepolicymadeclearhowmuchofapriorityfrancizationwasamongthevariousinterventionsinsettlementandintegration

InadditiontotherecentincreaseofFrenchimmigrationthefrancizationofimmigrantpeople isoneofthestrategiesthattheGovernmentofQuebecimplementstoensuretheperennialityoftheFrenchfactonitsterritoryaswellasthesuccessfulintegrationofimmigrantpeople

(MIDI2014a15ourtranslation)

ThefirsttenetofthepolicyisthatlsquoimmigrationplaysanimportantroleinboostingQueacutebecrsquosprosperityandinthevitalityoftheFrenchlanguagersquo(MIDI2015b)Francizationismeanttomakethese two priorities and objectives of the policy overlap Indeedlsquoimmigrantsrsquo ability to fullyparticipateinQueacutebecsocietyisdeeplyintertwinedwiththelanguageissuersquo(ibid5)

InQuebecndashlikeintherestofCanadandashmostcontactsrelatingtoandservicesregardingsettlement and language education areprovidedby communityorganizationsOutof the51service providers listed on CICrsquoS website in Montreal 43 (84 per cent) were communityorganizations The services they most frequently provided were general French languageeducation(725percent)servicesforfrancophonenewcomers(549percent)andhelpwithdaily life (314 per cent)Nomunicipal organizationwas however listed as service providerincludinglanguageeducationservices(CICnd(b))

WhileevaluatingtheoutcomesoftheimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationprogrammesinQuebecinrelationtosimilarservicesavailableacrossCanadaCICwrites

TohelpindividualsprepareforlifeinCanadaandthecitizenshiptestinformationisoftenprovidedthrough settlement services particularly via language training curricula Language curricula inQuebecalsofollowsthisapproachhoweverthefocusisonprovidinginformationaboutQuebecculture

(CICnd(c))

InretrospectPaquet(2016)suggeststhatQuebecrsquosapproachtoimmigrationhasbeenholisticseenasacollectiveprojectinselectingimmigrantsovereconomicaswellassocialcriteria

ThecityofMontreallikemostregionsinQuebecconcludesimmigrationagreementswiththeprovincersquosMinistryofImmigrationDiversityandIntegration(Ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusionMIDI)andthuscontributestoassessingneedsandplanninginterventioninthisfieldMunicipalitiesndashincludingMontrealndasharerarelymentionedinprogrammesregarding

146 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

immigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationTherearenomentionsofMontrealandmunicipalitiesintheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccordTheonlyreferencetothecityofMontrealintheMIDIannualreportof2014ndash15isrelatedtotheobjectiveofregionalizingimmigrationthatisreducingthe proportion of immigrants settling inMontreal MIDIrsquos (2008) adult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationactionplanPour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieux(To enrich Quebec Make more French integrate better)makesnomentionofmunicipalitiesorofMontrealOneopeningtocitiesrsquo and regionsrsquo roles in thefieldof immigration is however found in thepreparatorydocumenttothenewQuebecimmigrationpolicyItstatestheirrolein(1)buildingwelcomingandinclusivecommunities(2)gatheringconcreteinformationandknowledgeonactualneedsandchallengesasmetinday-to-dayactivitiesand(3)workingagainstracismanddiscrimination(MIDI2014a54)

Inabriefon immigrationmanagementsubmittedtothegovernmentofQuebec in2011thecityofMontrealaskedfor(1)anofficialrecognitionof itsroleinimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegration(2)anincreasedbudgetforthefrancizationofimmigrantsinMontreal(3)theautomatic transfer toMontreal of 10 per cent of federal grants for immigrantsrsquo settlementand integration and (4) increased budgets for immigrantsrsquo social housing (Ville deMontreacuteal20116)DespitethegovernmentofQuebecrsquosrarementionofMontrealinimmigrationpoliciesandprogrammesthecityhasbeenrelativelyresponsivetoimmigrationinthesensediscussedbyGood (2008) First the city ofMontreal has contributed to community capacity-buildingthroughfundingvariouscommunitygroupsbeinganactivememberofvariouscollaborationsonimmigrationadoptingacharterofrightsandresponsibilityandcreatinganinterculturaladvisorycouncilSecondthecityhasaPlandrsquoaccegraves agrave lrsquoeacutegaliteacute agrave lrsquoemploi(PAEacuteEacute)ThirdthecityhascreatedtheNexusprogrammewhichisamunicipalprogrammeinMontrealthatprovidesbusinesseswithinformationtoolssupportandreferencesregardingtherecruitmentandsustainedemploymentofprofessionalstrainedabroad(EmploiNexus2016)Hencethecityintervenesthroughnotonlycollaboratingwithserviceprovidersbutalsobyfundingthem(VilledeMontreacuteal2011)

The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver

The first bilateral agreement on immigration between the governments of BritishColumbiaandofCanadawassignedin1998andthecurrentagreementndashtheCanadandashBritishColumbiaImmigrationAgreementndashwassignedin2015ContrarytotheprevalentmodelintherestofCanada(exceptQuebecandManitoba)theaccordoperatesatransferofresponsibilityinthefieldofsettlementandintegrationservices(Paquet2016)HoweverwhereastheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccord stipulates the federal governmentrsquoswithdrawal from thedeliveryofservices for the reception linguistic and cultural integration and placements of immigrantsthe CanadandashBritish Columbia ImmigrationAgreement emphasizes collaboration negotiationconsultationandcooperationratherthanstrictdivisionofauthoritybetweentheprovinceandthefederalgovernmentForexamplelsquocollaborationrsquolsquotocollaboratersquoisusedseventimes(nonein theQuebec accord)lsquonegotiationrsquolsquoto negotiatersquo is used seven times (once in the accord)lsquoconsultationrsquolsquoto consultrsquo is used sixteen times (none in the accord) and lsquocooperationrsquolsquotocooperatersquoisusedfivetimes(fiveintheaccordaswell)

TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofBritishColumbiaforthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsamountedto$114millionin2010ndash11(DerwingandWaugh20124)ndasharoundhalfofwhichwasallocatedto language education In addition federal funds were also allocated to Enhanced LanguageTraining a smaller language education initiative (ibid)WelcomeBC and the Settlement andIntegrationProgram arethemainprogrammesthroughwhichsettlementintegrationhappensin

London Review of Education 147

BritishColumbiaTheWelcomingandInclusiveCommunitiesandWorkplacesProgramandtheVulnerableImmigrantPopulationsProgramcompletethepicture

TheproportionofnewcomersspeakingeitherFrenchorEnglishwas73percentin2011ndash12(GovernmentofBritishColumbia2013)muchhigherthantheproportionofnewcomersspeakingFrenchinQuebecInitsannualreportof2011ndash12WelcomeBCwritesthatlanguageabilityiscriticaltothesuccessofimmigrantsintheprovincersquoslabourmarketandcommunitiesAccordingtotheprogrammethoughmostnewcomersarehighlyskilledandeducatedlsquoalackofEnglishlanguageabilitycorrelateswithimmigrantunemploymentandunderemploymentwhichcosts theeconomy inproductivityandeconomicgrowth and impacts immigrantsrsquo successfulsocialandeconomic integrationrsquo(ibid10)Furthermoretheyestimatethatlsquoa1increase inliteracyproducesa25increaseintheleveloflabourproductivityandthatevery1comparativeincreaseinnationalliteracyscoreswouldboostnationalincomeby$32 billionrsquo(ibid8)Inthisexplanationofwhylanguageproficiencyisimportantwenoticeaphrasingthatisfinancialandeconomicratherthansocialorcitizenship-related

English language services for adults (deliveredmostly by community organizations) andEnglishasasecondlanguage(deliveredbypubliclyfundedpost-secondaryinstitutions)arethemain vehicles of adult immigrant training in the province (Government of BritishColumbia2013)Ofthe36serviceproviders inVancouver listedontheCICwebsite fourwere intheeducationsectoronewasaprivatecompanyandtheremaining31(84percent)werecommunityorganizationsTheservices theyprovidedmost frequentlywerehelpwithdaily life (722percent)helpfindingjobs(417percent)mentoring(389percent)andgenerallanguageeducation(306percent)Afewmunicipallibrarieswerealsolistedassettlementandintegrationserviceproviders(CICnd(b))WenoticeherethatamuchlowerproportionofserviceprovidersofferlanguageeducationthanisthecaseinQuebec

British Columbiarsquos settlement and integration policies and programmes refer morefrequentlytoVancouverandmunicipalitiesthandoesQuebecrsquostoMontrealForexampletheimportance of consultingmunicipalities and local governments ismentioned in theCanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration Agreement lsquoThe Parties agree to cooperate to work withLocalGovernmentsinBritishColumbiatoexploreissuesrelatedtotheirrespectiveinterestsin immigration and pursue opportunities related to communitiesrsquo interests in immigrationrsquo(Government ofCanada 2015)Whereas the city ofVancouver is not directlymentioned intheBritishColumbiaImmigrationTaskForcereportoneofitsrecommendationsislsquotoengageindustry local governments and non-governmental organizations in settling and integratingimmigrantsrsquo(MinisterofStateforMulticulturalism201220)FurthermoreBritishColumbiarsquosWelcoming and InclusiveCommunities andWorkplacesProgramlsquohas actively recognized theroleandparticipationofmunicipalgovernmentsintheimmigrantsettlementprocessrsquo(Dicksonet al201323)MunicipalitieshavethuslsquofeltthatacloserpartnershipbetweenBCandmunicipalgovernmentsofsomemajorimmigrantreceptioncitieshasbeenestablishedrsquo(ibid)

In2014VancouverfinallyenteredintoanagreementwiththegovernmentofCanadarsquosCIClsquotoundertakeaLocal ImmigrationPartnership (LIP)rsquo (CityofVancouvernd)TheVancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP2016)isafirststeptowardsestablishingndashwiththecollaborationofdozensoflocalorganizationsandcommunityleadersndashtheveryfirstVancouverImmigrantSettlement and Integration Strategy TheVIPrsquos main focuses are (1) the strengthening ofinterculturalandcivicengagement(2)thecreationofwelcomingandinclusiveworkplacesand(3)theassessmentofnewcomersrsquoneedsinareassuchashousinghealthandaccesstolocalandmunicipalservices

Vancouverhasbeenresponsive to immigration (CityofVancouver201414)first ithascontributedtothecommunitythroughactivelyconsultingcommunitygroupsandleadersfunding

148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)

Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants

Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation

Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries

Conclusion

AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants

London Review of Education 149

Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy

ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec

ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues

Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the

150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated

Notes on the contributors

Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012

CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa

RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada

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BattagliniADeacutesyMDorvalDPoirierL-RFournierMCamirandHandFecteauD(2007)Lrsquointervention de premiegravere ligne agrave Montreacuteal aupregraves des personnes immigrantes Estimeacute des ressources neacutecessaires pour une intervention adeacutequateMontrealDirectiondesanteacutepubliqueOnlinehttppublicationssantemontrealqccauploadstx_asssmpublications978-2-89494-571-1pdf(accessed1March2016)

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BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65

BourhisRandLandryR(2002)lsquoLaloi 101etlrsquoameacutenagementdupaysagelinguistiqueauQueacutebecrsquoOfficede la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_bourhis_vf_1pdf(accessed6April2016)

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ChiswickBR (2008)The Economics of Language An introduction and overviewDiscussionpaperno3568 BonnInstitutefortheStudyofLaborOnlinehttpftpizaorgdp3568pdf(accessed1March2016)

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Citizenship and ImmigrationCanada (CIC) (2012)Canada Faits et chiffres 2012 Aperccedilu de lrsquoimmigration Reacutesidents permanents et temporaires Ottawa CIC Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2013cicCi1-8-2012-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd(a)) lsquoStrategic outcomes and program activity architecturersquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentpaaactivity-05asp(accessed6April2016)

ndashndash (nd(b)) lsquoFindingsrsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishresourcesevaluationgrant-quebecsection4asp(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd(c)) lsquoLanguage classes funded by the Government of Canadarsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishnewcomerslivelanguageasp(accessed1March2016)

CityofVancouver(2014)lsquoCulturalCommunitiesAdvisoryCommitteersquo Onlinehttpvancouvercayour-governmentcultural-communities-advisory-committeeaspx(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd) Vancouver City Local Immigration PartnershipVancouver Community Services Online httpvancouvercafilescovvancouver-city-local-immigration-partnership-overviewpdf (accessed 6 April2016)

ndashndashMulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee (2014)Committee Term SummaryOnlinehttpvancouvercafilescovcouncil-of-councils-presentation-mac-2014pdf(accessed1March2016)

ClarksonA (2014)Belonging The paradox of citizenshipCBCMasseyLecture SeriesTorontoHouseofAnansiPress

CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)

CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20

CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants

Montreal Institute forResearchonPublicPolicyOnline httpirpporgwp-contentuploadsassetsresearchdiversity-immigration-and-integrationlanguage-skills-and-the-social-integration-of-canadas-adult-immigrantsIRPP-Study-no31pdf(accessed1March2016)

Dickinson JA andYoung B (2008) Bregraveve histoire socio-historique du Queacutebec Montreal BibliothegravequeQueacutebeacutecoise

DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)

DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS

152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)

ndashndash(2012)lsquoReacutepartitiondessiegravegesagrave laChambredescommunesparprovincersquo Onlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredalloampdocument=indexamplang=f(accessed6April2016)

EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant

settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19

FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48

Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario

Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan

GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45

GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)

GouvernementduQueacutebec(1977)lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11C11_Ahtml(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2000)lsquoChartedelaVilledeMontreacutealrsquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11_4C11_4html(accessed6April2014)

ndashndash (2014) lsquoCommunauteacutes culturellesrsquo Online wwweducationgouvqccaenseignantsaide-et-soutiencommunautes-culturelles(accessed1March2016)

Government of British Columbia (2013) 2011ndash12 Annual ReportWelcomeBC Settlement and Integration Services Online wwwllbclegbccapublicpubdocsbcdocs20114717852011_2012pdf (accessed 1March2016)

GovernmentofCanada(1960)Canadian Bill of RightsOnlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaengactsc-123page-1html(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(1985)Official Languages Act (4th Supp)Onlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaPDFO-301pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(1991)CanadandashQuebec Accord Relating to Immigration and Temporary Admission of AliensOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsquebeccan-queasp(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2015)CanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration AgreementOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsbcbc-2015asp(accessed1March2016)

GunnA (2012) Immigration and Multi-level Governance in Canada and Europe The role of municipalities as integration policy innovators PolicyPaperCanadandashEuropeTransatlanticDialogueSeekingtransnationalsolutionsto21stcenturyproblemsOnlinehttplabscarletoncacanadaeuropewp-contentuploadssites92012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalitiespdf(accessed1March2016)

HouseofCommonsofCanada(2010)Best Practices in Settlement Services Report of the Standing Committee on Citizenship and ImmigrationOttawaGovernmentofCanadaOnlinewwwparlgccacontenthocCommittee403CIMMReportsRP4388396cimmrp02cimmrp02-epdf(accessed6April2016)

InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)

London Review of Education 153

KataokaSandMagnussonW(2007)Settling the Unsettled Migrants municipalities and multilevel governance in British Columbia Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the Urban Affairs AssociationSeattleWA 26April 2007Victoria BC University ofVictoria Online httpppm-ppmcaPapersKataokaMagnusson2007pdf(accessed1March2016)

KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)

LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)

MadyCandTurnbullM(2012)lsquoOfficiallanguagebilingualismforallophonesinCanadaExploringfutureresearchrsquo TESL Canada Journal 29 (2) 131ndash42 Online httpfilesericedgovfulltextEJ981500pdf(accessed1March2016)

Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada

McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)

MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)

MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)

MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2015a)Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants 2015ndash2016MontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdiversPafilipdf (accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2015b)lsquoPolitiquequeacutebeacutecoiseenmatiegraveredrsquoimmigrationdeparticipationetdrsquoinclusionrsquoGouvernementdu Queacutebec Online wwwmidigouvqccafrdossiersconsultation-publiquehtml (accessed 6 April2016)

MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress

MurphyJ(2010)The Settlement amp Integration Needs of Immigrants A literature reviewOttawaTheOttawaLocalImmigration Partnership Online httpolip-pliocaknowledge-basewp-contentuploads201303Olip-Review-of-Literature-Final-ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec

154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)

PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook

3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)

Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)

RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)

SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge

SiteforLanguageManagementinCanada(SLMC)(nd(a))lsquoFederallegislationandlanguagerights(1969and1988)rsquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=federal_legislation_1969_1988(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash(nd(b))lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_linguistic_law(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)

SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)

Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)

ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)

ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)

StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94

SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI

London Review of Education 155

Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)

TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)

ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246

VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)

VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7

Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)

XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)

YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35

Related articles published in the London Review of Education

In this issue

Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)

Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33

156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21

MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73

Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85

Elsewhere in this issue

HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98

Page 4: Language planning and education of adult immigrants in ... · Furthermore, 21.3 per cent of Canadians, 78.1 per cent of Québécois, and 1.3 per cent of British Columbians have French

London Review of Education 137

associatedwithincreasedproductivityofotherinvestmentinhumancapitalincludingeducationandtraining(Chiswick2008)

Thethirdmainsetofreasonsforproviding languageeducationtoadult immigrants isasaprerequisiteforgreatersocialwelfareandintegrationinthecommunityOneelementoftenemphasized in the literature ishowa lackofknowledgeorproficiency in the local languageis connected to smaller and less diversified personal networks (Rose 2006Thomas 2011)Thesenetworksconveypoorer information leading todisadvantages in a varietyof spheresDamarisRose(2006)arguesforexamplethatimmigrantswithsmallerandmoreundiversifiednetworkshavegreaterdifficultiesfindingsuitablehousingProficiencyinthelocallanguagealsohaspositivebenefitswithregardtoeducationParentsrsquolinguisticskillshavebeenassociatedwitha similar levelof successat school in theirchildren (GouvernementduQueacutebec2014TCRI2011) Further a higher level of language proficiency is associatedwith greater engagementinpost-secondaryeducationuponarrival(Adamuti-Trache2012109)whichinturnprovidesgreaterjobsandsocialintegrationopportunities(DerwingandWaugh20127)Lowlevelsoflocallanguageskillsalsohavenegativeimpactsonself-reportedhealth(Nget al201119)andonimmigrantsrsquoaccesstothehealthcaresystem(Battagliniet al2007GagnonandSaillant2000Olazabalet al2010SouliegraveresandOuellette2012)Lowlanguageproficiencyisalsoidentifiedasariskfactoroffamilyviolenceamongimmigrantwomen(Ahmadet al2004Rinfret-Raynoret al20136)Finallystudiesshowthatimmigrantsrsquogreaterlocallinguisticskillsareassociatedwithgreaterpoliticalinvolvement(Chiswick2008)

How

Differences and similarities in the reasons why language education is provided to adultimmigrantsdonotnecessarily translate intocorrespondingdifferencesandsimilarities in thewaythiseducationisprovidedonthegroundIndeedwhilethesereasonsmaydiffer(andcanbeexplainedpartlybythedifferencesindemographyandlanguagehistory) it ispossiblethatmanycomponentsremainthesameatthelevelofserviceprovision(andcanbeexplainedinlargepartbyacommonhistoryofsettlementservicesandfederalframework)ThuswhatlevelofgovernmentndashamongthefederalprovincialandlocallevelsndashisresponsibleforprovidinglocallanguageeducationtoadultimmigrantsWhatactorsareconsultedinelaboratingandmakingdecisions over service provisionWhat language is taught Finallywhat actors are providinglanguageeducationtoadultimmigrants

In sum beyond exploring to what extent reasons andmotivations to provide languageeducationtoadultimmigrantsvarybetweenprovincesweexplorewhetherthesevariationsareaccompaniedbycorrespondingvariationsinhowthiseducationisprovided

The context

InadditiontodescribingthemodelsofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationinQuebecBritishColumbiaandtheirbiggestcitiesourarticleponderswhetherandinwhatsensedemographylanguagehistoryandthecommonfederalframeworkcanexplainthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthetwoprovinces

Demography and language history

Asmentionedintheintroductiondemographyandlanguagehistoryvarygreatlyfromonepartof the country to another potentially impactingon languagepolicy andplanning andon the

138 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

language education provided to adult immigrantsTable 1 outlines the linguistic compositioninCanadaQuebec (and its largest cityMontreal) andBritishColumbia (and its largest cityVancouver)intermsofmothertonguesin2011

Table 1Mothertonguebyprovincesandcensusmetropolitanarea(CMA)

Mother tongues

English French Other Multiple

Quebec Total 77 781 123 19

Montreal(CMA) 116 633 220 31

BritishColumbia Total 703 13 265 19

Vancouver(CMA) 560 11 403 27

Canada Total 569 213 198 20

StatisticsCanada(2011d)Table 2 shows that it is not only the proportionof people having French and a non-officiallanguageastheirmothertonguethatvariesacrossCanadaandbetweencitiesbutalsothenon-officiallanguagesspokenthemselves

Table 2MostspokenmothertonguesinMontrealandVancouver

CMA Montreal Vancouver

English 2(116) 1(560)

French 1(633) 11(11)

Spanish 4(29) 9(14)

Italian 5(29)

Chinese(nototherwisespecified) 7(10) 4(49)

Cantonese 3(56)

Mandarin 5(39)

Punjabi 2(61)

Tagalog 6(21)

Arabic 3(34)

Creoles 6(13)

StatisticsCanada(2011d)

IndeedwhileChineselanguagesandPunjabiarebyfarthemostfrequentinVancouvertheyrankmuchlowerinMontrealConverselyArabicSpanishandItalianarethemostspokennon-officiallanguagesinMontreal

Behind these numbers come important variations in terms of the linguistic history ofCanadaFirsttheoriginalsettlersandcolonizersofCanadacameverylargelyfromtwoEuropeancountries speaking different languages French and English Although aboriginal people andlanguagesarenotdiscussedinourarticleitisusefultoberemindedthatCanadawasestablishedbyEuropeansettlersonalandinhabitedpriortocolonizationbyindigenouspeopleOneimpactof European colonization of theCanadian territory ndash beyond the dramatic decrease of theaboriginalpopulationitselfndashhasbeentheneardisappearanceofmostindigenouslanguagesIn2011only63000personsdeclaredanindigenouslanguageastheirmothertongueinCanadaandonly172percentofindigenouspersonsreportedbeingabletoconverseinanindigenous

London Review of Education 139

languageFurthertheproportionofindigenouspersonsabletodosodecreasedby2percentbetween2006and2011while theirpopulation grewby awhole201per cent in the sameperiod(StatisticsCanada2011c)

TheBritishconquestofFrenchNorthAmericain1760wasfollowedbymultipleattemptsat assimilating French-speaking residentsWhereas the pursuit of the linguistic and culturalassimilationoftheFrenchCanadianslessenedonceCanadawascreatedin1867thedemographicweightofFrenchasamothertongueamongtheCanadianpopulationhasbeensteadilydecliningForexamplea1912regulationbannedelementaryschoolteachersfromspeakingFrenchforwhichOntariorsquospremierKathleenWynneissuedaformalapologytofrancophonesthroughtheprovinciallegislatureinFebruary2016lsquoRegulation17showedadisregardforFranco-OntarianidentityandequalityandonbehalfofthegovernmentofOntarioIofferanapologyrsquo(The Canadian Press2016)

Frenchspeakersrepresented29percentofthepopulationin1951and217percentin2011ForthecityofMontrealalone(notthemetropolitanarea)themajorityofresidentswithFrenchasamothertonguehasbeendecliningaswellfrom68percentin1951to524percentin2011(DominionBureauofStatistics1953VilledeMontreacutealnd)withtheproportionbeing635percentfortheentiremetropolitanarea(StatisticsCanada2016)ThedemographicweightofQuebecamongallCanadianprovinceshasalsobeendecliningfrom279percentin1971to23percentin2015(ISQ201523)AsaconsequenceQuebecseatsinthefederalparliamentdecreasedfrom266percentin1976to233percentin2015(ElectionsCanada 2010ElectionsCanada2012)

InadditiontoahistoryofconquestandasteadydemographicdeclineofbothfrancophonesacrossthecountryandofQuebecrsquosweightamongtheprovincesthehistoryofsocioeconomicinequalities experienced by francophones ndash even in Quebec ndash must be mentioned Indeeduntilthe1960sdespiteamajorityoffrancophonesintheprovinceofQuebecthelanguageofcommerceandofworkwasmainlyEnglishIndeedfrancophoneswerelessinstructedunder-representedamonghigherprofessionallevelsandgainedsmallerrevenues(DickinsonandYoung2008PCO1970)

FinallyasafrancophoneprovincewithinnotonlyamajorityEnglish-speakingcountrybutanevenlargermajorityEnglish-speakingNorthAmericancontinentQuebecstrugglestoconveytoitsnewcomerstheimportanceofpreservingFrenchasthecommonlanguageUntilthe1970s90percentofnewcomerstoQuebecchoselsquoto integrate intotheminorityEnglishspeakingcommunityrsquo(Bouffard201550)TheappealofEnglishremainsunderstandabletodayinacountryandlsquoinacontinentwheretheoverwhelmingmajorityspeaksnotonlyadifferentlanguagebut thelanguageofglobalizationrsquo(ibid49)

In sum the history of conquest and of socioeconomic inequalities the harsh reality oflinguisticdemographicdeclineandthehistoricaltendencyofimmigrantstointegrateintotheanglophonecommunityhavehad verydeep impacts inQuebec In thatprovince the fearofEnglishandndashtoacertainextentndashofotherlanguageshasbeenquitestrongparticularlyregardingitsmostpopulatedcityandmainreceiverofimmigrationMontreal

TheBritishColumbian linguistichistory isverydifferentTheFrenchminorityhasalwaysbeenverysmallinnumberItaccountedfor1percentofthepopulationin1951andstilldoestodayTheFrenchndashEnglish strugglehas thusbeenmuchquieterndash if not absentWhereas thepercentageofBritishColumbianswithEnglishastheirmothertonguehasdeclinedsubstantiallymost notably inVancouver (from 86 per cent in 1951 to 56 per cent in 2011) the Englishlanguage has never been fundamentally threatenedCompared to French inQuebec Englishremains incontestably thefirstofficial language learnedby immigrants inBritishColumbia IntermsofdemographicweightamongCanadianprovincesBritishColumbiarsquosgrewfrom102per

140 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

centin1971to131percentin2015(ISQ201523)AsaconsequenceBritishColumbiarsquosseatsinthefederalparliamentincreasedfrom7percentin1976to125percentin2015(ElectionsCanada 2010ElectionsCanada2012)

In sum we observe extremely different demographic and language histories inQuebecandBritishColumbiaThesemajordifferencescanclearlybeexpectedtohaveimpactsoneachprovincersquoslanguagepolicyandplanning

The federal framework and immigration

InCanadabeing a federationofprovinces jurisdictions are allocated toone levelor sharedbetween two Immigration is shared whereas education and municipal affairs come underprovincialjurisdiction

MajortransformationshavetakenplacewithregardtoimmigrationinCanadainthelastdecadesFirsttheimmigrantselectionprocesswasalteredfollowingtheadoptionoftheBillofRights1960whichmade inevitablelsquotheremovalof immigrationregulationsrestrictingaccessofnon-Europeansrsquo(CardozoandPendakur200823)Referencestoraceorregionsoforiginwerethusreplacedintheselectioncriteriawithskillsandqualificationsand incertaincaseslanguages spoken (ibid) Second the ideaofmulticulturalismemerged in the1960s andwasformalizedintheCanadianMulticulturalismAct adoptedin1971AllCanadianprovinceshavesinceembracedimmigrationasasourceofhumananddemographicaswellasfinancialcapital(Paquet2016)Furtherlsquothefederalgovernmentandseveralofitsprovincialcounterpartshaveplaced a priority on immigrationmatters in recent years linking it to amultitude of otherprominent policy areasrsquo (Tolley et al 2011 3 as quoted byGunn 2012 3) In otherwordsquestions relating to immigration were introduced in many policy domains outside that ofcitizenshipandimmigrationperseincludingeducationworkandeconomyMostimportantlywhereasprovincialgovernmentshadbeenquiteshytoundertakeresponsibilitiesregardingtheshared jurisdiction of immigration they have becomemore interested in the field since the1970s(Gunn20123)andincreasinglyactivesincethe1990sIndeed ledbytheinterventionof the province ofQuebec all Canadian provinces have sincewith the federal governmentsigned bilateral agreements regarding immigration adopted immigration policies taken partintheselectionof immigrantsandcontributedtotheestablishmentofvariousorganizationspromotinggreaterintegrationamongnewcomers(Paquet2016)

ProvinceshavefurtherdevelopedvariousprogrammesforthesettlementandintegrationofimmigrantsAsdiscussedbelowadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationisoneimportantaspectofthesemodelsDespiteallthisthefederalagencyoverseeingsettlementandintegrationinthecountryisCitizenshipandImmigrationCanada(CIC)AlthoughQuebecManitobaandBritishColumbialsquoareresponsibleforthedesigndeliveryandadministrationofsettlementservicesrsquothisresponsibilityistransferredwiththelsquoobjectiveofachievingcomparablenewcomersrsquosettlementoutcomesrsquo (CICnd(a))ThebilateralaccordshaveattributedQuebecaspecialright fortheintegrationofnewcomers in theprovinceFinancialcompensationsareprovided forQuebectoprovideintegrationandsettlementserviceslsquoaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountryandaslongasallpermanentresidentsoftheprovincewhethertheywereselectedbyQuebecornotcanhaveaccesstothemrsquo(HouseofCommonsofCanada20101)

London Review of Education 141

Municipal affairs

In Canada the 1867 Constitutional Act assigned to the provincial governments exclusivejurisdictionovermunicipalitiesThusmunicipalitiesarenotconstitutionallyrecognizedanddonotndashat least formallyndashconstituteanorderofgovernmentof theirown inCanada (Young2009 106) One impact of this provincially exclusive jurisdiction is that provincial-municipalsystems vary considerably across the countryWhileCanadianmunicipalities have no formalresponsibilities except in Ontario regarding education healthcare and social services ndash allprovincialjurisdictionsndashtheyareoftenkeyactorsinimplementingfederalandprovincialpoliciesandprogrammes (ibid 115) Immigration is clearlyoneof thepolicydomains inwhich localgovernmentsandmunicipalitieshavebeenincreasinglyactiveIndeedmostimmigrantstoCanadachoosetosettleinbigcitiesTheFederationofCanadianMunicipalitiesstressedthatin2010two-thirdsofimmigrantssettledinCanadarsquosthreemostimportantmetropolitanareasTorontoMontrealandVancouverIn201117percentofimmigrantstoCanada(FCM2011)and76percentofimmigrantstoQuebecchosetosettleinMontreal(EmploiNexus2016)makingup344percentoftheresidentsofthecityofMontrealInthesameyear14percentofimmigrantstoCanadachosetosettleinVancouver(FCM2011)

Inpractice itmeansthatlsquoday-to-day issuesofmulticulturalismare renegotiatedandsettledin only a few citiesrsquo (Good 2008 1)Thus Canadarsquos biggest cities are active in the field ofimmigrationbecausetheyarelsquothefirstpointofcontactbetweennewcomersandgovernmentdue to the day-to-day dependence of immigrants on various local public servicesrsquo (Gunn20121)AccordingtoGood(2008)somemunicipalitieshavebeenveryresponsivetoincreasingnumbersofnewcomersintheirterritoriesndashforexamplethroughcontributinglsquotocommunitycapacitybuildingbyfundingcommunityorganizationsthatserveimmigrantsandethno-culturalminoritiesrsquothroughestablishinglsquoseparateunitsintheircivilservicetofacilitateaccessandequityin governance and service delivery aswell as tomanage diversityrsquo and through establishinglsquogovernancerelationshipsthatsupporttheireffortsinequitypolicyrsquoincludingwiththebusinesscommunity(ibid7)

Despitethefactthatmunicipallsquofront-lineserviceprovidersarekeyplayersinthesuccessfulsettlementattractionandretentionofimmigrantsmunicipalitieshavebeenleftonthesidelinesofimmigrantpolicyandfundingdecisionsrsquo(Gunn20124ndash5)withseniorlevelsofgovernmentsdealingmore frequentlywithlsquospecial-purpose non-profit societiesrsquo (Kataoka andMagnusson200720)

Finallyalthoughmunicipalitiesareformallyajurisdictionoftheprovincesthereisageneraltrend towardsmore direct relationships betweenmunicipalities and the federal government(Andrew 2014 Stoney andGraham 2009)Multiple reasons explain this trend including theimportanceofcontemporaryurbanchallengesandtheexplosionofmunicipalcostsasapartialconsequence of decentralization and of relatively low recent investments in infrastructure(Lalonde2016)Reviewingtheliteratureonthetopicofmunicipal-federalrelationshipsLalondenotes that most federal funding transits in provincial hands before landing in municipalitiesFurthermoremunicipalitiesrsquorolesandrelationshipwithfederalagencieslargelydependontherelationshipbetweentheirrespectiveprovincialgovernmentandthefederalgovernment(ibid)

InsumwhiletheCanadianfederalframeworkcanbeaunifyingfactoritleavesroomforconsiderablevariationndash forexample in thefieldsof immigrationandmunicipal affairsndashandevenforprovincialemulationThesepossibilitieshaveimpactsonlanguagepolicyandplanningndashandmostimportantlyforusintermsofwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoadultimmigrants

142 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

The analytical framework A summary

FollowingpolicyanalysisframeworksandspecificallylanguagepolicyandplanningourenquiryintolanguageeducationforadultimmigrantscompareswhyandhowitisprovidedinQuebecandBritishColumbiatwoverydifferentprovincesofCanadaandintheirbiggestcitiesOurultimategoal istopondertheimpactsofdemography languagehistoryandthefederalframeworkonthesepoliciesTable 3summarizestheelementsaddressedhere

Table 3Analyticalframeworkandapproach

Describing and comparing Pondering the impacts of vectors of differences and similarities

WhyWhatarethemainreasonsforprovidinglanguageeducationtoadultimmigrants

bull Citizenshipandnationalismreasons

bull Jobsindustryandeconomicbenefitsreasons

bull Socialwelfareandintegrationreasons

Demography and language history

bull Languagersquosminorityormajoritystatusinthecountryandcontinent

bull Languagersquospowerofattractionasfirstofficiallanguagelearned

bull LanguagersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull ProvincersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull Otherhistoricalelements(historyofconquestandofsocio-

economicdomination)

Federalism as vector of differences

bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Increasedprovincialinterventiono Bilateralaccordsbetweenprovincesandthefederal

governmento Provincialchoiceofcriteriafortheselectionof

immigrants(levelandtypeofskillslanguagesspokenetc)

bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipalitiesascreaturesoftheprovinces

Federalism as vector of similarities

bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Billofrightso MulticulturalismActo CICinterventions

bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipal-federalrelationshipo Municipalitiesconceivedasalevelofgovernmento Municipalitiesrsquoexclusionofpolicydesign

HowWhatarethemaininternalfeaturesofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducation

bull Languagetaughtbull Responsiblelevelof

governmentbull Languageeducationservice

providers

Language education for adult immigrants in Quebec British Columbia and their respective largest cities

WiththeaboveframeworkandapproachinmindwenowturntodescribingandcomparingwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecBritishColumbiaMontrealandVancouver

London Review of Education 143

Language laws and official languages

InordertoprotectFrenchoutsideofQuebecandEnglishwithinQuebecthefoundinglawofCanadathe1867ConstitutionalActalreadycontainedlanguageprovisionsthebulkofwhichrelatestochildrenrsquoseducationTheActalsorecognizedbothFrenchandEnglishasformallyequalinCanadaHowevertheconclusionofthereportoftheRoyalCommissiononBilingualismandBiculturalism(alsocalledtheLaurendeau-DuntonCommission)heldbythefederalgovernmentofCanadainthe1960semphasizedthatbilingualismhadbeenlsquomostlysymbolic(stampsbanknotesetc)andmeretranslationoflawsandcertainadministrativedocumentsrsquo(SLMCnd(a))RespondingdirectlytothecommissionrsquosrecommendationtheOfficialLanguagesActof1969 statesthat

TheEnglishandFrench languagesare theofficial languagesofCanada forallpurposesof theParliamentandgovernmentofCanadaandpossessandenjoyqualityofstatusandequalrightsandprivilegesastotheiruseinalltheinstitutionsoftheParliamentandgovernmentofCanada

(SLMCnd(a))

Coherentwith the notionof a federation theOfficial LanguagesAct appliesonly to federaljurisdictions and institutions Provinces can also be active in the accessory field of languageinsofarastheyareinterveningwithinthescopeoftheirjurisdiction

The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal

Montreal is theeconomicandcultural centreof theprovinceofQuebecandalso themostpopulousfrancophonecityintheAmericasItspopulationisapproximately16 millionandthatofGreaterMontreal38 millionQuebecistheonlyprovincetohaveFrenchasitssoleofficiallanguageThe second articleof the cityofMontrealrsquos charter categorically states that it is afrancophonecity(GouvernementduQueacutebec2000)

InresponsetoincreasinglyvocalandorganizedgroupsinfavourofvalorizingandprotectingtheFrenchlanguagewithinQuebecthegovernmentadoptedin1974QuebecrsquosfirstlanguagelawtheLoi sur la langue officielle(LawoftheOfficialLanguageBill 22)Howeverthisbillrequiringpublic signs tobe in French andpromotingbilingualismwas consideredunable tomeet thelinguisticchallengesthatQuebecincreasinglyfaced(BourhisandLandry2002)ThegovernmentoftheseparatistPartiQueacutebeacutecoisthusadoptedin1977themuchmorepowerfulCharte de la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec (Bill 101)Thecharterrsquosmainobjectiveswere(1)tohalttheassimilationofFrenchspeakerstoEnglish(2)toensurethesocioeconomicpredominanceofthefrancophonemajority and (3) to promote the assertion of the French fact (ie all that concerns FrenchSLMCnd(b))TodaythecharterrequirescommercialsignstobepredominantlyinFrenchandimmigrantchildreninQuebectoattendFrenchschoolsreversingtheimmigrantsrsquotendencytosendtheirchildrentoEnglishschools(McAndrew200270)Manyother lawsinQuebecaresignificantintermsoflanguageincludingafewregardingmunicipalitiesndashwithMontrealamongthemndashandimmigration(SLMCnd(c))

The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver

VancouveristheeconomiccentreofthewesternprovinceofBritishColumbiaWhilethecityitselfwashome toonly603502people in2011 (theeighth largest city inCanada)GreaterVancouver was home to over 23 million residents (the third largest metropolitan area inCanada)Between2006and2011thepopulationofVancouvergrewby44percentwhilethatofGreaterVancouvergrewby93percent(MetroVancouver2012)Likemostotherprovinces

144 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

andcitiesandcoherentwiththeverylowproportionoffrancophonesinboththeprovinceandcityBritishColumbiaandVancouverhaveEnglishastheironlyofficiallanguage

British Columbiarsquos laws and programmes relevant to languages have been scarce if notwhollyabsentInfactthelegislaturehasneveradoptedalanguagelawTheprovincersquoslegislationhoweverdoescontainasmallnumberoflanguageprovisionsandreferencestolanguageMostofthesedealwiththerequirementforpeopletounderstandandexpressthemselvesinproperEnglishandthepossibilityofusingatranslatorOtherreferencesareinsimpledeclarationsofnon-discriminationonthegroundsof languageplaceoforiginandsoonTheonlyreferencetolanguageinwhichthestatemakesacommitmentinvolvesaboriginal languagesIndeedtheFirstPeoplesrsquoHeritageLanguageandCultureAct ismeant tolsquosupport andadviseministriesof governmenton initiatives programs and services related toNativeheritage language andculturersquo(SLMCnd(d))

Immigrantsrsquo settlement integration and adult language education

The federal government of Canada has provided language instruction for newcomers since1947atthesametimeastheCitizenshipActwasadopted(CIMSS20127Cleghorn 2000)The focusof languageeducationwasthuscitizenshipandtoacertainextentassimilationtotheAnglo-SaxonandEnglish-speakingmajority(Ciccarelli1997Cleghorn2000)AsCleghornnoteslsquopriortoQuebecrsquoscontroloverimmigrationbeginninginthe1960slanguagetrainingforadultimmigrantswasEnglishonlyrsquo(200028)From1965tothemid-1980slanguageeducationevolvedfromafocusoncitizenshipintotwodifferentstreamsofclassesfortwodifferenttypesofimmigrantsTheDepartmentofManpowerandImmigrationprovidedlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsinthelabourforcewhiletheCitizenshipBranchoftheDepartmentofSecretaryofStatendashwithamuchsmallerbudgetndashprovidedlanguageclassestoimmigrantsnotplanningtojointhelabourforce(ibid27ndash30)Althoughthefederalgovernmenthadbeenactiveinlanguageeducationsince1947itextendeditsinterventiontosettlementservicesonlyin1979withitsImmigrantSettlementandAdaptationProgramUntilthenthesettlementandintegrationneedsofimmigrantsweremetndashifsondashlsquobyvoluntaryorganizationssuchascommunitycentresethnicorganizationschurchgroupsandwomenrsquosorganizationsrsquo(ibid32)Alongwiththisprogrammeand the current merged settlement and integration programme CIC has been overseeingimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationItspreferredpatternofserviceprovisionhasbeenandremainsoutsourcingtocommunityserviceproviders

The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal

AsmentionedQuebecbecamemoredirectlyinvolvedinthefieldofimmigrationinthe1970sand was then followed by the other Canadian provincesThe first bilateral agreement onimmigrationbetween thegovernmentofCanadaandaprovincewas signedwithQuebec in1971WiththecurrentagreementndashImmigrationTheCanadandashQuebecAccordndashsignedin1991Canadacommitsitself

towithdrawfromthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionandlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsCanadaprovidescompensationtoQuebecforsuchservicesaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountry

(Beacutechard20113)

London Review of Education 145

TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofQuebecfortheseservicesamountedto$320millionin2013ndash14WhilesimilaragreementsexistwitheachprovincenoneismoreextensiveandmatchedwithasmuchfederalgrantsastheonewithQuebec(Beacutechard2011)

AdultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationiscalledfrancizationinQuebecsuggestingaprocessthroughwhichapersonappropriatesprogressivelytheFrenchlanguageuntilitbecomespartofherorhisidentityOnlyFrenchlanguageclassesndashandnoEnglishonesndashareprovidedforfreetoimmigrantsinQuebecFrancizationclassesareavailabletoimmigrantsinvariousformatsandtheymayqualifyforallowancesthatincertaincasesevencovertransportationandchildcarecosts(MIDI 2015a)No comparable programme exists outside ofQuebec to support immigrantswhileattending languageclasses(CIC2012)Quebecrsquossettlementandintegrationframeworkincludes two programmes of language education and of financial aid for adult immigrants(Programme drsquointeacutegration linguistique pour les immigrants and Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants)andtwoprogrammesforsettlementperse(Programme drsquoaccompagnement des nouveaux arrivantsandProgramme reacutegional drsquointeacutegration)

TheproportionofnewcomersknowingFrenchupontheirarrivalgrewfrom368percentinthe1994ndash8periodto623percentforthe2009ndash13period(MIDI2014a)Itwas586 percentin2015(MIDI2014b24)AnewimmigrationpolicywasadoptedbyQuebecinMarch2016(MIDI2015b)andthepreparatorydocumenttothepolicymadeclearhowmuchofapriorityfrancizationwasamongthevariousinterventionsinsettlementandintegration

InadditiontotherecentincreaseofFrenchimmigrationthefrancizationofimmigrantpeople isoneofthestrategiesthattheGovernmentofQuebecimplementstoensuretheperennialityoftheFrenchfactonitsterritoryaswellasthesuccessfulintegrationofimmigrantpeople

(MIDI2014a15ourtranslation)

ThefirsttenetofthepolicyisthatlsquoimmigrationplaysanimportantroleinboostingQueacutebecrsquosprosperityandinthevitalityoftheFrenchlanguagersquo(MIDI2015b)Francizationismeanttomakethese two priorities and objectives of the policy overlap Indeedlsquoimmigrantsrsquo ability to fullyparticipateinQueacutebecsocietyisdeeplyintertwinedwiththelanguageissuersquo(ibid5)

InQuebecndashlikeintherestofCanadandashmostcontactsrelatingtoandservicesregardingsettlement and language education areprovidedby communityorganizationsOutof the51service providers listed on CICrsquoS website in Montreal 43 (84 per cent) were communityorganizations The services they most frequently provided were general French languageeducation(725percent)servicesforfrancophonenewcomers(549percent)andhelpwithdaily life (314 per cent)Nomunicipal organizationwas however listed as service providerincludinglanguageeducationservices(CICnd(b))

WhileevaluatingtheoutcomesoftheimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationprogrammesinQuebecinrelationtosimilarservicesavailableacrossCanadaCICwrites

TohelpindividualsprepareforlifeinCanadaandthecitizenshiptestinformationisoftenprovidedthrough settlement services particularly via language training curricula Language curricula inQuebecalsofollowsthisapproachhoweverthefocusisonprovidinginformationaboutQuebecculture

(CICnd(c))

InretrospectPaquet(2016)suggeststhatQuebecrsquosapproachtoimmigrationhasbeenholisticseenasacollectiveprojectinselectingimmigrantsovereconomicaswellassocialcriteria

ThecityofMontreallikemostregionsinQuebecconcludesimmigrationagreementswiththeprovincersquosMinistryofImmigrationDiversityandIntegration(Ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusionMIDI)andthuscontributestoassessingneedsandplanninginterventioninthisfieldMunicipalitiesndashincludingMontrealndasharerarelymentionedinprogrammesregarding

146 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

immigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationTherearenomentionsofMontrealandmunicipalitiesintheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccordTheonlyreferencetothecityofMontrealintheMIDIannualreportof2014ndash15isrelatedtotheobjectiveofregionalizingimmigrationthatisreducingthe proportion of immigrants settling inMontreal MIDIrsquos (2008) adult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationactionplanPour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieux(To enrich Quebec Make more French integrate better)makesnomentionofmunicipalitiesorofMontrealOneopeningtocitiesrsquo and regionsrsquo roles in thefieldof immigration is however found in thepreparatorydocumenttothenewQuebecimmigrationpolicyItstatestheirrolein(1)buildingwelcomingandinclusivecommunities(2)gatheringconcreteinformationandknowledgeonactualneedsandchallengesasmetinday-to-dayactivitiesand(3)workingagainstracismanddiscrimination(MIDI2014a54)

Inabriefon immigrationmanagementsubmittedtothegovernmentofQuebec in2011thecityofMontrealaskedfor(1)anofficialrecognitionof itsroleinimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegration(2)anincreasedbudgetforthefrancizationofimmigrantsinMontreal(3)theautomatic transfer toMontreal of 10 per cent of federal grants for immigrantsrsquo settlementand integration and (4) increased budgets for immigrantsrsquo social housing (Ville deMontreacuteal20116)DespitethegovernmentofQuebecrsquosrarementionofMontrealinimmigrationpoliciesandprogrammesthecityhasbeenrelativelyresponsivetoimmigrationinthesensediscussedbyGood (2008) First the city ofMontreal has contributed to community capacity-buildingthroughfundingvariouscommunitygroupsbeinganactivememberofvariouscollaborationsonimmigrationadoptingacharterofrightsandresponsibilityandcreatinganinterculturaladvisorycouncilSecondthecityhasaPlandrsquoaccegraves agrave lrsquoeacutegaliteacute agrave lrsquoemploi(PAEacuteEacute)ThirdthecityhascreatedtheNexusprogrammewhichisamunicipalprogrammeinMontrealthatprovidesbusinesseswithinformationtoolssupportandreferencesregardingtherecruitmentandsustainedemploymentofprofessionalstrainedabroad(EmploiNexus2016)Hencethecityintervenesthroughnotonlycollaboratingwithserviceprovidersbutalsobyfundingthem(VilledeMontreacuteal2011)

The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver

The first bilateral agreement on immigration between the governments of BritishColumbiaandofCanadawassignedin1998andthecurrentagreementndashtheCanadandashBritishColumbiaImmigrationAgreementndashwassignedin2015ContrarytotheprevalentmodelintherestofCanada(exceptQuebecandManitoba)theaccordoperatesatransferofresponsibilityinthefieldofsettlementandintegrationservices(Paquet2016)HoweverwhereastheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccord stipulates the federal governmentrsquoswithdrawal from thedeliveryofservices for the reception linguistic and cultural integration and placements of immigrantsthe CanadandashBritish Columbia ImmigrationAgreement emphasizes collaboration negotiationconsultationandcooperationratherthanstrictdivisionofauthoritybetweentheprovinceandthefederalgovernmentForexamplelsquocollaborationrsquolsquotocollaboratersquoisusedseventimes(nonein theQuebec accord)lsquonegotiationrsquolsquoto negotiatersquo is used seven times (once in the accord)lsquoconsultationrsquolsquoto consultrsquo is used sixteen times (none in the accord) and lsquocooperationrsquolsquotocooperatersquoisusedfivetimes(fiveintheaccordaswell)

TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofBritishColumbiaforthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsamountedto$114millionin2010ndash11(DerwingandWaugh20124)ndasharoundhalfofwhichwasallocatedto language education In addition federal funds were also allocated to Enhanced LanguageTraining a smaller language education initiative (ibid)WelcomeBC and the Settlement andIntegrationProgram arethemainprogrammesthroughwhichsettlementintegrationhappensin

London Review of Education 147

BritishColumbiaTheWelcomingandInclusiveCommunitiesandWorkplacesProgramandtheVulnerableImmigrantPopulationsProgramcompletethepicture

TheproportionofnewcomersspeakingeitherFrenchorEnglishwas73percentin2011ndash12(GovernmentofBritishColumbia2013)muchhigherthantheproportionofnewcomersspeakingFrenchinQuebecInitsannualreportof2011ndash12WelcomeBCwritesthatlanguageabilityiscriticaltothesuccessofimmigrantsintheprovincersquoslabourmarketandcommunitiesAccordingtotheprogrammethoughmostnewcomersarehighlyskilledandeducatedlsquoalackofEnglishlanguageabilitycorrelateswithimmigrantunemploymentandunderemploymentwhichcosts theeconomy inproductivityandeconomicgrowth and impacts immigrantsrsquo successfulsocialandeconomic integrationrsquo(ibid10)Furthermoretheyestimatethatlsquoa1increase inliteracyproducesa25increaseintheleveloflabourproductivityandthatevery1comparativeincreaseinnationalliteracyscoreswouldboostnationalincomeby$32 billionrsquo(ibid8)Inthisexplanationofwhylanguageproficiencyisimportantwenoticeaphrasingthatisfinancialandeconomicratherthansocialorcitizenship-related

English language services for adults (deliveredmostly by community organizations) andEnglishasasecondlanguage(deliveredbypubliclyfundedpost-secondaryinstitutions)arethemain vehicles of adult immigrant training in the province (Government of BritishColumbia2013)Ofthe36serviceproviders inVancouver listedontheCICwebsite fourwere intheeducationsectoronewasaprivatecompanyandtheremaining31(84percent)werecommunityorganizationsTheservices theyprovidedmost frequentlywerehelpwithdaily life (722percent)helpfindingjobs(417percent)mentoring(389percent)andgenerallanguageeducation(306percent)Afewmunicipallibrarieswerealsolistedassettlementandintegrationserviceproviders(CICnd(b))WenoticeherethatamuchlowerproportionofserviceprovidersofferlanguageeducationthanisthecaseinQuebec

British Columbiarsquos settlement and integration policies and programmes refer morefrequentlytoVancouverandmunicipalitiesthandoesQuebecrsquostoMontrealForexampletheimportance of consultingmunicipalities and local governments ismentioned in theCanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration Agreement lsquoThe Parties agree to cooperate to work withLocalGovernmentsinBritishColumbiatoexploreissuesrelatedtotheirrespectiveinterestsin immigration and pursue opportunities related to communitiesrsquo interests in immigrationrsquo(Government ofCanada 2015)Whereas the city ofVancouver is not directlymentioned intheBritishColumbiaImmigrationTaskForcereportoneofitsrecommendationsislsquotoengageindustry local governments and non-governmental organizations in settling and integratingimmigrantsrsquo(MinisterofStateforMulticulturalism201220)FurthermoreBritishColumbiarsquosWelcoming and InclusiveCommunities andWorkplacesProgramlsquohas actively recognized theroleandparticipationofmunicipalgovernmentsintheimmigrantsettlementprocessrsquo(Dicksonet al201323)MunicipalitieshavethuslsquofeltthatacloserpartnershipbetweenBCandmunicipalgovernmentsofsomemajorimmigrantreceptioncitieshasbeenestablishedrsquo(ibid)

In2014VancouverfinallyenteredintoanagreementwiththegovernmentofCanadarsquosCIClsquotoundertakeaLocal ImmigrationPartnership (LIP)rsquo (CityofVancouvernd)TheVancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP2016)isafirststeptowardsestablishingndashwiththecollaborationofdozensoflocalorganizationsandcommunityleadersndashtheveryfirstVancouverImmigrantSettlement and Integration Strategy TheVIPrsquos main focuses are (1) the strengthening ofinterculturalandcivicengagement(2)thecreationofwelcomingandinclusiveworkplacesand(3)theassessmentofnewcomersrsquoneedsinareassuchashousinghealthandaccesstolocalandmunicipalservices

Vancouverhasbeenresponsive to immigration (CityofVancouver201414)first ithascontributedtothecommunitythroughactivelyconsultingcommunitygroupsandleadersfunding

148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)

Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants

Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation

Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries

Conclusion

AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants

London Review of Education 149

Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy

ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec

ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues

Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the

150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated

Notes on the contributors

Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012

CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa

RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada

References

Adamuti-Trache M (2012) lsquoLanguage acquisition among adult immigrants in Canada The effect ofpremigrationlanguagecapitalrsquoAdult Education Quarterly63(2)103ndash26

AhmadFRiazSBarataPandStewartDE(2004)lsquoPatriarchalbeliefsandperceptionsofabuseamongSouthAsianimmigrantwomenrsquoViolence Against Women10(3)262ndash82

AndrewC(2014)lsquoFederalpoliciesonimmigrantsettlementrsquoInGrahamKandAndrewC(eds)Canada in Cities The politics and policy of federal-local governanceMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversity Press227ndash49

BattagliniADeacutesyMDorvalDPoirierL-RFournierMCamirandHandFecteauD(2007)Lrsquointervention de premiegravere ligne agrave Montreacuteal aupregraves des personnes immigrantes Estimeacute des ressources neacutecessaires pour une intervention adeacutequateMontrealDirectiondesanteacutepubliqueOnlinehttppublicationssantemontrealqccauploadstx_asssmpublications978-2-89494-571-1pdf(accessed1March2016)

Beacutechard J (2011) Immigration The CanadandashQuebec Accord Background paper publication no 2011-89-EOttawaLibraryofParliamentOnlinewwwparlgccaContentLOPResearchPublications2011-89-epdf (accessed1March2016)

BelkhodjaC(2008)lsquoIntroductionImmigrationetdiversiteacutedanslescommunauteacutesfrancophonesensituationminoritairersquo In BelkhodjaC (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaire Thegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies3ndash6

BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65

BourhisRandLandryR(2002)lsquoLaloi 101etlrsquoameacutenagementdupaysagelinguistiqueauQueacutebecrsquoOfficede la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_bourhis_vf_1pdf(accessed6April2016)

BursteinM Clement G and Petty S (2014) Pratiques drsquointeacutegration prometteuses dans les communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireOttawaCIC

London Review of Education 151

Canadian Press(2016)lsquoPremierWynneapologizesfor1912regulationbanningFrenchinOntarioschoolsrsquoOnlinewwwthecanadianpresscomenglishonlineOnlineFullStoryaspxfilename=DOR-MNN-CPd2732aaf15964e269a42e66a46cec9daCPKEY2008111303ampnewsitemid=36470080amplanguageid=1(accessed1March2016)

CardozoAandPendakurR(2008)Canadarsquos Visible Minority Population 1967ndash2017WorkingpaperseriesVancouver Metropolis British Columbia Online httpmbcmetropolisnetassetsuploadsfileswp2008WP08-05pdf(accessed1March2016)

CentreforInternationalMigrationandSettlementStudies(CIMSS)(2012)lsquoIntroductionStateoftheartandfuturedirectionsinsettlementlanguagetrainingrsquoInternational Settlement CanadaSpecial issue on settlement language training SpringOnlinewww3carletoncacimssinscan-ev24_sepdf (accessed1March2016)

ChiswickBR (2008)The Economics of Language An introduction and overviewDiscussionpaperno3568 BonnInstitutefortheStudyofLaborOnlinehttpftpizaorgdp3568pdf(accessed1March2016)

Ciccarelli SB (1997)lsquoESL for nation-buildingThe origins of federally-funded ESL inCanadarsquoMA dissOntarioInstituteforStudiesinEducationUniversityofToronto

Citizenship and ImmigrationCanada (CIC) (2012)Canada Faits et chiffres 2012 Aperccedilu de lrsquoimmigration Reacutesidents permanents et temporaires Ottawa CIC Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2013cicCi1-8-2012-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd(a)) lsquoStrategic outcomes and program activity architecturersquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentpaaactivity-05asp(accessed6April2016)

ndashndash (nd(b)) lsquoFindingsrsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishresourcesevaluationgrant-quebecsection4asp(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd(c)) lsquoLanguage classes funded by the Government of Canadarsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishnewcomerslivelanguageasp(accessed1March2016)

CityofVancouver(2014)lsquoCulturalCommunitiesAdvisoryCommitteersquo Onlinehttpvancouvercayour-governmentcultural-communities-advisory-committeeaspx(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd) Vancouver City Local Immigration PartnershipVancouver Community Services Online httpvancouvercafilescovvancouver-city-local-immigration-partnership-overviewpdf (accessed 6 April2016)

ndashndashMulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee (2014)Committee Term SummaryOnlinehttpvancouvercafilescovcouncil-of-councils-presentation-mac-2014pdf(accessed1March2016)

ClarksonA (2014)Belonging The paradox of citizenshipCBCMasseyLecture SeriesTorontoHouseofAnansiPress

CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)

CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20

CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants

Montreal Institute forResearchonPublicPolicyOnline httpirpporgwp-contentuploadsassetsresearchdiversity-immigration-and-integrationlanguage-skills-and-the-social-integration-of-canadas-adult-immigrantsIRPP-Study-no31pdf(accessed1March2016)

Dickinson JA andYoung B (2008) Bregraveve histoire socio-historique du Queacutebec Montreal BibliothegravequeQueacutebeacutecoise

DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)

DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS

152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)

ndashndash(2012)lsquoReacutepartitiondessiegravegesagrave laChambredescommunesparprovincersquo Onlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredalloampdocument=indexamplang=f(accessed6April2016)

EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant

settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19

FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48

Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario

Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan

GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45

GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)

GouvernementduQueacutebec(1977)lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11C11_Ahtml(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2000)lsquoChartedelaVilledeMontreacutealrsquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11_4C11_4html(accessed6April2014)

ndashndash (2014) lsquoCommunauteacutes culturellesrsquo Online wwweducationgouvqccaenseignantsaide-et-soutiencommunautes-culturelles(accessed1March2016)

Government of British Columbia (2013) 2011ndash12 Annual ReportWelcomeBC Settlement and Integration Services Online wwwllbclegbccapublicpubdocsbcdocs20114717852011_2012pdf (accessed 1March2016)

GovernmentofCanada(1960)Canadian Bill of RightsOnlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaengactsc-123page-1html(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(1985)Official Languages Act (4th Supp)Onlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaPDFO-301pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(1991)CanadandashQuebec Accord Relating to Immigration and Temporary Admission of AliensOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsquebeccan-queasp(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2015)CanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration AgreementOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsbcbc-2015asp(accessed1March2016)

GunnA (2012) Immigration and Multi-level Governance in Canada and Europe The role of municipalities as integration policy innovators PolicyPaperCanadandashEuropeTransatlanticDialogueSeekingtransnationalsolutionsto21stcenturyproblemsOnlinehttplabscarletoncacanadaeuropewp-contentuploadssites92012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalitiespdf(accessed1March2016)

HouseofCommonsofCanada(2010)Best Practices in Settlement Services Report of the Standing Committee on Citizenship and ImmigrationOttawaGovernmentofCanadaOnlinewwwparlgccacontenthocCommittee403CIMMReportsRP4388396cimmrp02cimmrp02-epdf(accessed6April2016)

InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)

London Review of Education 153

KataokaSandMagnussonW(2007)Settling the Unsettled Migrants municipalities and multilevel governance in British Columbia Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the Urban Affairs AssociationSeattleWA 26April 2007Victoria BC University ofVictoria Online httpppm-ppmcaPapersKataokaMagnusson2007pdf(accessed1March2016)

KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)

LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)

MadyCandTurnbullM(2012)lsquoOfficiallanguagebilingualismforallophonesinCanadaExploringfutureresearchrsquo TESL Canada Journal 29 (2) 131ndash42 Online httpfilesericedgovfulltextEJ981500pdf(accessed1March2016)

Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada

McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)

MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)

MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)

MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2015a)Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants 2015ndash2016MontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdiversPafilipdf (accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2015b)lsquoPolitiquequeacutebeacutecoiseenmatiegraveredrsquoimmigrationdeparticipationetdrsquoinclusionrsquoGouvernementdu Queacutebec Online wwwmidigouvqccafrdossiersconsultation-publiquehtml (accessed 6 April2016)

MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress

MurphyJ(2010)The Settlement amp Integration Needs of Immigrants A literature reviewOttawaTheOttawaLocalImmigration Partnership Online httpolip-pliocaknowledge-basewp-contentuploads201303Olip-Review-of-Literature-Final-ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec

154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)

PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook

3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)

Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)

RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)

SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge

SiteforLanguageManagementinCanada(SLMC)(nd(a))lsquoFederallegislationandlanguagerights(1969and1988)rsquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=federal_legislation_1969_1988(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash(nd(b))lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_linguistic_law(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)

SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)

Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)

ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)

ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)

StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94

SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI

London Review of Education 155

Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)

TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)

ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246

VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)

VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7

Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)

XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)

YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35

Related articles published in the London Review of Education

In this issue

Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)

Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33

156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21

MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73

Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85

Elsewhere in this issue

HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98

Page 5: Language planning and education of adult immigrants in ... · Furthermore, 21.3 per cent of Canadians, 78.1 per cent of Québécois, and 1.3 per cent of British Columbians have French

138 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

language education provided to adult immigrantsTable 1 outlines the linguistic compositioninCanadaQuebec (and its largest cityMontreal) andBritishColumbia (and its largest cityVancouver)intermsofmothertonguesin2011

Table 1Mothertonguebyprovincesandcensusmetropolitanarea(CMA)

Mother tongues

English French Other Multiple

Quebec Total 77 781 123 19

Montreal(CMA) 116 633 220 31

BritishColumbia Total 703 13 265 19

Vancouver(CMA) 560 11 403 27

Canada Total 569 213 198 20

StatisticsCanada(2011d)Table 2 shows that it is not only the proportionof people having French and a non-officiallanguageastheirmothertonguethatvariesacrossCanadaandbetweencitiesbutalsothenon-officiallanguagesspokenthemselves

Table 2MostspokenmothertonguesinMontrealandVancouver

CMA Montreal Vancouver

English 2(116) 1(560)

French 1(633) 11(11)

Spanish 4(29) 9(14)

Italian 5(29)

Chinese(nototherwisespecified) 7(10) 4(49)

Cantonese 3(56)

Mandarin 5(39)

Punjabi 2(61)

Tagalog 6(21)

Arabic 3(34)

Creoles 6(13)

StatisticsCanada(2011d)

IndeedwhileChineselanguagesandPunjabiarebyfarthemostfrequentinVancouvertheyrankmuchlowerinMontrealConverselyArabicSpanishandItalianarethemostspokennon-officiallanguagesinMontreal

Behind these numbers come important variations in terms of the linguistic history ofCanadaFirsttheoriginalsettlersandcolonizersofCanadacameverylargelyfromtwoEuropeancountries speaking different languages French and English Although aboriginal people andlanguagesarenotdiscussedinourarticleitisusefultoberemindedthatCanadawasestablishedbyEuropeansettlersonalandinhabitedpriortocolonizationbyindigenouspeopleOneimpactof European colonization of theCanadian territory ndash beyond the dramatic decrease of theaboriginalpopulationitselfndashhasbeentheneardisappearanceofmostindigenouslanguagesIn2011only63000personsdeclaredanindigenouslanguageastheirmothertongueinCanadaandonly172percentofindigenouspersonsreportedbeingabletoconverseinanindigenous

London Review of Education 139

languageFurthertheproportionofindigenouspersonsabletodosodecreasedby2percentbetween2006and2011while theirpopulation grewby awhole201per cent in the sameperiod(StatisticsCanada2011c)

TheBritishconquestofFrenchNorthAmericain1760wasfollowedbymultipleattemptsat assimilating French-speaking residentsWhereas the pursuit of the linguistic and culturalassimilationoftheFrenchCanadianslessenedonceCanadawascreatedin1867thedemographicweightofFrenchasamothertongueamongtheCanadianpopulationhasbeensteadilydecliningForexamplea1912regulationbannedelementaryschoolteachersfromspeakingFrenchforwhichOntariorsquospremierKathleenWynneissuedaformalapologytofrancophonesthroughtheprovinciallegislatureinFebruary2016lsquoRegulation17showedadisregardforFranco-OntarianidentityandequalityandonbehalfofthegovernmentofOntarioIofferanapologyrsquo(The Canadian Press2016)

Frenchspeakersrepresented29percentofthepopulationin1951and217percentin2011ForthecityofMontrealalone(notthemetropolitanarea)themajorityofresidentswithFrenchasamothertonguehasbeendecliningaswellfrom68percentin1951to524percentin2011(DominionBureauofStatistics1953VilledeMontreacutealnd)withtheproportionbeing635percentfortheentiremetropolitanarea(StatisticsCanada2016)ThedemographicweightofQuebecamongallCanadianprovinceshasalsobeendecliningfrom279percentin1971to23percentin2015(ISQ201523)AsaconsequenceQuebecseatsinthefederalparliamentdecreasedfrom266percentin1976to233percentin2015(ElectionsCanada 2010ElectionsCanada2012)

InadditiontoahistoryofconquestandasteadydemographicdeclineofbothfrancophonesacrossthecountryandofQuebecrsquosweightamongtheprovincesthehistoryofsocioeconomicinequalities experienced by francophones ndash even in Quebec ndash must be mentioned Indeeduntilthe1960sdespiteamajorityoffrancophonesintheprovinceofQuebecthelanguageofcommerceandofworkwasmainlyEnglishIndeedfrancophoneswerelessinstructedunder-representedamonghigherprofessionallevelsandgainedsmallerrevenues(DickinsonandYoung2008PCO1970)

FinallyasafrancophoneprovincewithinnotonlyamajorityEnglish-speakingcountrybutanevenlargermajorityEnglish-speakingNorthAmericancontinentQuebecstrugglestoconveytoitsnewcomerstheimportanceofpreservingFrenchasthecommonlanguageUntilthe1970s90percentofnewcomerstoQuebecchoselsquoto integrate intotheminorityEnglishspeakingcommunityrsquo(Bouffard201550)TheappealofEnglishremainsunderstandabletodayinacountryandlsquoinacontinentwheretheoverwhelmingmajorityspeaksnotonlyadifferentlanguagebut thelanguageofglobalizationrsquo(ibid49)

In sum the history of conquest and of socioeconomic inequalities the harsh reality oflinguisticdemographicdeclineandthehistoricaltendencyofimmigrantstointegrateintotheanglophonecommunityhavehad verydeep impacts inQuebec In thatprovince the fearofEnglishandndashtoacertainextentndashofotherlanguageshasbeenquitestrongparticularlyregardingitsmostpopulatedcityandmainreceiverofimmigrationMontreal

TheBritishColumbian linguistichistory isverydifferentTheFrenchminorityhasalwaysbeenverysmallinnumberItaccountedfor1percentofthepopulationin1951andstilldoestodayTheFrenchndashEnglish strugglehas thusbeenmuchquieterndash if not absentWhereas thepercentageofBritishColumbianswithEnglishastheirmothertonguehasdeclinedsubstantiallymost notably inVancouver (from 86 per cent in 1951 to 56 per cent in 2011) the Englishlanguage has never been fundamentally threatenedCompared to French inQuebec Englishremains incontestably thefirstofficial language learnedby immigrants inBritishColumbia IntermsofdemographicweightamongCanadianprovincesBritishColumbiarsquosgrewfrom102per

140 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

centin1971to131percentin2015(ISQ201523)AsaconsequenceBritishColumbiarsquosseatsinthefederalparliamentincreasedfrom7percentin1976to125percentin2015(ElectionsCanada 2010ElectionsCanada2012)

In sum we observe extremely different demographic and language histories inQuebecandBritishColumbiaThesemajordifferencescanclearlybeexpectedtohaveimpactsoneachprovincersquoslanguagepolicyandplanning

The federal framework and immigration

InCanadabeing a federationofprovinces jurisdictions are allocated toone levelor sharedbetween two Immigration is shared whereas education and municipal affairs come underprovincialjurisdiction

MajortransformationshavetakenplacewithregardtoimmigrationinCanadainthelastdecadesFirsttheimmigrantselectionprocesswasalteredfollowingtheadoptionoftheBillofRights1960whichmade inevitablelsquotheremovalof immigrationregulationsrestrictingaccessofnon-Europeansrsquo(CardozoandPendakur200823)Referencestoraceorregionsoforiginwerethusreplacedintheselectioncriteriawithskillsandqualificationsand incertaincaseslanguages spoken (ibid) Second the ideaofmulticulturalismemerged in the1960s andwasformalizedintheCanadianMulticulturalismAct adoptedin1971AllCanadianprovinceshavesinceembracedimmigrationasasourceofhumananddemographicaswellasfinancialcapital(Paquet2016)Furtherlsquothefederalgovernmentandseveralofitsprovincialcounterpartshaveplaced a priority on immigrationmatters in recent years linking it to amultitude of otherprominent policy areasrsquo (Tolley et al 2011 3 as quoted byGunn 2012 3) In otherwordsquestions relating to immigration were introduced in many policy domains outside that ofcitizenshipandimmigrationperseincludingeducationworkandeconomyMostimportantlywhereasprovincialgovernmentshadbeenquiteshytoundertakeresponsibilitiesregardingtheshared jurisdiction of immigration they have becomemore interested in the field since the1970s(Gunn20123)andincreasinglyactivesincethe1990sIndeed ledbytheinterventionof the province ofQuebec all Canadian provinces have sincewith the federal governmentsigned bilateral agreements regarding immigration adopted immigration policies taken partintheselectionof immigrantsandcontributedtotheestablishmentofvariousorganizationspromotinggreaterintegrationamongnewcomers(Paquet2016)

ProvinceshavefurtherdevelopedvariousprogrammesforthesettlementandintegrationofimmigrantsAsdiscussedbelowadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationisoneimportantaspectofthesemodelsDespiteallthisthefederalagencyoverseeingsettlementandintegrationinthecountryisCitizenshipandImmigrationCanada(CIC)AlthoughQuebecManitobaandBritishColumbialsquoareresponsibleforthedesigndeliveryandadministrationofsettlementservicesrsquothisresponsibilityistransferredwiththelsquoobjectiveofachievingcomparablenewcomersrsquosettlementoutcomesrsquo (CICnd(a))ThebilateralaccordshaveattributedQuebecaspecialright fortheintegrationofnewcomers in theprovinceFinancialcompensationsareprovided forQuebectoprovideintegrationandsettlementserviceslsquoaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountryandaslongasallpermanentresidentsoftheprovincewhethertheywereselectedbyQuebecornotcanhaveaccesstothemrsquo(HouseofCommonsofCanada20101)

London Review of Education 141

Municipal affairs

In Canada the 1867 Constitutional Act assigned to the provincial governments exclusivejurisdictionovermunicipalitiesThusmunicipalitiesarenotconstitutionallyrecognizedanddonotndashat least formallyndashconstituteanorderofgovernmentof theirown inCanada (Young2009 106) One impact of this provincially exclusive jurisdiction is that provincial-municipalsystems vary considerably across the countryWhileCanadianmunicipalities have no formalresponsibilities except in Ontario regarding education healthcare and social services ndash allprovincialjurisdictionsndashtheyareoftenkeyactorsinimplementingfederalandprovincialpoliciesandprogrammes (ibid 115) Immigration is clearlyoneof thepolicydomains inwhich localgovernmentsandmunicipalitieshavebeenincreasinglyactiveIndeedmostimmigrantstoCanadachoosetosettleinbigcitiesTheFederationofCanadianMunicipalitiesstressedthatin2010two-thirdsofimmigrantssettledinCanadarsquosthreemostimportantmetropolitanareasTorontoMontrealandVancouverIn201117percentofimmigrantstoCanada(FCM2011)and76percentofimmigrantstoQuebecchosetosettleinMontreal(EmploiNexus2016)makingup344percentoftheresidentsofthecityofMontrealInthesameyear14percentofimmigrantstoCanadachosetosettleinVancouver(FCM2011)

Inpractice itmeansthatlsquoday-to-day issuesofmulticulturalismare renegotiatedandsettledin only a few citiesrsquo (Good 2008 1)Thus Canadarsquos biggest cities are active in the field ofimmigrationbecausetheyarelsquothefirstpointofcontactbetweennewcomersandgovernmentdue to the day-to-day dependence of immigrants on various local public servicesrsquo (Gunn20121)AccordingtoGood(2008)somemunicipalitieshavebeenveryresponsivetoincreasingnumbersofnewcomersintheirterritoriesndashforexamplethroughcontributinglsquotocommunitycapacitybuildingbyfundingcommunityorganizationsthatserveimmigrantsandethno-culturalminoritiesrsquothroughestablishinglsquoseparateunitsintheircivilservicetofacilitateaccessandequityin governance and service delivery aswell as tomanage diversityrsquo and through establishinglsquogovernancerelationshipsthatsupporttheireffortsinequitypolicyrsquoincludingwiththebusinesscommunity(ibid7)

Despitethefactthatmunicipallsquofront-lineserviceprovidersarekeyplayersinthesuccessfulsettlementattractionandretentionofimmigrantsmunicipalitieshavebeenleftonthesidelinesofimmigrantpolicyandfundingdecisionsrsquo(Gunn20124ndash5)withseniorlevelsofgovernmentsdealingmore frequentlywithlsquospecial-purpose non-profit societiesrsquo (Kataoka andMagnusson200720)

Finallyalthoughmunicipalitiesareformallyajurisdictionoftheprovincesthereisageneraltrend towardsmore direct relationships betweenmunicipalities and the federal government(Andrew 2014 Stoney andGraham 2009)Multiple reasons explain this trend including theimportanceofcontemporaryurbanchallengesandtheexplosionofmunicipalcostsasapartialconsequence of decentralization and of relatively low recent investments in infrastructure(Lalonde2016)Reviewingtheliteratureonthetopicofmunicipal-federalrelationshipsLalondenotes that most federal funding transits in provincial hands before landing in municipalitiesFurthermoremunicipalitiesrsquorolesandrelationshipwithfederalagencieslargelydependontherelationshipbetweentheirrespectiveprovincialgovernmentandthefederalgovernment(ibid)

InsumwhiletheCanadianfederalframeworkcanbeaunifyingfactoritleavesroomforconsiderablevariationndash forexample in thefieldsof immigrationandmunicipal affairsndashandevenforprovincialemulationThesepossibilitieshaveimpactsonlanguagepolicyandplanningndashandmostimportantlyforusintermsofwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoadultimmigrants

142 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

The analytical framework A summary

FollowingpolicyanalysisframeworksandspecificallylanguagepolicyandplanningourenquiryintolanguageeducationforadultimmigrantscompareswhyandhowitisprovidedinQuebecandBritishColumbiatwoverydifferentprovincesofCanadaandintheirbiggestcitiesOurultimategoal istopondertheimpactsofdemography languagehistoryandthefederalframeworkonthesepoliciesTable 3summarizestheelementsaddressedhere

Table 3Analyticalframeworkandapproach

Describing and comparing Pondering the impacts of vectors of differences and similarities

WhyWhatarethemainreasonsforprovidinglanguageeducationtoadultimmigrants

bull Citizenshipandnationalismreasons

bull Jobsindustryandeconomicbenefitsreasons

bull Socialwelfareandintegrationreasons

Demography and language history

bull Languagersquosminorityormajoritystatusinthecountryandcontinent

bull Languagersquospowerofattractionasfirstofficiallanguagelearned

bull LanguagersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull ProvincersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull Otherhistoricalelements(historyofconquestandofsocio-

economicdomination)

Federalism as vector of differences

bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Increasedprovincialinterventiono Bilateralaccordsbetweenprovincesandthefederal

governmento Provincialchoiceofcriteriafortheselectionof

immigrants(levelandtypeofskillslanguagesspokenetc)

bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipalitiesascreaturesoftheprovinces

Federalism as vector of similarities

bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Billofrightso MulticulturalismActo CICinterventions

bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipal-federalrelationshipo Municipalitiesconceivedasalevelofgovernmento Municipalitiesrsquoexclusionofpolicydesign

HowWhatarethemaininternalfeaturesofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducation

bull Languagetaughtbull Responsiblelevelof

governmentbull Languageeducationservice

providers

Language education for adult immigrants in Quebec British Columbia and their respective largest cities

WiththeaboveframeworkandapproachinmindwenowturntodescribingandcomparingwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecBritishColumbiaMontrealandVancouver

London Review of Education 143

Language laws and official languages

InordertoprotectFrenchoutsideofQuebecandEnglishwithinQuebecthefoundinglawofCanadathe1867ConstitutionalActalreadycontainedlanguageprovisionsthebulkofwhichrelatestochildrenrsquoseducationTheActalsorecognizedbothFrenchandEnglishasformallyequalinCanadaHowevertheconclusionofthereportoftheRoyalCommissiononBilingualismandBiculturalism(alsocalledtheLaurendeau-DuntonCommission)heldbythefederalgovernmentofCanadainthe1960semphasizedthatbilingualismhadbeenlsquomostlysymbolic(stampsbanknotesetc)andmeretranslationoflawsandcertainadministrativedocumentsrsquo(SLMCnd(a))RespondingdirectlytothecommissionrsquosrecommendationtheOfficialLanguagesActof1969 statesthat

TheEnglishandFrench languagesare theofficial languagesofCanada forallpurposesof theParliamentandgovernmentofCanadaandpossessandenjoyqualityofstatusandequalrightsandprivilegesastotheiruseinalltheinstitutionsoftheParliamentandgovernmentofCanada

(SLMCnd(a))

Coherentwith the notionof a federation theOfficial LanguagesAct appliesonly to federaljurisdictions and institutions Provinces can also be active in the accessory field of languageinsofarastheyareinterveningwithinthescopeoftheirjurisdiction

The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal

Montreal is theeconomicandcultural centreof theprovinceofQuebecandalso themostpopulousfrancophonecityintheAmericasItspopulationisapproximately16 millionandthatofGreaterMontreal38 millionQuebecistheonlyprovincetohaveFrenchasitssoleofficiallanguageThe second articleof the cityofMontrealrsquos charter categorically states that it is afrancophonecity(GouvernementduQueacutebec2000)

InresponsetoincreasinglyvocalandorganizedgroupsinfavourofvalorizingandprotectingtheFrenchlanguagewithinQuebecthegovernmentadoptedin1974QuebecrsquosfirstlanguagelawtheLoi sur la langue officielle(LawoftheOfficialLanguageBill 22)Howeverthisbillrequiringpublic signs tobe in French andpromotingbilingualismwas consideredunable tomeet thelinguisticchallengesthatQuebecincreasinglyfaced(BourhisandLandry2002)ThegovernmentoftheseparatistPartiQueacutebeacutecoisthusadoptedin1977themuchmorepowerfulCharte de la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec (Bill 101)Thecharterrsquosmainobjectiveswere(1)tohalttheassimilationofFrenchspeakerstoEnglish(2)toensurethesocioeconomicpredominanceofthefrancophonemajority and (3) to promote the assertion of the French fact (ie all that concerns FrenchSLMCnd(b))TodaythecharterrequirescommercialsignstobepredominantlyinFrenchandimmigrantchildreninQuebectoattendFrenchschoolsreversingtheimmigrantsrsquotendencytosendtheirchildrentoEnglishschools(McAndrew200270)Manyother lawsinQuebecaresignificantintermsoflanguageincludingafewregardingmunicipalitiesndashwithMontrealamongthemndashandimmigration(SLMCnd(c))

The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver

VancouveristheeconomiccentreofthewesternprovinceofBritishColumbiaWhilethecityitselfwashome toonly603502people in2011 (theeighth largest city inCanada)GreaterVancouver was home to over 23 million residents (the third largest metropolitan area inCanada)Between2006and2011thepopulationofVancouvergrewby44percentwhilethatofGreaterVancouvergrewby93percent(MetroVancouver2012)Likemostotherprovinces

144 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

andcitiesandcoherentwiththeverylowproportionoffrancophonesinboththeprovinceandcityBritishColumbiaandVancouverhaveEnglishastheironlyofficiallanguage

British Columbiarsquos laws and programmes relevant to languages have been scarce if notwhollyabsentInfactthelegislaturehasneveradoptedalanguagelawTheprovincersquoslegislationhoweverdoescontainasmallnumberoflanguageprovisionsandreferencestolanguageMostofthesedealwiththerequirementforpeopletounderstandandexpressthemselvesinproperEnglishandthepossibilityofusingatranslatorOtherreferencesareinsimpledeclarationsofnon-discriminationonthegroundsof languageplaceoforiginandsoonTheonlyreferencetolanguageinwhichthestatemakesacommitmentinvolvesaboriginal languagesIndeedtheFirstPeoplesrsquoHeritageLanguageandCultureAct ismeant tolsquosupport andadviseministriesof governmenton initiatives programs and services related toNativeheritage language andculturersquo(SLMCnd(d))

Immigrantsrsquo settlement integration and adult language education

The federal government of Canada has provided language instruction for newcomers since1947atthesametimeastheCitizenshipActwasadopted(CIMSS20127Cleghorn 2000)The focusof languageeducationwasthuscitizenshipandtoacertainextentassimilationtotheAnglo-SaxonandEnglish-speakingmajority(Ciccarelli1997Cleghorn2000)AsCleghornnoteslsquopriortoQuebecrsquoscontroloverimmigrationbeginninginthe1960slanguagetrainingforadultimmigrantswasEnglishonlyrsquo(200028)From1965tothemid-1980slanguageeducationevolvedfromafocusoncitizenshipintotwodifferentstreamsofclassesfortwodifferenttypesofimmigrantsTheDepartmentofManpowerandImmigrationprovidedlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsinthelabourforcewhiletheCitizenshipBranchoftheDepartmentofSecretaryofStatendashwithamuchsmallerbudgetndashprovidedlanguageclassestoimmigrantsnotplanningtojointhelabourforce(ibid27ndash30)Althoughthefederalgovernmenthadbeenactiveinlanguageeducationsince1947itextendeditsinterventiontosettlementservicesonlyin1979withitsImmigrantSettlementandAdaptationProgramUntilthenthesettlementandintegrationneedsofimmigrantsweremetndashifsondashlsquobyvoluntaryorganizationssuchascommunitycentresethnicorganizationschurchgroupsandwomenrsquosorganizationsrsquo(ibid32)Alongwiththisprogrammeand the current merged settlement and integration programme CIC has been overseeingimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationItspreferredpatternofserviceprovisionhasbeenandremainsoutsourcingtocommunityserviceproviders

The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal

AsmentionedQuebecbecamemoredirectlyinvolvedinthefieldofimmigrationinthe1970sand was then followed by the other Canadian provincesThe first bilateral agreement onimmigrationbetween thegovernmentofCanadaandaprovincewas signedwithQuebec in1971WiththecurrentagreementndashImmigrationTheCanadandashQuebecAccordndashsignedin1991Canadacommitsitself

towithdrawfromthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionandlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsCanadaprovidescompensationtoQuebecforsuchservicesaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountry

(Beacutechard20113)

London Review of Education 145

TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofQuebecfortheseservicesamountedto$320millionin2013ndash14WhilesimilaragreementsexistwitheachprovincenoneismoreextensiveandmatchedwithasmuchfederalgrantsastheonewithQuebec(Beacutechard2011)

AdultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationiscalledfrancizationinQuebecsuggestingaprocessthroughwhichapersonappropriatesprogressivelytheFrenchlanguageuntilitbecomespartofherorhisidentityOnlyFrenchlanguageclassesndashandnoEnglishonesndashareprovidedforfreetoimmigrantsinQuebecFrancizationclassesareavailabletoimmigrantsinvariousformatsandtheymayqualifyforallowancesthatincertaincasesevencovertransportationandchildcarecosts(MIDI 2015a)No comparable programme exists outside ofQuebec to support immigrantswhileattending languageclasses(CIC2012)Quebecrsquossettlementandintegrationframeworkincludes two programmes of language education and of financial aid for adult immigrants(Programme drsquointeacutegration linguistique pour les immigrants and Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants)andtwoprogrammesforsettlementperse(Programme drsquoaccompagnement des nouveaux arrivantsandProgramme reacutegional drsquointeacutegration)

TheproportionofnewcomersknowingFrenchupontheirarrivalgrewfrom368percentinthe1994ndash8periodto623percentforthe2009ndash13period(MIDI2014a)Itwas586 percentin2015(MIDI2014b24)AnewimmigrationpolicywasadoptedbyQuebecinMarch2016(MIDI2015b)andthepreparatorydocumenttothepolicymadeclearhowmuchofapriorityfrancizationwasamongthevariousinterventionsinsettlementandintegration

InadditiontotherecentincreaseofFrenchimmigrationthefrancizationofimmigrantpeople isoneofthestrategiesthattheGovernmentofQuebecimplementstoensuretheperennialityoftheFrenchfactonitsterritoryaswellasthesuccessfulintegrationofimmigrantpeople

(MIDI2014a15ourtranslation)

ThefirsttenetofthepolicyisthatlsquoimmigrationplaysanimportantroleinboostingQueacutebecrsquosprosperityandinthevitalityoftheFrenchlanguagersquo(MIDI2015b)Francizationismeanttomakethese two priorities and objectives of the policy overlap Indeedlsquoimmigrantsrsquo ability to fullyparticipateinQueacutebecsocietyisdeeplyintertwinedwiththelanguageissuersquo(ibid5)

InQuebecndashlikeintherestofCanadandashmostcontactsrelatingtoandservicesregardingsettlement and language education areprovidedby communityorganizationsOutof the51service providers listed on CICrsquoS website in Montreal 43 (84 per cent) were communityorganizations The services they most frequently provided were general French languageeducation(725percent)servicesforfrancophonenewcomers(549percent)andhelpwithdaily life (314 per cent)Nomunicipal organizationwas however listed as service providerincludinglanguageeducationservices(CICnd(b))

WhileevaluatingtheoutcomesoftheimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationprogrammesinQuebecinrelationtosimilarservicesavailableacrossCanadaCICwrites

TohelpindividualsprepareforlifeinCanadaandthecitizenshiptestinformationisoftenprovidedthrough settlement services particularly via language training curricula Language curricula inQuebecalsofollowsthisapproachhoweverthefocusisonprovidinginformationaboutQuebecculture

(CICnd(c))

InretrospectPaquet(2016)suggeststhatQuebecrsquosapproachtoimmigrationhasbeenholisticseenasacollectiveprojectinselectingimmigrantsovereconomicaswellassocialcriteria

ThecityofMontreallikemostregionsinQuebecconcludesimmigrationagreementswiththeprovincersquosMinistryofImmigrationDiversityandIntegration(Ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusionMIDI)andthuscontributestoassessingneedsandplanninginterventioninthisfieldMunicipalitiesndashincludingMontrealndasharerarelymentionedinprogrammesregarding

146 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

immigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationTherearenomentionsofMontrealandmunicipalitiesintheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccordTheonlyreferencetothecityofMontrealintheMIDIannualreportof2014ndash15isrelatedtotheobjectiveofregionalizingimmigrationthatisreducingthe proportion of immigrants settling inMontreal MIDIrsquos (2008) adult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationactionplanPour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieux(To enrich Quebec Make more French integrate better)makesnomentionofmunicipalitiesorofMontrealOneopeningtocitiesrsquo and regionsrsquo roles in thefieldof immigration is however found in thepreparatorydocumenttothenewQuebecimmigrationpolicyItstatestheirrolein(1)buildingwelcomingandinclusivecommunities(2)gatheringconcreteinformationandknowledgeonactualneedsandchallengesasmetinday-to-dayactivitiesand(3)workingagainstracismanddiscrimination(MIDI2014a54)

Inabriefon immigrationmanagementsubmittedtothegovernmentofQuebec in2011thecityofMontrealaskedfor(1)anofficialrecognitionof itsroleinimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegration(2)anincreasedbudgetforthefrancizationofimmigrantsinMontreal(3)theautomatic transfer toMontreal of 10 per cent of federal grants for immigrantsrsquo settlementand integration and (4) increased budgets for immigrantsrsquo social housing (Ville deMontreacuteal20116)DespitethegovernmentofQuebecrsquosrarementionofMontrealinimmigrationpoliciesandprogrammesthecityhasbeenrelativelyresponsivetoimmigrationinthesensediscussedbyGood (2008) First the city ofMontreal has contributed to community capacity-buildingthroughfundingvariouscommunitygroupsbeinganactivememberofvariouscollaborationsonimmigrationadoptingacharterofrightsandresponsibilityandcreatinganinterculturaladvisorycouncilSecondthecityhasaPlandrsquoaccegraves agrave lrsquoeacutegaliteacute agrave lrsquoemploi(PAEacuteEacute)ThirdthecityhascreatedtheNexusprogrammewhichisamunicipalprogrammeinMontrealthatprovidesbusinesseswithinformationtoolssupportandreferencesregardingtherecruitmentandsustainedemploymentofprofessionalstrainedabroad(EmploiNexus2016)Hencethecityintervenesthroughnotonlycollaboratingwithserviceprovidersbutalsobyfundingthem(VilledeMontreacuteal2011)

The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver

The first bilateral agreement on immigration between the governments of BritishColumbiaandofCanadawassignedin1998andthecurrentagreementndashtheCanadandashBritishColumbiaImmigrationAgreementndashwassignedin2015ContrarytotheprevalentmodelintherestofCanada(exceptQuebecandManitoba)theaccordoperatesatransferofresponsibilityinthefieldofsettlementandintegrationservices(Paquet2016)HoweverwhereastheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccord stipulates the federal governmentrsquoswithdrawal from thedeliveryofservices for the reception linguistic and cultural integration and placements of immigrantsthe CanadandashBritish Columbia ImmigrationAgreement emphasizes collaboration negotiationconsultationandcooperationratherthanstrictdivisionofauthoritybetweentheprovinceandthefederalgovernmentForexamplelsquocollaborationrsquolsquotocollaboratersquoisusedseventimes(nonein theQuebec accord)lsquonegotiationrsquolsquoto negotiatersquo is used seven times (once in the accord)lsquoconsultationrsquolsquoto consultrsquo is used sixteen times (none in the accord) and lsquocooperationrsquolsquotocooperatersquoisusedfivetimes(fiveintheaccordaswell)

TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofBritishColumbiaforthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsamountedto$114millionin2010ndash11(DerwingandWaugh20124)ndasharoundhalfofwhichwasallocatedto language education In addition federal funds were also allocated to Enhanced LanguageTraining a smaller language education initiative (ibid)WelcomeBC and the Settlement andIntegrationProgram arethemainprogrammesthroughwhichsettlementintegrationhappensin

London Review of Education 147

BritishColumbiaTheWelcomingandInclusiveCommunitiesandWorkplacesProgramandtheVulnerableImmigrantPopulationsProgramcompletethepicture

TheproportionofnewcomersspeakingeitherFrenchorEnglishwas73percentin2011ndash12(GovernmentofBritishColumbia2013)muchhigherthantheproportionofnewcomersspeakingFrenchinQuebecInitsannualreportof2011ndash12WelcomeBCwritesthatlanguageabilityiscriticaltothesuccessofimmigrantsintheprovincersquoslabourmarketandcommunitiesAccordingtotheprogrammethoughmostnewcomersarehighlyskilledandeducatedlsquoalackofEnglishlanguageabilitycorrelateswithimmigrantunemploymentandunderemploymentwhichcosts theeconomy inproductivityandeconomicgrowth and impacts immigrantsrsquo successfulsocialandeconomic integrationrsquo(ibid10)Furthermoretheyestimatethatlsquoa1increase inliteracyproducesa25increaseintheleveloflabourproductivityandthatevery1comparativeincreaseinnationalliteracyscoreswouldboostnationalincomeby$32 billionrsquo(ibid8)Inthisexplanationofwhylanguageproficiencyisimportantwenoticeaphrasingthatisfinancialandeconomicratherthansocialorcitizenship-related

English language services for adults (deliveredmostly by community organizations) andEnglishasasecondlanguage(deliveredbypubliclyfundedpost-secondaryinstitutions)arethemain vehicles of adult immigrant training in the province (Government of BritishColumbia2013)Ofthe36serviceproviders inVancouver listedontheCICwebsite fourwere intheeducationsectoronewasaprivatecompanyandtheremaining31(84percent)werecommunityorganizationsTheservices theyprovidedmost frequentlywerehelpwithdaily life (722percent)helpfindingjobs(417percent)mentoring(389percent)andgenerallanguageeducation(306percent)Afewmunicipallibrarieswerealsolistedassettlementandintegrationserviceproviders(CICnd(b))WenoticeherethatamuchlowerproportionofserviceprovidersofferlanguageeducationthanisthecaseinQuebec

British Columbiarsquos settlement and integration policies and programmes refer morefrequentlytoVancouverandmunicipalitiesthandoesQuebecrsquostoMontrealForexampletheimportance of consultingmunicipalities and local governments ismentioned in theCanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration Agreement lsquoThe Parties agree to cooperate to work withLocalGovernmentsinBritishColumbiatoexploreissuesrelatedtotheirrespectiveinterestsin immigration and pursue opportunities related to communitiesrsquo interests in immigrationrsquo(Government ofCanada 2015)Whereas the city ofVancouver is not directlymentioned intheBritishColumbiaImmigrationTaskForcereportoneofitsrecommendationsislsquotoengageindustry local governments and non-governmental organizations in settling and integratingimmigrantsrsquo(MinisterofStateforMulticulturalism201220)FurthermoreBritishColumbiarsquosWelcoming and InclusiveCommunities andWorkplacesProgramlsquohas actively recognized theroleandparticipationofmunicipalgovernmentsintheimmigrantsettlementprocessrsquo(Dicksonet al201323)MunicipalitieshavethuslsquofeltthatacloserpartnershipbetweenBCandmunicipalgovernmentsofsomemajorimmigrantreceptioncitieshasbeenestablishedrsquo(ibid)

In2014VancouverfinallyenteredintoanagreementwiththegovernmentofCanadarsquosCIClsquotoundertakeaLocal ImmigrationPartnership (LIP)rsquo (CityofVancouvernd)TheVancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP2016)isafirststeptowardsestablishingndashwiththecollaborationofdozensoflocalorganizationsandcommunityleadersndashtheveryfirstVancouverImmigrantSettlement and Integration Strategy TheVIPrsquos main focuses are (1) the strengthening ofinterculturalandcivicengagement(2)thecreationofwelcomingandinclusiveworkplacesand(3)theassessmentofnewcomersrsquoneedsinareassuchashousinghealthandaccesstolocalandmunicipalservices

Vancouverhasbeenresponsive to immigration (CityofVancouver201414)first ithascontributedtothecommunitythroughactivelyconsultingcommunitygroupsandleadersfunding

148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)

Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants

Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation

Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries

Conclusion

AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants

London Review of Education 149

Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy

ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec

ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues

Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the

150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated

Notes on the contributors

Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012

CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa

RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada

References

Adamuti-Trache M (2012) lsquoLanguage acquisition among adult immigrants in Canada The effect ofpremigrationlanguagecapitalrsquoAdult Education Quarterly63(2)103ndash26

AhmadFRiazSBarataPandStewartDE(2004)lsquoPatriarchalbeliefsandperceptionsofabuseamongSouthAsianimmigrantwomenrsquoViolence Against Women10(3)262ndash82

AndrewC(2014)lsquoFederalpoliciesonimmigrantsettlementrsquoInGrahamKandAndrewC(eds)Canada in Cities The politics and policy of federal-local governanceMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversity Press227ndash49

BattagliniADeacutesyMDorvalDPoirierL-RFournierMCamirandHandFecteauD(2007)Lrsquointervention de premiegravere ligne agrave Montreacuteal aupregraves des personnes immigrantes Estimeacute des ressources neacutecessaires pour une intervention adeacutequateMontrealDirectiondesanteacutepubliqueOnlinehttppublicationssantemontrealqccauploadstx_asssmpublications978-2-89494-571-1pdf(accessed1March2016)

Beacutechard J (2011) Immigration The CanadandashQuebec Accord Background paper publication no 2011-89-EOttawaLibraryofParliamentOnlinewwwparlgccaContentLOPResearchPublications2011-89-epdf (accessed1March2016)

BelkhodjaC(2008)lsquoIntroductionImmigrationetdiversiteacutedanslescommunauteacutesfrancophonesensituationminoritairersquo In BelkhodjaC (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaire Thegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies3ndash6

BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65

BourhisRandLandryR(2002)lsquoLaloi 101etlrsquoameacutenagementdupaysagelinguistiqueauQueacutebecrsquoOfficede la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_bourhis_vf_1pdf(accessed6April2016)

BursteinM Clement G and Petty S (2014) Pratiques drsquointeacutegration prometteuses dans les communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireOttawaCIC

London Review of Education 151

Canadian Press(2016)lsquoPremierWynneapologizesfor1912regulationbanningFrenchinOntarioschoolsrsquoOnlinewwwthecanadianpresscomenglishonlineOnlineFullStoryaspxfilename=DOR-MNN-CPd2732aaf15964e269a42e66a46cec9daCPKEY2008111303ampnewsitemid=36470080amplanguageid=1(accessed1March2016)

CardozoAandPendakurR(2008)Canadarsquos Visible Minority Population 1967ndash2017WorkingpaperseriesVancouver Metropolis British Columbia Online httpmbcmetropolisnetassetsuploadsfileswp2008WP08-05pdf(accessed1March2016)

CentreforInternationalMigrationandSettlementStudies(CIMSS)(2012)lsquoIntroductionStateoftheartandfuturedirectionsinsettlementlanguagetrainingrsquoInternational Settlement CanadaSpecial issue on settlement language training SpringOnlinewww3carletoncacimssinscan-ev24_sepdf (accessed1March2016)

ChiswickBR (2008)The Economics of Language An introduction and overviewDiscussionpaperno3568 BonnInstitutefortheStudyofLaborOnlinehttpftpizaorgdp3568pdf(accessed1March2016)

Ciccarelli SB (1997)lsquoESL for nation-buildingThe origins of federally-funded ESL inCanadarsquoMA dissOntarioInstituteforStudiesinEducationUniversityofToronto

Citizenship and ImmigrationCanada (CIC) (2012)Canada Faits et chiffres 2012 Aperccedilu de lrsquoimmigration Reacutesidents permanents et temporaires Ottawa CIC Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2013cicCi1-8-2012-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd(a)) lsquoStrategic outcomes and program activity architecturersquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentpaaactivity-05asp(accessed6April2016)

ndashndash (nd(b)) lsquoFindingsrsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishresourcesevaluationgrant-quebecsection4asp(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd(c)) lsquoLanguage classes funded by the Government of Canadarsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishnewcomerslivelanguageasp(accessed1March2016)

CityofVancouver(2014)lsquoCulturalCommunitiesAdvisoryCommitteersquo Onlinehttpvancouvercayour-governmentcultural-communities-advisory-committeeaspx(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd) Vancouver City Local Immigration PartnershipVancouver Community Services Online httpvancouvercafilescovvancouver-city-local-immigration-partnership-overviewpdf (accessed 6 April2016)

ndashndashMulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee (2014)Committee Term SummaryOnlinehttpvancouvercafilescovcouncil-of-councils-presentation-mac-2014pdf(accessed1March2016)

ClarksonA (2014)Belonging The paradox of citizenshipCBCMasseyLecture SeriesTorontoHouseofAnansiPress

CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)

CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20

CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants

Montreal Institute forResearchonPublicPolicyOnline httpirpporgwp-contentuploadsassetsresearchdiversity-immigration-and-integrationlanguage-skills-and-the-social-integration-of-canadas-adult-immigrantsIRPP-Study-no31pdf(accessed1March2016)

Dickinson JA andYoung B (2008) Bregraveve histoire socio-historique du Queacutebec Montreal BibliothegravequeQueacutebeacutecoise

DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)

DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS

152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)

ndashndash(2012)lsquoReacutepartitiondessiegravegesagrave laChambredescommunesparprovincersquo Onlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredalloampdocument=indexamplang=f(accessed6April2016)

EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant

settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19

FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48

Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario

Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan

GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45

GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)

GouvernementduQueacutebec(1977)lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11C11_Ahtml(accessed1March2016)

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ndashndash (2014) lsquoCommunauteacutes culturellesrsquo Online wwweducationgouvqccaenseignantsaide-et-soutiencommunautes-culturelles(accessed1March2016)

Government of British Columbia (2013) 2011ndash12 Annual ReportWelcomeBC Settlement and Integration Services Online wwwllbclegbccapublicpubdocsbcdocs20114717852011_2012pdf (accessed 1March2016)

GovernmentofCanada(1960)Canadian Bill of RightsOnlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaengactsc-123page-1html(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(1985)Official Languages Act (4th Supp)Onlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaPDFO-301pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(1991)CanadandashQuebec Accord Relating to Immigration and Temporary Admission of AliensOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsquebeccan-queasp(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2015)CanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration AgreementOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsbcbc-2015asp(accessed1March2016)

GunnA (2012) Immigration and Multi-level Governance in Canada and Europe The role of municipalities as integration policy innovators PolicyPaperCanadandashEuropeTransatlanticDialogueSeekingtransnationalsolutionsto21stcenturyproblemsOnlinehttplabscarletoncacanadaeuropewp-contentuploadssites92012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalitiespdf(accessed1March2016)

HouseofCommonsofCanada(2010)Best Practices in Settlement Services Report of the Standing Committee on Citizenship and ImmigrationOttawaGovernmentofCanadaOnlinewwwparlgccacontenthocCommittee403CIMMReportsRP4388396cimmrp02cimmrp02-epdf(accessed6April2016)

InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)

London Review of Education 153

KataokaSandMagnussonW(2007)Settling the Unsettled Migrants municipalities and multilevel governance in British Columbia Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the Urban Affairs AssociationSeattleWA 26April 2007Victoria BC University ofVictoria Online httpppm-ppmcaPapersKataokaMagnusson2007pdf(accessed1March2016)

KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)

LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)

MadyCandTurnbullM(2012)lsquoOfficiallanguagebilingualismforallophonesinCanadaExploringfutureresearchrsquo TESL Canada Journal 29 (2) 131ndash42 Online httpfilesericedgovfulltextEJ981500pdf(accessed1March2016)

Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada

McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)

MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)

MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)

MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2015a)Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants 2015ndash2016MontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdiversPafilipdf (accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2015b)lsquoPolitiquequeacutebeacutecoiseenmatiegraveredrsquoimmigrationdeparticipationetdrsquoinclusionrsquoGouvernementdu Queacutebec Online wwwmidigouvqccafrdossiersconsultation-publiquehtml (accessed 6 April2016)

MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress

MurphyJ(2010)The Settlement amp Integration Needs of Immigrants A literature reviewOttawaTheOttawaLocalImmigration Partnership Online httpolip-pliocaknowledge-basewp-contentuploads201303Olip-Review-of-Literature-Final-ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec

154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)

PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook

3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)

Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)

RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)

SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge

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ndashndash(nd(b))lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_linguistic_law(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)

SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)

Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)

ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)

ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)

StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94

SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI

London Review of Education 155

Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)

TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)

ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246

VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)

VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7

Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)

XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)

YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35

Related articles published in the London Review of Education

In this issue

Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)

Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33

156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21

MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73

Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85

Elsewhere in this issue

HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98

Page 6: Language planning and education of adult immigrants in ... · Furthermore, 21.3 per cent of Canadians, 78.1 per cent of Québécois, and 1.3 per cent of British Columbians have French

London Review of Education 139

languageFurthertheproportionofindigenouspersonsabletodosodecreasedby2percentbetween2006and2011while theirpopulation grewby awhole201per cent in the sameperiod(StatisticsCanada2011c)

TheBritishconquestofFrenchNorthAmericain1760wasfollowedbymultipleattemptsat assimilating French-speaking residentsWhereas the pursuit of the linguistic and culturalassimilationoftheFrenchCanadianslessenedonceCanadawascreatedin1867thedemographicweightofFrenchasamothertongueamongtheCanadianpopulationhasbeensteadilydecliningForexamplea1912regulationbannedelementaryschoolteachersfromspeakingFrenchforwhichOntariorsquospremierKathleenWynneissuedaformalapologytofrancophonesthroughtheprovinciallegislatureinFebruary2016lsquoRegulation17showedadisregardforFranco-OntarianidentityandequalityandonbehalfofthegovernmentofOntarioIofferanapologyrsquo(The Canadian Press2016)

Frenchspeakersrepresented29percentofthepopulationin1951and217percentin2011ForthecityofMontrealalone(notthemetropolitanarea)themajorityofresidentswithFrenchasamothertonguehasbeendecliningaswellfrom68percentin1951to524percentin2011(DominionBureauofStatistics1953VilledeMontreacutealnd)withtheproportionbeing635percentfortheentiremetropolitanarea(StatisticsCanada2016)ThedemographicweightofQuebecamongallCanadianprovinceshasalsobeendecliningfrom279percentin1971to23percentin2015(ISQ201523)AsaconsequenceQuebecseatsinthefederalparliamentdecreasedfrom266percentin1976to233percentin2015(ElectionsCanada 2010ElectionsCanada2012)

InadditiontoahistoryofconquestandasteadydemographicdeclineofbothfrancophonesacrossthecountryandofQuebecrsquosweightamongtheprovincesthehistoryofsocioeconomicinequalities experienced by francophones ndash even in Quebec ndash must be mentioned Indeeduntilthe1960sdespiteamajorityoffrancophonesintheprovinceofQuebecthelanguageofcommerceandofworkwasmainlyEnglishIndeedfrancophoneswerelessinstructedunder-representedamonghigherprofessionallevelsandgainedsmallerrevenues(DickinsonandYoung2008PCO1970)

FinallyasafrancophoneprovincewithinnotonlyamajorityEnglish-speakingcountrybutanevenlargermajorityEnglish-speakingNorthAmericancontinentQuebecstrugglestoconveytoitsnewcomerstheimportanceofpreservingFrenchasthecommonlanguageUntilthe1970s90percentofnewcomerstoQuebecchoselsquoto integrate intotheminorityEnglishspeakingcommunityrsquo(Bouffard201550)TheappealofEnglishremainsunderstandabletodayinacountryandlsquoinacontinentwheretheoverwhelmingmajorityspeaksnotonlyadifferentlanguagebut thelanguageofglobalizationrsquo(ibid49)

In sum the history of conquest and of socioeconomic inequalities the harsh reality oflinguisticdemographicdeclineandthehistoricaltendencyofimmigrantstointegrateintotheanglophonecommunityhavehad verydeep impacts inQuebec In thatprovince the fearofEnglishandndashtoacertainextentndashofotherlanguageshasbeenquitestrongparticularlyregardingitsmostpopulatedcityandmainreceiverofimmigrationMontreal

TheBritishColumbian linguistichistory isverydifferentTheFrenchminorityhasalwaysbeenverysmallinnumberItaccountedfor1percentofthepopulationin1951andstilldoestodayTheFrenchndashEnglish strugglehas thusbeenmuchquieterndash if not absentWhereas thepercentageofBritishColumbianswithEnglishastheirmothertonguehasdeclinedsubstantiallymost notably inVancouver (from 86 per cent in 1951 to 56 per cent in 2011) the Englishlanguage has never been fundamentally threatenedCompared to French inQuebec Englishremains incontestably thefirstofficial language learnedby immigrants inBritishColumbia IntermsofdemographicweightamongCanadianprovincesBritishColumbiarsquosgrewfrom102per

140 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

centin1971to131percentin2015(ISQ201523)AsaconsequenceBritishColumbiarsquosseatsinthefederalparliamentincreasedfrom7percentin1976to125percentin2015(ElectionsCanada 2010ElectionsCanada2012)

In sum we observe extremely different demographic and language histories inQuebecandBritishColumbiaThesemajordifferencescanclearlybeexpectedtohaveimpactsoneachprovincersquoslanguagepolicyandplanning

The federal framework and immigration

InCanadabeing a federationofprovinces jurisdictions are allocated toone levelor sharedbetween two Immigration is shared whereas education and municipal affairs come underprovincialjurisdiction

MajortransformationshavetakenplacewithregardtoimmigrationinCanadainthelastdecadesFirsttheimmigrantselectionprocesswasalteredfollowingtheadoptionoftheBillofRights1960whichmade inevitablelsquotheremovalof immigrationregulationsrestrictingaccessofnon-Europeansrsquo(CardozoandPendakur200823)Referencestoraceorregionsoforiginwerethusreplacedintheselectioncriteriawithskillsandqualificationsand incertaincaseslanguages spoken (ibid) Second the ideaofmulticulturalismemerged in the1960s andwasformalizedintheCanadianMulticulturalismAct adoptedin1971AllCanadianprovinceshavesinceembracedimmigrationasasourceofhumananddemographicaswellasfinancialcapital(Paquet2016)Furtherlsquothefederalgovernmentandseveralofitsprovincialcounterpartshaveplaced a priority on immigrationmatters in recent years linking it to amultitude of otherprominent policy areasrsquo (Tolley et al 2011 3 as quoted byGunn 2012 3) In otherwordsquestions relating to immigration were introduced in many policy domains outside that ofcitizenshipandimmigrationperseincludingeducationworkandeconomyMostimportantlywhereasprovincialgovernmentshadbeenquiteshytoundertakeresponsibilitiesregardingtheshared jurisdiction of immigration they have becomemore interested in the field since the1970s(Gunn20123)andincreasinglyactivesincethe1990sIndeed ledbytheinterventionof the province ofQuebec all Canadian provinces have sincewith the federal governmentsigned bilateral agreements regarding immigration adopted immigration policies taken partintheselectionof immigrantsandcontributedtotheestablishmentofvariousorganizationspromotinggreaterintegrationamongnewcomers(Paquet2016)

ProvinceshavefurtherdevelopedvariousprogrammesforthesettlementandintegrationofimmigrantsAsdiscussedbelowadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationisoneimportantaspectofthesemodelsDespiteallthisthefederalagencyoverseeingsettlementandintegrationinthecountryisCitizenshipandImmigrationCanada(CIC)AlthoughQuebecManitobaandBritishColumbialsquoareresponsibleforthedesigndeliveryandadministrationofsettlementservicesrsquothisresponsibilityistransferredwiththelsquoobjectiveofachievingcomparablenewcomersrsquosettlementoutcomesrsquo (CICnd(a))ThebilateralaccordshaveattributedQuebecaspecialright fortheintegrationofnewcomers in theprovinceFinancialcompensationsareprovided forQuebectoprovideintegrationandsettlementserviceslsquoaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountryandaslongasallpermanentresidentsoftheprovincewhethertheywereselectedbyQuebecornotcanhaveaccesstothemrsquo(HouseofCommonsofCanada20101)

London Review of Education 141

Municipal affairs

In Canada the 1867 Constitutional Act assigned to the provincial governments exclusivejurisdictionovermunicipalitiesThusmunicipalitiesarenotconstitutionallyrecognizedanddonotndashat least formallyndashconstituteanorderofgovernmentof theirown inCanada (Young2009 106) One impact of this provincially exclusive jurisdiction is that provincial-municipalsystems vary considerably across the countryWhileCanadianmunicipalities have no formalresponsibilities except in Ontario regarding education healthcare and social services ndash allprovincialjurisdictionsndashtheyareoftenkeyactorsinimplementingfederalandprovincialpoliciesandprogrammes (ibid 115) Immigration is clearlyoneof thepolicydomains inwhich localgovernmentsandmunicipalitieshavebeenincreasinglyactiveIndeedmostimmigrantstoCanadachoosetosettleinbigcitiesTheFederationofCanadianMunicipalitiesstressedthatin2010two-thirdsofimmigrantssettledinCanadarsquosthreemostimportantmetropolitanareasTorontoMontrealandVancouverIn201117percentofimmigrantstoCanada(FCM2011)and76percentofimmigrantstoQuebecchosetosettleinMontreal(EmploiNexus2016)makingup344percentoftheresidentsofthecityofMontrealInthesameyear14percentofimmigrantstoCanadachosetosettleinVancouver(FCM2011)

Inpractice itmeansthatlsquoday-to-day issuesofmulticulturalismare renegotiatedandsettledin only a few citiesrsquo (Good 2008 1)Thus Canadarsquos biggest cities are active in the field ofimmigrationbecausetheyarelsquothefirstpointofcontactbetweennewcomersandgovernmentdue to the day-to-day dependence of immigrants on various local public servicesrsquo (Gunn20121)AccordingtoGood(2008)somemunicipalitieshavebeenveryresponsivetoincreasingnumbersofnewcomersintheirterritoriesndashforexamplethroughcontributinglsquotocommunitycapacitybuildingbyfundingcommunityorganizationsthatserveimmigrantsandethno-culturalminoritiesrsquothroughestablishinglsquoseparateunitsintheircivilservicetofacilitateaccessandequityin governance and service delivery aswell as tomanage diversityrsquo and through establishinglsquogovernancerelationshipsthatsupporttheireffortsinequitypolicyrsquoincludingwiththebusinesscommunity(ibid7)

Despitethefactthatmunicipallsquofront-lineserviceprovidersarekeyplayersinthesuccessfulsettlementattractionandretentionofimmigrantsmunicipalitieshavebeenleftonthesidelinesofimmigrantpolicyandfundingdecisionsrsquo(Gunn20124ndash5)withseniorlevelsofgovernmentsdealingmore frequentlywithlsquospecial-purpose non-profit societiesrsquo (Kataoka andMagnusson200720)

Finallyalthoughmunicipalitiesareformallyajurisdictionoftheprovincesthereisageneraltrend towardsmore direct relationships betweenmunicipalities and the federal government(Andrew 2014 Stoney andGraham 2009)Multiple reasons explain this trend including theimportanceofcontemporaryurbanchallengesandtheexplosionofmunicipalcostsasapartialconsequence of decentralization and of relatively low recent investments in infrastructure(Lalonde2016)Reviewingtheliteratureonthetopicofmunicipal-federalrelationshipsLalondenotes that most federal funding transits in provincial hands before landing in municipalitiesFurthermoremunicipalitiesrsquorolesandrelationshipwithfederalagencieslargelydependontherelationshipbetweentheirrespectiveprovincialgovernmentandthefederalgovernment(ibid)

InsumwhiletheCanadianfederalframeworkcanbeaunifyingfactoritleavesroomforconsiderablevariationndash forexample in thefieldsof immigrationandmunicipal affairsndashandevenforprovincialemulationThesepossibilitieshaveimpactsonlanguagepolicyandplanningndashandmostimportantlyforusintermsofwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoadultimmigrants

142 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

The analytical framework A summary

FollowingpolicyanalysisframeworksandspecificallylanguagepolicyandplanningourenquiryintolanguageeducationforadultimmigrantscompareswhyandhowitisprovidedinQuebecandBritishColumbiatwoverydifferentprovincesofCanadaandintheirbiggestcitiesOurultimategoal istopondertheimpactsofdemography languagehistoryandthefederalframeworkonthesepoliciesTable 3summarizestheelementsaddressedhere

Table 3Analyticalframeworkandapproach

Describing and comparing Pondering the impacts of vectors of differences and similarities

WhyWhatarethemainreasonsforprovidinglanguageeducationtoadultimmigrants

bull Citizenshipandnationalismreasons

bull Jobsindustryandeconomicbenefitsreasons

bull Socialwelfareandintegrationreasons

Demography and language history

bull Languagersquosminorityormajoritystatusinthecountryandcontinent

bull Languagersquospowerofattractionasfirstofficiallanguagelearned

bull LanguagersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull ProvincersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull Otherhistoricalelements(historyofconquestandofsocio-

economicdomination)

Federalism as vector of differences

bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Increasedprovincialinterventiono Bilateralaccordsbetweenprovincesandthefederal

governmento Provincialchoiceofcriteriafortheselectionof

immigrants(levelandtypeofskillslanguagesspokenetc)

bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipalitiesascreaturesoftheprovinces

Federalism as vector of similarities

bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Billofrightso MulticulturalismActo CICinterventions

bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipal-federalrelationshipo Municipalitiesconceivedasalevelofgovernmento Municipalitiesrsquoexclusionofpolicydesign

HowWhatarethemaininternalfeaturesofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducation

bull Languagetaughtbull Responsiblelevelof

governmentbull Languageeducationservice

providers

Language education for adult immigrants in Quebec British Columbia and their respective largest cities

WiththeaboveframeworkandapproachinmindwenowturntodescribingandcomparingwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecBritishColumbiaMontrealandVancouver

London Review of Education 143

Language laws and official languages

InordertoprotectFrenchoutsideofQuebecandEnglishwithinQuebecthefoundinglawofCanadathe1867ConstitutionalActalreadycontainedlanguageprovisionsthebulkofwhichrelatestochildrenrsquoseducationTheActalsorecognizedbothFrenchandEnglishasformallyequalinCanadaHowevertheconclusionofthereportoftheRoyalCommissiononBilingualismandBiculturalism(alsocalledtheLaurendeau-DuntonCommission)heldbythefederalgovernmentofCanadainthe1960semphasizedthatbilingualismhadbeenlsquomostlysymbolic(stampsbanknotesetc)andmeretranslationoflawsandcertainadministrativedocumentsrsquo(SLMCnd(a))RespondingdirectlytothecommissionrsquosrecommendationtheOfficialLanguagesActof1969 statesthat

TheEnglishandFrench languagesare theofficial languagesofCanada forallpurposesof theParliamentandgovernmentofCanadaandpossessandenjoyqualityofstatusandequalrightsandprivilegesastotheiruseinalltheinstitutionsoftheParliamentandgovernmentofCanada

(SLMCnd(a))

Coherentwith the notionof a federation theOfficial LanguagesAct appliesonly to federaljurisdictions and institutions Provinces can also be active in the accessory field of languageinsofarastheyareinterveningwithinthescopeoftheirjurisdiction

The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal

Montreal is theeconomicandcultural centreof theprovinceofQuebecandalso themostpopulousfrancophonecityintheAmericasItspopulationisapproximately16 millionandthatofGreaterMontreal38 millionQuebecistheonlyprovincetohaveFrenchasitssoleofficiallanguageThe second articleof the cityofMontrealrsquos charter categorically states that it is afrancophonecity(GouvernementduQueacutebec2000)

InresponsetoincreasinglyvocalandorganizedgroupsinfavourofvalorizingandprotectingtheFrenchlanguagewithinQuebecthegovernmentadoptedin1974QuebecrsquosfirstlanguagelawtheLoi sur la langue officielle(LawoftheOfficialLanguageBill 22)Howeverthisbillrequiringpublic signs tobe in French andpromotingbilingualismwas consideredunable tomeet thelinguisticchallengesthatQuebecincreasinglyfaced(BourhisandLandry2002)ThegovernmentoftheseparatistPartiQueacutebeacutecoisthusadoptedin1977themuchmorepowerfulCharte de la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec (Bill 101)Thecharterrsquosmainobjectiveswere(1)tohalttheassimilationofFrenchspeakerstoEnglish(2)toensurethesocioeconomicpredominanceofthefrancophonemajority and (3) to promote the assertion of the French fact (ie all that concerns FrenchSLMCnd(b))TodaythecharterrequirescommercialsignstobepredominantlyinFrenchandimmigrantchildreninQuebectoattendFrenchschoolsreversingtheimmigrantsrsquotendencytosendtheirchildrentoEnglishschools(McAndrew200270)Manyother lawsinQuebecaresignificantintermsoflanguageincludingafewregardingmunicipalitiesndashwithMontrealamongthemndashandimmigration(SLMCnd(c))

The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver

VancouveristheeconomiccentreofthewesternprovinceofBritishColumbiaWhilethecityitselfwashome toonly603502people in2011 (theeighth largest city inCanada)GreaterVancouver was home to over 23 million residents (the third largest metropolitan area inCanada)Between2006and2011thepopulationofVancouvergrewby44percentwhilethatofGreaterVancouvergrewby93percent(MetroVancouver2012)Likemostotherprovinces

144 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

andcitiesandcoherentwiththeverylowproportionoffrancophonesinboththeprovinceandcityBritishColumbiaandVancouverhaveEnglishastheironlyofficiallanguage

British Columbiarsquos laws and programmes relevant to languages have been scarce if notwhollyabsentInfactthelegislaturehasneveradoptedalanguagelawTheprovincersquoslegislationhoweverdoescontainasmallnumberoflanguageprovisionsandreferencestolanguageMostofthesedealwiththerequirementforpeopletounderstandandexpressthemselvesinproperEnglishandthepossibilityofusingatranslatorOtherreferencesareinsimpledeclarationsofnon-discriminationonthegroundsof languageplaceoforiginandsoonTheonlyreferencetolanguageinwhichthestatemakesacommitmentinvolvesaboriginal languagesIndeedtheFirstPeoplesrsquoHeritageLanguageandCultureAct ismeant tolsquosupport andadviseministriesof governmenton initiatives programs and services related toNativeheritage language andculturersquo(SLMCnd(d))

Immigrantsrsquo settlement integration and adult language education

The federal government of Canada has provided language instruction for newcomers since1947atthesametimeastheCitizenshipActwasadopted(CIMSS20127Cleghorn 2000)The focusof languageeducationwasthuscitizenshipandtoacertainextentassimilationtotheAnglo-SaxonandEnglish-speakingmajority(Ciccarelli1997Cleghorn2000)AsCleghornnoteslsquopriortoQuebecrsquoscontroloverimmigrationbeginninginthe1960slanguagetrainingforadultimmigrantswasEnglishonlyrsquo(200028)From1965tothemid-1980slanguageeducationevolvedfromafocusoncitizenshipintotwodifferentstreamsofclassesfortwodifferenttypesofimmigrantsTheDepartmentofManpowerandImmigrationprovidedlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsinthelabourforcewhiletheCitizenshipBranchoftheDepartmentofSecretaryofStatendashwithamuchsmallerbudgetndashprovidedlanguageclassestoimmigrantsnotplanningtojointhelabourforce(ibid27ndash30)Althoughthefederalgovernmenthadbeenactiveinlanguageeducationsince1947itextendeditsinterventiontosettlementservicesonlyin1979withitsImmigrantSettlementandAdaptationProgramUntilthenthesettlementandintegrationneedsofimmigrantsweremetndashifsondashlsquobyvoluntaryorganizationssuchascommunitycentresethnicorganizationschurchgroupsandwomenrsquosorganizationsrsquo(ibid32)Alongwiththisprogrammeand the current merged settlement and integration programme CIC has been overseeingimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationItspreferredpatternofserviceprovisionhasbeenandremainsoutsourcingtocommunityserviceproviders

The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal

AsmentionedQuebecbecamemoredirectlyinvolvedinthefieldofimmigrationinthe1970sand was then followed by the other Canadian provincesThe first bilateral agreement onimmigrationbetween thegovernmentofCanadaandaprovincewas signedwithQuebec in1971WiththecurrentagreementndashImmigrationTheCanadandashQuebecAccordndashsignedin1991Canadacommitsitself

towithdrawfromthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionandlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsCanadaprovidescompensationtoQuebecforsuchservicesaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountry

(Beacutechard20113)

London Review of Education 145

TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofQuebecfortheseservicesamountedto$320millionin2013ndash14WhilesimilaragreementsexistwitheachprovincenoneismoreextensiveandmatchedwithasmuchfederalgrantsastheonewithQuebec(Beacutechard2011)

AdultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationiscalledfrancizationinQuebecsuggestingaprocessthroughwhichapersonappropriatesprogressivelytheFrenchlanguageuntilitbecomespartofherorhisidentityOnlyFrenchlanguageclassesndashandnoEnglishonesndashareprovidedforfreetoimmigrantsinQuebecFrancizationclassesareavailabletoimmigrantsinvariousformatsandtheymayqualifyforallowancesthatincertaincasesevencovertransportationandchildcarecosts(MIDI 2015a)No comparable programme exists outside ofQuebec to support immigrantswhileattending languageclasses(CIC2012)Quebecrsquossettlementandintegrationframeworkincludes two programmes of language education and of financial aid for adult immigrants(Programme drsquointeacutegration linguistique pour les immigrants and Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants)andtwoprogrammesforsettlementperse(Programme drsquoaccompagnement des nouveaux arrivantsandProgramme reacutegional drsquointeacutegration)

TheproportionofnewcomersknowingFrenchupontheirarrivalgrewfrom368percentinthe1994ndash8periodto623percentforthe2009ndash13period(MIDI2014a)Itwas586 percentin2015(MIDI2014b24)AnewimmigrationpolicywasadoptedbyQuebecinMarch2016(MIDI2015b)andthepreparatorydocumenttothepolicymadeclearhowmuchofapriorityfrancizationwasamongthevariousinterventionsinsettlementandintegration

InadditiontotherecentincreaseofFrenchimmigrationthefrancizationofimmigrantpeople isoneofthestrategiesthattheGovernmentofQuebecimplementstoensuretheperennialityoftheFrenchfactonitsterritoryaswellasthesuccessfulintegrationofimmigrantpeople

(MIDI2014a15ourtranslation)

ThefirsttenetofthepolicyisthatlsquoimmigrationplaysanimportantroleinboostingQueacutebecrsquosprosperityandinthevitalityoftheFrenchlanguagersquo(MIDI2015b)Francizationismeanttomakethese two priorities and objectives of the policy overlap Indeedlsquoimmigrantsrsquo ability to fullyparticipateinQueacutebecsocietyisdeeplyintertwinedwiththelanguageissuersquo(ibid5)

InQuebecndashlikeintherestofCanadandashmostcontactsrelatingtoandservicesregardingsettlement and language education areprovidedby communityorganizationsOutof the51service providers listed on CICrsquoS website in Montreal 43 (84 per cent) were communityorganizations The services they most frequently provided were general French languageeducation(725percent)servicesforfrancophonenewcomers(549percent)andhelpwithdaily life (314 per cent)Nomunicipal organizationwas however listed as service providerincludinglanguageeducationservices(CICnd(b))

WhileevaluatingtheoutcomesoftheimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationprogrammesinQuebecinrelationtosimilarservicesavailableacrossCanadaCICwrites

TohelpindividualsprepareforlifeinCanadaandthecitizenshiptestinformationisoftenprovidedthrough settlement services particularly via language training curricula Language curricula inQuebecalsofollowsthisapproachhoweverthefocusisonprovidinginformationaboutQuebecculture

(CICnd(c))

InretrospectPaquet(2016)suggeststhatQuebecrsquosapproachtoimmigrationhasbeenholisticseenasacollectiveprojectinselectingimmigrantsovereconomicaswellassocialcriteria

ThecityofMontreallikemostregionsinQuebecconcludesimmigrationagreementswiththeprovincersquosMinistryofImmigrationDiversityandIntegration(Ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusionMIDI)andthuscontributestoassessingneedsandplanninginterventioninthisfieldMunicipalitiesndashincludingMontrealndasharerarelymentionedinprogrammesregarding

146 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

immigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationTherearenomentionsofMontrealandmunicipalitiesintheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccordTheonlyreferencetothecityofMontrealintheMIDIannualreportof2014ndash15isrelatedtotheobjectiveofregionalizingimmigrationthatisreducingthe proportion of immigrants settling inMontreal MIDIrsquos (2008) adult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationactionplanPour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieux(To enrich Quebec Make more French integrate better)makesnomentionofmunicipalitiesorofMontrealOneopeningtocitiesrsquo and regionsrsquo roles in thefieldof immigration is however found in thepreparatorydocumenttothenewQuebecimmigrationpolicyItstatestheirrolein(1)buildingwelcomingandinclusivecommunities(2)gatheringconcreteinformationandknowledgeonactualneedsandchallengesasmetinday-to-dayactivitiesand(3)workingagainstracismanddiscrimination(MIDI2014a54)

Inabriefon immigrationmanagementsubmittedtothegovernmentofQuebec in2011thecityofMontrealaskedfor(1)anofficialrecognitionof itsroleinimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegration(2)anincreasedbudgetforthefrancizationofimmigrantsinMontreal(3)theautomatic transfer toMontreal of 10 per cent of federal grants for immigrantsrsquo settlementand integration and (4) increased budgets for immigrantsrsquo social housing (Ville deMontreacuteal20116)DespitethegovernmentofQuebecrsquosrarementionofMontrealinimmigrationpoliciesandprogrammesthecityhasbeenrelativelyresponsivetoimmigrationinthesensediscussedbyGood (2008) First the city ofMontreal has contributed to community capacity-buildingthroughfundingvariouscommunitygroupsbeinganactivememberofvariouscollaborationsonimmigrationadoptingacharterofrightsandresponsibilityandcreatinganinterculturaladvisorycouncilSecondthecityhasaPlandrsquoaccegraves agrave lrsquoeacutegaliteacute agrave lrsquoemploi(PAEacuteEacute)ThirdthecityhascreatedtheNexusprogrammewhichisamunicipalprogrammeinMontrealthatprovidesbusinesseswithinformationtoolssupportandreferencesregardingtherecruitmentandsustainedemploymentofprofessionalstrainedabroad(EmploiNexus2016)Hencethecityintervenesthroughnotonlycollaboratingwithserviceprovidersbutalsobyfundingthem(VilledeMontreacuteal2011)

The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver

The first bilateral agreement on immigration between the governments of BritishColumbiaandofCanadawassignedin1998andthecurrentagreementndashtheCanadandashBritishColumbiaImmigrationAgreementndashwassignedin2015ContrarytotheprevalentmodelintherestofCanada(exceptQuebecandManitoba)theaccordoperatesatransferofresponsibilityinthefieldofsettlementandintegrationservices(Paquet2016)HoweverwhereastheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccord stipulates the federal governmentrsquoswithdrawal from thedeliveryofservices for the reception linguistic and cultural integration and placements of immigrantsthe CanadandashBritish Columbia ImmigrationAgreement emphasizes collaboration negotiationconsultationandcooperationratherthanstrictdivisionofauthoritybetweentheprovinceandthefederalgovernmentForexamplelsquocollaborationrsquolsquotocollaboratersquoisusedseventimes(nonein theQuebec accord)lsquonegotiationrsquolsquoto negotiatersquo is used seven times (once in the accord)lsquoconsultationrsquolsquoto consultrsquo is used sixteen times (none in the accord) and lsquocooperationrsquolsquotocooperatersquoisusedfivetimes(fiveintheaccordaswell)

TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofBritishColumbiaforthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsamountedto$114millionin2010ndash11(DerwingandWaugh20124)ndasharoundhalfofwhichwasallocatedto language education In addition federal funds were also allocated to Enhanced LanguageTraining a smaller language education initiative (ibid)WelcomeBC and the Settlement andIntegrationProgram arethemainprogrammesthroughwhichsettlementintegrationhappensin

London Review of Education 147

BritishColumbiaTheWelcomingandInclusiveCommunitiesandWorkplacesProgramandtheVulnerableImmigrantPopulationsProgramcompletethepicture

TheproportionofnewcomersspeakingeitherFrenchorEnglishwas73percentin2011ndash12(GovernmentofBritishColumbia2013)muchhigherthantheproportionofnewcomersspeakingFrenchinQuebecInitsannualreportof2011ndash12WelcomeBCwritesthatlanguageabilityiscriticaltothesuccessofimmigrantsintheprovincersquoslabourmarketandcommunitiesAccordingtotheprogrammethoughmostnewcomersarehighlyskilledandeducatedlsquoalackofEnglishlanguageabilitycorrelateswithimmigrantunemploymentandunderemploymentwhichcosts theeconomy inproductivityandeconomicgrowth and impacts immigrantsrsquo successfulsocialandeconomic integrationrsquo(ibid10)Furthermoretheyestimatethatlsquoa1increase inliteracyproducesa25increaseintheleveloflabourproductivityandthatevery1comparativeincreaseinnationalliteracyscoreswouldboostnationalincomeby$32 billionrsquo(ibid8)Inthisexplanationofwhylanguageproficiencyisimportantwenoticeaphrasingthatisfinancialandeconomicratherthansocialorcitizenship-related

English language services for adults (deliveredmostly by community organizations) andEnglishasasecondlanguage(deliveredbypubliclyfundedpost-secondaryinstitutions)arethemain vehicles of adult immigrant training in the province (Government of BritishColumbia2013)Ofthe36serviceproviders inVancouver listedontheCICwebsite fourwere intheeducationsectoronewasaprivatecompanyandtheremaining31(84percent)werecommunityorganizationsTheservices theyprovidedmost frequentlywerehelpwithdaily life (722percent)helpfindingjobs(417percent)mentoring(389percent)andgenerallanguageeducation(306percent)Afewmunicipallibrarieswerealsolistedassettlementandintegrationserviceproviders(CICnd(b))WenoticeherethatamuchlowerproportionofserviceprovidersofferlanguageeducationthanisthecaseinQuebec

British Columbiarsquos settlement and integration policies and programmes refer morefrequentlytoVancouverandmunicipalitiesthandoesQuebecrsquostoMontrealForexampletheimportance of consultingmunicipalities and local governments ismentioned in theCanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration Agreement lsquoThe Parties agree to cooperate to work withLocalGovernmentsinBritishColumbiatoexploreissuesrelatedtotheirrespectiveinterestsin immigration and pursue opportunities related to communitiesrsquo interests in immigrationrsquo(Government ofCanada 2015)Whereas the city ofVancouver is not directlymentioned intheBritishColumbiaImmigrationTaskForcereportoneofitsrecommendationsislsquotoengageindustry local governments and non-governmental organizations in settling and integratingimmigrantsrsquo(MinisterofStateforMulticulturalism201220)FurthermoreBritishColumbiarsquosWelcoming and InclusiveCommunities andWorkplacesProgramlsquohas actively recognized theroleandparticipationofmunicipalgovernmentsintheimmigrantsettlementprocessrsquo(Dicksonet al201323)MunicipalitieshavethuslsquofeltthatacloserpartnershipbetweenBCandmunicipalgovernmentsofsomemajorimmigrantreceptioncitieshasbeenestablishedrsquo(ibid)

In2014VancouverfinallyenteredintoanagreementwiththegovernmentofCanadarsquosCIClsquotoundertakeaLocal ImmigrationPartnership (LIP)rsquo (CityofVancouvernd)TheVancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP2016)isafirststeptowardsestablishingndashwiththecollaborationofdozensoflocalorganizationsandcommunityleadersndashtheveryfirstVancouverImmigrantSettlement and Integration Strategy TheVIPrsquos main focuses are (1) the strengthening ofinterculturalandcivicengagement(2)thecreationofwelcomingandinclusiveworkplacesand(3)theassessmentofnewcomersrsquoneedsinareassuchashousinghealthandaccesstolocalandmunicipalservices

Vancouverhasbeenresponsive to immigration (CityofVancouver201414)first ithascontributedtothecommunitythroughactivelyconsultingcommunitygroupsandleadersfunding

148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)

Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants

Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation

Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries

Conclusion

AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants

London Review of Education 149

Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy

ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec

ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues

Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the

150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated

Notes on the contributors

Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012

CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa

RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada

References

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AhmadFRiazSBarataPandStewartDE(2004)lsquoPatriarchalbeliefsandperceptionsofabuseamongSouthAsianimmigrantwomenrsquoViolence Against Women10(3)262ndash82

AndrewC(2014)lsquoFederalpoliciesonimmigrantsettlementrsquoInGrahamKandAndrewC(eds)Canada in Cities The politics and policy of federal-local governanceMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversity Press227ndash49

BattagliniADeacutesyMDorvalDPoirierL-RFournierMCamirandHandFecteauD(2007)Lrsquointervention de premiegravere ligne agrave Montreacuteal aupregraves des personnes immigrantes Estimeacute des ressources neacutecessaires pour une intervention adeacutequateMontrealDirectiondesanteacutepubliqueOnlinehttppublicationssantemontrealqccauploadstx_asssmpublications978-2-89494-571-1pdf(accessed1March2016)

Beacutechard J (2011) Immigration The CanadandashQuebec Accord Background paper publication no 2011-89-EOttawaLibraryofParliamentOnlinewwwparlgccaContentLOPResearchPublications2011-89-epdf (accessed1March2016)

BelkhodjaC(2008)lsquoIntroductionImmigrationetdiversiteacutedanslescommunauteacutesfrancophonesensituationminoritairersquo In BelkhodjaC (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaire Thegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies3ndash6

BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65

BourhisRandLandryR(2002)lsquoLaloi 101etlrsquoameacutenagementdupaysagelinguistiqueauQueacutebecrsquoOfficede la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_bourhis_vf_1pdf(accessed6April2016)

BursteinM Clement G and Petty S (2014) Pratiques drsquointeacutegration prometteuses dans les communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireOttawaCIC

London Review of Education 151

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CardozoAandPendakurR(2008)Canadarsquos Visible Minority Population 1967ndash2017WorkingpaperseriesVancouver Metropolis British Columbia Online httpmbcmetropolisnetassetsuploadsfileswp2008WP08-05pdf(accessed1March2016)

CentreforInternationalMigrationandSettlementStudies(CIMSS)(2012)lsquoIntroductionStateoftheartandfuturedirectionsinsettlementlanguagetrainingrsquoInternational Settlement CanadaSpecial issue on settlement language training SpringOnlinewww3carletoncacimssinscan-ev24_sepdf (accessed1March2016)

ChiswickBR (2008)The Economics of Language An introduction and overviewDiscussionpaperno3568 BonnInstitutefortheStudyofLaborOnlinehttpftpizaorgdp3568pdf(accessed1March2016)

Ciccarelli SB (1997)lsquoESL for nation-buildingThe origins of federally-funded ESL inCanadarsquoMA dissOntarioInstituteforStudiesinEducationUniversityofToronto

Citizenship and ImmigrationCanada (CIC) (2012)Canada Faits et chiffres 2012 Aperccedilu de lrsquoimmigration Reacutesidents permanents et temporaires Ottawa CIC Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2013cicCi1-8-2012-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd(a)) lsquoStrategic outcomes and program activity architecturersquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentpaaactivity-05asp(accessed6April2016)

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ndashndash (nd(c)) lsquoLanguage classes funded by the Government of Canadarsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishnewcomerslivelanguageasp(accessed1March2016)

CityofVancouver(2014)lsquoCulturalCommunitiesAdvisoryCommitteersquo Onlinehttpvancouvercayour-governmentcultural-communities-advisory-committeeaspx(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd) Vancouver City Local Immigration PartnershipVancouver Community Services Online httpvancouvercafilescovvancouver-city-local-immigration-partnership-overviewpdf (accessed 6 April2016)

ndashndashMulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee (2014)Committee Term SummaryOnlinehttpvancouvercafilescovcouncil-of-councils-presentation-mac-2014pdf(accessed1March2016)

ClarksonA (2014)Belonging The paradox of citizenshipCBCMasseyLecture SeriesTorontoHouseofAnansiPress

CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)

CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20

CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants

Montreal Institute forResearchonPublicPolicyOnline httpirpporgwp-contentuploadsassetsresearchdiversity-immigration-and-integrationlanguage-skills-and-the-social-integration-of-canadas-adult-immigrantsIRPP-Study-no31pdf(accessed1March2016)

Dickinson JA andYoung B (2008) Bregraveve histoire socio-historique du Queacutebec Montreal BibliothegravequeQueacutebeacutecoise

DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)

DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS

152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)

ndashndash(2012)lsquoReacutepartitiondessiegravegesagrave laChambredescommunesparprovincersquo Onlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredalloampdocument=indexamplang=f(accessed6April2016)

EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant

settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19

FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48

Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario

Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan

GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45

GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)

GouvernementduQueacutebec(1977)lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11C11_Ahtml(accessed1March2016)

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GunnA (2012) Immigration and Multi-level Governance in Canada and Europe The role of municipalities as integration policy innovators PolicyPaperCanadandashEuropeTransatlanticDialogueSeekingtransnationalsolutionsto21stcenturyproblemsOnlinehttplabscarletoncacanadaeuropewp-contentuploadssites92012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalitiespdf(accessed1March2016)

HouseofCommonsofCanada(2010)Best Practices in Settlement Services Report of the Standing Committee on Citizenship and ImmigrationOttawaGovernmentofCanadaOnlinewwwparlgccacontenthocCommittee403CIMMReportsRP4388396cimmrp02cimmrp02-epdf(accessed6April2016)

InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)

London Review of Education 153

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KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)

LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)

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Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada

McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)

MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)

MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)

MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)

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ndashndash(2015b)lsquoPolitiquequeacutebeacutecoiseenmatiegraveredrsquoimmigrationdeparticipationetdrsquoinclusionrsquoGouvernementdu Queacutebec Online wwwmidigouvqccafrdossiersconsultation-publiquehtml (accessed 6 April2016)

MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress

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Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec

154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

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RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)

SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge

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SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)

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ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)

StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94

SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI

London Review of Education 155

Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)

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TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246

VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)

VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7

Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)

XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)

YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35

Related articles published in the London Review of Education

In this issue

Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)

Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33

156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21

MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73

Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85

Elsewhere in this issue

HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98

Page 7: Language planning and education of adult immigrants in ... · Furthermore, 21.3 per cent of Canadians, 78.1 per cent of Québécois, and 1.3 per cent of British Columbians have French

140 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

centin1971to131percentin2015(ISQ201523)AsaconsequenceBritishColumbiarsquosseatsinthefederalparliamentincreasedfrom7percentin1976to125percentin2015(ElectionsCanada 2010ElectionsCanada2012)

In sum we observe extremely different demographic and language histories inQuebecandBritishColumbiaThesemajordifferencescanclearlybeexpectedtohaveimpactsoneachprovincersquoslanguagepolicyandplanning

The federal framework and immigration

InCanadabeing a federationofprovinces jurisdictions are allocated toone levelor sharedbetween two Immigration is shared whereas education and municipal affairs come underprovincialjurisdiction

MajortransformationshavetakenplacewithregardtoimmigrationinCanadainthelastdecadesFirsttheimmigrantselectionprocesswasalteredfollowingtheadoptionoftheBillofRights1960whichmade inevitablelsquotheremovalof immigrationregulationsrestrictingaccessofnon-Europeansrsquo(CardozoandPendakur200823)Referencestoraceorregionsoforiginwerethusreplacedintheselectioncriteriawithskillsandqualificationsand incertaincaseslanguages spoken (ibid) Second the ideaofmulticulturalismemerged in the1960s andwasformalizedintheCanadianMulticulturalismAct adoptedin1971AllCanadianprovinceshavesinceembracedimmigrationasasourceofhumananddemographicaswellasfinancialcapital(Paquet2016)Furtherlsquothefederalgovernmentandseveralofitsprovincialcounterpartshaveplaced a priority on immigrationmatters in recent years linking it to amultitude of otherprominent policy areasrsquo (Tolley et al 2011 3 as quoted byGunn 2012 3) In otherwordsquestions relating to immigration were introduced in many policy domains outside that ofcitizenshipandimmigrationperseincludingeducationworkandeconomyMostimportantlywhereasprovincialgovernmentshadbeenquiteshytoundertakeresponsibilitiesregardingtheshared jurisdiction of immigration they have becomemore interested in the field since the1970s(Gunn20123)andincreasinglyactivesincethe1990sIndeed ledbytheinterventionof the province ofQuebec all Canadian provinces have sincewith the federal governmentsigned bilateral agreements regarding immigration adopted immigration policies taken partintheselectionof immigrantsandcontributedtotheestablishmentofvariousorganizationspromotinggreaterintegrationamongnewcomers(Paquet2016)

ProvinceshavefurtherdevelopedvariousprogrammesforthesettlementandintegrationofimmigrantsAsdiscussedbelowadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationisoneimportantaspectofthesemodelsDespiteallthisthefederalagencyoverseeingsettlementandintegrationinthecountryisCitizenshipandImmigrationCanada(CIC)AlthoughQuebecManitobaandBritishColumbialsquoareresponsibleforthedesigndeliveryandadministrationofsettlementservicesrsquothisresponsibilityistransferredwiththelsquoobjectiveofachievingcomparablenewcomersrsquosettlementoutcomesrsquo (CICnd(a))ThebilateralaccordshaveattributedQuebecaspecialright fortheintegrationofnewcomers in theprovinceFinancialcompensationsareprovided forQuebectoprovideintegrationandsettlementserviceslsquoaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountryandaslongasallpermanentresidentsoftheprovincewhethertheywereselectedbyQuebecornotcanhaveaccesstothemrsquo(HouseofCommonsofCanada20101)

London Review of Education 141

Municipal affairs

In Canada the 1867 Constitutional Act assigned to the provincial governments exclusivejurisdictionovermunicipalitiesThusmunicipalitiesarenotconstitutionallyrecognizedanddonotndashat least formallyndashconstituteanorderofgovernmentof theirown inCanada (Young2009 106) One impact of this provincially exclusive jurisdiction is that provincial-municipalsystems vary considerably across the countryWhileCanadianmunicipalities have no formalresponsibilities except in Ontario regarding education healthcare and social services ndash allprovincialjurisdictionsndashtheyareoftenkeyactorsinimplementingfederalandprovincialpoliciesandprogrammes (ibid 115) Immigration is clearlyoneof thepolicydomains inwhich localgovernmentsandmunicipalitieshavebeenincreasinglyactiveIndeedmostimmigrantstoCanadachoosetosettleinbigcitiesTheFederationofCanadianMunicipalitiesstressedthatin2010two-thirdsofimmigrantssettledinCanadarsquosthreemostimportantmetropolitanareasTorontoMontrealandVancouverIn201117percentofimmigrantstoCanada(FCM2011)and76percentofimmigrantstoQuebecchosetosettleinMontreal(EmploiNexus2016)makingup344percentoftheresidentsofthecityofMontrealInthesameyear14percentofimmigrantstoCanadachosetosettleinVancouver(FCM2011)

Inpractice itmeansthatlsquoday-to-day issuesofmulticulturalismare renegotiatedandsettledin only a few citiesrsquo (Good 2008 1)Thus Canadarsquos biggest cities are active in the field ofimmigrationbecausetheyarelsquothefirstpointofcontactbetweennewcomersandgovernmentdue to the day-to-day dependence of immigrants on various local public servicesrsquo (Gunn20121)AccordingtoGood(2008)somemunicipalitieshavebeenveryresponsivetoincreasingnumbersofnewcomersintheirterritoriesndashforexamplethroughcontributinglsquotocommunitycapacitybuildingbyfundingcommunityorganizationsthatserveimmigrantsandethno-culturalminoritiesrsquothroughestablishinglsquoseparateunitsintheircivilservicetofacilitateaccessandequityin governance and service delivery aswell as tomanage diversityrsquo and through establishinglsquogovernancerelationshipsthatsupporttheireffortsinequitypolicyrsquoincludingwiththebusinesscommunity(ibid7)

Despitethefactthatmunicipallsquofront-lineserviceprovidersarekeyplayersinthesuccessfulsettlementattractionandretentionofimmigrantsmunicipalitieshavebeenleftonthesidelinesofimmigrantpolicyandfundingdecisionsrsquo(Gunn20124ndash5)withseniorlevelsofgovernmentsdealingmore frequentlywithlsquospecial-purpose non-profit societiesrsquo (Kataoka andMagnusson200720)

Finallyalthoughmunicipalitiesareformallyajurisdictionoftheprovincesthereisageneraltrend towardsmore direct relationships betweenmunicipalities and the federal government(Andrew 2014 Stoney andGraham 2009)Multiple reasons explain this trend including theimportanceofcontemporaryurbanchallengesandtheexplosionofmunicipalcostsasapartialconsequence of decentralization and of relatively low recent investments in infrastructure(Lalonde2016)Reviewingtheliteratureonthetopicofmunicipal-federalrelationshipsLalondenotes that most federal funding transits in provincial hands before landing in municipalitiesFurthermoremunicipalitiesrsquorolesandrelationshipwithfederalagencieslargelydependontherelationshipbetweentheirrespectiveprovincialgovernmentandthefederalgovernment(ibid)

InsumwhiletheCanadianfederalframeworkcanbeaunifyingfactoritleavesroomforconsiderablevariationndash forexample in thefieldsof immigrationandmunicipal affairsndashandevenforprovincialemulationThesepossibilitieshaveimpactsonlanguagepolicyandplanningndashandmostimportantlyforusintermsofwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoadultimmigrants

142 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

The analytical framework A summary

FollowingpolicyanalysisframeworksandspecificallylanguagepolicyandplanningourenquiryintolanguageeducationforadultimmigrantscompareswhyandhowitisprovidedinQuebecandBritishColumbiatwoverydifferentprovincesofCanadaandintheirbiggestcitiesOurultimategoal istopondertheimpactsofdemography languagehistoryandthefederalframeworkonthesepoliciesTable 3summarizestheelementsaddressedhere

Table 3Analyticalframeworkandapproach

Describing and comparing Pondering the impacts of vectors of differences and similarities

WhyWhatarethemainreasonsforprovidinglanguageeducationtoadultimmigrants

bull Citizenshipandnationalismreasons

bull Jobsindustryandeconomicbenefitsreasons

bull Socialwelfareandintegrationreasons

Demography and language history

bull Languagersquosminorityormajoritystatusinthecountryandcontinent

bull Languagersquospowerofattractionasfirstofficiallanguagelearned

bull LanguagersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull ProvincersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull Otherhistoricalelements(historyofconquestandofsocio-

economicdomination)

Federalism as vector of differences

bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Increasedprovincialinterventiono Bilateralaccordsbetweenprovincesandthefederal

governmento Provincialchoiceofcriteriafortheselectionof

immigrants(levelandtypeofskillslanguagesspokenetc)

bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipalitiesascreaturesoftheprovinces

Federalism as vector of similarities

bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Billofrightso MulticulturalismActo CICinterventions

bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipal-federalrelationshipo Municipalitiesconceivedasalevelofgovernmento Municipalitiesrsquoexclusionofpolicydesign

HowWhatarethemaininternalfeaturesofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducation

bull Languagetaughtbull Responsiblelevelof

governmentbull Languageeducationservice

providers

Language education for adult immigrants in Quebec British Columbia and their respective largest cities

WiththeaboveframeworkandapproachinmindwenowturntodescribingandcomparingwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecBritishColumbiaMontrealandVancouver

London Review of Education 143

Language laws and official languages

InordertoprotectFrenchoutsideofQuebecandEnglishwithinQuebecthefoundinglawofCanadathe1867ConstitutionalActalreadycontainedlanguageprovisionsthebulkofwhichrelatestochildrenrsquoseducationTheActalsorecognizedbothFrenchandEnglishasformallyequalinCanadaHowevertheconclusionofthereportoftheRoyalCommissiononBilingualismandBiculturalism(alsocalledtheLaurendeau-DuntonCommission)heldbythefederalgovernmentofCanadainthe1960semphasizedthatbilingualismhadbeenlsquomostlysymbolic(stampsbanknotesetc)andmeretranslationoflawsandcertainadministrativedocumentsrsquo(SLMCnd(a))RespondingdirectlytothecommissionrsquosrecommendationtheOfficialLanguagesActof1969 statesthat

TheEnglishandFrench languagesare theofficial languagesofCanada forallpurposesof theParliamentandgovernmentofCanadaandpossessandenjoyqualityofstatusandequalrightsandprivilegesastotheiruseinalltheinstitutionsoftheParliamentandgovernmentofCanada

(SLMCnd(a))

Coherentwith the notionof a federation theOfficial LanguagesAct appliesonly to federaljurisdictions and institutions Provinces can also be active in the accessory field of languageinsofarastheyareinterveningwithinthescopeoftheirjurisdiction

The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal

Montreal is theeconomicandcultural centreof theprovinceofQuebecandalso themostpopulousfrancophonecityintheAmericasItspopulationisapproximately16 millionandthatofGreaterMontreal38 millionQuebecistheonlyprovincetohaveFrenchasitssoleofficiallanguageThe second articleof the cityofMontrealrsquos charter categorically states that it is afrancophonecity(GouvernementduQueacutebec2000)

InresponsetoincreasinglyvocalandorganizedgroupsinfavourofvalorizingandprotectingtheFrenchlanguagewithinQuebecthegovernmentadoptedin1974QuebecrsquosfirstlanguagelawtheLoi sur la langue officielle(LawoftheOfficialLanguageBill 22)Howeverthisbillrequiringpublic signs tobe in French andpromotingbilingualismwas consideredunable tomeet thelinguisticchallengesthatQuebecincreasinglyfaced(BourhisandLandry2002)ThegovernmentoftheseparatistPartiQueacutebeacutecoisthusadoptedin1977themuchmorepowerfulCharte de la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec (Bill 101)Thecharterrsquosmainobjectiveswere(1)tohalttheassimilationofFrenchspeakerstoEnglish(2)toensurethesocioeconomicpredominanceofthefrancophonemajority and (3) to promote the assertion of the French fact (ie all that concerns FrenchSLMCnd(b))TodaythecharterrequirescommercialsignstobepredominantlyinFrenchandimmigrantchildreninQuebectoattendFrenchschoolsreversingtheimmigrantsrsquotendencytosendtheirchildrentoEnglishschools(McAndrew200270)Manyother lawsinQuebecaresignificantintermsoflanguageincludingafewregardingmunicipalitiesndashwithMontrealamongthemndashandimmigration(SLMCnd(c))

The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver

VancouveristheeconomiccentreofthewesternprovinceofBritishColumbiaWhilethecityitselfwashome toonly603502people in2011 (theeighth largest city inCanada)GreaterVancouver was home to over 23 million residents (the third largest metropolitan area inCanada)Between2006and2011thepopulationofVancouvergrewby44percentwhilethatofGreaterVancouvergrewby93percent(MetroVancouver2012)Likemostotherprovinces

144 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

andcitiesandcoherentwiththeverylowproportionoffrancophonesinboththeprovinceandcityBritishColumbiaandVancouverhaveEnglishastheironlyofficiallanguage

British Columbiarsquos laws and programmes relevant to languages have been scarce if notwhollyabsentInfactthelegislaturehasneveradoptedalanguagelawTheprovincersquoslegislationhoweverdoescontainasmallnumberoflanguageprovisionsandreferencestolanguageMostofthesedealwiththerequirementforpeopletounderstandandexpressthemselvesinproperEnglishandthepossibilityofusingatranslatorOtherreferencesareinsimpledeclarationsofnon-discriminationonthegroundsof languageplaceoforiginandsoonTheonlyreferencetolanguageinwhichthestatemakesacommitmentinvolvesaboriginal languagesIndeedtheFirstPeoplesrsquoHeritageLanguageandCultureAct ismeant tolsquosupport andadviseministriesof governmenton initiatives programs and services related toNativeheritage language andculturersquo(SLMCnd(d))

Immigrantsrsquo settlement integration and adult language education

The federal government of Canada has provided language instruction for newcomers since1947atthesametimeastheCitizenshipActwasadopted(CIMSS20127Cleghorn 2000)The focusof languageeducationwasthuscitizenshipandtoacertainextentassimilationtotheAnglo-SaxonandEnglish-speakingmajority(Ciccarelli1997Cleghorn2000)AsCleghornnoteslsquopriortoQuebecrsquoscontroloverimmigrationbeginninginthe1960slanguagetrainingforadultimmigrantswasEnglishonlyrsquo(200028)From1965tothemid-1980slanguageeducationevolvedfromafocusoncitizenshipintotwodifferentstreamsofclassesfortwodifferenttypesofimmigrantsTheDepartmentofManpowerandImmigrationprovidedlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsinthelabourforcewhiletheCitizenshipBranchoftheDepartmentofSecretaryofStatendashwithamuchsmallerbudgetndashprovidedlanguageclassestoimmigrantsnotplanningtojointhelabourforce(ibid27ndash30)Althoughthefederalgovernmenthadbeenactiveinlanguageeducationsince1947itextendeditsinterventiontosettlementservicesonlyin1979withitsImmigrantSettlementandAdaptationProgramUntilthenthesettlementandintegrationneedsofimmigrantsweremetndashifsondashlsquobyvoluntaryorganizationssuchascommunitycentresethnicorganizationschurchgroupsandwomenrsquosorganizationsrsquo(ibid32)Alongwiththisprogrammeand the current merged settlement and integration programme CIC has been overseeingimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationItspreferredpatternofserviceprovisionhasbeenandremainsoutsourcingtocommunityserviceproviders

The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal

AsmentionedQuebecbecamemoredirectlyinvolvedinthefieldofimmigrationinthe1970sand was then followed by the other Canadian provincesThe first bilateral agreement onimmigrationbetween thegovernmentofCanadaandaprovincewas signedwithQuebec in1971WiththecurrentagreementndashImmigrationTheCanadandashQuebecAccordndashsignedin1991Canadacommitsitself

towithdrawfromthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionandlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsCanadaprovidescompensationtoQuebecforsuchservicesaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountry

(Beacutechard20113)

London Review of Education 145

TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofQuebecfortheseservicesamountedto$320millionin2013ndash14WhilesimilaragreementsexistwitheachprovincenoneismoreextensiveandmatchedwithasmuchfederalgrantsastheonewithQuebec(Beacutechard2011)

AdultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationiscalledfrancizationinQuebecsuggestingaprocessthroughwhichapersonappropriatesprogressivelytheFrenchlanguageuntilitbecomespartofherorhisidentityOnlyFrenchlanguageclassesndashandnoEnglishonesndashareprovidedforfreetoimmigrantsinQuebecFrancizationclassesareavailabletoimmigrantsinvariousformatsandtheymayqualifyforallowancesthatincertaincasesevencovertransportationandchildcarecosts(MIDI 2015a)No comparable programme exists outside ofQuebec to support immigrantswhileattending languageclasses(CIC2012)Quebecrsquossettlementandintegrationframeworkincludes two programmes of language education and of financial aid for adult immigrants(Programme drsquointeacutegration linguistique pour les immigrants and Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants)andtwoprogrammesforsettlementperse(Programme drsquoaccompagnement des nouveaux arrivantsandProgramme reacutegional drsquointeacutegration)

TheproportionofnewcomersknowingFrenchupontheirarrivalgrewfrom368percentinthe1994ndash8periodto623percentforthe2009ndash13period(MIDI2014a)Itwas586 percentin2015(MIDI2014b24)AnewimmigrationpolicywasadoptedbyQuebecinMarch2016(MIDI2015b)andthepreparatorydocumenttothepolicymadeclearhowmuchofapriorityfrancizationwasamongthevariousinterventionsinsettlementandintegration

InadditiontotherecentincreaseofFrenchimmigrationthefrancizationofimmigrantpeople isoneofthestrategiesthattheGovernmentofQuebecimplementstoensuretheperennialityoftheFrenchfactonitsterritoryaswellasthesuccessfulintegrationofimmigrantpeople

(MIDI2014a15ourtranslation)

ThefirsttenetofthepolicyisthatlsquoimmigrationplaysanimportantroleinboostingQueacutebecrsquosprosperityandinthevitalityoftheFrenchlanguagersquo(MIDI2015b)Francizationismeanttomakethese two priorities and objectives of the policy overlap Indeedlsquoimmigrantsrsquo ability to fullyparticipateinQueacutebecsocietyisdeeplyintertwinedwiththelanguageissuersquo(ibid5)

InQuebecndashlikeintherestofCanadandashmostcontactsrelatingtoandservicesregardingsettlement and language education areprovidedby communityorganizationsOutof the51service providers listed on CICrsquoS website in Montreal 43 (84 per cent) were communityorganizations The services they most frequently provided were general French languageeducation(725percent)servicesforfrancophonenewcomers(549percent)andhelpwithdaily life (314 per cent)Nomunicipal organizationwas however listed as service providerincludinglanguageeducationservices(CICnd(b))

WhileevaluatingtheoutcomesoftheimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationprogrammesinQuebecinrelationtosimilarservicesavailableacrossCanadaCICwrites

TohelpindividualsprepareforlifeinCanadaandthecitizenshiptestinformationisoftenprovidedthrough settlement services particularly via language training curricula Language curricula inQuebecalsofollowsthisapproachhoweverthefocusisonprovidinginformationaboutQuebecculture

(CICnd(c))

InretrospectPaquet(2016)suggeststhatQuebecrsquosapproachtoimmigrationhasbeenholisticseenasacollectiveprojectinselectingimmigrantsovereconomicaswellassocialcriteria

ThecityofMontreallikemostregionsinQuebecconcludesimmigrationagreementswiththeprovincersquosMinistryofImmigrationDiversityandIntegration(Ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusionMIDI)andthuscontributestoassessingneedsandplanninginterventioninthisfieldMunicipalitiesndashincludingMontrealndasharerarelymentionedinprogrammesregarding

146 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

immigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationTherearenomentionsofMontrealandmunicipalitiesintheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccordTheonlyreferencetothecityofMontrealintheMIDIannualreportof2014ndash15isrelatedtotheobjectiveofregionalizingimmigrationthatisreducingthe proportion of immigrants settling inMontreal MIDIrsquos (2008) adult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationactionplanPour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieux(To enrich Quebec Make more French integrate better)makesnomentionofmunicipalitiesorofMontrealOneopeningtocitiesrsquo and regionsrsquo roles in thefieldof immigration is however found in thepreparatorydocumenttothenewQuebecimmigrationpolicyItstatestheirrolein(1)buildingwelcomingandinclusivecommunities(2)gatheringconcreteinformationandknowledgeonactualneedsandchallengesasmetinday-to-dayactivitiesand(3)workingagainstracismanddiscrimination(MIDI2014a54)

Inabriefon immigrationmanagementsubmittedtothegovernmentofQuebec in2011thecityofMontrealaskedfor(1)anofficialrecognitionof itsroleinimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegration(2)anincreasedbudgetforthefrancizationofimmigrantsinMontreal(3)theautomatic transfer toMontreal of 10 per cent of federal grants for immigrantsrsquo settlementand integration and (4) increased budgets for immigrantsrsquo social housing (Ville deMontreacuteal20116)DespitethegovernmentofQuebecrsquosrarementionofMontrealinimmigrationpoliciesandprogrammesthecityhasbeenrelativelyresponsivetoimmigrationinthesensediscussedbyGood (2008) First the city ofMontreal has contributed to community capacity-buildingthroughfundingvariouscommunitygroupsbeinganactivememberofvariouscollaborationsonimmigrationadoptingacharterofrightsandresponsibilityandcreatinganinterculturaladvisorycouncilSecondthecityhasaPlandrsquoaccegraves agrave lrsquoeacutegaliteacute agrave lrsquoemploi(PAEacuteEacute)ThirdthecityhascreatedtheNexusprogrammewhichisamunicipalprogrammeinMontrealthatprovidesbusinesseswithinformationtoolssupportandreferencesregardingtherecruitmentandsustainedemploymentofprofessionalstrainedabroad(EmploiNexus2016)Hencethecityintervenesthroughnotonlycollaboratingwithserviceprovidersbutalsobyfundingthem(VilledeMontreacuteal2011)

The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver

The first bilateral agreement on immigration between the governments of BritishColumbiaandofCanadawassignedin1998andthecurrentagreementndashtheCanadandashBritishColumbiaImmigrationAgreementndashwassignedin2015ContrarytotheprevalentmodelintherestofCanada(exceptQuebecandManitoba)theaccordoperatesatransferofresponsibilityinthefieldofsettlementandintegrationservices(Paquet2016)HoweverwhereastheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccord stipulates the federal governmentrsquoswithdrawal from thedeliveryofservices for the reception linguistic and cultural integration and placements of immigrantsthe CanadandashBritish Columbia ImmigrationAgreement emphasizes collaboration negotiationconsultationandcooperationratherthanstrictdivisionofauthoritybetweentheprovinceandthefederalgovernmentForexamplelsquocollaborationrsquolsquotocollaboratersquoisusedseventimes(nonein theQuebec accord)lsquonegotiationrsquolsquoto negotiatersquo is used seven times (once in the accord)lsquoconsultationrsquolsquoto consultrsquo is used sixteen times (none in the accord) and lsquocooperationrsquolsquotocooperatersquoisusedfivetimes(fiveintheaccordaswell)

TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofBritishColumbiaforthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsamountedto$114millionin2010ndash11(DerwingandWaugh20124)ndasharoundhalfofwhichwasallocatedto language education In addition federal funds were also allocated to Enhanced LanguageTraining a smaller language education initiative (ibid)WelcomeBC and the Settlement andIntegrationProgram arethemainprogrammesthroughwhichsettlementintegrationhappensin

London Review of Education 147

BritishColumbiaTheWelcomingandInclusiveCommunitiesandWorkplacesProgramandtheVulnerableImmigrantPopulationsProgramcompletethepicture

TheproportionofnewcomersspeakingeitherFrenchorEnglishwas73percentin2011ndash12(GovernmentofBritishColumbia2013)muchhigherthantheproportionofnewcomersspeakingFrenchinQuebecInitsannualreportof2011ndash12WelcomeBCwritesthatlanguageabilityiscriticaltothesuccessofimmigrantsintheprovincersquoslabourmarketandcommunitiesAccordingtotheprogrammethoughmostnewcomersarehighlyskilledandeducatedlsquoalackofEnglishlanguageabilitycorrelateswithimmigrantunemploymentandunderemploymentwhichcosts theeconomy inproductivityandeconomicgrowth and impacts immigrantsrsquo successfulsocialandeconomic integrationrsquo(ibid10)Furthermoretheyestimatethatlsquoa1increase inliteracyproducesa25increaseintheleveloflabourproductivityandthatevery1comparativeincreaseinnationalliteracyscoreswouldboostnationalincomeby$32 billionrsquo(ibid8)Inthisexplanationofwhylanguageproficiencyisimportantwenoticeaphrasingthatisfinancialandeconomicratherthansocialorcitizenship-related

English language services for adults (deliveredmostly by community organizations) andEnglishasasecondlanguage(deliveredbypubliclyfundedpost-secondaryinstitutions)arethemain vehicles of adult immigrant training in the province (Government of BritishColumbia2013)Ofthe36serviceproviders inVancouver listedontheCICwebsite fourwere intheeducationsectoronewasaprivatecompanyandtheremaining31(84percent)werecommunityorganizationsTheservices theyprovidedmost frequentlywerehelpwithdaily life (722percent)helpfindingjobs(417percent)mentoring(389percent)andgenerallanguageeducation(306percent)Afewmunicipallibrarieswerealsolistedassettlementandintegrationserviceproviders(CICnd(b))WenoticeherethatamuchlowerproportionofserviceprovidersofferlanguageeducationthanisthecaseinQuebec

British Columbiarsquos settlement and integration policies and programmes refer morefrequentlytoVancouverandmunicipalitiesthandoesQuebecrsquostoMontrealForexampletheimportance of consultingmunicipalities and local governments ismentioned in theCanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration Agreement lsquoThe Parties agree to cooperate to work withLocalGovernmentsinBritishColumbiatoexploreissuesrelatedtotheirrespectiveinterestsin immigration and pursue opportunities related to communitiesrsquo interests in immigrationrsquo(Government ofCanada 2015)Whereas the city ofVancouver is not directlymentioned intheBritishColumbiaImmigrationTaskForcereportoneofitsrecommendationsislsquotoengageindustry local governments and non-governmental organizations in settling and integratingimmigrantsrsquo(MinisterofStateforMulticulturalism201220)FurthermoreBritishColumbiarsquosWelcoming and InclusiveCommunities andWorkplacesProgramlsquohas actively recognized theroleandparticipationofmunicipalgovernmentsintheimmigrantsettlementprocessrsquo(Dicksonet al201323)MunicipalitieshavethuslsquofeltthatacloserpartnershipbetweenBCandmunicipalgovernmentsofsomemajorimmigrantreceptioncitieshasbeenestablishedrsquo(ibid)

In2014VancouverfinallyenteredintoanagreementwiththegovernmentofCanadarsquosCIClsquotoundertakeaLocal ImmigrationPartnership (LIP)rsquo (CityofVancouvernd)TheVancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP2016)isafirststeptowardsestablishingndashwiththecollaborationofdozensoflocalorganizationsandcommunityleadersndashtheveryfirstVancouverImmigrantSettlement and Integration Strategy TheVIPrsquos main focuses are (1) the strengthening ofinterculturalandcivicengagement(2)thecreationofwelcomingandinclusiveworkplacesand(3)theassessmentofnewcomersrsquoneedsinareassuchashousinghealthandaccesstolocalandmunicipalservices

Vancouverhasbeenresponsive to immigration (CityofVancouver201414)first ithascontributedtothecommunitythroughactivelyconsultingcommunitygroupsandleadersfunding

148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)

Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants

Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation

Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries

Conclusion

AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants

London Review of Education 149

Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy

ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec

ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues

Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the

150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated

Notes on the contributors

Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012

CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa

RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada

References

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AhmadFRiazSBarataPandStewartDE(2004)lsquoPatriarchalbeliefsandperceptionsofabuseamongSouthAsianimmigrantwomenrsquoViolence Against Women10(3)262ndash82

AndrewC(2014)lsquoFederalpoliciesonimmigrantsettlementrsquoInGrahamKandAndrewC(eds)Canada in Cities The politics and policy of federal-local governanceMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversity Press227ndash49

BattagliniADeacutesyMDorvalDPoirierL-RFournierMCamirandHandFecteauD(2007)Lrsquointervention de premiegravere ligne agrave Montreacuteal aupregraves des personnes immigrantes Estimeacute des ressources neacutecessaires pour une intervention adeacutequateMontrealDirectiondesanteacutepubliqueOnlinehttppublicationssantemontrealqccauploadstx_asssmpublications978-2-89494-571-1pdf(accessed1March2016)

Beacutechard J (2011) Immigration The CanadandashQuebec Accord Background paper publication no 2011-89-EOttawaLibraryofParliamentOnlinewwwparlgccaContentLOPResearchPublications2011-89-epdf (accessed1March2016)

BelkhodjaC(2008)lsquoIntroductionImmigrationetdiversiteacutedanslescommunauteacutesfrancophonesensituationminoritairersquo In BelkhodjaC (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaire Thegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies3ndash6

BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65

BourhisRandLandryR(2002)lsquoLaloi 101etlrsquoameacutenagementdupaysagelinguistiqueauQueacutebecrsquoOfficede la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_bourhis_vf_1pdf(accessed6April2016)

BursteinM Clement G and Petty S (2014) Pratiques drsquointeacutegration prometteuses dans les communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireOttawaCIC

London Review of Education 151

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CardozoAandPendakurR(2008)Canadarsquos Visible Minority Population 1967ndash2017WorkingpaperseriesVancouver Metropolis British Columbia Online httpmbcmetropolisnetassetsuploadsfileswp2008WP08-05pdf(accessed1March2016)

CentreforInternationalMigrationandSettlementStudies(CIMSS)(2012)lsquoIntroductionStateoftheartandfuturedirectionsinsettlementlanguagetrainingrsquoInternational Settlement CanadaSpecial issue on settlement language training SpringOnlinewww3carletoncacimssinscan-ev24_sepdf (accessed1March2016)

ChiswickBR (2008)The Economics of Language An introduction and overviewDiscussionpaperno3568 BonnInstitutefortheStudyofLaborOnlinehttpftpizaorgdp3568pdf(accessed1March2016)

Ciccarelli SB (1997)lsquoESL for nation-buildingThe origins of federally-funded ESL inCanadarsquoMA dissOntarioInstituteforStudiesinEducationUniversityofToronto

Citizenship and ImmigrationCanada (CIC) (2012)Canada Faits et chiffres 2012 Aperccedilu de lrsquoimmigration Reacutesidents permanents et temporaires Ottawa CIC Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2013cicCi1-8-2012-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd(a)) lsquoStrategic outcomes and program activity architecturersquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentpaaactivity-05asp(accessed6April2016)

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ndashndash (nd(c)) lsquoLanguage classes funded by the Government of Canadarsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishnewcomerslivelanguageasp(accessed1March2016)

CityofVancouver(2014)lsquoCulturalCommunitiesAdvisoryCommitteersquo Onlinehttpvancouvercayour-governmentcultural-communities-advisory-committeeaspx(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd) Vancouver City Local Immigration PartnershipVancouver Community Services Online httpvancouvercafilescovvancouver-city-local-immigration-partnership-overviewpdf (accessed 6 April2016)

ndashndashMulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee (2014)Committee Term SummaryOnlinehttpvancouvercafilescovcouncil-of-councils-presentation-mac-2014pdf(accessed1March2016)

ClarksonA (2014)Belonging The paradox of citizenshipCBCMasseyLecture SeriesTorontoHouseofAnansiPress

CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)

CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20

CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants

Montreal Institute forResearchonPublicPolicyOnline httpirpporgwp-contentuploadsassetsresearchdiversity-immigration-and-integrationlanguage-skills-and-the-social-integration-of-canadas-adult-immigrantsIRPP-Study-no31pdf(accessed1March2016)

Dickinson JA andYoung B (2008) Bregraveve histoire socio-historique du Queacutebec Montreal BibliothegravequeQueacutebeacutecoise

DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)

DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS

152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)

ndashndash(2012)lsquoReacutepartitiondessiegravegesagrave laChambredescommunesparprovincersquo Onlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredalloampdocument=indexamplang=f(accessed6April2016)

EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant

settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19

FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48

Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario

Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan

GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45

GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)

GouvernementduQueacutebec(1977)lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11C11_Ahtml(accessed1March2016)

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GunnA (2012) Immigration and Multi-level Governance in Canada and Europe The role of municipalities as integration policy innovators PolicyPaperCanadandashEuropeTransatlanticDialogueSeekingtransnationalsolutionsto21stcenturyproblemsOnlinehttplabscarletoncacanadaeuropewp-contentuploadssites92012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalitiespdf(accessed1March2016)

HouseofCommonsofCanada(2010)Best Practices in Settlement Services Report of the Standing Committee on Citizenship and ImmigrationOttawaGovernmentofCanadaOnlinewwwparlgccacontenthocCommittee403CIMMReportsRP4388396cimmrp02cimmrp02-epdf(accessed6April2016)

InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)

London Review of Education 153

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KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)

LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)

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Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada

McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)

MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)

MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)

MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)

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ndashndash(2015b)lsquoPolitiquequeacutebeacutecoiseenmatiegraveredrsquoimmigrationdeparticipationetdrsquoinclusionrsquoGouvernementdu Queacutebec Online wwwmidigouvqccafrdossiersconsultation-publiquehtml (accessed 6 April2016)

MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress

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Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec

154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

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RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)

SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge

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SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)

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ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)

StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94

SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI

London Review of Education 155

Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)

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TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246

VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)

VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7

Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)

XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)

YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35

Related articles published in the London Review of Education

In this issue

Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)

Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33

156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21

MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73

Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85

Elsewhere in this issue

HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98

Page 8: Language planning and education of adult immigrants in ... · Furthermore, 21.3 per cent of Canadians, 78.1 per cent of Québécois, and 1.3 per cent of British Columbians have French

London Review of Education 141

Municipal affairs

In Canada the 1867 Constitutional Act assigned to the provincial governments exclusivejurisdictionovermunicipalitiesThusmunicipalitiesarenotconstitutionallyrecognizedanddonotndashat least formallyndashconstituteanorderofgovernmentof theirown inCanada (Young2009 106) One impact of this provincially exclusive jurisdiction is that provincial-municipalsystems vary considerably across the countryWhileCanadianmunicipalities have no formalresponsibilities except in Ontario regarding education healthcare and social services ndash allprovincialjurisdictionsndashtheyareoftenkeyactorsinimplementingfederalandprovincialpoliciesandprogrammes (ibid 115) Immigration is clearlyoneof thepolicydomains inwhich localgovernmentsandmunicipalitieshavebeenincreasinglyactiveIndeedmostimmigrantstoCanadachoosetosettleinbigcitiesTheFederationofCanadianMunicipalitiesstressedthatin2010two-thirdsofimmigrantssettledinCanadarsquosthreemostimportantmetropolitanareasTorontoMontrealandVancouverIn201117percentofimmigrantstoCanada(FCM2011)and76percentofimmigrantstoQuebecchosetosettleinMontreal(EmploiNexus2016)makingup344percentoftheresidentsofthecityofMontrealInthesameyear14percentofimmigrantstoCanadachosetosettleinVancouver(FCM2011)

Inpractice itmeansthatlsquoday-to-day issuesofmulticulturalismare renegotiatedandsettledin only a few citiesrsquo (Good 2008 1)Thus Canadarsquos biggest cities are active in the field ofimmigrationbecausetheyarelsquothefirstpointofcontactbetweennewcomersandgovernmentdue to the day-to-day dependence of immigrants on various local public servicesrsquo (Gunn20121)AccordingtoGood(2008)somemunicipalitieshavebeenveryresponsivetoincreasingnumbersofnewcomersintheirterritoriesndashforexamplethroughcontributinglsquotocommunitycapacitybuildingbyfundingcommunityorganizationsthatserveimmigrantsandethno-culturalminoritiesrsquothroughestablishinglsquoseparateunitsintheircivilservicetofacilitateaccessandequityin governance and service delivery aswell as tomanage diversityrsquo and through establishinglsquogovernancerelationshipsthatsupporttheireffortsinequitypolicyrsquoincludingwiththebusinesscommunity(ibid7)

Despitethefactthatmunicipallsquofront-lineserviceprovidersarekeyplayersinthesuccessfulsettlementattractionandretentionofimmigrantsmunicipalitieshavebeenleftonthesidelinesofimmigrantpolicyandfundingdecisionsrsquo(Gunn20124ndash5)withseniorlevelsofgovernmentsdealingmore frequentlywithlsquospecial-purpose non-profit societiesrsquo (Kataoka andMagnusson200720)

Finallyalthoughmunicipalitiesareformallyajurisdictionoftheprovincesthereisageneraltrend towardsmore direct relationships betweenmunicipalities and the federal government(Andrew 2014 Stoney andGraham 2009)Multiple reasons explain this trend including theimportanceofcontemporaryurbanchallengesandtheexplosionofmunicipalcostsasapartialconsequence of decentralization and of relatively low recent investments in infrastructure(Lalonde2016)Reviewingtheliteratureonthetopicofmunicipal-federalrelationshipsLalondenotes that most federal funding transits in provincial hands before landing in municipalitiesFurthermoremunicipalitiesrsquorolesandrelationshipwithfederalagencieslargelydependontherelationshipbetweentheirrespectiveprovincialgovernmentandthefederalgovernment(ibid)

InsumwhiletheCanadianfederalframeworkcanbeaunifyingfactoritleavesroomforconsiderablevariationndash forexample in thefieldsof immigrationandmunicipal affairsndashandevenforprovincialemulationThesepossibilitieshaveimpactsonlanguagepolicyandplanningndashandmostimportantlyforusintermsofwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoadultimmigrants

142 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

The analytical framework A summary

FollowingpolicyanalysisframeworksandspecificallylanguagepolicyandplanningourenquiryintolanguageeducationforadultimmigrantscompareswhyandhowitisprovidedinQuebecandBritishColumbiatwoverydifferentprovincesofCanadaandintheirbiggestcitiesOurultimategoal istopondertheimpactsofdemography languagehistoryandthefederalframeworkonthesepoliciesTable 3summarizestheelementsaddressedhere

Table 3Analyticalframeworkandapproach

Describing and comparing Pondering the impacts of vectors of differences and similarities

WhyWhatarethemainreasonsforprovidinglanguageeducationtoadultimmigrants

bull Citizenshipandnationalismreasons

bull Jobsindustryandeconomicbenefitsreasons

bull Socialwelfareandintegrationreasons

Demography and language history

bull Languagersquosminorityormajoritystatusinthecountryandcontinent

bull Languagersquospowerofattractionasfirstofficiallanguagelearned

bull LanguagersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull ProvincersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull Otherhistoricalelements(historyofconquestandofsocio-

economicdomination)

Federalism as vector of differences

bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Increasedprovincialinterventiono Bilateralaccordsbetweenprovincesandthefederal

governmento Provincialchoiceofcriteriafortheselectionof

immigrants(levelandtypeofskillslanguagesspokenetc)

bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipalitiesascreaturesoftheprovinces

Federalism as vector of similarities

bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Billofrightso MulticulturalismActo CICinterventions

bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipal-federalrelationshipo Municipalitiesconceivedasalevelofgovernmento Municipalitiesrsquoexclusionofpolicydesign

HowWhatarethemaininternalfeaturesofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducation

bull Languagetaughtbull Responsiblelevelof

governmentbull Languageeducationservice

providers

Language education for adult immigrants in Quebec British Columbia and their respective largest cities

WiththeaboveframeworkandapproachinmindwenowturntodescribingandcomparingwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecBritishColumbiaMontrealandVancouver

London Review of Education 143

Language laws and official languages

InordertoprotectFrenchoutsideofQuebecandEnglishwithinQuebecthefoundinglawofCanadathe1867ConstitutionalActalreadycontainedlanguageprovisionsthebulkofwhichrelatestochildrenrsquoseducationTheActalsorecognizedbothFrenchandEnglishasformallyequalinCanadaHowevertheconclusionofthereportoftheRoyalCommissiononBilingualismandBiculturalism(alsocalledtheLaurendeau-DuntonCommission)heldbythefederalgovernmentofCanadainthe1960semphasizedthatbilingualismhadbeenlsquomostlysymbolic(stampsbanknotesetc)andmeretranslationoflawsandcertainadministrativedocumentsrsquo(SLMCnd(a))RespondingdirectlytothecommissionrsquosrecommendationtheOfficialLanguagesActof1969 statesthat

TheEnglishandFrench languagesare theofficial languagesofCanada forallpurposesof theParliamentandgovernmentofCanadaandpossessandenjoyqualityofstatusandequalrightsandprivilegesastotheiruseinalltheinstitutionsoftheParliamentandgovernmentofCanada

(SLMCnd(a))

Coherentwith the notionof a federation theOfficial LanguagesAct appliesonly to federaljurisdictions and institutions Provinces can also be active in the accessory field of languageinsofarastheyareinterveningwithinthescopeoftheirjurisdiction

The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal

Montreal is theeconomicandcultural centreof theprovinceofQuebecandalso themostpopulousfrancophonecityintheAmericasItspopulationisapproximately16 millionandthatofGreaterMontreal38 millionQuebecistheonlyprovincetohaveFrenchasitssoleofficiallanguageThe second articleof the cityofMontrealrsquos charter categorically states that it is afrancophonecity(GouvernementduQueacutebec2000)

InresponsetoincreasinglyvocalandorganizedgroupsinfavourofvalorizingandprotectingtheFrenchlanguagewithinQuebecthegovernmentadoptedin1974QuebecrsquosfirstlanguagelawtheLoi sur la langue officielle(LawoftheOfficialLanguageBill 22)Howeverthisbillrequiringpublic signs tobe in French andpromotingbilingualismwas consideredunable tomeet thelinguisticchallengesthatQuebecincreasinglyfaced(BourhisandLandry2002)ThegovernmentoftheseparatistPartiQueacutebeacutecoisthusadoptedin1977themuchmorepowerfulCharte de la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec (Bill 101)Thecharterrsquosmainobjectiveswere(1)tohalttheassimilationofFrenchspeakerstoEnglish(2)toensurethesocioeconomicpredominanceofthefrancophonemajority and (3) to promote the assertion of the French fact (ie all that concerns FrenchSLMCnd(b))TodaythecharterrequirescommercialsignstobepredominantlyinFrenchandimmigrantchildreninQuebectoattendFrenchschoolsreversingtheimmigrantsrsquotendencytosendtheirchildrentoEnglishschools(McAndrew200270)Manyother lawsinQuebecaresignificantintermsoflanguageincludingafewregardingmunicipalitiesndashwithMontrealamongthemndashandimmigration(SLMCnd(c))

The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver

VancouveristheeconomiccentreofthewesternprovinceofBritishColumbiaWhilethecityitselfwashome toonly603502people in2011 (theeighth largest city inCanada)GreaterVancouver was home to over 23 million residents (the third largest metropolitan area inCanada)Between2006and2011thepopulationofVancouvergrewby44percentwhilethatofGreaterVancouvergrewby93percent(MetroVancouver2012)Likemostotherprovinces

144 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

andcitiesandcoherentwiththeverylowproportionoffrancophonesinboththeprovinceandcityBritishColumbiaandVancouverhaveEnglishastheironlyofficiallanguage

British Columbiarsquos laws and programmes relevant to languages have been scarce if notwhollyabsentInfactthelegislaturehasneveradoptedalanguagelawTheprovincersquoslegislationhoweverdoescontainasmallnumberoflanguageprovisionsandreferencestolanguageMostofthesedealwiththerequirementforpeopletounderstandandexpressthemselvesinproperEnglishandthepossibilityofusingatranslatorOtherreferencesareinsimpledeclarationsofnon-discriminationonthegroundsof languageplaceoforiginandsoonTheonlyreferencetolanguageinwhichthestatemakesacommitmentinvolvesaboriginal languagesIndeedtheFirstPeoplesrsquoHeritageLanguageandCultureAct ismeant tolsquosupport andadviseministriesof governmenton initiatives programs and services related toNativeheritage language andculturersquo(SLMCnd(d))

Immigrantsrsquo settlement integration and adult language education

The federal government of Canada has provided language instruction for newcomers since1947atthesametimeastheCitizenshipActwasadopted(CIMSS20127Cleghorn 2000)The focusof languageeducationwasthuscitizenshipandtoacertainextentassimilationtotheAnglo-SaxonandEnglish-speakingmajority(Ciccarelli1997Cleghorn2000)AsCleghornnoteslsquopriortoQuebecrsquoscontroloverimmigrationbeginninginthe1960slanguagetrainingforadultimmigrantswasEnglishonlyrsquo(200028)From1965tothemid-1980slanguageeducationevolvedfromafocusoncitizenshipintotwodifferentstreamsofclassesfortwodifferenttypesofimmigrantsTheDepartmentofManpowerandImmigrationprovidedlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsinthelabourforcewhiletheCitizenshipBranchoftheDepartmentofSecretaryofStatendashwithamuchsmallerbudgetndashprovidedlanguageclassestoimmigrantsnotplanningtojointhelabourforce(ibid27ndash30)Althoughthefederalgovernmenthadbeenactiveinlanguageeducationsince1947itextendeditsinterventiontosettlementservicesonlyin1979withitsImmigrantSettlementandAdaptationProgramUntilthenthesettlementandintegrationneedsofimmigrantsweremetndashifsondashlsquobyvoluntaryorganizationssuchascommunitycentresethnicorganizationschurchgroupsandwomenrsquosorganizationsrsquo(ibid32)Alongwiththisprogrammeand the current merged settlement and integration programme CIC has been overseeingimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationItspreferredpatternofserviceprovisionhasbeenandremainsoutsourcingtocommunityserviceproviders

The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal

AsmentionedQuebecbecamemoredirectlyinvolvedinthefieldofimmigrationinthe1970sand was then followed by the other Canadian provincesThe first bilateral agreement onimmigrationbetween thegovernmentofCanadaandaprovincewas signedwithQuebec in1971WiththecurrentagreementndashImmigrationTheCanadandashQuebecAccordndashsignedin1991Canadacommitsitself

towithdrawfromthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionandlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsCanadaprovidescompensationtoQuebecforsuchservicesaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountry

(Beacutechard20113)

London Review of Education 145

TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofQuebecfortheseservicesamountedto$320millionin2013ndash14WhilesimilaragreementsexistwitheachprovincenoneismoreextensiveandmatchedwithasmuchfederalgrantsastheonewithQuebec(Beacutechard2011)

AdultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationiscalledfrancizationinQuebecsuggestingaprocessthroughwhichapersonappropriatesprogressivelytheFrenchlanguageuntilitbecomespartofherorhisidentityOnlyFrenchlanguageclassesndashandnoEnglishonesndashareprovidedforfreetoimmigrantsinQuebecFrancizationclassesareavailabletoimmigrantsinvariousformatsandtheymayqualifyforallowancesthatincertaincasesevencovertransportationandchildcarecosts(MIDI 2015a)No comparable programme exists outside ofQuebec to support immigrantswhileattending languageclasses(CIC2012)Quebecrsquossettlementandintegrationframeworkincludes two programmes of language education and of financial aid for adult immigrants(Programme drsquointeacutegration linguistique pour les immigrants and Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants)andtwoprogrammesforsettlementperse(Programme drsquoaccompagnement des nouveaux arrivantsandProgramme reacutegional drsquointeacutegration)

TheproportionofnewcomersknowingFrenchupontheirarrivalgrewfrom368percentinthe1994ndash8periodto623percentforthe2009ndash13period(MIDI2014a)Itwas586 percentin2015(MIDI2014b24)AnewimmigrationpolicywasadoptedbyQuebecinMarch2016(MIDI2015b)andthepreparatorydocumenttothepolicymadeclearhowmuchofapriorityfrancizationwasamongthevariousinterventionsinsettlementandintegration

InadditiontotherecentincreaseofFrenchimmigrationthefrancizationofimmigrantpeople isoneofthestrategiesthattheGovernmentofQuebecimplementstoensuretheperennialityoftheFrenchfactonitsterritoryaswellasthesuccessfulintegrationofimmigrantpeople

(MIDI2014a15ourtranslation)

ThefirsttenetofthepolicyisthatlsquoimmigrationplaysanimportantroleinboostingQueacutebecrsquosprosperityandinthevitalityoftheFrenchlanguagersquo(MIDI2015b)Francizationismeanttomakethese two priorities and objectives of the policy overlap Indeedlsquoimmigrantsrsquo ability to fullyparticipateinQueacutebecsocietyisdeeplyintertwinedwiththelanguageissuersquo(ibid5)

InQuebecndashlikeintherestofCanadandashmostcontactsrelatingtoandservicesregardingsettlement and language education areprovidedby communityorganizationsOutof the51service providers listed on CICrsquoS website in Montreal 43 (84 per cent) were communityorganizations The services they most frequently provided were general French languageeducation(725percent)servicesforfrancophonenewcomers(549percent)andhelpwithdaily life (314 per cent)Nomunicipal organizationwas however listed as service providerincludinglanguageeducationservices(CICnd(b))

WhileevaluatingtheoutcomesoftheimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationprogrammesinQuebecinrelationtosimilarservicesavailableacrossCanadaCICwrites

TohelpindividualsprepareforlifeinCanadaandthecitizenshiptestinformationisoftenprovidedthrough settlement services particularly via language training curricula Language curricula inQuebecalsofollowsthisapproachhoweverthefocusisonprovidinginformationaboutQuebecculture

(CICnd(c))

InretrospectPaquet(2016)suggeststhatQuebecrsquosapproachtoimmigrationhasbeenholisticseenasacollectiveprojectinselectingimmigrantsovereconomicaswellassocialcriteria

ThecityofMontreallikemostregionsinQuebecconcludesimmigrationagreementswiththeprovincersquosMinistryofImmigrationDiversityandIntegration(Ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusionMIDI)andthuscontributestoassessingneedsandplanninginterventioninthisfieldMunicipalitiesndashincludingMontrealndasharerarelymentionedinprogrammesregarding

146 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

immigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationTherearenomentionsofMontrealandmunicipalitiesintheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccordTheonlyreferencetothecityofMontrealintheMIDIannualreportof2014ndash15isrelatedtotheobjectiveofregionalizingimmigrationthatisreducingthe proportion of immigrants settling inMontreal MIDIrsquos (2008) adult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationactionplanPour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieux(To enrich Quebec Make more French integrate better)makesnomentionofmunicipalitiesorofMontrealOneopeningtocitiesrsquo and regionsrsquo roles in thefieldof immigration is however found in thepreparatorydocumenttothenewQuebecimmigrationpolicyItstatestheirrolein(1)buildingwelcomingandinclusivecommunities(2)gatheringconcreteinformationandknowledgeonactualneedsandchallengesasmetinday-to-dayactivitiesand(3)workingagainstracismanddiscrimination(MIDI2014a54)

Inabriefon immigrationmanagementsubmittedtothegovernmentofQuebec in2011thecityofMontrealaskedfor(1)anofficialrecognitionof itsroleinimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegration(2)anincreasedbudgetforthefrancizationofimmigrantsinMontreal(3)theautomatic transfer toMontreal of 10 per cent of federal grants for immigrantsrsquo settlementand integration and (4) increased budgets for immigrantsrsquo social housing (Ville deMontreacuteal20116)DespitethegovernmentofQuebecrsquosrarementionofMontrealinimmigrationpoliciesandprogrammesthecityhasbeenrelativelyresponsivetoimmigrationinthesensediscussedbyGood (2008) First the city ofMontreal has contributed to community capacity-buildingthroughfundingvariouscommunitygroupsbeinganactivememberofvariouscollaborationsonimmigrationadoptingacharterofrightsandresponsibilityandcreatinganinterculturaladvisorycouncilSecondthecityhasaPlandrsquoaccegraves agrave lrsquoeacutegaliteacute agrave lrsquoemploi(PAEacuteEacute)ThirdthecityhascreatedtheNexusprogrammewhichisamunicipalprogrammeinMontrealthatprovidesbusinesseswithinformationtoolssupportandreferencesregardingtherecruitmentandsustainedemploymentofprofessionalstrainedabroad(EmploiNexus2016)Hencethecityintervenesthroughnotonlycollaboratingwithserviceprovidersbutalsobyfundingthem(VilledeMontreacuteal2011)

The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver

The first bilateral agreement on immigration between the governments of BritishColumbiaandofCanadawassignedin1998andthecurrentagreementndashtheCanadandashBritishColumbiaImmigrationAgreementndashwassignedin2015ContrarytotheprevalentmodelintherestofCanada(exceptQuebecandManitoba)theaccordoperatesatransferofresponsibilityinthefieldofsettlementandintegrationservices(Paquet2016)HoweverwhereastheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccord stipulates the federal governmentrsquoswithdrawal from thedeliveryofservices for the reception linguistic and cultural integration and placements of immigrantsthe CanadandashBritish Columbia ImmigrationAgreement emphasizes collaboration negotiationconsultationandcooperationratherthanstrictdivisionofauthoritybetweentheprovinceandthefederalgovernmentForexamplelsquocollaborationrsquolsquotocollaboratersquoisusedseventimes(nonein theQuebec accord)lsquonegotiationrsquolsquoto negotiatersquo is used seven times (once in the accord)lsquoconsultationrsquolsquoto consultrsquo is used sixteen times (none in the accord) and lsquocooperationrsquolsquotocooperatersquoisusedfivetimes(fiveintheaccordaswell)

TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofBritishColumbiaforthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsamountedto$114millionin2010ndash11(DerwingandWaugh20124)ndasharoundhalfofwhichwasallocatedto language education In addition federal funds were also allocated to Enhanced LanguageTraining a smaller language education initiative (ibid)WelcomeBC and the Settlement andIntegrationProgram arethemainprogrammesthroughwhichsettlementintegrationhappensin

London Review of Education 147

BritishColumbiaTheWelcomingandInclusiveCommunitiesandWorkplacesProgramandtheVulnerableImmigrantPopulationsProgramcompletethepicture

TheproportionofnewcomersspeakingeitherFrenchorEnglishwas73percentin2011ndash12(GovernmentofBritishColumbia2013)muchhigherthantheproportionofnewcomersspeakingFrenchinQuebecInitsannualreportof2011ndash12WelcomeBCwritesthatlanguageabilityiscriticaltothesuccessofimmigrantsintheprovincersquoslabourmarketandcommunitiesAccordingtotheprogrammethoughmostnewcomersarehighlyskilledandeducatedlsquoalackofEnglishlanguageabilitycorrelateswithimmigrantunemploymentandunderemploymentwhichcosts theeconomy inproductivityandeconomicgrowth and impacts immigrantsrsquo successfulsocialandeconomic integrationrsquo(ibid10)Furthermoretheyestimatethatlsquoa1increase inliteracyproducesa25increaseintheleveloflabourproductivityandthatevery1comparativeincreaseinnationalliteracyscoreswouldboostnationalincomeby$32 billionrsquo(ibid8)Inthisexplanationofwhylanguageproficiencyisimportantwenoticeaphrasingthatisfinancialandeconomicratherthansocialorcitizenship-related

English language services for adults (deliveredmostly by community organizations) andEnglishasasecondlanguage(deliveredbypubliclyfundedpost-secondaryinstitutions)arethemain vehicles of adult immigrant training in the province (Government of BritishColumbia2013)Ofthe36serviceproviders inVancouver listedontheCICwebsite fourwere intheeducationsectoronewasaprivatecompanyandtheremaining31(84percent)werecommunityorganizationsTheservices theyprovidedmost frequentlywerehelpwithdaily life (722percent)helpfindingjobs(417percent)mentoring(389percent)andgenerallanguageeducation(306percent)Afewmunicipallibrarieswerealsolistedassettlementandintegrationserviceproviders(CICnd(b))WenoticeherethatamuchlowerproportionofserviceprovidersofferlanguageeducationthanisthecaseinQuebec

British Columbiarsquos settlement and integration policies and programmes refer morefrequentlytoVancouverandmunicipalitiesthandoesQuebecrsquostoMontrealForexampletheimportance of consultingmunicipalities and local governments ismentioned in theCanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration Agreement lsquoThe Parties agree to cooperate to work withLocalGovernmentsinBritishColumbiatoexploreissuesrelatedtotheirrespectiveinterestsin immigration and pursue opportunities related to communitiesrsquo interests in immigrationrsquo(Government ofCanada 2015)Whereas the city ofVancouver is not directlymentioned intheBritishColumbiaImmigrationTaskForcereportoneofitsrecommendationsislsquotoengageindustry local governments and non-governmental organizations in settling and integratingimmigrantsrsquo(MinisterofStateforMulticulturalism201220)FurthermoreBritishColumbiarsquosWelcoming and InclusiveCommunities andWorkplacesProgramlsquohas actively recognized theroleandparticipationofmunicipalgovernmentsintheimmigrantsettlementprocessrsquo(Dicksonet al201323)MunicipalitieshavethuslsquofeltthatacloserpartnershipbetweenBCandmunicipalgovernmentsofsomemajorimmigrantreceptioncitieshasbeenestablishedrsquo(ibid)

In2014VancouverfinallyenteredintoanagreementwiththegovernmentofCanadarsquosCIClsquotoundertakeaLocal ImmigrationPartnership (LIP)rsquo (CityofVancouvernd)TheVancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP2016)isafirststeptowardsestablishingndashwiththecollaborationofdozensoflocalorganizationsandcommunityleadersndashtheveryfirstVancouverImmigrantSettlement and Integration Strategy TheVIPrsquos main focuses are (1) the strengthening ofinterculturalandcivicengagement(2)thecreationofwelcomingandinclusiveworkplacesand(3)theassessmentofnewcomersrsquoneedsinareassuchashousinghealthandaccesstolocalandmunicipalservices

Vancouverhasbeenresponsive to immigration (CityofVancouver201414)first ithascontributedtothecommunitythroughactivelyconsultingcommunitygroupsandleadersfunding

148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)

Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants

Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation

Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries

Conclusion

AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants

London Review of Education 149

Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy

ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec

ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues

Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the

150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated

Notes on the contributors

Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012

CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa

RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada

References

Adamuti-Trache M (2012) lsquoLanguage acquisition among adult immigrants in Canada The effect ofpremigrationlanguagecapitalrsquoAdult Education Quarterly63(2)103ndash26

AhmadFRiazSBarataPandStewartDE(2004)lsquoPatriarchalbeliefsandperceptionsofabuseamongSouthAsianimmigrantwomenrsquoViolence Against Women10(3)262ndash82

AndrewC(2014)lsquoFederalpoliciesonimmigrantsettlementrsquoInGrahamKandAndrewC(eds)Canada in Cities The politics and policy of federal-local governanceMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversity Press227ndash49

BattagliniADeacutesyMDorvalDPoirierL-RFournierMCamirandHandFecteauD(2007)Lrsquointervention de premiegravere ligne agrave Montreacuteal aupregraves des personnes immigrantes Estimeacute des ressources neacutecessaires pour une intervention adeacutequateMontrealDirectiondesanteacutepubliqueOnlinehttppublicationssantemontrealqccauploadstx_asssmpublications978-2-89494-571-1pdf(accessed1March2016)

Beacutechard J (2011) Immigration The CanadandashQuebec Accord Background paper publication no 2011-89-EOttawaLibraryofParliamentOnlinewwwparlgccaContentLOPResearchPublications2011-89-epdf (accessed1March2016)

BelkhodjaC(2008)lsquoIntroductionImmigrationetdiversiteacutedanslescommunauteacutesfrancophonesensituationminoritairersquo In BelkhodjaC (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaire Thegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies3ndash6

BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65

BourhisRandLandryR(2002)lsquoLaloi 101etlrsquoameacutenagementdupaysagelinguistiqueauQueacutebecrsquoOfficede la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_bourhis_vf_1pdf(accessed6April2016)

BursteinM Clement G and Petty S (2014) Pratiques drsquointeacutegration prometteuses dans les communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireOttawaCIC

London Review of Education 151

Canadian Press(2016)lsquoPremierWynneapologizesfor1912regulationbanningFrenchinOntarioschoolsrsquoOnlinewwwthecanadianpresscomenglishonlineOnlineFullStoryaspxfilename=DOR-MNN-CPd2732aaf15964e269a42e66a46cec9daCPKEY2008111303ampnewsitemid=36470080amplanguageid=1(accessed1March2016)

CardozoAandPendakurR(2008)Canadarsquos Visible Minority Population 1967ndash2017WorkingpaperseriesVancouver Metropolis British Columbia Online httpmbcmetropolisnetassetsuploadsfileswp2008WP08-05pdf(accessed1March2016)

CentreforInternationalMigrationandSettlementStudies(CIMSS)(2012)lsquoIntroductionStateoftheartandfuturedirectionsinsettlementlanguagetrainingrsquoInternational Settlement CanadaSpecial issue on settlement language training SpringOnlinewww3carletoncacimssinscan-ev24_sepdf (accessed1March2016)

ChiswickBR (2008)The Economics of Language An introduction and overviewDiscussionpaperno3568 BonnInstitutefortheStudyofLaborOnlinehttpftpizaorgdp3568pdf(accessed1March2016)

Ciccarelli SB (1997)lsquoESL for nation-buildingThe origins of federally-funded ESL inCanadarsquoMA dissOntarioInstituteforStudiesinEducationUniversityofToronto

Citizenship and ImmigrationCanada (CIC) (2012)Canada Faits et chiffres 2012 Aperccedilu de lrsquoimmigration Reacutesidents permanents et temporaires Ottawa CIC Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2013cicCi1-8-2012-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd(a)) lsquoStrategic outcomes and program activity architecturersquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentpaaactivity-05asp(accessed6April2016)

ndashndash (nd(b)) lsquoFindingsrsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishresourcesevaluationgrant-quebecsection4asp(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd(c)) lsquoLanguage classes funded by the Government of Canadarsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishnewcomerslivelanguageasp(accessed1March2016)

CityofVancouver(2014)lsquoCulturalCommunitiesAdvisoryCommitteersquo Onlinehttpvancouvercayour-governmentcultural-communities-advisory-committeeaspx(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd) Vancouver City Local Immigration PartnershipVancouver Community Services Online httpvancouvercafilescovvancouver-city-local-immigration-partnership-overviewpdf (accessed 6 April2016)

ndashndashMulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee (2014)Committee Term SummaryOnlinehttpvancouvercafilescovcouncil-of-councils-presentation-mac-2014pdf(accessed1March2016)

ClarksonA (2014)Belonging The paradox of citizenshipCBCMasseyLecture SeriesTorontoHouseofAnansiPress

CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)

CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20

CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants

Montreal Institute forResearchonPublicPolicyOnline httpirpporgwp-contentuploadsassetsresearchdiversity-immigration-and-integrationlanguage-skills-and-the-social-integration-of-canadas-adult-immigrantsIRPP-Study-no31pdf(accessed1March2016)

Dickinson JA andYoung B (2008) Bregraveve histoire socio-historique du Queacutebec Montreal BibliothegravequeQueacutebeacutecoise

DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)

DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS

152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)

ndashndash(2012)lsquoReacutepartitiondessiegravegesagrave laChambredescommunesparprovincersquo Onlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredalloampdocument=indexamplang=f(accessed6April2016)

EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant

settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19

FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48

Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario

Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan

GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45

GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)

GouvernementduQueacutebec(1977)lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11C11_Ahtml(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2000)lsquoChartedelaVilledeMontreacutealrsquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11_4C11_4html(accessed6April2014)

ndashndash (2014) lsquoCommunauteacutes culturellesrsquo Online wwweducationgouvqccaenseignantsaide-et-soutiencommunautes-culturelles(accessed1March2016)

Government of British Columbia (2013) 2011ndash12 Annual ReportWelcomeBC Settlement and Integration Services Online wwwllbclegbccapublicpubdocsbcdocs20114717852011_2012pdf (accessed 1March2016)

GovernmentofCanada(1960)Canadian Bill of RightsOnlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaengactsc-123page-1html(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(1985)Official Languages Act (4th Supp)Onlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaPDFO-301pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(1991)CanadandashQuebec Accord Relating to Immigration and Temporary Admission of AliensOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsquebeccan-queasp(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2015)CanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration AgreementOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsbcbc-2015asp(accessed1March2016)

GunnA (2012) Immigration and Multi-level Governance in Canada and Europe The role of municipalities as integration policy innovators PolicyPaperCanadandashEuropeTransatlanticDialogueSeekingtransnationalsolutionsto21stcenturyproblemsOnlinehttplabscarletoncacanadaeuropewp-contentuploadssites92012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalitiespdf(accessed1March2016)

HouseofCommonsofCanada(2010)Best Practices in Settlement Services Report of the Standing Committee on Citizenship and ImmigrationOttawaGovernmentofCanadaOnlinewwwparlgccacontenthocCommittee403CIMMReportsRP4388396cimmrp02cimmrp02-epdf(accessed6April2016)

InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)

London Review of Education 153

KataokaSandMagnussonW(2007)Settling the Unsettled Migrants municipalities and multilevel governance in British Columbia Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the Urban Affairs AssociationSeattleWA 26April 2007Victoria BC University ofVictoria Online httpppm-ppmcaPapersKataokaMagnusson2007pdf(accessed1March2016)

KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)

LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)

MadyCandTurnbullM(2012)lsquoOfficiallanguagebilingualismforallophonesinCanadaExploringfutureresearchrsquo TESL Canada Journal 29 (2) 131ndash42 Online httpfilesericedgovfulltextEJ981500pdf(accessed1March2016)

Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada

McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)

MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)

MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)

MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2015a)Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants 2015ndash2016MontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdiversPafilipdf (accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2015b)lsquoPolitiquequeacutebeacutecoiseenmatiegraveredrsquoimmigrationdeparticipationetdrsquoinclusionrsquoGouvernementdu Queacutebec Online wwwmidigouvqccafrdossiersconsultation-publiquehtml (accessed 6 April2016)

MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress

MurphyJ(2010)The Settlement amp Integration Needs of Immigrants A literature reviewOttawaTheOttawaLocalImmigration Partnership Online httpolip-pliocaknowledge-basewp-contentuploads201303Olip-Review-of-Literature-Final-ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec

154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)

PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook

3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)

Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)

RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)

SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge

SiteforLanguageManagementinCanada(SLMC)(nd(a))lsquoFederallegislationandlanguagerights(1969and1988)rsquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=federal_legislation_1969_1988(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash(nd(b))lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_linguistic_law(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)

SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)

Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)

ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)

ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)

StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94

SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI

London Review of Education 155

Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)

TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)

ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246

VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)

VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7

Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)

XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)

YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35

Related articles published in the London Review of Education

In this issue

Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)

Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33

156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21

MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73

Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85

Elsewhere in this issue

HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98

Page 9: Language planning and education of adult immigrants in ... · Furthermore, 21.3 per cent of Canadians, 78.1 per cent of Québécois, and 1.3 per cent of British Columbians have French

142 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

The analytical framework A summary

FollowingpolicyanalysisframeworksandspecificallylanguagepolicyandplanningourenquiryintolanguageeducationforadultimmigrantscompareswhyandhowitisprovidedinQuebecandBritishColumbiatwoverydifferentprovincesofCanadaandintheirbiggestcitiesOurultimategoal istopondertheimpactsofdemography languagehistoryandthefederalframeworkonthesepoliciesTable 3summarizestheelementsaddressedhere

Table 3Analyticalframeworkandapproach

Describing and comparing Pondering the impacts of vectors of differences and similarities

WhyWhatarethemainreasonsforprovidinglanguageeducationtoadultimmigrants

bull Citizenshipandnationalismreasons

bull Jobsindustryandeconomicbenefitsreasons

bull Socialwelfareandintegrationreasons

Demography and language history

bull Languagersquosminorityormajoritystatusinthecountryandcontinent

bull Languagersquospowerofattractionasfirstofficiallanguagelearned

bull LanguagersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull ProvincersquosgrowthordeclineinCanadabull Otherhistoricalelements(historyofconquestandofsocio-

economicdomination)

Federalism as vector of differences

bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Increasedprovincialinterventiono Bilateralaccordsbetweenprovincesandthefederal

governmento Provincialchoiceofcriteriafortheselectionof

immigrants(levelandtypeofskillslanguagesspokenetc)

bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipalitiesascreaturesoftheprovinces

Federalism as vector of similarities

bull Inrelationtoimmigrationo Billofrightso MulticulturalismActo CICinterventions

bull Inrelationtomunicipalaffairso Municipal-federalrelationshipo Municipalitiesconceivedasalevelofgovernmento Municipalitiesrsquoexclusionofpolicydesign

HowWhatarethemaininternalfeaturesofadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducation

bull Languagetaughtbull Responsiblelevelof

governmentbull Languageeducationservice

providers

Language education for adult immigrants in Quebec British Columbia and their respective largest cities

WiththeaboveframeworkandapproachinmindwenowturntodescribingandcomparingwhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecBritishColumbiaMontrealandVancouver

London Review of Education 143

Language laws and official languages

InordertoprotectFrenchoutsideofQuebecandEnglishwithinQuebecthefoundinglawofCanadathe1867ConstitutionalActalreadycontainedlanguageprovisionsthebulkofwhichrelatestochildrenrsquoseducationTheActalsorecognizedbothFrenchandEnglishasformallyequalinCanadaHowevertheconclusionofthereportoftheRoyalCommissiononBilingualismandBiculturalism(alsocalledtheLaurendeau-DuntonCommission)heldbythefederalgovernmentofCanadainthe1960semphasizedthatbilingualismhadbeenlsquomostlysymbolic(stampsbanknotesetc)andmeretranslationoflawsandcertainadministrativedocumentsrsquo(SLMCnd(a))RespondingdirectlytothecommissionrsquosrecommendationtheOfficialLanguagesActof1969 statesthat

TheEnglishandFrench languagesare theofficial languagesofCanada forallpurposesof theParliamentandgovernmentofCanadaandpossessandenjoyqualityofstatusandequalrightsandprivilegesastotheiruseinalltheinstitutionsoftheParliamentandgovernmentofCanada

(SLMCnd(a))

Coherentwith the notionof a federation theOfficial LanguagesAct appliesonly to federaljurisdictions and institutions Provinces can also be active in the accessory field of languageinsofarastheyareinterveningwithinthescopeoftheirjurisdiction

The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal

Montreal is theeconomicandcultural centreof theprovinceofQuebecandalso themostpopulousfrancophonecityintheAmericasItspopulationisapproximately16 millionandthatofGreaterMontreal38 millionQuebecistheonlyprovincetohaveFrenchasitssoleofficiallanguageThe second articleof the cityofMontrealrsquos charter categorically states that it is afrancophonecity(GouvernementduQueacutebec2000)

InresponsetoincreasinglyvocalandorganizedgroupsinfavourofvalorizingandprotectingtheFrenchlanguagewithinQuebecthegovernmentadoptedin1974QuebecrsquosfirstlanguagelawtheLoi sur la langue officielle(LawoftheOfficialLanguageBill 22)Howeverthisbillrequiringpublic signs tobe in French andpromotingbilingualismwas consideredunable tomeet thelinguisticchallengesthatQuebecincreasinglyfaced(BourhisandLandry2002)ThegovernmentoftheseparatistPartiQueacutebeacutecoisthusadoptedin1977themuchmorepowerfulCharte de la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec (Bill 101)Thecharterrsquosmainobjectiveswere(1)tohalttheassimilationofFrenchspeakerstoEnglish(2)toensurethesocioeconomicpredominanceofthefrancophonemajority and (3) to promote the assertion of the French fact (ie all that concerns FrenchSLMCnd(b))TodaythecharterrequirescommercialsignstobepredominantlyinFrenchandimmigrantchildreninQuebectoattendFrenchschoolsreversingtheimmigrantsrsquotendencytosendtheirchildrentoEnglishschools(McAndrew200270)Manyother lawsinQuebecaresignificantintermsoflanguageincludingafewregardingmunicipalitiesndashwithMontrealamongthemndashandimmigration(SLMCnd(c))

The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver

VancouveristheeconomiccentreofthewesternprovinceofBritishColumbiaWhilethecityitselfwashome toonly603502people in2011 (theeighth largest city inCanada)GreaterVancouver was home to over 23 million residents (the third largest metropolitan area inCanada)Between2006and2011thepopulationofVancouvergrewby44percentwhilethatofGreaterVancouvergrewby93percent(MetroVancouver2012)Likemostotherprovinces

144 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

andcitiesandcoherentwiththeverylowproportionoffrancophonesinboththeprovinceandcityBritishColumbiaandVancouverhaveEnglishastheironlyofficiallanguage

British Columbiarsquos laws and programmes relevant to languages have been scarce if notwhollyabsentInfactthelegislaturehasneveradoptedalanguagelawTheprovincersquoslegislationhoweverdoescontainasmallnumberoflanguageprovisionsandreferencestolanguageMostofthesedealwiththerequirementforpeopletounderstandandexpressthemselvesinproperEnglishandthepossibilityofusingatranslatorOtherreferencesareinsimpledeclarationsofnon-discriminationonthegroundsof languageplaceoforiginandsoonTheonlyreferencetolanguageinwhichthestatemakesacommitmentinvolvesaboriginal languagesIndeedtheFirstPeoplesrsquoHeritageLanguageandCultureAct ismeant tolsquosupport andadviseministriesof governmenton initiatives programs and services related toNativeheritage language andculturersquo(SLMCnd(d))

Immigrantsrsquo settlement integration and adult language education

The federal government of Canada has provided language instruction for newcomers since1947atthesametimeastheCitizenshipActwasadopted(CIMSS20127Cleghorn 2000)The focusof languageeducationwasthuscitizenshipandtoacertainextentassimilationtotheAnglo-SaxonandEnglish-speakingmajority(Ciccarelli1997Cleghorn2000)AsCleghornnoteslsquopriortoQuebecrsquoscontroloverimmigrationbeginninginthe1960slanguagetrainingforadultimmigrantswasEnglishonlyrsquo(200028)From1965tothemid-1980slanguageeducationevolvedfromafocusoncitizenshipintotwodifferentstreamsofclassesfortwodifferenttypesofimmigrantsTheDepartmentofManpowerandImmigrationprovidedlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsinthelabourforcewhiletheCitizenshipBranchoftheDepartmentofSecretaryofStatendashwithamuchsmallerbudgetndashprovidedlanguageclassestoimmigrantsnotplanningtojointhelabourforce(ibid27ndash30)Althoughthefederalgovernmenthadbeenactiveinlanguageeducationsince1947itextendeditsinterventiontosettlementservicesonlyin1979withitsImmigrantSettlementandAdaptationProgramUntilthenthesettlementandintegrationneedsofimmigrantsweremetndashifsondashlsquobyvoluntaryorganizationssuchascommunitycentresethnicorganizationschurchgroupsandwomenrsquosorganizationsrsquo(ibid32)Alongwiththisprogrammeand the current merged settlement and integration programme CIC has been overseeingimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationItspreferredpatternofserviceprovisionhasbeenandremainsoutsourcingtocommunityserviceproviders

The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal

AsmentionedQuebecbecamemoredirectlyinvolvedinthefieldofimmigrationinthe1970sand was then followed by the other Canadian provincesThe first bilateral agreement onimmigrationbetween thegovernmentofCanadaandaprovincewas signedwithQuebec in1971WiththecurrentagreementndashImmigrationTheCanadandashQuebecAccordndashsignedin1991Canadacommitsitself

towithdrawfromthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionandlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsCanadaprovidescompensationtoQuebecforsuchservicesaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountry

(Beacutechard20113)

London Review of Education 145

TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofQuebecfortheseservicesamountedto$320millionin2013ndash14WhilesimilaragreementsexistwitheachprovincenoneismoreextensiveandmatchedwithasmuchfederalgrantsastheonewithQuebec(Beacutechard2011)

AdultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationiscalledfrancizationinQuebecsuggestingaprocessthroughwhichapersonappropriatesprogressivelytheFrenchlanguageuntilitbecomespartofherorhisidentityOnlyFrenchlanguageclassesndashandnoEnglishonesndashareprovidedforfreetoimmigrantsinQuebecFrancizationclassesareavailabletoimmigrantsinvariousformatsandtheymayqualifyforallowancesthatincertaincasesevencovertransportationandchildcarecosts(MIDI 2015a)No comparable programme exists outside ofQuebec to support immigrantswhileattending languageclasses(CIC2012)Quebecrsquossettlementandintegrationframeworkincludes two programmes of language education and of financial aid for adult immigrants(Programme drsquointeacutegration linguistique pour les immigrants and Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants)andtwoprogrammesforsettlementperse(Programme drsquoaccompagnement des nouveaux arrivantsandProgramme reacutegional drsquointeacutegration)

TheproportionofnewcomersknowingFrenchupontheirarrivalgrewfrom368percentinthe1994ndash8periodto623percentforthe2009ndash13period(MIDI2014a)Itwas586 percentin2015(MIDI2014b24)AnewimmigrationpolicywasadoptedbyQuebecinMarch2016(MIDI2015b)andthepreparatorydocumenttothepolicymadeclearhowmuchofapriorityfrancizationwasamongthevariousinterventionsinsettlementandintegration

InadditiontotherecentincreaseofFrenchimmigrationthefrancizationofimmigrantpeople isoneofthestrategiesthattheGovernmentofQuebecimplementstoensuretheperennialityoftheFrenchfactonitsterritoryaswellasthesuccessfulintegrationofimmigrantpeople

(MIDI2014a15ourtranslation)

ThefirsttenetofthepolicyisthatlsquoimmigrationplaysanimportantroleinboostingQueacutebecrsquosprosperityandinthevitalityoftheFrenchlanguagersquo(MIDI2015b)Francizationismeanttomakethese two priorities and objectives of the policy overlap Indeedlsquoimmigrantsrsquo ability to fullyparticipateinQueacutebecsocietyisdeeplyintertwinedwiththelanguageissuersquo(ibid5)

InQuebecndashlikeintherestofCanadandashmostcontactsrelatingtoandservicesregardingsettlement and language education areprovidedby communityorganizationsOutof the51service providers listed on CICrsquoS website in Montreal 43 (84 per cent) were communityorganizations The services they most frequently provided were general French languageeducation(725percent)servicesforfrancophonenewcomers(549percent)andhelpwithdaily life (314 per cent)Nomunicipal organizationwas however listed as service providerincludinglanguageeducationservices(CICnd(b))

WhileevaluatingtheoutcomesoftheimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationprogrammesinQuebecinrelationtosimilarservicesavailableacrossCanadaCICwrites

TohelpindividualsprepareforlifeinCanadaandthecitizenshiptestinformationisoftenprovidedthrough settlement services particularly via language training curricula Language curricula inQuebecalsofollowsthisapproachhoweverthefocusisonprovidinginformationaboutQuebecculture

(CICnd(c))

InretrospectPaquet(2016)suggeststhatQuebecrsquosapproachtoimmigrationhasbeenholisticseenasacollectiveprojectinselectingimmigrantsovereconomicaswellassocialcriteria

ThecityofMontreallikemostregionsinQuebecconcludesimmigrationagreementswiththeprovincersquosMinistryofImmigrationDiversityandIntegration(Ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusionMIDI)andthuscontributestoassessingneedsandplanninginterventioninthisfieldMunicipalitiesndashincludingMontrealndasharerarelymentionedinprogrammesregarding

146 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

immigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationTherearenomentionsofMontrealandmunicipalitiesintheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccordTheonlyreferencetothecityofMontrealintheMIDIannualreportof2014ndash15isrelatedtotheobjectiveofregionalizingimmigrationthatisreducingthe proportion of immigrants settling inMontreal MIDIrsquos (2008) adult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationactionplanPour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieux(To enrich Quebec Make more French integrate better)makesnomentionofmunicipalitiesorofMontrealOneopeningtocitiesrsquo and regionsrsquo roles in thefieldof immigration is however found in thepreparatorydocumenttothenewQuebecimmigrationpolicyItstatestheirrolein(1)buildingwelcomingandinclusivecommunities(2)gatheringconcreteinformationandknowledgeonactualneedsandchallengesasmetinday-to-dayactivitiesand(3)workingagainstracismanddiscrimination(MIDI2014a54)

Inabriefon immigrationmanagementsubmittedtothegovernmentofQuebec in2011thecityofMontrealaskedfor(1)anofficialrecognitionof itsroleinimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegration(2)anincreasedbudgetforthefrancizationofimmigrantsinMontreal(3)theautomatic transfer toMontreal of 10 per cent of federal grants for immigrantsrsquo settlementand integration and (4) increased budgets for immigrantsrsquo social housing (Ville deMontreacuteal20116)DespitethegovernmentofQuebecrsquosrarementionofMontrealinimmigrationpoliciesandprogrammesthecityhasbeenrelativelyresponsivetoimmigrationinthesensediscussedbyGood (2008) First the city ofMontreal has contributed to community capacity-buildingthroughfundingvariouscommunitygroupsbeinganactivememberofvariouscollaborationsonimmigrationadoptingacharterofrightsandresponsibilityandcreatinganinterculturaladvisorycouncilSecondthecityhasaPlandrsquoaccegraves agrave lrsquoeacutegaliteacute agrave lrsquoemploi(PAEacuteEacute)ThirdthecityhascreatedtheNexusprogrammewhichisamunicipalprogrammeinMontrealthatprovidesbusinesseswithinformationtoolssupportandreferencesregardingtherecruitmentandsustainedemploymentofprofessionalstrainedabroad(EmploiNexus2016)Hencethecityintervenesthroughnotonlycollaboratingwithserviceprovidersbutalsobyfundingthem(VilledeMontreacuteal2011)

The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver

The first bilateral agreement on immigration between the governments of BritishColumbiaandofCanadawassignedin1998andthecurrentagreementndashtheCanadandashBritishColumbiaImmigrationAgreementndashwassignedin2015ContrarytotheprevalentmodelintherestofCanada(exceptQuebecandManitoba)theaccordoperatesatransferofresponsibilityinthefieldofsettlementandintegrationservices(Paquet2016)HoweverwhereastheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccord stipulates the federal governmentrsquoswithdrawal from thedeliveryofservices for the reception linguistic and cultural integration and placements of immigrantsthe CanadandashBritish Columbia ImmigrationAgreement emphasizes collaboration negotiationconsultationandcooperationratherthanstrictdivisionofauthoritybetweentheprovinceandthefederalgovernmentForexamplelsquocollaborationrsquolsquotocollaboratersquoisusedseventimes(nonein theQuebec accord)lsquonegotiationrsquolsquoto negotiatersquo is used seven times (once in the accord)lsquoconsultationrsquolsquoto consultrsquo is used sixteen times (none in the accord) and lsquocooperationrsquolsquotocooperatersquoisusedfivetimes(fiveintheaccordaswell)

TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofBritishColumbiaforthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsamountedto$114millionin2010ndash11(DerwingandWaugh20124)ndasharoundhalfofwhichwasallocatedto language education In addition federal funds were also allocated to Enhanced LanguageTraining a smaller language education initiative (ibid)WelcomeBC and the Settlement andIntegrationProgram arethemainprogrammesthroughwhichsettlementintegrationhappensin

London Review of Education 147

BritishColumbiaTheWelcomingandInclusiveCommunitiesandWorkplacesProgramandtheVulnerableImmigrantPopulationsProgramcompletethepicture

TheproportionofnewcomersspeakingeitherFrenchorEnglishwas73percentin2011ndash12(GovernmentofBritishColumbia2013)muchhigherthantheproportionofnewcomersspeakingFrenchinQuebecInitsannualreportof2011ndash12WelcomeBCwritesthatlanguageabilityiscriticaltothesuccessofimmigrantsintheprovincersquoslabourmarketandcommunitiesAccordingtotheprogrammethoughmostnewcomersarehighlyskilledandeducatedlsquoalackofEnglishlanguageabilitycorrelateswithimmigrantunemploymentandunderemploymentwhichcosts theeconomy inproductivityandeconomicgrowth and impacts immigrantsrsquo successfulsocialandeconomic integrationrsquo(ibid10)Furthermoretheyestimatethatlsquoa1increase inliteracyproducesa25increaseintheleveloflabourproductivityandthatevery1comparativeincreaseinnationalliteracyscoreswouldboostnationalincomeby$32 billionrsquo(ibid8)Inthisexplanationofwhylanguageproficiencyisimportantwenoticeaphrasingthatisfinancialandeconomicratherthansocialorcitizenship-related

English language services for adults (deliveredmostly by community organizations) andEnglishasasecondlanguage(deliveredbypubliclyfundedpost-secondaryinstitutions)arethemain vehicles of adult immigrant training in the province (Government of BritishColumbia2013)Ofthe36serviceproviders inVancouver listedontheCICwebsite fourwere intheeducationsectoronewasaprivatecompanyandtheremaining31(84percent)werecommunityorganizationsTheservices theyprovidedmost frequentlywerehelpwithdaily life (722percent)helpfindingjobs(417percent)mentoring(389percent)andgenerallanguageeducation(306percent)Afewmunicipallibrarieswerealsolistedassettlementandintegrationserviceproviders(CICnd(b))WenoticeherethatamuchlowerproportionofserviceprovidersofferlanguageeducationthanisthecaseinQuebec

British Columbiarsquos settlement and integration policies and programmes refer morefrequentlytoVancouverandmunicipalitiesthandoesQuebecrsquostoMontrealForexampletheimportance of consultingmunicipalities and local governments ismentioned in theCanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration Agreement lsquoThe Parties agree to cooperate to work withLocalGovernmentsinBritishColumbiatoexploreissuesrelatedtotheirrespectiveinterestsin immigration and pursue opportunities related to communitiesrsquo interests in immigrationrsquo(Government ofCanada 2015)Whereas the city ofVancouver is not directlymentioned intheBritishColumbiaImmigrationTaskForcereportoneofitsrecommendationsislsquotoengageindustry local governments and non-governmental organizations in settling and integratingimmigrantsrsquo(MinisterofStateforMulticulturalism201220)FurthermoreBritishColumbiarsquosWelcoming and InclusiveCommunities andWorkplacesProgramlsquohas actively recognized theroleandparticipationofmunicipalgovernmentsintheimmigrantsettlementprocessrsquo(Dicksonet al201323)MunicipalitieshavethuslsquofeltthatacloserpartnershipbetweenBCandmunicipalgovernmentsofsomemajorimmigrantreceptioncitieshasbeenestablishedrsquo(ibid)

In2014VancouverfinallyenteredintoanagreementwiththegovernmentofCanadarsquosCIClsquotoundertakeaLocal ImmigrationPartnership (LIP)rsquo (CityofVancouvernd)TheVancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP2016)isafirststeptowardsestablishingndashwiththecollaborationofdozensoflocalorganizationsandcommunityleadersndashtheveryfirstVancouverImmigrantSettlement and Integration Strategy TheVIPrsquos main focuses are (1) the strengthening ofinterculturalandcivicengagement(2)thecreationofwelcomingandinclusiveworkplacesand(3)theassessmentofnewcomersrsquoneedsinareassuchashousinghealthandaccesstolocalandmunicipalservices

Vancouverhasbeenresponsive to immigration (CityofVancouver201414)first ithascontributedtothecommunitythroughactivelyconsultingcommunitygroupsandleadersfunding

148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)

Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants

Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation

Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries

Conclusion

AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants

London Review of Education 149

Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy

ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec

ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues

Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the

150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated

Notes on the contributors

Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012

CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa

RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada

References

Adamuti-Trache M (2012) lsquoLanguage acquisition among adult immigrants in Canada The effect ofpremigrationlanguagecapitalrsquoAdult Education Quarterly63(2)103ndash26

AhmadFRiazSBarataPandStewartDE(2004)lsquoPatriarchalbeliefsandperceptionsofabuseamongSouthAsianimmigrantwomenrsquoViolence Against Women10(3)262ndash82

AndrewC(2014)lsquoFederalpoliciesonimmigrantsettlementrsquoInGrahamKandAndrewC(eds)Canada in Cities The politics and policy of federal-local governanceMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversity Press227ndash49

BattagliniADeacutesyMDorvalDPoirierL-RFournierMCamirandHandFecteauD(2007)Lrsquointervention de premiegravere ligne agrave Montreacuteal aupregraves des personnes immigrantes Estimeacute des ressources neacutecessaires pour une intervention adeacutequateMontrealDirectiondesanteacutepubliqueOnlinehttppublicationssantemontrealqccauploadstx_asssmpublications978-2-89494-571-1pdf(accessed1March2016)

Beacutechard J (2011) Immigration The CanadandashQuebec Accord Background paper publication no 2011-89-EOttawaLibraryofParliamentOnlinewwwparlgccaContentLOPResearchPublications2011-89-epdf (accessed1March2016)

BelkhodjaC(2008)lsquoIntroductionImmigrationetdiversiteacutedanslescommunauteacutesfrancophonesensituationminoritairersquo In BelkhodjaC (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaire Thegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies3ndash6

BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65

BourhisRandLandryR(2002)lsquoLaloi 101etlrsquoameacutenagementdupaysagelinguistiqueauQueacutebecrsquoOfficede la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_bourhis_vf_1pdf(accessed6April2016)

BursteinM Clement G and Petty S (2014) Pratiques drsquointeacutegration prometteuses dans les communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireOttawaCIC

London Review of Education 151

Canadian Press(2016)lsquoPremierWynneapologizesfor1912regulationbanningFrenchinOntarioschoolsrsquoOnlinewwwthecanadianpresscomenglishonlineOnlineFullStoryaspxfilename=DOR-MNN-CPd2732aaf15964e269a42e66a46cec9daCPKEY2008111303ampnewsitemid=36470080amplanguageid=1(accessed1March2016)

CardozoAandPendakurR(2008)Canadarsquos Visible Minority Population 1967ndash2017WorkingpaperseriesVancouver Metropolis British Columbia Online httpmbcmetropolisnetassetsuploadsfileswp2008WP08-05pdf(accessed1March2016)

CentreforInternationalMigrationandSettlementStudies(CIMSS)(2012)lsquoIntroductionStateoftheartandfuturedirectionsinsettlementlanguagetrainingrsquoInternational Settlement CanadaSpecial issue on settlement language training SpringOnlinewww3carletoncacimssinscan-ev24_sepdf (accessed1March2016)

ChiswickBR (2008)The Economics of Language An introduction and overviewDiscussionpaperno3568 BonnInstitutefortheStudyofLaborOnlinehttpftpizaorgdp3568pdf(accessed1March2016)

Ciccarelli SB (1997)lsquoESL for nation-buildingThe origins of federally-funded ESL inCanadarsquoMA dissOntarioInstituteforStudiesinEducationUniversityofToronto

Citizenship and ImmigrationCanada (CIC) (2012)Canada Faits et chiffres 2012 Aperccedilu de lrsquoimmigration Reacutesidents permanents et temporaires Ottawa CIC Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2013cicCi1-8-2012-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd(a)) lsquoStrategic outcomes and program activity architecturersquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentpaaactivity-05asp(accessed6April2016)

ndashndash (nd(b)) lsquoFindingsrsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishresourcesevaluationgrant-quebecsection4asp(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd(c)) lsquoLanguage classes funded by the Government of Canadarsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishnewcomerslivelanguageasp(accessed1March2016)

CityofVancouver(2014)lsquoCulturalCommunitiesAdvisoryCommitteersquo Onlinehttpvancouvercayour-governmentcultural-communities-advisory-committeeaspx(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd) Vancouver City Local Immigration PartnershipVancouver Community Services Online httpvancouvercafilescovvancouver-city-local-immigration-partnership-overviewpdf (accessed 6 April2016)

ndashndashMulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee (2014)Committee Term SummaryOnlinehttpvancouvercafilescovcouncil-of-councils-presentation-mac-2014pdf(accessed1March2016)

ClarksonA (2014)Belonging The paradox of citizenshipCBCMasseyLecture SeriesTorontoHouseofAnansiPress

CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)

CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20

CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants

Montreal Institute forResearchonPublicPolicyOnline httpirpporgwp-contentuploadsassetsresearchdiversity-immigration-and-integrationlanguage-skills-and-the-social-integration-of-canadas-adult-immigrantsIRPP-Study-no31pdf(accessed1March2016)

Dickinson JA andYoung B (2008) Bregraveve histoire socio-historique du Queacutebec Montreal BibliothegravequeQueacutebeacutecoise

DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)

DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS

152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)

ndashndash(2012)lsquoReacutepartitiondessiegravegesagrave laChambredescommunesparprovincersquo Onlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredalloampdocument=indexamplang=f(accessed6April2016)

EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant

settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19

FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48

Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario

Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan

GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45

GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)

GouvernementduQueacutebec(1977)lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11C11_Ahtml(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2000)lsquoChartedelaVilledeMontreacutealrsquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11_4C11_4html(accessed6April2014)

ndashndash (2014) lsquoCommunauteacutes culturellesrsquo Online wwweducationgouvqccaenseignantsaide-et-soutiencommunautes-culturelles(accessed1March2016)

Government of British Columbia (2013) 2011ndash12 Annual ReportWelcomeBC Settlement and Integration Services Online wwwllbclegbccapublicpubdocsbcdocs20114717852011_2012pdf (accessed 1March2016)

GovernmentofCanada(1960)Canadian Bill of RightsOnlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaengactsc-123page-1html(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(1985)Official Languages Act (4th Supp)Onlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaPDFO-301pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(1991)CanadandashQuebec Accord Relating to Immigration and Temporary Admission of AliensOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsquebeccan-queasp(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2015)CanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration AgreementOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsbcbc-2015asp(accessed1March2016)

GunnA (2012) Immigration and Multi-level Governance in Canada and Europe The role of municipalities as integration policy innovators PolicyPaperCanadandashEuropeTransatlanticDialogueSeekingtransnationalsolutionsto21stcenturyproblemsOnlinehttplabscarletoncacanadaeuropewp-contentuploadssites92012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalitiespdf(accessed1March2016)

HouseofCommonsofCanada(2010)Best Practices in Settlement Services Report of the Standing Committee on Citizenship and ImmigrationOttawaGovernmentofCanadaOnlinewwwparlgccacontenthocCommittee403CIMMReportsRP4388396cimmrp02cimmrp02-epdf(accessed6April2016)

InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)

London Review of Education 153

KataokaSandMagnussonW(2007)Settling the Unsettled Migrants municipalities and multilevel governance in British Columbia Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the Urban Affairs AssociationSeattleWA 26April 2007Victoria BC University ofVictoria Online httpppm-ppmcaPapersKataokaMagnusson2007pdf(accessed1March2016)

KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)

LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)

MadyCandTurnbullM(2012)lsquoOfficiallanguagebilingualismforallophonesinCanadaExploringfutureresearchrsquo TESL Canada Journal 29 (2) 131ndash42 Online httpfilesericedgovfulltextEJ981500pdf(accessed1March2016)

Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada

McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)

MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)

MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)

MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2015a)Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants 2015ndash2016MontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdiversPafilipdf (accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2015b)lsquoPolitiquequeacutebeacutecoiseenmatiegraveredrsquoimmigrationdeparticipationetdrsquoinclusionrsquoGouvernementdu Queacutebec Online wwwmidigouvqccafrdossiersconsultation-publiquehtml (accessed 6 April2016)

MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress

MurphyJ(2010)The Settlement amp Integration Needs of Immigrants A literature reviewOttawaTheOttawaLocalImmigration Partnership Online httpolip-pliocaknowledge-basewp-contentuploads201303Olip-Review-of-Literature-Final-ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec

154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)

PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook

3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)

Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)

RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)

SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge

SiteforLanguageManagementinCanada(SLMC)(nd(a))lsquoFederallegislationandlanguagerights(1969and1988)rsquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=federal_legislation_1969_1988(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash(nd(b))lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_linguistic_law(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)

SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)

Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)

ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)

ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)

StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94

SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI

London Review of Education 155

Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)

TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)

ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246

VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)

VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7

Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)

XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)

YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35

Related articles published in the London Review of Education

In this issue

Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)

Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33

156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21

MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73

Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85

Elsewhere in this issue

HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98

Page 10: Language planning and education of adult immigrants in ... · Furthermore, 21.3 per cent of Canadians, 78.1 per cent of Québécois, and 1.3 per cent of British Columbians have French

London Review of Education 143

Language laws and official languages

InordertoprotectFrenchoutsideofQuebecandEnglishwithinQuebecthefoundinglawofCanadathe1867ConstitutionalActalreadycontainedlanguageprovisionsthebulkofwhichrelatestochildrenrsquoseducationTheActalsorecognizedbothFrenchandEnglishasformallyequalinCanadaHowevertheconclusionofthereportoftheRoyalCommissiononBilingualismandBiculturalism(alsocalledtheLaurendeau-DuntonCommission)heldbythefederalgovernmentofCanadainthe1960semphasizedthatbilingualismhadbeenlsquomostlysymbolic(stampsbanknotesetc)andmeretranslationoflawsandcertainadministrativedocumentsrsquo(SLMCnd(a))RespondingdirectlytothecommissionrsquosrecommendationtheOfficialLanguagesActof1969 statesthat

TheEnglishandFrench languagesare theofficial languagesofCanada forallpurposesof theParliamentandgovernmentofCanadaandpossessandenjoyqualityofstatusandequalrightsandprivilegesastotheiruseinalltheinstitutionsoftheParliamentandgovernmentofCanada

(SLMCnd(a))

Coherentwith the notionof a federation theOfficial LanguagesAct appliesonly to federaljurisdictions and institutions Provinces can also be active in the accessory field of languageinsofarastheyareinterveningwithinthescopeoftheirjurisdiction

The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal

Montreal is theeconomicandcultural centreof theprovinceofQuebecandalso themostpopulousfrancophonecityintheAmericasItspopulationisapproximately16 millionandthatofGreaterMontreal38 millionQuebecistheonlyprovincetohaveFrenchasitssoleofficiallanguageThe second articleof the cityofMontrealrsquos charter categorically states that it is afrancophonecity(GouvernementduQueacutebec2000)

InresponsetoincreasinglyvocalandorganizedgroupsinfavourofvalorizingandprotectingtheFrenchlanguagewithinQuebecthegovernmentadoptedin1974QuebecrsquosfirstlanguagelawtheLoi sur la langue officielle(LawoftheOfficialLanguageBill 22)Howeverthisbillrequiringpublic signs tobe in French andpromotingbilingualismwas consideredunable tomeet thelinguisticchallengesthatQuebecincreasinglyfaced(BourhisandLandry2002)ThegovernmentoftheseparatistPartiQueacutebeacutecoisthusadoptedin1977themuchmorepowerfulCharte de la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec (Bill 101)Thecharterrsquosmainobjectiveswere(1)tohalttheassimilationofFrenchspeakerstoEnglish(2)toensurethesocioeconomicpredominanceofthefrancophonemajority and (3) to promote the assertion of the French fact (ie all that concerns FrenchSLMCnd(b))TodaythecharterrequirescommercialsignstobepredominantlyinFrenchandimmigrantchildreninQuebectoattendFrenchschoolsreversingtheimmigrantsrsquotendencytosendtheirchildrentoEnglishschools(McAndrew200270)Manyother lawsinQuebecaresignificantintermsoflanguageincludingafewregardingmunicipalitiesndashwithMontrealamongthemndashandimmigration(SLMCnd(c))

The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver

VancouveristheeconomiccentreofthewesternprovinceofBritishColumbiaWhilethecityitselfwashome toonly603502people in2011 (theeighth largest city inCanada)GreaterVancouver was home to over 23 million residents (the third largest metropolitan area inCanada)Between2006and2011thepopulationofVancouvergrewby44percentwhilethatofGreaterVancouvergrewby93percent(MetroVancouver2012)Likemostotherprovinces

144 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

andcitiesandcoherentwiththeverylowproportionoffrancophonesinboththeprovinceandcityBritishColumbiaandVancouverhaveEnglishastheironlyofficiallanguage

British Columbiarsquos laws and programmes relevant to languages have been scarce if notwhollyabsentInfactthelegislaturehasneveradoptedalanguagelawTheprovincersquoslegislationhoweverdoescontainasmallnumberoflanguageprovisionsandreferencestolanguageMostofthesedealwiththerequirementforpeopletounderstandandexpressthemselvesinproperEnglishandthepossibilityofusingatranslatorOtherreferencesareinsimpledeclarationsofnon-discriminationonthegroundsof languageplaceoforiginandsoonTheonlyreferencetolanguageinwhichthestatemakesacommitmentinvolvesaboriginal languagesIndeedtheFirstPeoplesrsquoHeritageLanguageandCultureAct ismeant tolsquosupport andadviseministriesof governmenton initiatives programs and services related toNativeheritage language andculturersquo(SLMCnd(d))

Immigrantsrsquo settlement integration and adult language education

The federal government of Canada has provided language instruction for newcomers since1947atthesametimeastheCitizenshipActwasadopted(CIMSS20127Cleghorn 2000)The focusof languageeducationwasthuscitizenshipandtoacertainextentassimilationtotheAnglo-SaxonandEnglish-speakingmajority(Ciccarelli1997Cleghorn2000)AsCleghornnoteslsquopriortoQuebecrsquoscontroloverimmigrationbeginninginthe1960slanguagetrainingforadultimmigrantswasEnglishonlyrsquo(200028)From1965tothemid-1980slanguageeducationevolvedfromafocusoncitizenshipintotwodifferentstreamsofclassesfortwodifferenttypesofimmigrantsTheDepartmentofManpowerandImmigrationprovidedlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsinthelabourforcewhiletheCitizenshipBranchoftheDepartmentofSecretaryofStatendashwithamuchsmallerbudgetndashprovidedlanguageclassestoimmigrantsnotplanningtojointhelabourforce(ibid27ndash30)Althoughthefederalgovernmenthadbeenactiveinlanguageeducationsince1947itextendeditsinterventiontosettlementservicesonlyin1979withitsImmigrantSettlementandAdaptationProgramUntilthenthesettlementandintegrationneedsofimmigrantsweremetndashifsondashlsquobyvoluntaryorganizationssuchascommunitycentresethnicorganizationschurchgroupsandwomenrsquosorganizationsrsquo(ibid32)Alongwiththisprogrammeand the current merged settlement and integration programme CIC has been overseeingimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationItspreferredpatternofserviceprovisionhasbeenandremainsoutsourcingtocommunityserviceproviders

The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal

AsmentionedQuebecbecamemoredirectlyinvolvedinthefieldofimmigrationinthe1970sand was then followed by the other Canadian provincesThe first bilateral agreement onimmigrationbetween thegovernmentofCanadaandaprovincewas signedwithQuebec in1971WiththecurrentagreementndashImmigrationTheCanadandashQuebecAccordndashsignedin1991Canadacommitsitself

towithdrawfromthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionandlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsCanadaprovidescompensationtoQuebecforsuchservicesaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountry

(Beacutechard20113)

London Review of Education 145

TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofQuebecfortheseservicesamountedto$320millionin2013ndash14WhilesimilaragreementsexistwitheachprovincenoneismoreextensiveandmatchedwithasmuchfederalgrantsastheonewithQuebec(Beacutechard2011)

AdultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationiscalledfrancizationinQuebecsuggestingaprocessthroughwhichapersonappropriatesprogressivelytheFrenchlanguageuntilitbecomespartofherorhisidentityOnlyFrenchlanguageclassesndashandnoEnglishonesndashareprovidedforfreetoimmigrantsinQuebecFrancizationclassesareavailabletoimmigrantsinvariousformatsandtheymayqualifyforallowancesthatincertaincasesevencovertransportationandchildcarecosts(MIDI 2015a)No comparable programme exists outside ofQuebec to support immigrantswhileattending languageclasses(CIC2012)Quebecrsquossettlementandintegrationframeworkincludes two programmes of language education and of financial aid for adult immigrants(Programme drsquointeacutegration linguistique pour les immigrants and Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants)andtwoprogrammesforsettlementperse(Programme drsquoaccompagnement des nouveaux arrivantsandProgramme reacutegional drsquointeacutegration)

TheproportionofnewcomersknowingFrenchupontheirarrivalgrewfrom368percentinthe1994ndash8periodto623percentforthe2009ndash13period(MIDI2014a)Itwas586 percentin2015(MIDI2014b24)AnewimmigrationpolicywasadoptedbyQuebecinMarch2016(MIDI2015b)andthepreparatorydocumenttothepolicymadeclearhowmuchofapriorityfrancizationwasamongthevariousinterventionsinsettlementandintegration

InadditiontotherecentincreaseofFrenchimmigrationthefrancizationofimmigrantpeople isoneofthestrategiesthattheGovernmentofQuebecimplementstoensuretheperennialityoftheFrenchfactonitsterritoryaswellasthesuccessfulintegrationofimmigrantpeople

(MIDI2014a15ourtranslation)

ThefirsttenetofthepolicyisthatlsquoimmigrationplaysanimportantroleinboostingQueacutebecrsquosprosperityandinthevitalityoftheFrenchlanguagersquo(MIDI2015b)Francizationismeanttomakethese two priorities and objectives of the policy overlap Indeedlsquoimmigrantsrsquo ability to fullyparticipateinQueacutebecsocietyisdeeplyintertwinedwiththelanguageissuersquo(ibid5)

InQuebecndashlikeintherestofCanadandashmostcontactsrelatingtoandservicesregardingsettlement and language education areprovidedby communityorganizationsOutof the51service providers listed on CICrsquoS website in Montreal 43 (84 per cent) were communityorganizations The services they most frequently provided were general French languageeducation(725percent)servicesforfrancophonenewcomers(549percent)andhelpwithdaily life (314 per cent)Nomunicipal organizationwas however listed as service providerincludinglanguageeducationservices(CICnd(b))

WhileevaluatingtheoutcomesoftheimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationprogrammesinQuebecinrelationtosimilarservicesavailableacrossCanadaCICwrites

TohelpindividualsprepareforlifeinCanadaandthecitizenshiptestinformationisoftenprovidedthrough settlement services particularly via language training curricula Language curricula inQuebecalsofollowsthisapproachhoweverthefocusisonprovidinginformationaboutQuebecculture

(CICnd(c))

InretrospectPaquet(2016)suggeststhatQuebecrsquosapproachtoimmigrationhasbeenholisticseenasacollectiveprojectinselectingimmigrantsovereconomicaswellassocialcriteria

ThecityofMontreallikemostregionsinQuebecconcludesimmigrationagreementswiththeprovincersquosMinistryofImmigrationDiversityandIntegration(Ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusionMIDI)andthuscontributestoassessingneedsandplanninginterventioninthisfieldMunicipalitiesndashincludingMontrealndasharerarelymentionedinprogrammesregarding

146 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

immigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationTherearenomentionsofMontrealandmunicipalitiesintheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccordTheonlyreferencetothecityofMontrealintheMIDIannualreportof2014ndash15isrelatedtotheobjectiveofregionalizingimmigrationthatisreducingthe proportion of immigrants settling inMontreal MIDIrsquos (2008) adult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationactionplanPour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieux(To enrich Quebec Make more French integrate better)makesnomentionofmunicipalitiesorofMontrealOneopeningtocitiesrsquo and regionsrsquo roles in thefieldof immigration is however found in thepreparatorydocumenttothenewQuebecimmigrationpolicyItstatestheirrolein(1)buildingwelcomingandinclusivecommunities(2)gatheringconcreteinformationandknowledgeonactualneedsandchallengesasmetinday-to-dayactivitiesand(3)workingagainstracismanddiscrimination(MIDI2014a54)

Inabriefon immigrationmanagementsubmittedtothegovernmentofQuebec in2011thecityofMontrealaskedfor(1)anofficialrecognitionof itsroleinimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegration(2)anincreasedbudgetforthefrancizationofimmigrantsinMontreal(3)theautomatic transfer toMontreal of 10 per cent of federal grants for immigrantsrsquo settlementand integration and (4) increased budgets for immigrantsrsquo social housing (Ville deMontreacuteal20116)DespitethegovernmentofQuebecrsquosrarementionofMontrealinimmigrationpoliciesandprogrammesthecityhasbeenrelativelyresponsivetoimmigrationinthesensediscussedbyGood (2008) First the city ofMontreal has contributed to community capacity-buildingthroughfundingvariouscommunitygroupsbeinganactivememberofvariouscollaborationsonimmigrationadoptingacharterofrightsandresponsibilityandcreatinganinterculturaladvisorycouncilSecondthecityhasaPlandrsquoaccegraves agrave lrsquoeacutegaliteacute agrave lrsquoemploi(PAEacuteEacute)ThirdthecityhascreatedtheNexusprogrammewhichisamunicipalprogrammeinMontrealthatprovidesbusinesseswithinformationtoolssupportandreferencesregardingtherecruitmentandsustainedemploymentofprofessionalstrainedabroad(EmploiNexus2016)Hencethecityintervenesthroughnotonlycollaboratingwithserviceprovidersbutalsobyfundingthem(VilledeMontreacuteal2011)

The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver

The first bilateral agreement on immigration between the governments of BritishColumbiaandofCanadawassignedin1998andthecurrentagreementndashtheCanadandashBritishColumbiaImmigrationAgreementndashwassignedin2015ContrarytotheprevalentmodelintherestofCanada(exceptQuebecandManitoba)theaccordoperatesatransferofresponsibilityinthefieldofsettlementandintegrationservices(Paquet2016)HoweverwhereastheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccord stipulates the federal governmentrsquoswithdrawal from thedeliveryofservices for the reception linguistic and cultural integration and placements of immigrantsthe CanadandashBritish Columbia ImmigrationAgreement emphasizes collaboration negotiationconsultationandcooperationratherthanstrictdivisionofauthoritybetweentheprovinceandthefederalgovernmentForexamplelsquocollaborationrsquolsquotocollaboratersquoisusedseventimes(nonein theQuebec accord)lsquonegotiationrsquolsquoto negotiatersquo is used seven times (once in the accord)lsquoconsultationrsquolsquoto consultrsquo is used sixteen times (none in the accord) and lsquocooperationrsquolsquotocooperatersquoisusedfivetimes(fiveintheaccordaswell)

TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofBritishColumbiaforthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsamountedto$114millionin2010ndash11(DerwingandWaugh20124)ndasharoundhalfofwhichwasallocatedto language education In addition federal funds were also allocated to Enhanced LanguageTraining a smaller language education initiative (ibid)WelcomeBC and the Settlement andIntegrationProgram arethemainprogrammesthroughwhichsettlementintegrationhappensin

London Review of Education 147

BritishColumbiaTheWelcomingandInclusiveCommunitiesandWorkplacesProgramandtheVulnerableImmigrantPopulationsProgramcompletethepicture

TheproportionofnewcomersspeakingeitherFrenchorEnglishwas73percentin2011ndash12(GovernmentofBritishColumbia2013)muchhigherthantheproportionofnewcomersspeakingFrenchinQuebecInitsannualreportof2011ndash12WelcomeBCwritesthatlanguageabilityiscriticaltothesuccessofimmigrantsintheprovincersquoslabourmarketandcommunitiesAccordingtotheprogrammethoughmostnewcomersarehighlyskilledandeducatedlsquoalackofEnglishlanguageabilitycorrelateswithimmigrantunemploymentandunderemploymentwhichcosts theeconomy inproductivityandeconomicgrowth and impacts immigrantsrsquo successfulsocialandeconomic integrationrsquo(ibid10)Furthermoretheyestimatethatlsquoa1increase inliteracyproducesa25increaseintheleveloflabourproductivityandthatevery1comparativeincreaseinnationalliteracyscoreswouldboostnationalincomeby$32 billionrsquo(ibid8)Inthisexplanationofwhylanguageproficiencyisimportantwenoticeaphrasingthatisfinancialandeconomicratherthansocialorcitizenship-related

English language services for adults (deliveredmostly by community organizations) andEnglishasasecondlanguage(deliveredbypubliclyfundedpost-secondaryinstitutions)arethemain vehicles of adult immigrant training in the province (Government of BritishColumbia2013)Ofthe36serviceproviders inVancouver listedontheCICwebsite fourwere intheeducationsectoronewasaprivatecompanyandtheremaining31(84percent)werecommunityorganizationsTheservices theyprovidedmost frequentlywerehelpwithdaily life (722percent)helpfindingjobs(417percent)mentoring(389percent)andgenerallanguageeducation(306percent)Afewmunicipallibrarieswerealsolistedassettlementandintegrationserviceproviders(CICnd(b))WenoticeherethatamuchlowerproportionofserviceprovidersofferlanguageeducationthanisthecaseinQuebec

British Columbiarsquos settlement and integration policies and programmes refer morefrequentlytoVancouverandmunicipalitiesthandoesQuebecrsquostoMontrealForexampletheimportance of consultingmunicipalities and local governments ismentioned in theCanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration Agreement lsquoThe Parties agree to cooperate to work withLocalGovernmentsinBritishColumbiatoexploreissuesrelatedtotheirrespectiveinterestsin immigration and pursue opportunities related to communitiesrsquo interests in immigrationrsquo(Government ofCanada 2015)Whereas the city ofVancouver is not directlymentioned intheBritishColumbiaImmigrationTaskForcereportoneofitsrecommendationsislsquotoengageindustry local governments and non-governmental organizations in settling and integratingimmigrantsrsquo(MinisterofStateforMulticulturalism201220)FurthermoreBritishColumbiarsquosWelcoming and InclusiveCommunities andWorkplacesProgramlsquohas actively recognized theroleandparticipationofmunicipalgovernmentsintheimmigrantsettlementprocessrsquo(Dicksonet al201323)MunicipalitieshavethuslsquofeltthatacloserpartnershipbetweenBCandmunicipalgovernmentsofsomemajorimmigrantreceptioncitieshasbeenestablishedrsquo(ibid)

In2014VancouverfinallyenteredintoanagreementwiththegovernmentofCanadarsquosCIClsquotoundertakeaLocal ImmigrationPartnership (LIP)rsquo (CityofVancouvernd)TheVancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP2016)isafirststeptowardsestablishingndashwiththecollaborationofdozensoflocalorganizationsandcommunityleadersndashtheveryfirstVancouverImmigrantSettlement and Integration Strategy TheVIPrsquos main focuses are (1) the strengthening ofinterculturalandcivicengagement(2)thecreationofwelcomingandinclusiveworkplacesand(3)theassessmentofnewcomersrsquoneedsinareassuchashousinghealthandaccesstolocalandmunicipalservices

Vancouverhasbeenresponsive to immigration (CityofVancouver201414)first ithascontributedtothecommunitythroughactivelyconsultingcommunitygroupsandleadersfunding

148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)

Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants

Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation

Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries

Conclusion

AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants

London Review of Education 149

Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy

ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec

ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues

Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the

150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated

Notes on the contributors

Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012

CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa

RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada

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BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65

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ndashndash (nd(c)) lsquoLanguage classes funded by the Government of Canadarsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishnewcomerslivelanguageasp(accessed1March2016)

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ClarksonA (2014)Belonging The paradox of citizenshipCBCMasseyLecture SeriesTorontoHouseofAnansiPress

CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)

CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20

CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants

Montreal Institute forResearchonPublicPolicyOnline httpirpporgwp-contentuploadsassetsresearchdiversity-immigration-and-integrationlanguage-skills-and-the-social-integration-of-canadas-adult-immigrantsIRPP-Study-no31pdf(accessed1March2016)

Dickinson JA andYoung B (2008) Bregraveve histoire socio-historique du Queacutebec Montreal BibliothegravequeQueacutebeacutecoise

DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)

DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS

152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)

ndashndash(2012)lsquoReacutepartitiondessiegravegesagrave laChambredescommunesparprovincersquo Onlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredalloampdocument=indexamplang=f(accessed6April2016)

EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant

settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19

FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48

Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario

Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan

GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45

GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)

GouvernementduQueacutebec(1977)lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11C11_Ahtml(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2000)lsquoChartedelaVilledeMontreacutealrsquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11_4C11_4html(accessed6April2014)

ndashndash (2014) lsquoCommunauteacutes culturellesrsquo Online wwweducationgouvqccaenseignantsaide-et-soutiencommunautes-culturelles(accessed1March2016)

Government of British Columbia (2013) 2011ndash12 Annual ReportWelcomeBC Settlement and Integration Services Online wwwllbclegbccapublicpubdocsbcdocs20114717852011_2012pdf (accessed 1March2016)

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GunnA (2012) Immigration and Multi-level Governance in Canada and Europe The role of municipalities as integration policy innovators PolicyPaperCanadandashEuropeTransatlanticDialogueSeekingtransnationalsolutionsto21stcenturyproblemsOnlinehttplabscarletoncacanadaeuropewp-contentuploadssites92012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalitiespdf(accessed1March2016)

HouseofCommonsofCanada(2010)Best Practices in Settlement Services Report of the Standing Committee on Citizenship and ImmigrationOttawaGovernmentofCanadaOnlinewwwparlgccacontenthocCommittee403CIMMReportsRP4388396cimmrp02cimmrp02-epdf(accessed6April2016)

InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)

London Review of Education 153

KataokaSandMagnussonW(2007)Settling the Unsettled Migrants municipalities and multilevel governance in British Columbia Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the Urban Affairs AssociationSeattleWA 26April 2007Victoria BC University ofVictoria Online httpppm-ppmcaPapersKataokaMagnusson2007pdf(accessed1March2016)

KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)

LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)

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Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada

McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)

MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)

MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)

MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2015a)Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants 2015ndash2016MontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdiversPafilipdf (accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2015b)lsquoPolitiquequeacutebeacutecoiseenmatiegraveredrsquoimmigrationdeparticipationetdrsquoinclusionrsquoGouvernementdu Queacutebec Online wwwmidigouvqccafrdossiersconsultation-publiquehtml (accessed 6 April2016)

MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress

MurphyJ(2010)The Settlement amp Integration Needs of Immigrants A literature reviewOttawaTheOttawaLocalImmigration Partnership Online httpolip-pliocaknowledge-basewp-contentuploads201303Olip-Review-of-Literature-Final-ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec

154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)

PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook

3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)

Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)

RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)

SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge

SiteforLanguageManagementinCanada(SLMC)(nd(a))lsquoFederallegislationandlanguagerights(1969and1988)rsquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=federal_legislation_1969_1988(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash(nd(b))lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_linguistic_law(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)

SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)

Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)

ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)

ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)

StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94

SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI

London Review of Education 155

Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)

TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)

ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246

VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)

VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7

Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)

XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)

YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35

Related articles published in the London Review of Education

In this issue

Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)

Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33

156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21

MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73

Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85

Elsewhere in this issue

HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98

Page 11: Language planning and education of adult immigrants in ... · Furthermore, 21.3 per cent of Canadians, 78.1 per cent of Québécois, and 1.3 per cent of British Columbians have French

144 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

andcitiesandcoherentwiththeverylowproportionoffrancophonesinboththeprovinceandcityBritishColumbiaandVancouverhaveEnglishastheironlyofficiallanguage

British Columbiarsquos laws and programmes relevant to languages have been scarce if notwhollyabsentInfactthelegislaturehasneveradoptedalanguagelawTheprovincersquoslegislationhoweverdoescontainasmallnumberoflanguageprovisionsandreferencestolanguageMostofthesedealwiththerequirementforpeopletounderstandandexpressthemselvesinproperEnglishandthepossibilityofusingatranslatorOtherreferencesareinsimpledeclarationsofnon-discriminationonthegroundsof languageplaceoforiginandsoonTheonlyreferencetolanguageinwhichthestatemakesacommitmentinvolvesaboriginal languagesIndeedtheFirstPeoplesrsquoHeritageLanguageandCultureAct ismeant tolsquosupport andadviseministriesof governmenton initiatives programs and services related toNativeheritage language andculturersquo(SLMCnd(d))

Immigrantsrsquo settlement integration and adult language education

The federal government of Canada has provided language instruction for newcomers since1947atthesametimeastheCitizenshipActwasadopted(CIMSS20127Cleghorn 2000)The focusof languageeducationwasthuscitizenshipandtoacertainextentassimilationtotheAnglo-SaxonandEnglish-speakingmajority(Ciccarelli1997Cleghorn2000)AsCleghornnoteslsquopriortoQuebecrsquoscontroloverimmigrationbeginninginthe1960slanguagetrainingforadultimmigrantswasEnglishonlyrsquo(200028)From1965tothemid-1980slanguageeducationevolvedfromafocusoncitizenshipintotwodifferentstreamsofclassesfortwodifferenttypesofimmigrantsTheDepartmentofManpowerandImmigrationprovidedlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsinthelabourforcewhiletheCitizenshipBranchoftheDepartmentofSecretaryofStatendashwithamuchsmallerbudgetndashprovidedlanguageclassestoimmigrantsnotplanningtojointhelabourforce(ibid27ndash30)Althoughthefederalgovernmenthadbeenactiveinlanguageeducationsince1947itextendeditsinterventiontosettlementservicesonlyin1979withitsImmigrantSettlementandAdaptationProgramUntilthenthesettlementandintegrationneedsofimmigrantsweremetndashifsondashlsquobyvoluntaryorganizationssuchascommunitycentresethnicorganizationschurchgroupsandwomenrsquosorganizationsrsquo(ibid32)Alongwiththisprogrammeand the current merged settlement and integration programme CIC has been overseeingimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationItspreferredpatternofserviceprovisionhasbeenandremainsoutsourcingtocommunityserviceproviders

The province of Quebec and the city of Montreal

AsmentionedQuebecbecamemoredirectlyinvolvedinthefieldofimmigrationinthe1970sand was then followed by the other Canadian provincesThe first bilateral agreement onimmigrationbetween thegovernmentofCanadaandaprovincewas signedwithQuebec in1971WiththecurrentagreementndashImmigrationTheCanadandashQuebecAccordndashsignedin1991Canadacommitsitself

towithdrawfromthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionandlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsCanadaprovidescompensationtoQuebecforsuchservicesaslongastheycorrespondtothoseofferedbyCanadaintherestofthecountry

(Beacutechard20113)

London Review of Education 145

TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofQuebecfortheseservicesamountedto$320millionin2013ndash14WhilesimilaragreementsexistwitheachprovincenoneismoreextensiveandmatchedwithasmuchfederalgrantsastheonewithQuebec(Beacutechard2011)

AdultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationiscalledfrancizationinQuebecsuggestingaprocessthroughwhichapersonappropriatesprogressivelytheFrenchlanguageuntilitbecomespartofherorhisidentityOnlyFrenchlanguageclassesndashandnoEnglishonesndashareprovidedforfreetoimmigrantsinQuebecFrancizationclassesareavailabletoimmigrantsinvariousformatsandtheymayqualifyforallowancesthatincertaincasesevencovertransportationandchildcarecosts(MIDI 2015a)No comparable programme exists outside ofQuebec to support immigrantswhileattending languageclasses(CIC2012)Quebecrsquossettlementandintegrationframeworkincludes two programmes of language education and of financial aid for adult immigrants(Programme drsquointeacutegration linguistique pour les immigrants and Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants)andtwoprogrammesforsettlementperse(Programme drsquoaccompagnement des nouveaux arrivantsandProgramme reacutegional drsquointeacutegration)

TheproportionofnewcomersknowingFrenchupontheirarrivalgrewfrom368percentinthe1994ndash8periodto623percentforthe2009ndash13period(MIDI2014a)Itwas586 percentin2015(MIDI2014b24)AnewimmigrationpolicywasadoptedbyQuebecinMarch2016(MIDI2015b)andthepreparatorydocumenttothepolicymadeclearhowmuchofapriorityfrancizationwasamongthevariousinterventionsinsettlementandintegration

InadditiontotherecentincreaseofFrenchimmigrationthefrancizationofimmigrantpeople isoneofthestrategiesthattheGovernmentofQuebecimplementstoensuretheperennialityoftheFrenchfactonitsterritoryaswellasthesuccessfulintegrationofimmigrantpeople

(MIDI2014a15ourtranslation)

ThefirsttenetofthepolicyisthatlsquoimmigrationplaysanimportantroleinboostingQueacutebecrsquosprosperityandinthevitalityoftheFrenchlanguagersquo(MIDI2015b)Francizationismeanttomakethese two priorities and objectives of the policy overlap Indeedlsquoimmigrantsrsquo ability to fullyparticipateinQueacutebecsocietyisdeeplyintertwinedwiththelanguageissuersquo(ibid5)

InQuebecndashlikeintherestofCanadandashmostcontactsrelatingtoandservicesregardingsettlement and language education areprovidedby communityorganizationsOutof the51service providers listed on CICrsquoS website in Montreal 43 (84 per cent) were communityorganizations The services they most frequently provided were general French languageeducation(725percent)servicesforfrancophonenewcomers(549percent)andhelpwithdaily life (314 per cent)Nomunicipal organizationwas however listed as service providerincludinglanguageeducationservices(CICnd(b))

WhileevaluatingtheoutcomesoftheimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationprogrammesinQuebecinrelationtosimilarservicesavailableacrossCanadaCICwrites

TohelpindividualsprepareforlifeinCanadaandthecitizenshiptestinformationisoftenprovidedthrough settlement services particularly via language training curricula Language curricula inQuebecalsofollowsthisapproachhoweverthefocusisonprovidinginformationaboutQuebecculture

(CICnd(c))

InretrospectPaquet(2016)suggeststhatQuebecrsquosapproachtoimmigrationhasbeenholisticseenasacollectiveprojectinselectingimmigrantsovereconomicaswellassocialcriteria

ThecityofMontreallikemostregionsinQuebecconcludesimmigrationagreementswiththeprovincersquosMinistryofImmigrationDiversityandIntegration(Ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusionMIDI)andthuscontributestoassessingneedsandplanninginterventioninthisfieldMunicipalitiesndashincludingMontrealndasharerarelymentionedinprogrammesregarding

146 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

immigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationTherearenomentionsofMontrealandmunicipalitiesintheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccordTheonlyreferencetothecityofMontrealintheMIDIannualreportof2014ndash15isrelatedtotheobjectiveofregionalizingimmigrationthatisreducingthe proportion of immigrants settling inMontreal MIDIrsquos (2008) adult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationactionplanPour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieux(To enrich Quebec Make more French integrate better)makesnomentionofmunicipalitiesorofMontrealOneopeningtocitiesrsquo and regionsrsquo roles in thefieldof immigration is however found in thepreparatorydocumenttothenewQuebecimmigrationpolicyItstatestheirrolein(1)buildingwelcomingandinclusivecommunities(2)gatheringconcreteinformationandknowledgeonactualneedsandchallengesasmetinday-to-dayactivitiesand(3)workingagainstracismanddiscrimination(MIDI2014a54)

Inabriefon immigrationmanagementsubmittedtothegovernmentofQuebec in2011thecityofMontrealaskedfor(1)anofficialrecognitionof itsroleinimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegration(2)anincreasedbudgetforthefrancizationofimmigrantsinMontreal(3)theautomatic transfer toMontreal of 10 per cent of federal grants for immigrantsrsquo settlementand integration and (4) increased budgets for immigrantsrsquo social housing (Ville deMontreacuteal20116)DespitethegovernmentofQuebecrsquosrarementionofMontrealinimmigrationpoliciesandprogrammesthecityhasbeenrelativelyresponsivetoimmigrationinthesensediscussedbyGood (2008) First the city ofMontreal has contributed to community capacity-buildingthroughfundingvariouscommunitygroupsbeinganactivememberofvariouscollaborationsonimmigrationadoptingacharterofrightsandresponsibilityandcreatinganinterculturaladvisorycouncilSecondthecityhasaPlandrsquoaccegraves agrave lrsquoeacutegaliteacute agrave lrsquoemploi(PAEacuteEacute)ThirdthecityhascreatedtheNexusprogrammewhichisamunicipalprogrammeinMontrealthatprovidesbusinesseswithinformationtoolssupportandreferencesregardingtherecruitmentandsustainedemploymentofprofessionalstrainedabroad(EmploiNexus2016)Hencethecityintervenesthroughnotonlycollaboratingwithserviceprovidersbutalsobyfundingthem(VilledeMontreacuteal2011)

The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver

The first bilateral agreement on immigration between the governments of BritishColumbiaandofCanadawassignedin1998andthecurrentagreementndashtheCanadandashBritishColumbiaImmigrationAgreementndashwassignedin2015ContrarytotheprevalentmodelintherestofCanada(exceptQuebecandManitoba)theaccordoperatesatransferofresponsibilityinthefieldofsettlementandintegrationservices(Paquet2016)HoweverwhereastheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccord stipulates the federal governmentrsquoswithdrawal from thedeliveryofservices for the reception linguistic and cultural integration and placements of immigrantsthe CanadandashBritish Columbia ImmigrationAgreement emphasizes collaboration negotiationconsultationandcooperationratherthanstrictdivisionofauthoritybetweentheprovinceandthefederalgovernmentForexamplelsquocollaborationrsquolsquotocollaboratersquoisusedseventimes(nonein theQuebec accord)lsquonegotiationrsquolsquoto negotiatersquo is used seven times (once in the accord)lsquoconsultationrsquolsquoto consultrsquo is used sixteen times (none in the accord) and lsquocooperationrsquolsquotocooperatersquoisusedfivetimes(fiveintheaccordaswell)

TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofBritishColumbiaforthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsamountedto$114millionin2010ndash11(DerwingandWaugh20124)ndasharoundhalfofwhichwasallocatedto language education In addition federal funds were also allocated to Enhanced LanguageTraining a smaller language education initiative (ibid)WelcomeBC and the Settlement andIntegrationProgram arethemainprogrammesthroughwhichsettlementintegrationhappensin

London Review of Education 147

BritishColumbiaTheWelcomingandInclusiveCommunitiesandWorkplacesProgramandtheVulnerableImmigrantPopulationsProgramcompletethepicture

TheproportionofnewcomersspeakingeitherFrenchorEnglishwas73percentin2011ndash12(GovernmentofBritishColumbia2013)muchhigherthantheproportionofnewcomersspeakingFrenchinQuebecInitsannualreportof2011ndash12WelcomeBCwritesthatlanguageabilityiscriticaltothesuccessofimmigrantsintheprovincersquoslabourmarketandcommunitiesAccordingtotheprogrammethoughmostnewcomersarehighlyskilledandeducatedlsquoalackofEnglishlanguageabilitycorrelateswithimmigrantunemploymentandunderemploymentwhichcosts theeconomy inproductivityandeconomicgrowth and impacts immigrantsrsquo successfulsocialandeconomic integrationrsquo(ibid10)Furthermoretheyestimatethatlsquoa1increase inliteracyproducesa25increaseintheleveloflabourproductivityandthatevery1comparativeincreaseinnationalliteracyscoreswouldboostnationalincomeby$32 billionrsquo(ibid8)Inthisexplanationofwhylanguageproficiencyisimportantwenoticeaphrasingthatisfinancialandeconomicratherthansocialorcitizenship-related

English language services for adults (deliveredmostly by community organizations) andEnglishasasecondlanguage(deliveredbypubliclyfundedpost-secondaryinstitutions)arethemain vehicles of adult immigrant training in the province (Government of BritishColumbia2013)Ofthe36serviceproviders inVancouver listedontheCICwebsite fourwere intheeducationsectoronewasaprivatecompanyandtheremaining31(84percent)werecommunityorganizationsTheservices theyprovidedmost frequentlywerehelpwithdaily life (722percent)helpfindingjobs(417percent)mentoring(389percent)andgenerallanguageeducation(306percent)Afewmunicipallibrarieswerealsolistedassettlementandintegrationserviceproviders(CICnd(b))WenoticeherethatamuchlowerproportionofserviceprovidersofferlanguageeducationthanisthecaseinQuebec

British Columbiarsquos settlement and integration policies and programmes refer morefrequentlytoVancouverandmunicipalitiesthandoesQuebecrsquostoMontrealForexampletheimportance of consultingmunicipalities and local governments ismentioned in theCanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration Agreement lsquoThe Parties agree to cooperate to work withLocalGovernmentsinBritishColumbiatoexploreissuesrelatedtotheirrespectiveinterestsin immigration and pursue opportunities related to communitiesrsquo interests in immigrationrsquo(Government ofCanada 2015)Whereas the city ofVancouver is not directlymentioned intheBritishColumbiaImmigrationTaskForcereportoneofitsrecommendationsislsquotoengageindustry local governments and non-governmental organizations in settling and integratingimmigrantsrsquo(MinisterofStateforMulticulturalism201220)FurthermoreBritishColumbiarsquosWelcoming and InclusiveCommunities andWorkplacesProgramlsquohas actively recognized theroleandparticipationofmunicipalgovernmentsintheimmigrantsettlementprocessrsquo(Dicksonet al201323)MunicipalitieshavethuslsquofeltthatacloserpartnershipbetweenBCandmunicipalgovernmentsofsomemajorimmigrantreceptioncitieshasbeenestablishedrsquo(ibid)

In2014VancouverfinallyenteredintoanagreementwiththegovernmentofCanadarsquosCIClsquotoundertakeaLocal ImmigrationPartnership (LIP)rsquo (CityofVancouvernd)TheVancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP2016)isafirststeptowardsestablishingndashwiththecollaborationofdozensoflocalorganizationsandcommunityleadersndashtheveryfirstVancouverImmigrantSettlement and Integration Strategy TheVIPrsquos main focuses are (1) the strengthening ofinterculturalandcivicengagement(2)thecreationofwelcomingandinclusiveworkplacesand(3)theassessmentofnewcomersrsquoneedsinareassuchashousinghealthandaccesstolocalandmunicipalservices

Vancouverhasbeenresponsive to immigration (CityofVancouver201414)first ithascontributedtothecommunitythroughactivelyconsultingcommunitygroupsandleadersfunding

148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)

Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants

Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation

Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries

Conclusion

AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants

London Review of Education 149

Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy

ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec

ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues

Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the

150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated

Notes on the contributors

Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012

CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa

RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada

References

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AhmadFRiazSBarataPandStewartDE(2004)lsquoPatriarchalbeliefsandperceptionsofabuseamongSouthAsianimmigrantwomenrsquoViolence Against Women10(3)262ndash82

AndrewC(2014)lsquoFederalpoliciesonimmigrantsettlementrsquoInGrahamKandAndrewC(eds)Canada in Cities The politics and policy of federal-local governanceMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversity Press227ndash49

BattagliniADeacutesyMDorvalDPoirierL-RFournierMCamirandHandFecteauD(2007)Lrsquointervention de premiegravere ligne agrave Montreacuteal aupregraves des personnes immigrantes Estimeacute des ressources neacutecessaires pour une intervention adeacutequateMontrealDirectiondesanteacutepubliqueOnlinehttppublicationssantemontrealqccauploadstx_asssmpublications978-2-89494-571-1pdf(accessed1March2016)

Beacutechard J (2011) Immigration The CanadandashQuebec Accord Background paper publication no 2011-89-EOttawaLibraryofParliamentOnlinewwwparlgccaContentLOPResearchPublications2011-89-epdf (accessed1March2016)

BelkhodjaC(2008)lsquoIntroductionImmigrationetdiversiteacutedanslescommunauteacutesfrancophonesensituationminoritairersquo In BelkhodjaC (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaire Thegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies3ndash6

BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65

BourhisRandLandryR(2002)lsquoLaloi 101etlrsquoameacutenagementdupaysagelinguistiqueauQueacutebecrsquoOfficede la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_bourhis_vf_1pdf(accessed6April2016)

BursteinM Clement G and Petty S (2014) Pratiques drsquointeacutegration prometteuses dans les communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireOttawaCIC

London Review of Education 151

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CardozoAandPendakurR(2008)Canadarsquos Visible Minority Population 1967ndash2017WorkingpaperseriesVancouver Metropolis British Columbia Online httpmbcmetropolisnetassetsuploadsfileswp2008WP08-05pdf(accessed1March2016)

CentreforInternationalMigrationandSettlementStudies(CIMSS)(2012)lsquoIntroductionStateoftheartandfuturedirectionsinsettlementlanguagetrainingrsquoInternational Settlement CanadaSpecial issue on settlement language training SpringOnlinewww3carletoncacimssinscan-ev24_sepdf (accessed1March2016)

ChiswickBR (2008)The Economics of Language An introduction and overviewDiscussionpaperno3568 BonnInstitutefortheStudyofLaborOnlinehttpftpizaorgdp3568pdf(accessed1March2016)

Ciccarelli SB (1997)lsquoESL for nation-buildingThe origins of federally-funded ESL inCanadarsquoMA dissOntarioInstituteforStudiesinEducationUniversityofToronto

Citizenship and ImmigrationCanada (CIC) (2012)Canada Faits et chiffres 2012 Aperccedilu de lrsquoimmigration Reacutesidents permanents et temporaires Ottawa CIC Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2013cicCi1-8-2012-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd(a)) lsquoStrategic outcomes and program activity architecturersquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentpaaactivity-05asp(accessed6April2016)

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ndashndash (nd(c)) lsquoLanguage classes funded by the Government of Canadarsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishnewcomerslivelanguageasp(accessed1March2016)

CityofVancouver(2014)lsquoCulturalCommunitiesAdvisoryCommitteersquo Onlinehttpvancouvercayour-governmentcultural-communities-advisory-committeeaspx(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd) Vancouver City Local Immigration PartnershipVancouver Community Services Online httpvancouvercafilescovvancouver-city-local-immigration-partnership-overviewpdf (accessed 6 April2016)

ndashndashMulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee (2014)Committee Term SummaryOnlinehttpvancouvercafilescovcouncil-of-councils-presentation-mac-2014pdf(accessed1March2016)

ClarksonA (2014)Belonging The paradox of citizenshipCBCMasseyLecture SeriesTorontoHouseofAnansiPress

CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)

CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20

CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants

Montreal Institute forResearchonPublicPolicyOnline httpirpporgwp-contentuploadsassetsresearchdiversity-immigration-and-integrationlanguage-skills-and-the-social-integration-of-canadas-adult-immigrantsIRPP-Study-no31pdf(accessed1March2016)

Dickinson JA andYoung B (2008) Bregraveve histoire socio-historique du Queacutebec Montreal BibliothegravequeQueacutebeacutecoise

DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)

DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS

152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)

ndashndash(2012)lsquoReacutepartitiondessiegravegesagrave laChambredescommunesparprovincersquo Onlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredalloampdocument=indexamplang=f(accessed6April2016)

EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant

settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19

FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48

Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario

Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan

GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45

GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)

GouvernementduQueacutebec(1977)lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11C11_Ahtml(accessed1March2016)

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GunnA (2012) Immigration and Multi-level Governance in Canada and Europe The role of municipalities as integration policy innovators PolicyPaperCanadandashEuropeTransatlanticDialogueSeekingtransnationalsolutionsto21stcenturyproblemsOnlinehttplabscarletoncacanadaeuropewp-contentuploadssites92012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalitiespdf(accessed1March2016)

HouseofCommonsofCanada(2010)Best Practices in Settlement Services Report of the Standing Committee on Citizenship and ImmigrationOttawaGovernmentofCanadaOnlinewwwparlgccacontenthocCommittee403CIMMReportsRP4388396cimmrp02cimmrp02-epdf(accessed6April2016)

InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)

London Review of Education 153

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KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)

LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)

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Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada

McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)

MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)

MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)

MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)

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ndashndash(2015b)lsquoPolitiquequeacutebeacutecoiseenmatiegraveredrsquoimmigrationdeparticipationetdrsquoinclusionrsquoGouvernementdu Queacutebec Online wwwmidigouvqccafrdossiersconsultation-publiquehtml (accessed 6 April2016)

MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress

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Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec

154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

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RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)

SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge

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SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)

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ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)

StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94

SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI

London Review of Education 155

Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)

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TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246

VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)

VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7

Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)

XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)

YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35

Related articles published in the London Review of Education

In this issue

Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)

Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33

156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21

MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73

Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85

Elsewhere in this issue

HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98

Page 12: Language planning and education of adult immigrants in ... · Furthermore, 21.3 per cent of Canadians, 78.1 per cent of Québécois, and 1.3 per cent of British Columbians have French

London Review of Education 145

TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofQuebecfortheseservicesamountedto$320millionin2013ndash14WhilesimilaragreementsexistwitheachprovincenoneismoreextensiveandmatchedwithasmuchfederalgrantsastheonewithQuebec(Beacutechard2011)

AdultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationiscalledfrancizationinQuebecsuggestingaprocessthroughwhichapersonappropriatesprogressivelytheFrenchlanguageuntilitbecomespartofherorhisidentityOnlyFrenchlanguageclassesndashandnoEnglishonesndashareprovidedforfreetoimmigrantsinQuebecFrancizationclassesareavailabletoimmigrantsinvariousformatsandtheymayqualifyforallowancesthatincertaincasesevencovertransportationandchildcarecosts(MIDI 2015a)No comparable programme exists outside ofQuebec to support immigrantswhileattending languageclasses(CIC2012)Quebecrsquossettlementandintegrationframeworkincludes two programmes of language education and of financial aid for adult immigrants(Programme drsquointeacutegration linguistique pour les immigrants and Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants)andtwoprogrammesforsettlementperse(Programme drsquoaccompagnement des nouveaux arrivantsandProgramme reacutegional drsquointeacutegration)

TheproportionofnewcomersknowingFrenchupontheirarrivalgrewfrom368percentinthe1994ndash8periodto623percentforthe2009ndash13period(MIDI2014a)Itwas586 percentin2015(MIDI2014b24)AnewimmigrationpolicywasadoptedbyQuebecinMarch2016(MIDI2015b)andthepreparatorydocumenttothepolicymadeclearhowmuchofapriorityfrancizationwasamongthevariousinterventionsinsettlementandintegration

InadditiontotherecentincreaseofFrenchimmigrationthefrancizationofimmigrantpeople isoneofthestrategiesthattheGovernmentofQuebecimplementstoensuretheperennialityoftheFrenchfactonitsterritoryaswellasthesuccessfulintegrationofimmigrantpeople

(MIDI2014a15ourtranslation)

ThefirsttenetofthepolicyisthatlsquoimmigrationplaysanimportantroleinboostingQueacutebecrsquosprosperityandinthevitalityoftheFrenchlanguagersquo(MIDI2015b)Francizationismeanttomakethese two priorities and objectives of the policy overlap Indeedlsquoimmigrantsrsquo ability to fullyparticipateinQueacutebecsocietyisdeeplyintertwinedwiththelanguageissuersquo(ibid5)

InQuebecndashlikeintherestofCanadandashmostcontactsrelatingtoandservicesregardingsettlement and language education areprovidedby communityorganizationsOutof the51service providers listed on CICrsquoS website in Montreal 43 (84 per cent) were communityorganizations The services they most frequently provided were general French languageeducation(725percent)servicesforfrancophonenewcomers(549percent)andhelpwithdaily life (314 per cent)Nomunicipal organizationwas however listed as service providerincludinglanguageeducationservices(CICnd(b))

WhileevaluatingtheoutcomesoftheimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationprogrammesinQuebecinrelationtosimilarservicesavailableacrossCanadaCICwrites

TohelpindividualsprepareforlifeinCanadaandthecitizenshiptestinformationisoftenprovidedthrough settlement services particularly via language training curricula Language curricula inQuebecalsofollowsthisapproachhoweverthefocusisonprovidinginformationaboutQuebecculture

(CICnd(c))

InretrospectPaquet(2016)suggeststhatQuebecrsquosapproachtoimmigrationhasbeenholisticseenasacollectiveprojectinselectingimmigrantsovereconomicaswellassocialcriteria

ThecityofMontreallikemostregionsinQuebecconcludesimmigrationagreementswiththeprovincersquosMinistryofImmigrationDiversityandIntegration(Ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusionMIDI)andthuscontributestoassessingneedsandplanninginterventioninthisfieldMunicipalitiesndashincludingMontrealndasharerarelymentionedinprogrammesregarding

146 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

immigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationTherearenomentionsofMontrealandmunicipalitiesintheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccordTheonlyreferencetothecityofMontrealintheMIDIannualreportof2014ndash15isrelatedtotheobjectiveofregionalizingimmigrationthatisreducingthe proportion of immigrants settling inMontreal MIDIrsquos (2008) adult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationactionplanPour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieux(To enrich Quebec Make more French integrate better)makesnomentionofmunicipalitiesorofMontrealOneopeningtocitiesrsquo and regionsrsquo roles in thefieldof immigration is however found in thepreparatorydocumenttothenewQuebecimmigrationpolicyItstatestheirrolein(1)buildingwelcomingandinclusivecommunities(2)gatheringconcreteinformationandknowledgeonactualneedsandchallengesasmetinday-to-dayactivitiesand(3)workingagainstracismanddiscrimination(MIDI2014a54)

Inabriefon immigrationmanagementsubmittedtothegovernmentofQuebec in2011thecityofMontrealaskedfor(1)anofficialrecognitionof itsroleinimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegration(2)anincreasedbudgetforthefrancizationofimmigrantsinMontreal(3)theautomatic transfer toMontreal of 10 per cent of federal grants for immigrantsrsquo settlementand integration and (4) increased budgets for immigrantsrsquo social housing (Ville deMontreacuteal20116)DespitethegovernmentofQuebecrsquosrarementionofMontrealinimmigrationpoliciesandprogrammesthecityhasbeenrelativelyresponsivetoimmigrationinthesensediscussedbyGood (2008) First the city ofMontreal has contributed to community capacity-buildingthroughfundingvariouscommunitygroupsbeinganactivememberofvariouscollaborationsonimmigrationadoptingacharterofrightsandresponsibilityandcreatinganinterculturaladvisorycouncilSecondthecityhasaPlandrsquoaccegraves agrave lrsquoeacutegaliteacute agrave lrsquoemploi(PAEacuteEacute)ThirdthecityhascreatedtheNexusprogrammewhichisamunicipalprogrammeinMontrealthatprovidesbusinesseswithinformationtoolssupportandreferencesregardingtherecruitmentandsustainedemploymentofprofessionalstrainedabroad(EmploiNexus2016)Hencethecityintervenesthroughnotonlycollaboratingwithserviceprovidersbutalsobyfundingthem(VilledeMontreacuteal2011)

The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver

The first bilateral agreement on immigration between the governments of BritishColumbiaandofCanadawassignedin1998andthecurrentagreementndashtheCanadandashBritishColumbiaImmigrationAgreementndashwassignedin2015ContrarytotheprevalentmodelintherestofCanada(exceptQuebecandManitoba)theaccordoperatesatransferofresponsibilityinthefieldofsettlementandintegrationservices(Paquet2016)HoweverwhereastheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccord stipulates the federal governmentrsquoswithdrawal from thedeliveryofservices for the reception linguistic and cultural integration and placements of immigrantsthe CanadandashBritish Columbia ImmigrationAgreement emphasizes collaboration negotiationconsultationandcooperationratherthanstrictdivisionofauthoritybetweentheprovinceandthefederalgovernmentForexamplelsquocollaborationrsquolsquotocollaboratersquoisusedseventimes(nonein theQuebec accord)lsquonegotiationrsquolsquoto negotiatersquo is used seven times (once in the accord)lsquoconsultationrsquolsquoto consultrsquo is used sixteen times (none in the accord) and lsquocooperationrsquolsquotocooperatersquoisusedfivetimes(fiveintheaccordaswell)

TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofBritishColumbiaforthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsamountedto$114millionin2010ndash11(DerwingandWaugh20124)ndasharoundhalfofwhichwasallocatedto language education In addition federal funds were also allocated to Enhanced LanguageTraining a smaller language education initiative (ibid)WelcomeBC and the Settlement andIntegrationProgram arethemainprogrammesthroughwhichsettlementintegrationhappensin

London Review of Education 147

BritishColumbiaTheWelcomingandInclusiveCommunitiesandWorkplacesProgramandtheVulnerableImmigrantPopulationsProgramcompletethepicture

TheproportionofnewcomersspeakingeitherFrenchorEnglishwas73percentin2011ndash12(GovernmentofBritishColumbia2013)muchhigherthantheproportionofnewcomersspeakingFrenchinQuebecInitsannualreportof2011ndash12WelcomeBCwritesthatlanguageabilityiscriticaltothesuccessofimmigrantsintheprovincersquoslabourmarketandcommunitiesAccordingtotheprogrammethoughmostnewcomersarehighlyskilledandeducatedlsquoalackofEnglishlanguageabilitycorrelateswithimmigrantunemploymentandunderemploymentwhichcosts theeconomy inproductivityandeconomicgrowth and impacts immigrantsrsquo successfulsocialandeconomic integrationrsquo(ibid10)Furthermoretheyestimatethatlsquoa1increase inliteracyproducesa25increaseintheleveloflabourproductivityandthatevery1comparativeincreaseinnationalliteracyscoreswouldboostnationalincomeby$32 billionrsquo(ibid8)Inthisexplanationofwhylanguageproficiencyisimportantwenoticeaphrasingthatisfinancialandeconomicratherthansocialorcitizenship-related

English language services for adults (deliveredmostly by community organizations) andEnglishasasecondlanguage(deliveredbypubliclyfundedpost-secondaryinstitutions)arethemain vehicles of adult immigrant training in the province (Government of BritishColumbia2013)Ofthe36serviceproviders inVancouver listedontheCICwebsite fourwere intheeducationsectoronewasaprivatecompanyandtheremaining31(84percent)werecommunityorganizationsTheservices theyprovidedmost frequentlywerehelpwithdaily life (722percent)helpfindingjobs(417percent)mentoring(389percent)andgenerallanguageeducation(306percent)Afewmunicipallibrarieswerealsolistedassettlementandintegrationserviceproviders(CICnd(b))WenoticeherethatamuchlowerproportionofserviceprovidersofferlanguageeducationthanisthecaseinQuebec

British Columbiarsquos settlement and integration policies and programmes refer morefrequentlytoVancouverandmunicipalitiesthandoesQuebecrsquostoMontrealForexampletheimportance of consultingmunicipalities and local governments ismentioned in theCanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration Agreement lsquoThe Parties agree to cooperate to work withLocalGovernmentsinBritishColumbiatoexploreissuesrelatedtotheirrespectiveinterestsin immigration and pursue opportunities related to communitiesrsquo interests in immigrationrsquo(Government ofCanada 2015)Whereas the city ofVancouver is not directlymentioned intheBritishColumbiaImmigrationTaskForcereportoneofitsrecommendationsislsquotoengageindustry local governments and non-governmental organizations in settling and integratingimmigrantsrsquo(MinisterofStateforMulticulturalism201220)FurthermoreBritishColumbiarsquosWelcoming and InclusiveCommunities andWorkplacesProgramlsquohas actively recognized theroleandparticipationofmunicipalgovernmentsintheimmigrantsettlementprocessrsquo(Dicksonet al201323)MunicipalitieshavethuslsquofeltthatacloserpartnershipbetweenBCandmunicipalgovernmentsofsomemajorimmigrantreceptioncitieshasbeenestablishedrsquo(ibid)

In2014VancouverfinallyenteredintoanagreementwiththegovernmentofCanadarsquosCIClsquotoundertakeaLocal ImmigrationPartnership (LIP)rsquo (CityofVancouvernd)TheVancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP2016)isafirststeptowardsestablishingndashwiththecollaborationofdozensoflocalorganizationsandcommunityleadersndashtheveryfirstVancouverImmigrantSettlement and Integration Strategy TheVIPrsquos main focuses are (1) the strengthening ofinterculturalandcivicengagement(2)thecreationofwelcomingandinclusiveworkplacesand(3)theassessmentofnewcomersrsquoneedsinareassuchashousinghealthandaccesstolocalandmunicipalservices

Vancouverhasbeenresponsive to immigration (CityofVancouver201414)first ithascontributedtothecommunitythroughactivelyconsultingcommunitygroupsandleadersfunding

148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)

Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants

Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation

Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries

Conclusion

AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants

London Review of Education 149

Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy

ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec

ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues

Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the

150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated

Notes on the contributors

Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012

CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa

RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada

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BattagliniADeacutesyMDorvalDPoirierL-RFournierMCamirandHandFecteauD(2007)Lrsquointervention de premiegravere ligne agrave Montreacuteal aupregraves des personnes immigrantes Estimeacute des ressources neacutecessaires pour une intervention adeacutequateMontrealDirectiondesanteacutepubliqueOnlinehttppublicationssantemontrealqccauploadstx_asssmpublications978-2-89494-571-1pdf(accessed1March2016)

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BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65

BourhisRandLandryR(2002)lsquoLaloi 101etlrsquoameacutenagementdupaysagelinguistiqueauQueacutebecrsquoOfficede la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_bourhis_vf_1pdf(accessed6April2016)

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Citizenship and ImmigrationCanada (CIC) (2012)Canada Faits et chiffres 2012 Aperccedilu de lrsquoimmigration Reacutesidents permanents et temporaires Ottawa CIC Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2013cicCi1-8-2012-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

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ndashndash (nd(c)) lsquoLanguage classes funded by the Government of Canadarsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishnewcomerslivelanguageasp(accessed1March2016)

CityofVancouver(2014)lsquoCulturalCommunitiesAdvisoryCommitteersquo Onlinehttpvancouvercayour-governmentcultural-communities-advisory-committeeaspx(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd) Vancouver City Local Immigration PartnershipVancouver Community Services Online httpvancouvercafilescovvancouver-city-local-immigration-partnership-overviewpdf (accessed 6 April2016)

ndashndashMulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee (2014)Committee Term SummaryOnlinehttpvancouvercafilescovcouncil-of-councils-presentation-mac-2014pdf(accessed1March2016)

ClarksonA (2014)Belonging The paradox of citizenshipCBCMasseyLecture SeriesTorontoHouseofAnansiPress

CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)

CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20

CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants

Montreal Institute forResearchonPublicPolicyOnline httpirpporgwp-contentuploadsassetsresearchdiversity-immigration-and-integrationlanguage-skills-and-the-social-integration-of-canadas-adult-immigrantsIRPP-Study-no31pdf(accessed1March2016)

Dickinson JA andYoung B (2008) Bregraveve histoire socio-historique du Queacutebec Montreal BibliothegravequeQueacutebeacutecoise

DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)

DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS

152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)

ndashndash(2012)lsquoReacutepartitiondessiegravegesagrave laChambredescommunesparprovincersquo Onlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredalloampdocument=indexamplang=f(accessed6April2016)

EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant

settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19

FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48

Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario

Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan

GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45

GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)

GouvernementduQueacutebec(1977)lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11C11_Ahtml(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2000)lsquoChartedelaVilledeMontreacutealrsquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11_4C11_4html(accessed6April2014)

ndashndash (2014) lsquoCommunauteacutes culturellesrsquo Online wwweducationgouvqccaenseignantsaide-et-soutiencommunautes-culturelles(accessed1March2016)

Government of British Columbia (2013) 2011ndash12 Annual ReportWelcomeBC Settlement and Integration Services Online wwwllbclegbccapublicpubdocsbcdocs20114717852011_2012pdf (accessed 1March2016)

GovernmentofCanada(1960)Canadian Bill of RightsOnlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaengactsc-123page-1html(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(1985)Official Languages Act (4th Supp)Onlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaPDFO-301pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(1991)CanadandashQuebec Accord Relating to Immigration and Temporary Admission of AliensOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsquebeccan-queasp(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2015)CanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration AgreementOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsbcbc-2015asp(accessed1March2016)

GunnA (2012) Immigration and Multi-level Governance in Canada and Europe The role of municipalities as integration policy innovators PolicyPaperCanadandashEuropeTransatlanticDialogueSeekingtransnationalsolutionsto21stcenturyproblemsOnlinehttplabscarletoncacanadaeuropewp-contentuploadssites92012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalitiespdf(accessed1March2016)

HouseofCommonsofCanada(2010)Best Practices in Settlement Services Report of the Standing Committee on Citizenship and ImmigrationOttawaGovernmentofCanadaOnlinewwwparlgccacontenthocCommittee403CIMMReportsRP4388396cimmrp02cimmrp02-epdf(accessed6April2016)

InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)

London Review of Education 153

KataokaSandMagnussonW(2007)Settling the Unsettled Migrants municipalities and multilevel governance in British Columbia Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the Urban Affairs AssociationSeattleWA 26April 2007Victoria BC University ofVictoria Online httpppm-ppmcaPapersKataokaMagnusson2007pdf(accessed1March2016)

KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)

LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)

MadyCandTurnbullM(2012)lsquoOfficiallanguagebilingualismforallophonesinCanadaExploringfutureresearchrsquo TESL Canada Journal 29 (2) 131ndash42 Online httpfilesericedgovfulltextEJ981500pdf(accessed1March2016)

Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada

McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)

MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)

MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)

MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2015a)Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants 2015ndash2016MontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdiversPafilipdf (accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2015b)lsquoPolitiquequeacutebeacutecoiseenmatiegraveredrsquoimmigrationdeparticipationetdrsquoinclusionrsquoGouvernementdu Queacutebec Online wwwmidigouvqccafrdossiersconsultation-publiquehtml (accessed 6 April2016)

MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress

MurphyJ(2010)The Settlement amp Integration Needs of Immigrants A literature reviewOttawaTheOttawaLocalImmigration Partnership Online httpolip-pliocaknowledge-basewp-contentuploads201303Olip-Review-of-Literature-Final-ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec

154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)

PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook

3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)

Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)

RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)

SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge

SiteforLanguageManagementinCanada(SLMC)(nd(a))lsquoFederallegislationandlanguagerights(1969and1988)rsquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=federal_legislation_1969_1988(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash(nd(b))lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_linguistic_law(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)

SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)

Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)

ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)

ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)

StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94

SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI

London Review of Education 155

Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)

TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)

ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246

VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)

VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7

Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)

XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)

YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35

Related articles published in the London Review of Education

In this issue

Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)

Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33

156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21

MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73

Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85

Elsewhere in this issue

HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98

Page 13: Language planning and education of adult immigrants in ... · Furthermore, 21.3 per cent of Canadians, 78.1 per cent of Québécois, and 1.3 per cent of British Columbians have French

146 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

immigrantsrsquosettlementandintegrationTherearenomentionsofMontrealandmunicipalitiesintheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccordTheonlyreferencetothecityofMontrealintheMIDIannualreportof2014ndash15isrelatedtotheobjectiveofregionalizingimmigrationthatisreducingthe proportion of immigrants settling inMontreal MIDIrsquos (2008) adult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationactionplanPour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieux(To enrich Quebec Make more French integrate better)makesnomentionofmunicipalitiesorofMontrealOneopeningtocitiesrsquo and regionsrsquo roles in thefieldof immigration is however found in thepreparatorydocumenttothenewQuebecimmigrationpolicyItstatestheirrolein(1)buildingwelcomingandinclusivecommunities(2)gatheringconcreteinformationandknowledgeonactualneedsandchallengesasmetinday-to-dayactivitiesand(3)workingagainstracismanddiscrimination(MIDI2014a54)

Inabriefon immigrationmanagementsubmittedtothegovernmentofQuebec in2011thecityofMontrealaskedfor(1)anofficialrecognitionof itsroleinimmigrantsrsquosettlementandintegration(2)anincreasedbudgetforthefrancizationofimmigrantsinMontreal(3)theautomatic transfer toMontreal of 10 per cent of federal grants for immigrantsrsquo settlementand integration and (4) increased budgets for immigrantsrsquo social housing (Ville deMontreacuteal20116)DespitethegovernmentofQuebecrsquosrarementionofMontrealinimmigrationpoliciesandprogrammesthecityhasbeenrelativelyresponsivetoimmigrationinthesensediscussedbyGood (2008) First the city ofMontreal has contributed to community capacity-buildingthroughfundingvariouscommunitygroupsbeinganactivememberofvariouscollaborationsonimmigrationadoptingacharterofrightsandresponsibilityandcreatinganinterculturaladvisorycouncilSecondthecityhasaPlandrsquoaccegraves agrave lrsquoeacutegaliteacute agrave lrsquoemploi(PAEacuteEacute)ThirdthecityhascreatedtheNexusprogrammewhichisamunicipalprogrammeinMontrealthatprovidesbusinesseswithinformationtoolssupportandreferencesregardingtherecruitmentandsustainedemploymentofprofessionalstrainedabroad(EmploiNexus2016)Hencethecityintervenesthroughnotonlycollaboratingwithserviceprovidersbutalsobyfundingthem(VilledeMontreacuteal2011)

The province of British Columbia and the city of Vancouver

The first bilateral agreement on immigration between the governments of BritishColumbiaandofCanadawassignedin1998andthecurrentagreementndashtheCanadandashBritishColumbiaImmigrationAgreementndashwassignedin2015ContrarytotheprevalentmodelintherestofCanada(exceptQuebecandManitoba)theaccordoperatesatransferofresponsibilityinthefieldofsettlementandintegrationservices(Paquet2016)HoweverwhereastheImmigrationCanadandashQuebecAccord stipulates the federal governmentrsquoswithdrawal from thedeliveryofservices for the reception linguistic and cultural integration and placements of immigrantsthe CanadandashBritish Columbia ImmigrationAgreement emphasizes collaboration negotiationconsultationandcooperationratherthanstrictdivisionofauthoritybetweentheprovinceandthefederalgovernmentForexamplelsquocollaborationrsquolsquotocollaboratersquoisusedseventimes(nonein theQuebec accord)lsquonegotiationrsquolsquoto negotiatersquo is used seven times (once in the accord)lsquoconsultationrsquolsquoto consultrsquo is used sixteen times (none in the accord) and lsquocooperationrsquolsquotocooperatersquoisusedfivetimes(fiveintheaccordaswell)

TheyearlygrantassignedtothegovernmentofBritishColumbiaforthedeliveryofservicesforthereceptionlinguisticandculturalintegrationandplacementsofimmigrantsamountedto$114millionin2010ndash11(DerwingandWaugh20124)ndasharoundhalfofwhichwasallocatedto language education In addition federal funds were also allocated to Enhanced LanguageTraining a smaller language education initiative (ibid)WelcomeBC and the Settlement andIntegrationProgram arethemainprogrammesthroughwhichsettlementintegrationhappensin

London Review of Education 147

BritishColumbiaTheWelcomingandInclusiveCommunitiesandWorkplacesProgramandtheVulnerableImmigrantPopulationsProgramcompletethepicture

TheproportionofnewcomersspeakingeitherFrenchorEnglishwas73percentin2011ndash12(GovernmentofBritishColumbia2013)muchhigherthantheproportionofnewcomersspeakingFrenchinQuebecInitsannualreportof2011ndash12WelcomeBCwritesthatlanguageabilityiscriticaltothesuccessofimmigrantsintheprovincersquoslabourmarketandcommunitiesAccordingtotheprogrammethoughmostnewcomersarehighlyskilledandeducatedlsquoalackofEnglishlanguageabilitycorrelateswithimmigrantunemploymentandunderemploymentwhichcosts theeconomy inproductivityandeconomicgrowth and impacts immigrantsrsquo successfulsocialandeconomic integrationrsquo(ibid10)Furthermoretheyestimatethatlsquoa1increase inliteracyproducesa25increaseintheleveloflabourproductivityandthatevery1comparativeincreaseinnationalliteracyscoreswouldboostnationalincomeby$32 billionrsquo(ibid8)Inthisexplanationofwhylanguageproficiencyisimportantwenoticeaphrasingthatisfinancialandeconomicratherthansocialorcitizenship-related

English language services for adults (deliveredmostly by community organizations) andEnglishasasecondlanguage(deliveredbypubliclyfundedpost-secondaryinstitutions)arethemain vehicles of adult immigrant training in the province (Government of BritishColumbia2013)Ofthe36serviceproviders inVancouver listedontheCICwebsite fourwere intheeducationsectoronewasaprivatecompanyandtheremaining31(84percent)werecommunityorganizationsTheservices theyprovidedmost frequentlywerehelpwithdaily life (722percent)helpfindingjobs(417percent)mentoring(389percent)andgenerallanguageeducation(306percent)Afewmunicipallibrarieswerealsolistedassettlementandintegrationserviceproviders(CICnd(b))WenoticeherethatamuchlowerproportionofserviceprovidersofferlanguageeducationthanisthecaseinQuebec

British Columbiarsquos settlement and integration policies and programmes refer morefrequentlytoVancouverandmunicipalitiesthandoesQuebecrsquostoMontrealForexampletheimportance of consultingmunicipalities and local governments ismentioned in theCanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration Agreement lsquoThe Parties agree to cooperate to work withLocalGovernmentsinBritishColumbiatoexploreissuesrelatedtotheirrespectiveinterestsin immigration and pursue opportunities related to communitiesrsquo interests in immigrationrsquo(Government ofCanada 2015)Whereas the city ofVancouver is not directlymentioned intheBritishColumbiaImmigrationTaskForcereportoneofitsrecommendationsislsquotoengageindustry local governments and non-governmental organizations in settling and integratingimmigrantsrsquo(MinisterofStateforMulticulturalism201220)FurthermoreBritishColumbiarsquosWelcoming and InclusiveCommunities andWorkplacesProgramlsquohas actively recognized theroleandparticipationofmunicipalgovernmentsintheimmigrantsettlementprocessrsquo(Dicksonet al201323)MunicipalitieshavethuslsquofeltthatacloserpartnershipbetweenBCandmunicipalgovernmentsofsomemajorimmigrantreceptioncitieshasbeenestablishedrsquo(ibid)

In2014VancouverfinallyenteredintoanagreementwiththegovernmentofCanadarsquosCIClsquotoundertakeaLocal ImmigrationPartnership (LIP)rsquo (CityofVancouvernd)TheVancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP2016)isafirststeptowardsestablishingndashwiththecollaborationofdozensoflocalorganizationsandcommunityleadersndashtheveryfirstVancouverImmigrantSettlement and Integration Strategy TheVIPrsquos main focuses are (1) the strengthening ofinterculturalandcivicengagement(2)thecreationofwelcomingandinclusiveworkplacesand(3)theassessmentofnewcomersrsquoneedsinareassuchashousinghealthandaccesstolocalandmunicipalservices

Vancouverhasbeenresponsive to immigration (CityofVancouver201414)first ithascontributedtothecommunitythroughactivelyconsultingcommunitygroupsandleadersfunding

148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)

Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants

Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation

Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries

Conclusion

AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants

London Review of Education 149

Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy

ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec

ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues

Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the

150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated

Notes on the contributors

Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012

CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa

RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada

References

Adamuti-Trache M (2012) lsquoLanguage acquisition among adult immigrants in Canada The effect ofpremigrationlanguagecapitalrsquoAdult Education Quarterly63(2)103ndash26

AhmadFRiazSBarataPandStewartDE(2004)lsquoPatriarchalbeliefsandperceptionsofabuseamongSouthAsianimmigrantwomenrsquoViolence Against Women10(3)262ndash82

AndrewC(2014)lsquoFederalpoliciesonimmigrantsettlementrsquoInGrahamKandAndrewC(eds)Canada in Cities The politics and policy of federal-local governanceMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversity Press227ndash49

BattagliniADeacutesyMDorvalDPoirierL-RFournierMCamirandHandFecteauD(2007)Lrsquointervention de premiegravere ligne agrave Montreacuteal aupregraves des personnes immigrantes Estimeacute des ressources neacutecessaires pour une intervention adeacutequateMontrealDirectiondesanteacutepubliqueOnlinehttppublicationssantemontrealqccauploadstx_asssmpublications978-2-89494-571-1pdf(accessed1March2016)

Beacutechard J (2011) Immigration The CanadandashQuebec Accord Background paper publication no 2011-89-EOttawaLibraryofParliamentOnlinewwwparlgccaContentLOPResearchPublications2011-89-epdf (accessed1March2016)

BelkhodjaC(2008)lsquoIntroductionImmigrationetdiversiteacutedanslescommunauteacutesfrancophonesensituationminoritairersquo In BelkhodjaC (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaire Thegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies3ndash6

BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65

BourhisRandLandryR(2002)lsquoLaloi 101etlrsquoameacutenagementdupaysagelinguistiqueauQueacutebecrsquoOfficede la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_bourhis_vf_1pdf(accessed6April2016)

BursteinM Clement G and Petty S (2014) Pratiques drsquointeacutegration prometteuses dans les communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireOttawaCIC

London Review of Education 151

Canadian Press(2016)lsquoPremierWynneapologizesfor1912regulationbanningFrenchinOntarioschoolsrsquoOnlinewwwthecanadianpresscomenglishonlineOnlineFullStoryaspxfilename=DOR-MNN-CPd2732aaf15964e269a42e66a46cec9daCPKEY2008111303ampnewsitemid=36470080amplanguageid=1(accessed1March2016)

CardozoAandPendakurR(2008)Canadarsquos Visible Minority Population 1967ndash2017WorkingpaperseriesVancouver Metropolis British Columbia Online httpmbcmetropolisnetassetsuploadsfileswp2008WP08-05pdf(accessed1March2016)

CentreforInternationalMigrationandSettlementStudies(CIMSS)(2012)lsquoIntroductionStateoftheartandfuturedirectionsinsettlementlanguagetrainingrsquoInternational Settlement CanadaSpecial issue on settlement language training SpringOnlinewww3carletoncacimssinscan-ev24_sepdf (accessed1March2016)

ChiswickBR (2008)The Economics of Language An introduction and overviewDiscussionpaperno3568 BonnInstitutefortheStudyofLaborOnlinehttpftpizaorgdp3568pdf(accessed1March2016)

Ciccarelli SB (1997)lsquoESL for nation-buildingThe origins of federally-funded ESL inCanadarsquoMA dissOntarioInstituteforStudiesinEducationUniversityofToronto

Citizenship and ImmigrationCanada (CIC) (2012)Canada Faits et chiffres 2012 Aperccedilu de lrsquoimmigration Reacutesidents permanents et temporaires Ottawa CIC Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2013cicCi1-8-2012-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd(a)) lsquoStrategic outcomes and program activity architecturersquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentpaaactivity-05asp(accessed6April2016)

ndashndash (nd(b)) lsquoFindingsrsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishresourcesevaluationgrant-quebecsection4asp(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd(c)) lsquoLanguage classes funded by the Government of Canadarsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishnewcomerslivelanguageasp(accessed1March2016)

CityofVancouver(2014)lsquoCulturalCommunitiesAdvisoryCommitteersquo Onlinehttpvancouvercayour-governmentcultural-communities-advisory-committeeaspx(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd) Vancouver City Local Immigration PartnershipVancouver Community Services Online httpvancouvercafilescovvancouver-city-local-immigration-partnership-overviewpdf (accessed 6 April2016)

ndashndashMulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee (2014)Committee Term SummaryOnlinehttpvancouvercafilescovcouncil-of-councils-presentation-mac-2014pdf(accessed1March2016)

ClarksonA (2014)Belonging The paradox of citizenshipCBCMasseyLecture SeriesTorontoHouseofAnansiPress

CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)

CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20

CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants

Montreal Institute forResearchonPublicPolicyOnline httpirpporgwp-contentuploadsassetsresearchdiversity-immigration-and-integrationlanguage-skills-and-the-social-integration-of-canadas-adult-immigrantsIRPP-Study-no31pdf(accessed1March2016)

Dickinson JA andYoung B (2008) Bregraveve histoire socio-historique du Queacutebec Montreal BibliothegravequeQueacutebeacutecoise

DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)

DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS

152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)

ndashndash(2012)lsquoReacutepartitiondessiegravegesagrave laChambredescommunesparprovincersquo Onlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredalloampdocument=indexamplang=f(accessed6April2016)

EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant

settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19

FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48

Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario

Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan

GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45

GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)

GouvernementduQueacutebec(1977)lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11C11_Ahtml(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2000)lsquoChartedelaVilledeMontreacutealrsquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11_4C11_4html(accessed6April2014)

ndashndash (2014) lsquoCommunauteacutes culturellesrsquo Online wwweducationgouvqccaenseignantsaide-et-soutiencommunautes-culturelles(accessed1March2016)

Government of British Columbia (2013) 2011ndash12 Annual ReportWelcomeBC Settlement and Integration Services Online wwwllbclegbccapublicpubdocsbcdocs20114717852011_2012pdf (accessed 1March2016)

GovernmentofCanada(1960)Canadian Bill of RightsOnlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaengactsc-123page-1html(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(1985)Official Languages Act (4th Supp)Onlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaPDFO-301pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(1991)CanadandashQuebec Accord Relating to Immigration and Temporary Admission of AliensOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsquebeccan-queasp(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2015)CanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration AgreementOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsbcbc-2015asp(accessed1March2016)

GunnA (2012) Immigration and Multi-level Governance in Canada and Europe The role of municipalities as integration policy innovators PolicyPaperCanadandashEuropeTransatlanticDialogueSeekingtransnationalsolutionsto21stcenturyproblemsOnlinehttplabscarletoncacanadaeuropewp-contentuploadssites92012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalitiespdf(accessed1March2016)

HouseofCommonsofCanada(2010)Best Practices in Settlement Services Report of the Standing Committee on Citizenship and ImmigrationOttawaGovernmentofCanadaOnlinewwwparlgccacontenthocCommittee403CIMMReportsRP4388396cimmrp02cimmrp02-epdf(accessed6April2016)

InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)

London Review of Education 153

KataokaSandMagnussonW(2007)Settling the Unsettled Migrants municipalities and multilevel governance in British Columbia Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the Urban Affairs AssociationSeattleWA 26April 2007Victoria BC University ofVictoria Online httpppm-ppmcaPapersKataokaMagnusson2007pdf(accessed1March2016)

KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)

LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)

MadyCandTurnbullM(2012)lsquoOfficiallanguagebilingualismforallophonesinCanadaExploringfutureresearchrsquo TESL Canada Journal 29 (2) 131ndash42 Online httpfilesericedgovfulltextEJ981500pdf(accessed1March2016)

Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada

McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)

MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)

MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)

MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2015a)Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants 2015ndash2016MontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdiversPafilipdf (accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2015b)lsquoPolitiquequeacutebeacutecoiseenmatiegraveredrsquoimmigrationdeparticipationetdrsquoinclusionrsquoGouvernementdu Queacutebec Online wwwmidigouvqccafrdossiersconsultation-publiquehtml (accessed 6 April2016)

MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress

MurphyJ(2010)The Settlement amp Integration Needs of Immigrants A literature reviewOttawaTheOttawaLocalImmigration Partnership Online httpolip-pliocaknowledge-basewp-contentuploads201303Olip-Review-of-Literature-Final-ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec

154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)

PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook

3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)

Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)

RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)

SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge

SiteforLanguageManagementinCanada(SLMC)(nd(a))lsquoFederallegislationandlanguagerights(1969and1988)rsquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=federal_legislation_1969_1988(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash(nd(b))lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_linguistic_law(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)

SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)

Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)

ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)

ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)

StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94

SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI

London Review of Education 155

Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)

TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)

ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246

VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)

VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7

Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)

XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)

YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35

Related articles published in the London Review of Education

In this issue

Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)

Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33

156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21

MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73

Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85

Elsewhere in this issue

HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98

Page 14: Language planning and education of adult immigrants in ... · Furthermore, 21.3 per cent of Canadians, 78.1 per cent of Québécois, and 1.3 per cent of British Columbians have French

London Review of Education 147

BritishColumbiaTheWelcomingandInclusiveCommunitiesandWorkplacesProgramandtheVulnerableImmigrantPopulationsProgramcompletethepicture

TheproportionofnewcomersspeakingeitherFrenchorEnglishwas73percentin2011ndash12(GovernmentofBritishColumbia2013)muchhigherthantheproportionofnewcomersspeakingFrenchinQuebecInitsannualreportof2011ndash12WelcomeBCwritesthatlanguageabilityiscriticaltothesuccessofimmigrantsintheprovincersquoslabourmarketandcommunitiesAccordingtotheprogrammethoughmostnewcomersarehighlyskilledandeducatedlsquoalackofEnglishlanguageabilitycorrelateswithimmigrantunemploymentandunderemploymentwhichcosts theeconomy inproductivityandeconomicgrowth and impacts immigrantsrsquo successfulsocialandeconomic integrationrsquo(ibid10)Furthermoretheyestimatethatlsquoa1increase inliteracyproducesa25increaseintheleveloflabourproductivityandthatevery1comparativeincreaseinnationalliteracyscoreswouldboostnationalincomeby$32 billionrsquo(ibid8)Inthisexplanationofwhylanguageproficiencyisimportantwenoticeaphrasingthatisfinancialandeconomicratherthansocialorcitizenship-related

English language services for adults (deliveredmostly by community organizations) andEnglishasasecondlanguage(deliveredbypubliclyfundedpost-secondaryinstitutions)arethemain vehicles of adult immigrant training in the province (Government of BritishColumbia2013)Ofthe36serviceproviders inVancouver listedontheCICwebsite fourwere intheeducationsectoronewasaprivatecompanyandtheremaining31(84percent)werecommunityorganizationsTheservices theyprovidedmost frequentlywerehelpwithdaily life (722percent)helpfindingjobs(417percent)mentoring(389percent)andgenerallanguageeducation(306percent)Afewmunicipallibrarieswerealsolistedassettlementandintegrationserviceproviders(CICnd(b))WenoticeherethatamuchlowerproportionofserviceprovidersofferlanguageeducationthanisthecaseinQuebec

British Columbiarsquos settlement and integration policies and programmes refer morefrequentlytoVancouverandmunicipalitiesthandoesQuebecrsquostoMontrealForexampletheimportance of consultingmunicipalities and local governments ismentioned in theCanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration Agreement lsquoThe Parties agree to cooperate to work withLocalGovernmentsinBritishColumbiatoexploreissuesrelatedtotheirrespectiveinterestsin immigration and pursue opportunities related to communitiesrsquo interests in immigrationrsquo(Government ofCanada 2015)Whereas the city ofVancouver is not directlymentioned intheBritishColumbiaImmigrationTaskForcereportoneofitsrecommendationsislsquotoengageindustry local governments and non-governmental organizations in settling and integratingimmigrantsrsquo(MinisterofStateforMulticulturalism201220)FurthermoreBritishColumbiarsquosWelcoming and InclusiveCommunities andWorkplacesProgramlsquohas actively recognized theroleandparticipationofmunicipalgovernmentsintheimmigrantsettlementprocessrsquo(Dicksonet al201323)MunicipalitieshavethuslsquofeltthatacloserpartnershipbetweenBCandmunicipalgovernmentsofsomemajorimmigrantreceptioncitieshasbeenestablishedrsquo(ibid)

In2014VancouverfinallyenteredintoanagreementwiththegovernmentofCanadarsquosCIClsquotoundertakeaLocal ImmigrationPartnership (LIP)rsquo (CityofVancouvernd)TheVancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP2016)isafirststeptowardsestablishingndashwiththecollaborationofdozensoflocalorganizationsandcommunityleadersndashtheveryfirstVancouverImmigrantSettlement and Integration Strategy TheVIPrsquos main focuses are (1) the strengthening ofinterculturalandcivicengagement(2)thecreationofwelcomingandinclusiveworkplacesand(3)theassessmentofnewcomersrsquoneedsinareassuchashousinghealthandaccesstolocalandmunicipalservices

Vancouverhasbeenresponsive to immigration (CityofVancouver201414)first ithascontributedtothecommunitythroughactivelyconsultingcommunitygroupsandleadersfunding

148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)

Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants

Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation

Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries

Conclusion

AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants

London Review of Education 149

Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy

ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec

ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues

Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the

150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated

Notes on the contributors

Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012

CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa

RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada

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BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65

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CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20

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DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)

DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS

152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

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FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19

FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48

Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario

Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan

GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45

GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)

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KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)

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MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)

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ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246

VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)

VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7

Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)

XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)

YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35

Related articles published in the London Review of Education

In this issue

Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)

Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33

156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21

MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73

Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85

Elsewhere in this issue

HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98

Page 15: Language planning and education of adult immigrants in ... · Furthermore, 21.3 per cent of Canadians, 78.1 per cent of Québécois, and 1.3 per cent of British Columbians have French

148 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

settlement and integration service providers and creating the cityrsquos MulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee(2014)SecondthecitycreatedtheEqualEmploymentOfficeVancouverThirditestablishedtheHastingsInstituteacommunitycity-ownedcorporationthatprovidesemploymentequityanddiversitytrainingtoprivate-andpublic-sector(non-municipal)organizationsbasedonprogrammesdevelopedforthecity(Good2008)FurthermoreVancouverdescribesitselfas one of themost ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in CanadaMayor Sam Sullivanorganizedin2007animmigrationtaskforceandelaboratedavisionaboutitsroleforthefuturetoensurethatlsquoVancouverworkingwithotherlevelsofgovernmentandkeystakeholderswillplayavitalroleinthedevelopmentofbestpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtoimmigrationissuesatalocallevelrsquo(Sullivan2007)

Similarities and differences in why and how language education is provided to adult immigrants

Wehavenoticed thatwhileCanadian citizenshipobjectives are notwholly absent from thediscourseonadultimmigrantsrsquolanguageeducationthesecitizenshipandnationalismreasonsareabsolutelycentralinwhyfrancizationisenactedinQuebecInthefrancophoneprovinceandinfrancophonecommunitiesacrossCanadaimmigrationisseenasawaytoreversedemographicdeclineand torevitalize theFrench languageThus francization ndashalongwith the selectionofFrench-speakingcandidatestoimmigrationndashisessentialtoattaintheseobjectivesConverselythefinancial andeconomicdiscourse iswhat is central inBritishColombiarsquosexplanationsofthebenefitsofbothimmigrationandlanguageeducationtoimmigrantsTheeconomicandjob-relatedreasonsarealsoincreasinglypresentinQuebecrsquosdiscourseonimmigrationandlanguageeducation

Similarities anddifferences are alsonoticeablewith regard to serviceprovision FirstonlyFrench istaughtto immigrants inQuebecConversely inBritishColumbiaclassesare formallyofferedinbothofficiallanguagesndashwhileinrealityEnglishclassesaremuchmorereadilyavailableBothprovinceshavebenefitedthroughbilateralagreementsin immigrationconcludedwiththefederalgovernmentfromthetransferofresponsibilitiesandgrantsQuebecrsquosagreementishoweverphrasedintermsofstrictdivisionofauthorityismuchmoreextensiveandismatchedwithmoregrantsthantheonesignedbyBritishColumbiaBothprovinceshavetheirownadultimmigrantlanguage education programmesMunicipalities in bothQuebec and BritishColumbia have noformalroleregardingimmigrationandlanguageeducationThegovernmentofBritishColumbiahoweverappearsindiscourseandactionmoreopenthanthatofQuebectorecognizetheroleofmunicipalitiesinrelationtoimmigrationBritishColumbiaisalsolessopposedtotheestablishmentof a direct relationship between the city ofVancouver and the federal government Similar tothe pattern of service provision preferred by CICmost settlement integration and languageeducationservicesareprovidedinbothprovinces(andbothcities)bycommunityorganizationsWenonethelessnotethatwhile languageeducationisprovidedbythevastmajorityofserviceproviders inQuebec it is employment services that are available through thevastmajorityofserviceprovidersinBritishColumbiaFinallywhilenoMontrealmunicipalagenciesarelistedbyCICasofficialserviceproviderstheserolesareundertakenbyafewVancouverpubliclibraries

Conclusion

AswehaveseenbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesexistbetweenQuebecandBritishColumbiaintermsoftheirrespectivelanguagepoliciesandplansandinparticularthelanguageeducationgiventoadultimmigrants

London Review of Education 149

Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy

ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec

ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues

Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the

150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated

Notes on the contributors

Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012

CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa

RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada

References

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BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65

BourhisRandLandryR(2002)lsquoLaloi 101etlrsquoameacutenagementdupaysagelinguistiqueauQueacutebecrsquoOfficede la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_bourhis_vf_1pdf(accessed6April2016)

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CityofVancouver(2014)lsquoCulturalCommunitiesAdvisoryCommitteersquo Onlinehttpvancouvercayour-governmentcultural-communities-advisory-committeeaspx(accessed1March2016)

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ClarksonA (2014)Belonging The paradox of citizenshipCBCMasseyLecture SeriesTorontoHouseofAnansiPress

CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)

CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20

CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants

Montreal Institute forResearchonPublicPolicyOnline httpirpporgwp-contentuploadsassetsresearchdiversity-immigration-and-integrationlanguage-skills-and-the-social-integration-of-canadas-adult-immigrantsIRPP-Study-no31pdf(accessed1March2016)

Dickinson JA andYoung B (2008) Bregraveve histoire socio-historique du Queacutebec Montreal BibliothegravequeQueacutebeacutecoise

DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)

DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS

152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)

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EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant

settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19

FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48

Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario

Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan

GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45

GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)

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GunnA (2012) Immigration and Multi-level Governance in Canada and Europe The role of municipalities as integration policy innovators PolicyPaperCanadandashEuropeTransatlanticDialogueSeekingtransnationalsolutionsto21stcenturyproblemsOnlinehttplabscarletoncacanadaeuropewp-contentuploadssites92012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalitiespdf(accessed1March2016)

HouseofCommonsofCanada(2010)Best Practices in Settlement Services Report of the Standing Committee on Citizenship and ImmigrationOttawaGovernmentofCanadaOnlinewwwparlgccacontenthocCommittee403CIMMReportsRP4388396cimmrp02cimmrp02-epdf(accessed6April2016)

InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)

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KataokaSandMagnussonW(2007)Settling the Unsettled Migrants municipalities and multilevel governance in British Columbia Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the Urban Affairs AssociationSeattleWA 26April 2007Victoria BC University ofVictoria Online httpppm-ppmcaPapersKataokaMagnusson2007pdf(accessed1March2016)

KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)

LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)

MadyCandTurnbullM(2012)lsquoOfficiallanguagebilingualismforallophonesinCanadaExploringfutureresearchrsquo TESL Canada Journal 29 (2) 131ndash42 Online httpfilesericedgovfulltextEJ981500pdf(accessed1March2016)

Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada

McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)

MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)

MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)

MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2015a)Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants 2015ndash2016MontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdiversPafilipdf (accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2015b)lsquoPolitiquequeacutebeacutecoiseenmatiegraveredrsquoimmigrationdeparticipationetdrsquoinclusionrsquoGouvernementdu Queacutebec Online wwwmidigouvqccafrdossiersconsultation-publiquehtml (accessed 6 April2016)

MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress

MurphyJ(2010)The Settlement amp Integration Needs of Immigrants A literature reviewOttawaTheOttawaLocalImmigration Partnership Online httpolip-pliocaknowledge-basewp-contentuploads201303Olip-Review-of-Literature-Final-ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec

154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)

PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook

3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)

Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)

RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)

SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge

SiteforLanguageManagementinCanada(SLMC)(nd(a))lsquoFederallegislationandlanguagerights(1969and1988)rsquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=federal_legislation_1969_1988(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash(nd(b))lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_linguistic_law(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)

SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)

Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)

ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)

ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)

StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94

SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI

London Review of Education 155

Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)

TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)

ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246

VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)

VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7

Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)

XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)

YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35

Related articles published in the London Review of Education

In this issue

Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)

Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33

156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21

MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73

Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85

Elsewhere in this issue

HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98

Page 16: Language planning and education of adult immigrants in ... · Furthermore, 21.3 per cent of Canadians, 78.1 per cent of Québécois, and 1.3 per cent of British Columbians have French

London Review of Education 149

Citizenshipandnationalismreasonsaremoreobviouslycentralinexplainingwhylanguageeducation is provided inQuebec compared to British ColumbiaThis difference can largelybe accounted for by the differences in demography and language history Indeed whereasthedemographicweightofQuebec(andofFrench)inthecountryisdecliningthatofBritishColumbiaisontheriseThepowerofattractionoflearningEnglishisalsomuchhigherthanthatoflearningFrenchamongimmigrantsFurtherimmigrantstoQuebechavehistoricallybeenveryeagertojointheanglophonecommunitywhereasnocomparablephenomenonwasexperiencedin BritishColumbia In away demography and language history have prompted theQuebecgovernment to build a strict linguistic framework ndash explaining for example why immigrantchildrenarerequiredtoattendFrenchschoolsandimmigrantadultsarenotofferedthechoiceofwhichofficiallanguagetolearnuponarrivalIncomparisonlanguageissueshavehadverylittleimportanceinBritishColumbiawhereEnglishhasbeenandremainsuncontestedImmigrantsarethusconceivedasasolutiontoQuebecrsquosandFrenchdemographicdeclineinCanadabutndashinthegovernmentofQuebecrsquosperspectivendashthebenefitscanonlybecashedinifimmigrantsspeakFrenchorgothroughfrancizationuponarrivalBothprovinceshoweverclaimthatimmigrationandofferinglanguageeducationtoimmigrantsarebeneficialtothejobmarketandtheeconomy

ThefederalframeworkcanaccountforbothsimilaritiesandvariationsastowhyandhowlanguageeducationisprovidedtoimmigrantsinQuebecandBritishColumbiaFirsttheadoptionbythefederalgovernmentoftheBillofRightsandoftheMulticulturalismActhavehaddeepimpactson immigrationpolicies across thecountry aswell ason thediscourse surroundingimmigration settlement and integration and language education Second CICrsquos involvementin settlement and integration services and preferred patterns of service provision ndash that isoutsourcingtocommunityorganizationsndashseemtohavehadunifyingimpactsonthewaytheseservicesarestillprovidedtodayinbothBritishColumbiaandQuebec

ThefederalframeworkcanalsoexplaincertainvariationsIndeedtheallocationofjurisdictiontoprovincesndashforexamplemunicipalaffairsndashandthesharingofothersndashsuchasimmigrationndashhaveallowed forvariationandevenemulationamongprovincesQuebecrsquos interventions inimmigrationhavethuspromptedalltheotherCanadianprovincestobecomeactiveinthisfieldLinguisticcontroversiesandtenseQuebecndashCanadarelationshavealsohadanimpactoncitiesrsquoinvolvementinthefieldofimmigrantsettlementandintegrationintheprovinceAsimmigrantsestablishmostly inCanadarsquos big cities they are in the prime locationswhere adult languageeducationisprovidedFormallymunicipalitiesarehoweverprovincialjurisdictionsandhavenoofficial role in immigrantsettlementand integrationThusMontrealandVancouver intervenemainly in this field through their collaborationswith service providers ndashmostly communityorganizationsndashandseniorlevelsofgovernmentIncomparisonwithBritishColumbiandashwhichhasallowedVancouvertodeveloptheVIPofwhichCICisapartnerndashQuebechasseemedmuchlesseagertorecognizetheroleandresponsibilitiesofMontrealwithregardtoimmigrationortoallowdirectmunicipal-federalrelationsinimmigrationissues

Thus the Canadian experience in matters of language policy and planning ndash andmorespecificallyofadult immigrantsrsquo languageeducationndash illustrateshowmuchthesepoliciesareinformedbycontextinourcasebydemographylanguagehistoryandthefederalframeworkWhilethereislittledissentaboutthenecessityandpositiveoutcomeoflanguageinstructionthewhyandhowaresubjectedtolocalcircumstancesFurthermorewhereasmostimmigrantslandlearnandworkinCanadarsquosbiggestcitiesndashamongthemMontrealandVancouverndashthesecontextualelementscanexplainwhycitiescontinuetohavesofewresponsibilitiesregardingthesettlementintegrationandlanguageeducationofnewcomersOnlysuchacontextualunderstandingwillallow forproperreforms in termsofcitiesrsquo responsibilities regarding immigrationGiven the

150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated

Notes on the contributors

Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012

CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa

RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada

References

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BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65

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ClarksonA (2014)Belonging The paradox of citizenshipCBCMasseyLecture SeriesTorontoHouseofAnansiPress

CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)

CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20

CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants

Montreal Institute forResearchonPublicPolicyOnline httpirpporgwp-contentuploadsassetsresearchdiversity-immigration-and-integrationlanguage-skills-and-the-social-integration-of-canadas-adult-immigrantsIRPP-Study-no31pdf(accessed1March2016)

Dickinson JA andYoung B (2008) Bregraveve histoire socio-historique du Queacutebec Montreal BibliothegravequeQueacutebeacutecoise

DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)

DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS

152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)

ndashndash(2012)lsquoReacutepartitiondessiegravegesagrave laChambredescommunesparprovincersquo Onlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredalloampdocument=indexamplang=f(accessed6April2016)

EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant

settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19

FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48

Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario

Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan

GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45

GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)

GouvernementduQueacutebec(1977)lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11C11_Ahtml(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2000)lsquoChartedelaVilledeMontreacutealrsquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11_4C11_4html(accessed6April2014)

ndashndash (2014) lsquoCommunauteacutes culturellesrsquo Online wwweducationgouvqccaenseignantsaide-et-soutiencommunautes-culturelles(accessed1March2016)

Government of British Columbia (2013) 2011ndash12 Annual ReportWelcomeBC Settlement and Integration Services Online wwwllbclegbccapublicpubdocsbcdocs20114717852011_2012pdf (accessed 1March2016)

GovernmentofCanada(1960)Canadian Bill of RightsOnlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaengactsc-123page-1html(accessed1March2016)

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ndashndash(2015)CanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration AgreementOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsbcbc-2015asp(accessed1March2016)

GunnA (2012) Immigration and Multi-level Governance in Canada and Europe The role of municipalities as integration policy innovators PolicyPaperCanadandashEuropeTransatlanticDialogueSeekingtransnationalsolutionsto21stcenturyproblemsOnlinehttplabscarletoncacanadaeuropewp-contentuploadssites92012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalitiespdf(accessed1March2016)

HouseofCommonsofCanada(2010)Best Practices in Settlement Services Report of the Standing Committee on Citizenship and ImmigrationOttawaGovernmentofCanadaOnlinewwwparlgccacontenthocCommittee403CIMMReportsRP4388396cimmrp02cimmrp02-epdf(accessed6April2016)

InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)

London Review of Education 153

KataokaSandMagnussonW(2007)Settling the Unsettled Migrants municipalities and multilevel governance in British Columbia Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the Urban Affairs AssociationSeattleWA 26April 2007Victoria BC University ofVictoria Online httpppm-ppmcaPapersKataokaMagnusson2007pdf(accessed1March2016)

KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)

LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)

MadyCandTurnbullM(2012)lsquoOfficiallanguagebilingualismforallophonesinCanadaExploringfutureresearchrsquo TESL Canada Journal 29 (2) 131ndash42 Online httpfilesericedgovfulltextEJ981500pdf(accessed1March2016)

Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada

McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)

MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)

MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)

MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2015a)Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants 2015ndash2016MontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdiversPafilipdf (accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2015b)lsquoPolitiquequeacutebeacutecoiseenmatiegraveredrsquoimmigrationdeparticipationetdrsquoinclusionrsquoGouvernementdu Queacutebec Online wwwmidigouvqccafrdossiersconsultation-publiquehtml (accessed 6 April2016)

MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress

MurphyJ(2010)The Settlement amp Integration Needs of Immigrants A literature reviewOttawaTheOttawaLocalImmigration Partnership Online httpolip-pliocaknowledge-basewp-contentuploads201303Olip-Review-of-Literature-Final-ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec

154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)

PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook

3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)

Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)

RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)

SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge

SiteforLanguageManagementinCanada(SLMC)(nd(a))lsquoFederallegislationandlanguagerights(1969and1988)rsquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=federal_legislation_1969_1988(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash(nd(b))lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_linguistic_law(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)

SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)

Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)

ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)

ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)

StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94

SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI

London Review of Education 155

Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)

TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)

ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246

VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)

VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7

Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)

XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)

YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35

Related articles published in the London Review of Education

In this issue

Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)

Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33

156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21

MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73

Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85

Elsewhere in this issue

HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98

Page 17: Language planning and education of adult immigrants in ... · Furthermore, 21.3 per cent of Canadians, 78.1 per cent of Québécois, and 1.3 per cent of British Columbians have French

150 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

importanceofimmigrationforthedevelopmentandthrivingofcommunitiesastrongermoreconcertedactionatthelevelsofgovernmentandofcitiesisindicated

Notes on the contributors

Catherine Ellyson studied political science atUniversiteacute Laval University ofOttawa andUniversity ofBritishColumbiainCanadaSinceco-foundingtheresearchandevaluationfirmBemampCoin2012shehasworkedwithcitiescommunityorganizationsandprivatebusinesseson localdevelopment immigrationwomenndashmenequalitycitizensrsquoparticipationinpublicdecisionsmultilingualisminCanadiancitiesandothertopicsShehascollaboratedwiththeLUCIDEnetwork(LanguagesinUrbanCommunitiesndashIntegrationandDiversityforEurope)since2012

CarolineAndrewistheDirectoroftheCentreonGovernanceattheUniversityofOttawaHerresearchinterestscentreonthefunctioningofpartnershipsthatbringtogethercommunity-basedequity-seekinggroupslocalsocial-servicedeliveryagenciesmunicipalgovernmentsanduniversity-basedresearchersShesitsontheexecutivecommitteeoftheOttawaLocalImmigrationPartnershipontheboardoftheCatholicCentre for Immigrants and on theViolenceAgainstWomen standing committee ofCrime PreventionOttawa

RichardCleacutementisProfessorofPsychologyaswellasDirectorandAssociateDeanoftheOfficialLanguagesandBilingualismInstituteattheUniversityofOttawaHiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeissuesrelatedtobilingualismsecondlanguageacquisitionandidentitychangeandadjustmentintheacculturativeprocesstopicsonwhichhehaspublishedextensivelyHeisanelectedFellowofboththeCanadianandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationsaswellasoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada

References

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AhmadFRiazSBarataPandStewartDE(2004)lsquoPatriarchalbeliefsandperceptionsofabuseamongSouthAsianimmigrantwomenrsquoViolence Against Women10(3)262ndash82

AndrewC(2014)lsquoFederalpoliciesonimmigrantsettlementrsquoInGrahamKandAndrewC(eds)Canada in Cities The politics and policy of federal-local governanceMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversity Press227ndash49

BattagliniADeacutesyMDorvalDPoirierL-RFournierMCamirandHandFecteauD(2007)Lrsquointervention de premiegravere ligne agrave Montreacuteal aupregraves des personnes immigrantes Estimeacute des ressources neacutecessaires pour une intervention adeacutequateMontrealDirectiondesanteacutepubliqueOnlinehttppublicationssantemontrealqccauploadstx_asssmpublications978-2-89494-571-1pdf(accessed1March2016)

Beacutechard J (2011) Immigration The CanadandashQuebec Accord Background paper publication no 2011-89-EOttawaLibraryofParliamentOnlinewwwparlgccaContentLOPResearchPublications2011-89-epdf (accessed1March2016)

BelkhodjaC(2008)lsquoIntroductionImmigrationetdiversiteacutedanslescommunauteacutesfrancophonesensituationminoritairersquo In BelkhodjaC (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaire Thegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies3ndash6

BouffardP(2015)lsquoFrenchlanguageeducationpolicyforadult immigrants inQuebecrsquo InSimpsonJandWhitesideA (eds)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge49ndash65

BourhisRandLandryR(2002)lsquoLaloi 101etlrsquoameacutenagementdupaysagelinguistiqueauQueacutebecrsquoOfficede la langue franccedilaise du Queacutebec Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_bourhis_vf_1pdf(accessed6April2016)

BursteinM Clement G and Petty S (2014) Pratiques drsquointeacutegration prometteuses dans les communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireOttawaCIC

London Review of Education 151

Canadian Press(2016)lsquoPremierWynneapologizesfor1912regulationbanningFrenchinOntarioschoolsrsquoOnlinewwwthecanadianpresscomenglishonlineOnlineFullStoryaspxfilename=DOR-MNN-CPd2732aaf15964e269a42e66a46cec9daCPKEY2008111303ampnewsitemid=36470080amplanguageid=1(accessed1March2016)

CardozoAandPendakurR(2008)Canadarsquos Visible Minority Population 1967ndash2017WorkingpaperseriesVancouver Metropolis British Columbia Online httpmbcmetropolisnetassetsuploadsfileswp2008WP08-05pdf(accessed1March2016)

CentreforInternationalMigrationandSettlementStudies(CIMSS)(2012)lsquoIntroductionStateoftheartandfuturedirectionsinsettlementlanguagetrainingrsquoInternational Settlement CanadaSpecial issue on settlement language training SpringOnlinewww3carletoncacimssinscan-ev24_sepdf (accessed1March2016)

ChiswickBR (2008)The Economics of Language An introduction and overviewDiscussionpaperno3568 BonnInstitutefortheStudyofLaborOnlinehttpftpizaorgdp3568pdf(accessed1March2016)

Ciccarelli SB (1997)lsquoESL for nation-buildingThe origins of federally-funded ESL inCanadarsquoMA dissOntarioInstituteforStudiesinEducationUniversityofToronto

Citizenship and ImmigrationCanada (CIC) (2012)Canada Faits et chiffres 2012 Aperccedilu de lrsquoimmigration Reacutesidents permanents et temporaires Ottawa CIC Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2013cicCi1-8-2012-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd(a)) lsquoStrategic outcomes and program activity architecturersquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentpaaactivity-05asp(accessed6April2016)

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ndashndash (nd(c)) lsquoLanguage classes funded by the Government of Canadarsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishnewcomerslivelanguageasp(accessed1March2016)

CityofVancouver(2014)lsquoCulturalCommunitiesAdvisoryCommitteersquo Onlinehttpvancouvercayour-governmentcultural-communities-advisory-committeeaspx(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd) Vancouver City Local Immigration PartnershipVancouver Community Services Online httpvancouvercafilescovvancouver-city-local-immigration-partnership-overviewpdf (accessed 6 April2016)

ndashndashMulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee (2014)Committee Term SummaryOnlinehttpvancouvercafilescovcouncil-of-councils-presentation-mac-2014pdf(accessed1March2016)

ClarksonA (2014)Belonging The paradox of citizenshipCBCMasseyLecture SeriesTorontoHouseofAnansiPress

CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)

CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20

CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants

Montreal Institute forResearchonPublicPolicyOnline httpirpporgwp-contentuploadsassetsresearchdiversity-immigration-and-integrationlanguage-skills-and-the-social-integration-of-canadas-adult-immigrantsIRPP-Study-no31pdf(accessed1March2016)

Dickinson JA andYoung B (2008) Bregraveve histoire socio-historique du Queacutebec Montreal BibliothegravequeQueacutebeacutecoise

DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)

DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS

152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)

ndashndash(2012)lsquoReacutepartitiondessiegravegesagrave laChambredescommunesparprovincersquo Onlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredalloampdocument=indexamplang=f(accessed6April2016)

EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant

settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19

FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48

Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario

Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan

GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45

GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)

GouvernementduQueacutebec(1977)lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11C11_Ahtml(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2000)lsquoChartedelaVilledeMontreacutealrsquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11_4C11_4html(accessed6April2014)

ndashndash (2014) lsquoCommunauteacutes culturellesrsquo Online wwweducationgouvqccaenseignantsaide-et-soutiencommunautes-culturelles(accessed1March2016)

Government of British Columbia (2013) 2011ndash12 Annual ReportWelcomeBC Settlement and Integration Services Online wwwllbclegbccapublicpubdocsbcdocs20114717852011_2012pdf (accessed 1March2016)

GovernmentofCanada(1960)Canadian Bill of RightsOnlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaengactsc-123page-1html(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(1985)Official Languages Act (4th Supp)Onlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaPDFO-301pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(1991)CanadandashQuebec Accord Relating to Immigration and Temporary Admission of AliensOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsquebeccan-queasp(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2015)CanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration AgreementOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsbcbc-2015asp(accessed1March2016)

GunnA (2012) Immigration and Multi-level Governance in Canada and Europe The role of municipalities as integration policy innovators PolicyPaperCanadandashEuropeTransatlanticDialogueSeekingtransnationalsolutionsto21stcenturyproblemsOnlinehttplabscarletoncacanadaeuropewp-contentuploadssites92012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalitiespdf(accessed1March2016)

HouseofCommonsofCanada(2010)Best Practices in Settlement Services Report of the Standing Committee on Citizenship and ImmigrationOttawaGovernmentofCanadaOnlinewwwparlgccacontenthocCommittee403CIMMReportsRP4388396cimmrp02cimmrp02-epdf(accessed6April2016)

InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)

London Review of Education 153

KataokaSandMagnussonW(2007)Settling the Unsettled Migrants municipalities and multilevel governance in British Columbia Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the Urban Affairs AssociationSeattleWA 26April 2007Victoria BC University ofVictoria Online httpppm-ppmcaPapersKataokaMagnusson2007pdf(accessed1March2016)

KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)

LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)

MadyCandTurnbullM(2012)lsquoOfficiallanguagebilingualismforallophonesinCanadaExploringfutureresearchrsquo TESL Canada Journal 29 (2) 131ndash42 Online httpfilesericedgovfulltextEJ981500pdf(accessed1March2016)

Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada

McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)

MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)

MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)

MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2015a)Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants 2015ndash2016MontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdiversPafilipdf (accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2015b)lsquoPolitiquequeacutebeacutecoiseenmatiegraveredrsquoimmigrationdeparticipationetdrsquoinclusionrsquoGouvernementdu Queacutebec Online wwwmidigouvqccafrdossiersconsultation-publiquehtml (accessed 6 April2016)

MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress

MurphyJ(2010)The Settlement amp Integration Needs of Immigrants A literature reviewOttawaTheOttawaLocalImmigration Partnership Online httpolip-pliocaknowledge-basewp-contentuploads201303Olip-Review-of-Literature-Final-ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec

154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)

PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook

3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)

Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)

RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)

SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge

SiteforLanguageManagementinCanada(SLMC)(nd(a))lsquoFederallegislationandlanguagerights(1969and1988)rsquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=federal_legislation_1969_1988(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash(nd(b))lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_linguistic_law(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)

SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)

Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)

ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)

ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)

StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94

SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI

London Review of Education 155

Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)

TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)

ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246

VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)

VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7

Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)

XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)

YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35

Related articles published in the London Review of Education

In this issue

Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)

Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33

156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21

MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73

Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85

Elsewhere in this issue

HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98

Page 18: Language planning and education of adult immigrants in ... · Furthermore, 21.3 per cent of Canadians, 78.1 per cent of Québécois, and 1.3 per cent of British Columbians have French

London Review of Education 151

Canadian Press(2016)lsquoPremierWynneapologizesfor1912regulationbanningFrenchinOntarioschoolsrsquoOnlinewwwthecanadianpresscomenglishonlineOnlineFullStoryaspxfilename=DOR-MNN-CPd2732aaf15964e269a42e66a46cec9daCPKEY2008111303ampnewsitemid=36470080amplanguageid=1(accessed1March2016)

CardozoAandPendakurR(2008)Canadarsquos Visible Minority Population 1967ndash2017WorkingpaperseriesVancouver Metropolis British Columbia Online httpmbcmetropolisnetassetsuploadsfileswp2008WP08-05pdf(accessed1March2016)

CentreforInternationalMigrationandSettlementStudies(CIMSS)(2012)lsquoIntroductionStateoftheartandfuturedirectionsinsettlementlanguagetrainingrsquoInternational Settlement CanadaSpecial issue on settlement language training SpringOnlinewww3carletoncacimssinscan-ev24_sepdf (accessed1March2016)

ChiswickBR (2008)The Economics of Language An introduction and overviewDiscussionpaperno3568 BonnInstitutefortheStudyofLaborOnlinehttpftpizaorgdp3568pdf(accessed1March2016)

Ciccarelli SB (1997)lsquoESL for nation-buildingThe origins of federally-funded ESL inCanadarsquoMA dissOntarioInstituteforStudiesinEducationUniversityofToronto

Citizenship and ImmigrationCanada (CIC) (2012)Canada Faits et chiffres 2012 Aperccedilu de lrsquoimmigration Reacutesidents permanents et temporaires Ottawa CIC Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2013cicCi1-8-2012-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd(a)) lsquoStrategic outcomes and program activity architecturersquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentpaaactivity-05asp(accessed6April2016)

ndashndash (nd(b)) lsquoFindingsrsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishresourcesevaluationgrant-quebecsection4asp(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd(c)) lsquoLanguage classes funded by the Government of Canadarsquo Online wwwcicgccaenglishnewcomerslivelanguageasp(accessed1March2016)

CityofVancouver(2014)lsquoCulturalCommunitiesAdvisoryCommitteersquo Onlinehttpvancouvercayour-governmentcultural-communities-advisory-committeeaspx(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (nd) Vancouver City Local Immigration PartnershipVancouver Community Services Online httpvancouvercafilescovvancouver-city-local-immigration-partnership-overviewpdf (accessed 6 April2016)

ndashndashMulticulturalAdvisoryCommittee (2014)Committee Term SummaryOnlinehttpvancouvercafilescovcouncil-of-councils-presentation-mac-2014pdf(accessed1March2016)

ClarksonA (2014)Belonging The paradox of citizenshipCBCMasseyLecture SeriesTorontoHouseofAnansiPress

CleghornL(2000)lsquoValuingEnglishAnethnographyofafederallanguagetrainingprogramforadultimmigrantsrsquoMA diss University ofToronto Online httpstspacelibraryutorontocabitstream1807146991MQ49781pdf(accessed1March2016)

CollierD(1993)lsquoThecomparativemethodrsquoInFinifterAW(ed)Political Science The state of the discipline IIWashingtonDCAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation105ndash20

CooperRL(1989)Language Planning and Social ChangeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressDerwingTMandWaughE(2012)Language Skills and the Social Integration of Canadarsquos Adult Immigrants

Montreal Institute forResearchonPublicPolicyOnline httpirpporgwp-contentuploadsassetsresearchdiversity-immigration-and-integrationlanguage-skills-and-the-social-integration-of-canadas-adult-immigrantsIRPP-Study-no31pdf(accessed1March2016)

Dickinson JA andYoung B (2008) Bregraveve histoire socio-historique du Queacutebec Montreal BibliothegravequeQueacutebeacutecoise

DicksonHLindquistEPollardBandYanMC(2013)Devolving Settlement Funding from the Government of Canada The British Columbia experience 1998ndash2013EdmontonWesternCanadianConsortiumonIntegration Citizenship and Cohesion Online wwwamssaorgwp-contentuploads201505BC_CIC_Settlement_Report_July_23rd_20131pdf(accessed1March2016)

DominionBureauofStatistics(1953)lsquoTable61Immigrantpopulationbymothertongueperiodofimmigrationandsexforcitiesof30000andover1951rsquoInPopulation Cross-classifications of CharacteristicsOttawaDBS

152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)

ndashndash(2012)lsquoReacutepartitiondessiegravegesagrave laChambredescommunesparprovincersquo Onlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredalloampdocument=indexamplang=f(accessed6April2016)

EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant

settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19

FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48

Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario

Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan

GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45

GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)

GouvernementduQueacutebec(1977)lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11C11_Ahtml(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2000)lsquoChartedelaVilledeMontreacutealrsquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11_4C11_4html(accessed6April2014)

ndashndash (2014) lsquoCommunauteacutes culturellesrsquo Online wwweducationgouvqccaenseignantsaide-et-soutiencommunautes-culturelles(accessed1March2016)

Government of British Columbia (2013) 2011ndash12 Annual ReportWelcomeBC Settlement and Integration Services Online wwwllbclegbccapublicpubdocsbcdocs20114717852011_2012pdf (accessed 1March2016)

GovernmentofCanada(1960)Canadian Bill of RightsOnlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaengactsc-123page-1html(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(1985)Official Languages Act (4th Supp)Onlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaPDFO-301pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(1991)CanadandashQuebec Accord Relating to Immigration and Temporary Admission of AliensOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsquebeccan-queasp(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2015)CanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration AgreementOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsbcbc-2015asp(accessed1March2016)

GunnA (2012) Immigration and Multi-level Governance in Canada and Europe The role of municipalities as integration policy innovators PolicyPaperCanadandashEuropeTransatlanticDialogueSeekingtransnationalsolutionsto21stcenturyproblemsOnlinehttplabscarletoncacanadaeuropewp-contentuploadssites92012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalitiespdf(accessed1March2016)

HouseofCommonsofCanada(2010)Best Practices in Settlement Services Report of the Standing Committee on Citizenship and ImmigrationOttawaGovernmentofCanadaOnlinewwwparlgccacontenthocCommittee403CIMMReportsRP4388396cimmrp02cimmrp02-epdf(accessed6April2016)

InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)

London Review of Education 153

KataokaSandMagnussonW(2007)Settling the Unsettled Migrants municipalities and multilevel governance in British Columbia Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the Urban Affairs AssociationSeattleWA 26April 2007Victoria BC University ofVictoria Online httpppm-ppmcaPapersKataokaMagnusson2007pdf(accessed1March2016)

KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)

LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)

MadyCandTurnbullM(2012)lsquoOfficiallanguagebilingualismforallophonesinCanadaExploringfutureresearchrsquo TESL Canada Journal 29 (2) 131ndash42 Online httpfilesericedgovfulltextEJ981500pdf(accessed1March2016)

Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada

McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)

MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)

MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)

MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2015a)Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants 2015ndash2016MontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdiversPafilipdf (accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2015b)lsquoPolitiquequeacutebeacutecoiseenmatiegraveredrsquoimmigrationdeparticipationetdrsquoinclusionrsquoGouvernementdu Queacutebec Online wwwmidigouvqccafrdossiersconsultation-publiquehtml (accessed 6 April2016)

MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress

MurphyJ(2010)The Settlement amp Integration Needs of Immigrants A literature reviewOttawaTheOttawaLocalImmigration Partnership Online httpolip-pliocaknowledge-basewp-contentuploads201303Olip-Review-of-Literature-Final-ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec

154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)

PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook

3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)

Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)

RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)

SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge

SiteforLanguageManagementinCanada(SLMC)(nd(a))lsquoFederallegislationandlanguagerights(1969and1988)rsquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=federal_legislation_1969_1988(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash(nd(b))lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_linguistic_law(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)

SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)

Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)

ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)

ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)

StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94

SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI

London Review of Education 155

Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)

TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)

ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246

VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)

VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7

Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)

XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)

YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35

Related articles published in the London Review of Education

In this issue

Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)

Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33

156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21

MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73

Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85

Elsewhere in this issue

HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98

Page 19: Language planning and education of adult immigrants in ... · Furthermore, 21.3 per cent of Canadians, 78.1 per cent of Québécois, and 1.3 per cent of British Columbians have French

152 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

ElectionsCanada(2010)lsquoHistoryofrepresentationintheHouseofCommonsofCanadarsquoOnlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredbookampdocument=rep1amplang=e (accessed 6April2016)

ndashndash(2012)lsquoReacutepartitiondessiegravegesagrave laChambredescommunesparprovincersquo Onlinewwwelectionscacontentaspxsection=resampdir=cirredalloampdocument=indexamplang=f(accessed6April2016)

EmploiNexus(2016)Onlinewwwemploinexuscom(accessed1March2016)FederationofCanadianMunicipalities(FCM)(2011)Starting on Solid Ground The municipal role in immigrant

settlement Ottawa FCM Online wwwfcmcaDocumentsreportsStarting_on_Solid_Ground_Municipalities_and_Immigration_ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

FerronC (2008)lsquoLes immigrants une sourcede vitaliteacutepour les communauteacutesde langueofficielle ensituationminoritairersquoInBelkhodjaC(ed)Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies15ndash19

FourotA-C(2016)lsquoRedessinerlesespacesfrancophonesaupreacutesentLapriseencomptedelrsquoimmigrationdanslarecherchesurlesfrancophoniesminoritairesauCanadarsquoPolitiques et Socieacuteteacutes35(1)25ndash48

Fraser G and Boileau F (2014) Agir maintenant pour lrsquoavenir des communauteacutes francophones Pallier le deacuteseacutequilibre en immigration Rapport conjointTorontoCommissariatauxlanguesofficiellesduCanadaCommissariatauxservicesenfranccedilaisdelrsquoOntario

Gagnon Eacute and Saillant F (2000)De la deacutependance agrave lrsquoaccompagnement Soins agrave domicile et liens sociauxQuebecPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteLavalLrsquoHarmattan

GazzolaMandGrinF(2010)lsquoCriteria-basedcomparisoninlanguagepolicyPrinciplesandmethodologyrsquoWorking Papers of the DYLAN Project Working Paper no 5 (Deliverable15)10ndash45

GoodKR(2008)Cities of and for Pluralism The role of Canadian municipalities in multiculturalism initiativesExpertRoundtableonCanadarsquosExperiencewithPluralismOttawaGlobalCentreforPluralismOnlinewwwpluralismcaimagesPDF_docspluralism_papersgood_paper_pp7pdf(accessed1March2016)

GouvernementduQueacutebec(1977)lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11C11_Ahtml(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2000)lsquoChartedelaVilledeMontreacutealrsquoOnlinewww2publicationsduquebecgouvqccadynamicSearchtelechargephptype=2ampfile=C_11_4C11_4html(accessed6April2014)

ndashndash (2014) lsquoCommunauteacutes culturellesrsquo Online wwweducationgouvqccaenseignantsaide-et-soutiencommunautes-culturelles(accessed1March2016)

Government of British Columbia (2013) 2011ndash12 Annual ReportWelcomeBC Settlement and Integration Services Online wwwllbclegbccapublicpubdocsbcdocs20114717852011_2012pdf (accessed 1March2016)

GovernmentofCanada(1960)Canadian Bill of RightsOnlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaengactsc-123page-1html(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(1985)Official Languages Act (4th Supp)Onlinehttplaws-loisjusticegccaPDFO-301pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(1991)CanadandashQuebec Accord Relating to Immigration and Temporary Admission of AliensOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsquebeccan-queasp(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2015)CanadandashBritish Columbia Immigration AgreementOnlinewwwcicgccaenglishdepartmentlaws-policyagreementsbcbc-2015asp(accessed1March2016)

GunnA (2012) Immigration and Multi-level Governance in Canada and Europe The role of municipalities as integration policy innovators PolicyPaperCanadandashEuropeTransatlanticDialogueSeekingtransnationalsolutionsto21stcenturyproblemsOnlinehttplabscarletoncacanadaeuropewp-contentuploadssites92012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalitiespdf(accessed1March2016)

HouseofCommonsofCanada(2010)Best Practices in Settlement Services Report of the Standing Committee on Citizenship and ImmigrationOttawaGovernmentofCanadaOnlinewwwparlgccacontenthocCommittee403CIMMReportsRP4388396cimmrp02cimmrp02-epdf(accessed6April2016)

InstitutdelaStatistiqueduQueacutebec(ISQ)(2015)Le bilan deacutemographique du Queacutebec Eacutedition 2014QuebecISQ Onlinewwwstatgouvqccastatistiquespopulation-demographiebilan2014pdf (assessed6April2016)

London Review of Education 153

KataokaSandMagnussonW(2007)Settling the Unsettled Migrants municipalities and multilevel governance in British Columbia Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the Urban Affairs AssociationSeattleWA 26April 2007Victoria BC University ofVictoria Online httpppm-ppmcaPapersKataokaMagnusson2007pdf(accessed1March2016)

KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)

LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)

MadyCandTurnbullM(2012)lsquoOfficiallanguagebilingualismforallophonesinCanadaExploringfutureresearchrsquo TESL Canada Journal 29 (2) 131ndash42 Online httpfilesericedgovfulltextEJ981500pdf(accessed1March2016)

Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada

McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)

MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)

MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)

MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2015a)Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants 2015ndash2016MontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdiversPafilipdf (accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2015b)lsquoPolitiquequeacutebeacutecoiseenmatiegraveredrsquoimmigrationdeparticipationetdrsquoinclusionrsquoGouvernementdu Queacutebec Online wwwmidigouvqccafrdossiersconsultation-publiquehtml (accessed 6 April2016)

MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress

MurphyJ(2010)The Settlement amp Integration Needs of Immigrants A literature reviewOttawaTheOttawaLocalImmigration Partnership Online httpolip-pliocaknowledge-basewp-contentuploads201303Olip-Review-of-Literature-Final-ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec

154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)

PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook

3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)

Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)

RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)

SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge

SiteforLanguageManagementinCanada(SLMC)(nd(a))lsquoFederallegislationandlanguagerights(1969and1988)rsquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=federal_legislation_1969_1988(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash(nd(b))lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_linguistic_law(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)

SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)

Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)

ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)

ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)

StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94

SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI

London Review of Education 155

Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)

TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)

ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246

VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)

VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7

Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)

XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)

YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35

Related articles published in the London Review of Education

In this issue

Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)

Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33

156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21

MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73

Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85

Elsewhere in this issue

HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98

Page 20: Language planning and education of adult immigrants in ... · Furthermore, 21.3 per cent of Canadians, 78.1 per cent of Québécois, and 1.3 per cent of British Columbians have French

London Review of Education 153

KataokaSandMagnussonW(2007)Settling the Unsettled Migrants municipalities and multilevel governance in British Columbia Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the Urban Affairs AssociationSeattleWA 26April 2007Victoria BC University ofVictoria Online httpppm-ppmcaPapersKataokaMagnusson2007pdf(accessed1March2016)

KilbrideKMFarrellPDiSantoAandSadeghiS(2011)Speaking with Senior Immigrant Women and Sponsoring Families A first-language investigation of the needs for holistic approaches to serviceTorontoCERISndashTheOntarioMetropolisCentreRyersonUniversityOnlinewwwahrni-irrascaindexphpoption=com_sobiproamptask=downloadfileampfid=2698165ampsid=102ampItemid=115(accessed1March2016)

LalondeC(2016)lsquoLesrelationsentrelespaliersfeacutedeacuteraletmunicipalauCanadarsquoReacuteseau Ville Reacutegion MondeOnline wwwvrmcales-relations-entre-les-paliers-federal-et-municipal-au-canada (accessed 6April2016)

MadyCandTurnbullM(2012)lsquoOfficiallanguagebilingualismforallophonesinCanadaExploringfutureresearchrsquo TESL Canada Journal 29 (2) 131ndash42 Online httpfilesericedgovfulltextEJ981500pdf(accessed1March2016)

Marmen L and Corbeil J-P (1999) Les langues au Canada Recensement de 1996 Ottawa PatrimoinecanadienStatisticsCanada

McAndrewM(2002)lsquoLaloi 101enmilieuscolaireImpactsetreacutesultatsrsquoRevue drsquoameacutenagement linguistique Hors seacuterie (Autumn) 69ndash82 Online wwwoqlfgouvqccaressourcesbibliothequeouvragesamenagement_hsral01_charte_mc_andrew_vf_2009-22_1pdf(accessed1March2016)

MetroVancouver (2012)lsquoCensus bulletinsrsquoOnlinewwwmetrovancouverorgservicesregional-planningdata-statisticscensus-bulletinsPagesdefaultaspx(accessed1March2016)

MinisterofState forMulticulturalism(2012)British Columbia Immigration Task Force Finalreport Onlinewww2govbccaassetsgovtourism-and-immigrationimmigrating-to-bcimmigration_task_force_webpdf(accessed1March2016)

MinistegraveredelrsquoImmigrationdelaDiversiteacuteetdelrsquoInclusion(MIDI)(2008)Pour enrichir le Queacutebec Franciser plus inteacutegrer mieuxMesures pour renforcer lrsquoaction du Queacutebec en matiegravere de francisation des immigrantsMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrmesuresMesures-Francisation-Brochure2008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014a)Lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec Le rocircle du ministegravere de lrsquoImmigration de la Diversiteacute et de lrsquoInclusion et de ses partenaires Document de reacutefeacuterenceMontrealMIDIOnline wwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersDOC_RoleQuebecImmigrationpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2014b)Vers une nouvelle politique queacutebeacutecoise en matiegravere drsquoimmigration de diversiteacute et drsquoinclusion Document synthegraveseMontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdossiersSYN_CahierConsult_Politiquepdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2015a)Programme drsquoaide financiegravere pour lrsquointeacutegration linguistique des immigrants 2015ndash2016MontrealGouvernementduQueacutebecOnlinewwwmidigouvqccapublicationsfrdiversPafilipdf (accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2015b)lsquoPolitiquequeacutebeacutecoiseenmatiegraveredrsquoimmigrationdeparticipationetdrsquoinclusionrsquoGouvernementdu Queacutebec Online wwwmidigouvqccafrdossiersconsultation-publiquehtml (accessed 6 April2016)

MorrisMA (ed) (2010)Canadian Language Policies in Comparative PerspectiveMontrealMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress

MurphyJ(2010)The Settlement amp Integration Needs of Immigrants A literature reviewOttawaTheOttawaLocalImmigration Partnership Online httpolip-pliocaknowledge-basewp-contentuploads201303Olip-Review-of-Literature-Final-ENpdf(accessed1March2016)

Ng E Pottie K and Spitzer D (2011) lsquoOfficial language proficiency and self-reported health amongimmigrants to Canadarsquo Health Reports 22 (4) 15ndash24 Online httppublicationsgccacollectionscollection_2011statcan82-003-X82-003-x2011004-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

OlazabalILeGallJMontgomeryCLaquerreM-EandWallachI(2010)lsquoDiversiteacuteethnoculturelleetpersonnesacircgeacuteesimmigrantesrsquoInCharpentierMGubermanNBilletteVLavoieJ-PGrenierAandOlabazalI(eds)Vieillir au pluriel Perspectives socialesQuebecLesPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacuteduQueacutebec

154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)

PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook

3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)

Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)

RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)

SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge

SiteforLanguageManagementinCanada(SLMC)(nd(a))lsquoFederallegislationandlanguagerights(1969and1988)rsquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=federal_legislation_1969_1988(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash(nd(b))lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_linguistic_law(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)

SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)

Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)

ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)

ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)

StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94

SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI

London Review of Education 155

Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)

TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)

ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246

VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)

VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7

Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)

XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)

YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35

Related articles published in the London Review of Education

In this issue

Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)

Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33

156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21

MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73

Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85

Elsewhere in this issue

HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98

Page 21: Language planning and education of adult immigrants in ... · Furthermore, 21.3 per cent of Canadians, 78.1 per cent of Québécois, and 1.3 per cent of British Columbians have French

154 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

OmidvarR andRichmondT (2003) Immigrant Settle ment and Social Inclusion in CanadaWorkingpaperseriesPerspectivesonsocialinclusionTorontoTheLaidlawFoundationOnlinehttplibrarybslorgaujspuibitstream16261Immigrant_Settlement_and_Social_Inclusion_in_Canadapdf (accessed 1March2016)

PaquetM(2016)La feacutedeacuteralisation de lrsquoimmigration auCanadaMontrealPressesdelrsquoUniversiteacutedeMontreacutealPrivyCouncilOffice(PCO)(1970)Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and BiculturalismBook

3OttawaPCOOnlinehttppublicationsgccasiteeng9699863publicationhtml(accessed8April2016)

Rinfret-RaynorMBrodeurN LesieuxEacute andDugalN (2013)Adaptation des interventions aux besoins des immigrants-es en situation de violance conjugale Eacutetat des pratiques dans les milieux drsquointerventionrsquoCollection Eacutetudes et Analyses45QuebecCentrederechercheinterdisciplinairesurlaviolencefamilialeetlaviolencefaiteauxfemmesOnlinewwwcriviffqccauploadpublicationspub_245pdf(accessed1March2016)

RoseD(2006)Housing Issues Facing Newcomers to Canada BriefpresentedtotheParliamentofCanadaSenateSubcommitteeonCitiesMontrealInstitutNationaldelaRechercheScientifiquendashCentreUrbanisationCultureSocieacuteteacuteOnlinewwwresearchgatenetprofileDamaris_Rosepublication255624182_HOUSING_ISSUES_FACING_NEWCOMERS_TO_CANADAlinks542e95d00cf29bbc126f2c0cpdf(accessed1March2016)

SimpsonJandWhitesideA(eds)(2015)Adult Language Education and Migration Challenging agendas in policy and practiceAbingdonRoutledge

SiteforLanguageManagementinCanada(SLMC)(nd(a))lsquoFederallegislationandlanguagerights(1969and1988)rsquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=federal_legislation_1969_1988(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash(nd(b))lsquoCharteroftheFrenchlanguagersquoOnlinehttpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_linguistic_law(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd (c)) lsquoLaws of linguistic significance in Quebecrsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=qc_other_legislation(accessed8April2016)

ndashndash (nd(d)) lsquoLanguage legislation in British Columbiarsquo Online httpsslmcuottawacaq=prov_stat_bc(accessed8April2016)

SouliegraveresMandOuelletteG(2012)Lrsquoheacutebergement pour les personnes en perte drsquoautonomie au Queacutebec Des enjeux et des parcours difficiles pour les personnes concerneacuteesMontrealRegroupementprovincialdescomiteacutes des usagers Online wwwrpcuqccapdfpublicationsrpcu_etat_de_situation_2012-12-04pdf(accessed1March2016)

Statistics Canada (2003) 2001Census Analysis series Canadarsquos ethnocultural portrait The changing mosaicOttawaMinistryof IndustryOnlinehttppublicationsgccaCollectionStatcan96F0030X96F0030XIE2001008pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011a)lsquoLanguematernelledeacutetailleacuteendashpopulationtotaleagravelrsquoexclusiondespensionnairesdrsquouneacutetablissementinstitutionnelrsquoOnline www12statcangccanhs-enm2011dp-pdprofdetailspagecfmLang=FampGeo1=PRampCode1=01ampData=CountampSearchText=quebecampSearchType=BeginsampSearchPR=01ampA1=AllampB1=LanguageampCustom=ampampTABID=1tabs2(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash (2011b) Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity in Canada National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistry of Industry Online www12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-010-x99-010-x2011001-engpdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(2011c)Aboriginal Peoples and Language National Household Survey 2011 OttawaMinistryofIndustryOnlinewww12statcangccanhs-enm2011as-sa99-011-x99-011-x2011003_1-engpdf (accessed 1March2016)

ndashndash(2011d)lsquoPopulationbymothertonguebycensusmetropolitanareaexcluding institutionalresidents(2011 Census)rsquo Online wwwstatcangccatables-tableauxsum-soml01cst01demo12a-enghtm(accessed6April2016)

ndashndash (2016) lsquoReacutegion meacutetropolitaine de recensement de Montreacuteal Queacutebecrsquo Online www12statcangccacensus-recensement2011as-safogs-spgFacts-cma-fracfmLANG=FraampGK=CMAampGC=462(accessed6April2016)

StoneyCandGrahamKAH(2009)lsquoFederal-municipalrelationsinCanadaThechangingorganizationallandscapersquoAdministration publique du Canada 52(3)371ndash94

SullivanS(2007)Report of the Mayorrsquos Task Force on ImmigrationVancouverMTFI

London Review of Education 155

Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)

TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)

ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246

VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)

VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7

Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)

XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)

YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35

Related articles published in the London Review of Education

In this issue

Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)

Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33

156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21

MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73

Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85

Elsewhere in this issue

HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98

Page 22: Language planning and education of adult immigrants in ... · Furthermore, 21.3 per cent of Canadians, 78.1 per cent of Québécois, and 1.3 per cent of British Columbians have French

London Review of Education 155

Tabledeconcertationdesorganismesauservicedespersonnesreacutefugieacuteesetimmigrantes(TCRI)(2011)Lrsquointeacutegration des enfants et des jeunes immigrants de premiegravere geacuteneacuteration au Queacutebec Perspective des organismes communautaires au service des nouveaux arrivantsRapport drsquoenquecircteMontrealTCRIOnlinehttpsjeunesimmigrantsfileswordpresscom201303rapport-denquc3aate-jeunes-immigrantspdf(accessed1March2016)

TD Bank FinancialGroup (2009) Literacy Matters Helping newcomers unlock their potentialTorontoTDBank Financial Group Online wwwtdcomdocumentPDFeconomicsspecialca0909_literacypdf(accessed1March2016)

ThomasD(2011)Reacuteseaux personnels et adaptation sur le plan eacuteconomique StatisticsCanadaOnlinewwwstatcangccapub11-008-x2011002article11592-frapdf(accessed1March2016)

TolleyEBiles JAndrewCEssesVandBursteinM(2011)lsquoIntegrationand inclusion inOntarioThesleeping giant stirsrsquo In Biles J BursteinM Frideres JTolley E andVineberg R (eds) Integration and Inclusion of Newcomers and Minorities across CanadaMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress195ndash246

VancouverImmigrationPartnership(VIP)(2016)lsquoVIPpartnersrsquoOnlinewwwvancouverimmigrationpartnershipcavip-partners(accessed1March2016)

VatzLaaroussiM(2008)lsquoLrsquoimmigrationdanslesreacutegionsduQueacutebecetdanslescommunauteacutesfrancophoneshors Queacutebec une volonteacute partageacutee des contextes diffeacuterents des deacutefis communs des pistes agravetransfeacutererrsquo In Belkhodja C (ed) Immigration et diversiteacute au sein des communauteacutes francophones en situation minoritaireThegravemes canadiensCanadian IssuesMontrealAssociationforCanadianStudies33ndash7

Ville de Montreacuteal (2011) lsquoMeacutemoire sur la planification de lrsquoimmigration au Queacutebec pour la peacuteriode2012ndash2015rsquo Online httpvillemontrealqccaplsportaldocspaged_social_frmediadocumentsMemoireVilleMai2011pdf(accessed1March2016)

ndashndash(nd)lsquoPopulationselonlaconnaissancedeslanguesofficiellesagglomerationdeMontreal2011rsquoOnlinehttpvillemontrealqccaportalpage_pageid=689767887637amp_dad=portalamp_schema=PORTAL(accessed13June2016)

XueL(2007)Portrait of an Integration Process Diffi culties encountered and resources relied on for newcomers in their fi rst 4 years in Canada Evidence from three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) Ottawa CIC Online wwwcicgccaenglishpdfresearch-statsportrait-integr-process-epdf(accessed1March2016)

YoungR(2009)lsquoCanadarsquoInSteytlerN(ed)Local Government and Metropolitan Regions in Federal SystemsVol6ofA Global Dialogue on FederalismMontrealandKingstonONMcGill-QueenrsquosUniversityPress106ndash35

Related articles published in the London Review of Education

In this issue

Thispaperwaspublishedinaspecial featureonMultilingualismineducationincosmopolitancities editedbyDinaMehmedbegovicTheother articles in the feature are as follows (linksunavailableattimeofpublication)

Caporal-EbersoldEandYoungA(2016)lsquoNegotiatingandappropriatingtheldquoonepersononelanguagerdquopolicywithinthecomplexrealityofamultilingualcregravecheinStrasbourgrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)122ndash33

156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21

MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73

Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85

Elsewhere in this issue

HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98

Page 23: Language planning and education of adult immigrants in ... · Furthermore, 21.3 per cent of Canadians, 78.1 per cent of Québécois, and 1.3 per cent of British Columbians have French

156 Catherine Ellyson Caroline Andrew and Richard Cleacutement

Mehmedbegovic D (2016) Editorial lsquoMultilingualism in education in cosmopolitan cities Insights intoLUCIDEnetworkresearchrsquo London Review of Education14(2)119ndash21

MenghiniM(2016)lsquoMultilingualismandlanguagelearningTheRomecityreportrsquoLondon Review of Education14(2)157ndash73

Nicolaou A Parmaxi A Papadima-Sophocleous S and Boglou D (2016) lsquoLanguage education in amultilingualcityThecaseofLimassolrsquo London Review of Education14(2)174ndash85

Elsewhere in this issue

HamlinDandDaviesS(2016)lsquoTorontoAnewglobalcityoflearningrsquo London Review of Education14(2)186ndash98


01 - Thesis Front Page - Shodhgangashodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/7334/8/08_chapter 1.pdf · (24.1 per cent), Alkem Laboratories (23.3 per cent), Pfizer (23.6 per cent),

01 - Thesis Front Page - Shodhgangashodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/7334/8/08_chapter 1.pdf · (24.1 per cent), Alkem Laboratories (23.3 per cent), Pfizer (23.6 per cent),

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Scandonest 2 per cent noradrenaline, Scandonest 3 per cent, · Scandonest 2 per cent noradrenaline, ... expressed in sulfur dioxide is 1.240 mg/ cartridge. ... (Indicaciones terapéuticas)

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Correspondence from the Permanent Secretary to the Department … · 2016-07-18 · Vacancies : 78 per cent : 13.5 per cent ; I . 8.5 per cent . This represents a very positive achievement

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grdc.com.au€¦ · Web viewJamestown increased by 33 per cent, up from 56 to 89 per cent and Waikerie increased by 28 per cent up from 22 to 50 per cent. Ruddal and Kimba both decreased,

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for British Columbians

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Motorway Services User Survey...per cent to 98 per cent. The three biggest operators – Moto, Roadchef and Welcome Break – all achieve at least 90 per cent satisfaction. Westmorland,

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ageconsearch.umn.eduageconsearch.umn.edu/record/253413/files/123-135 Lessons From the...Aligarh, Shahabad and Pali in 1964-65 was 63 per cent, 26 per cent and 19 per cent respectively

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 · Desi n fees: 5 r cent Hard andscape: 80 per cent (inclusive of 10 per cent lighting) SGft landscape: 1 5 per cent Contractors: Outdoor Space Design (hard landscape); Tim Mackey

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Managing respirable crystalline silica dust exposure in the ......Granite 20 – 45 per cent (typically 30%) Slate 20 – 40 per cent Marble 2 per cent Limestone 2 per cent Cutting,

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