Laboratorija Savremene Fizike B.obradovic

3 4 . , . , , , . . , o , . .

, . , . , , . , , .

2012.

1. 1 1.1. 1 1.2. 2 1.3. 5 1.4. 6 1.5. 7 1.1 8 1.2 9 1.3 11 2. 15 2.1. 16 2.2. 18 2.3. CCD 19 2.1 21 2.2 o 23 3. 24 3.1. 24 3.2. 25 3.3. 26 3.4. 28 3.5. 30 3.6. 31 3.6.1. 31 3.6.2. 31 3.1 32 3.2 34 4. 36 4.1 39 5. 40 5.1. 42 5.1

45

6. 47 6.1. : 47 6.1.1. 48 6.2.

49

6.3. 51 6.4. 53 6.1 54 6.2 55 6.3 56 7. a 57 7.1. 59 7.1 60

7.2

61

7.3 62 7.4 () 63 64

1

1. 1.1.

. ; , . . , .

. . , . (n ~ 1 jon/cm3 ). . . . , . ( , X - ) - . ( 1.1). , . . . . , . , . . . .

. - ( - ). - 1.1 1.1. , .

2

1.2.

. 10-5 10-1 . ( ) . ( 1. 2.).

U [V]

10-10 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1 I [A]

800

600

400

200

-

-

U A

R

1.1. - .

3

(Aston)

. , . (Crookes) .

, . . . , (Faraday) . ( ) . . , .

. . .

, . , ,

1.2. .

4

. , , . . , . . , . 1.3. , ,

. . ( ) . ( ) ~ 100 500 Pa. , (. Pb, Zn, Ca...).

1.3. .

5

(Geissler) , 1.4, 19. . . , . ( , , , , , , ,

, ). (. non-thermal) , Tg , Ti Tg . : >> Ti Tg. T 5000 10 000 , . , . . 1.3. o ( ), .

1.4. .

1.4. . ) ; ) .

6

. , , . , , , , . 1 eV (1 eV = 11 600 K), . , . , . 1.4. ,

. . , . 1.5.

1.5. -. ) ; ) ; ) ; ) .

)

)

) )

7

1.6. 1.5. . , . . , .

1.6. ) ; ) .

) )

8

1.1 . 1.7. , R. : U = UP IR.

1.7 . , . ( . ). 1 mA, .

U = f(I) . U = f(I)

. P = f(I) , P

.

UP A

R

1.7. .

9

1.2 . (Marx) . , . 200 kV, , 1.8. 1.8. R (Rogowsky).

. . . - 1.9.

1.8. .

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 200010

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Volta

ge [k

V]

t [ns]

Curr

ent [

A]

-20-100102030405060708090

1.9. .

10

1.8 . ( ) U(t) I(t).

U = f(I) . , P = P(t)

W = W(t).

11

1.3 ( 20 000 V, 50 Hz 17 000 Hz). , , , ( ) . , . , , . P(t) = U(t)I(t );

[t1, t2] : 1.10 .

. ( ) . 100 ns, , . 1.11 . : U(t) , I(t) , Q

=2

1

)()()( 12t

t

dttItUttW

1.10. . ) 1000 V, ) 1700 V.

) )

12

1.12. I(t) . Q U, ( )

Rm Cm

I Q

U

U

I Q x

y

1:1000

1:10

1.12. , .

1.11. ) . ) , 128 . 800 mbar. 2 mm.

0 100 200 300 4000

5

10

15

20

25

30

0 4 8 12 16 20

-40

-20

0

20

40

-4

-2

0

2

4

I (mA)

t (ns)

P=800 mbar

I (mA)

t (ms)

U (kV)

13

(Lissajous) . Q Um Cm . U ( 1.12). Rm Cm

. , (Rm ~ 50), (Cm ~ 10 nF). (~10 - 100 ns) , ( Rm) . Q U . . Q U . . , , , . ( , ) . : W = u(t)dQ = Cm u(t)dum = Q U

1.13 Q U ( ) .

ducel / dQcel = Cdie

2 ub

Qcel

ucel

Qc

Qd

Vc

Vc

ducel / dQcel = Ccel

1

2

3

4

Qmax

umax

14

P = Wf, f = 1/, . , . , .

1.12 - .

U = f(I), P = P(t) W = W(t) .

. (Cm = 470 nF, f = 300 Hz)

2. 0,1 10 m . . . () , . () S() .

() = () (2.1)

P

() = () (2.2)

a S AW-1. , , :

() = = (2.3)

Ne , Np - . S() () E = hc/ :

() = () = (2.4)

() = ()

(2.5) , : (. PhotoDiode - PD), (. PhotoMultiplier Tube PMT) CCD (. Charge Couple Device).

16

1 . 2.1. , CCD. (PD)

(PMT) CCD

: 0,1 5,0 mm : 0,1 100 mm

: > 2 cm : >1 cm

: ~2 cm : ~10 m

100% 30% 90%

190 10000 nm 190 1000 nm 190 1000 nm

(0,5 A/W)

(1 A/W)

(0,5 A/W)

10 fW 0,01 aW ~100 fW

1 mW 1 nW

> 0,01 ns > 0,1 ns ~ 1 ms 0 60 V 500 2000 V 0 60 V -

- -CD DVD -

- - - -

- - -

2.1. p-n . ( , . ) - p n ( 2.1). . n- (n "negative") , p- (p - "pozitive") . . ( ) , . ( 80%) . . HgCdTe, 0,3 5,2 m, .

17

.

: . , . 2.2, . , , 2.2. .

. , , . , . . R.

2.1. PN .

2.2. .

18

, . 2.2. , , , . . (. single photon counting). - 2.3. D . . ( Vc) , , ( V1). , e(V1 Vc), D. D , , . , 4 14 200 eV. V. n a n- . , G G = n.

, 2.4.

2.3. .

19

. IA 1% IR , . Uc, , . .

2.3. CCD

CCD ( ) . , . () -

2.4.

2.5. CCD .

20

(. metaloxide-semiconductor - MOS) 2.5.

. -, . ; . (. ), CCD- , . , , , - (A/D) . CCD , .

21

2.1 , PDA36A, ThorLasbs, 2.6. 350 - 1100 nm. 70 dB. ( + ) VW-1. . , . .

, 633 nm 810 nm, HeNe . , Edmund Optics ( . : 0,5 W 1 W; : 400 nm 1064 nm; 5%). Edmund Optics. 2.7.

2.6. .

2.7. .

22

( ) . . . U BNC P.

U = f(P) ( VW-1).

(2.5) .

( . ).

23

2.2 o

: 1 mW (. ) . , . .

633 nm 810 nm, HeNe . P . , . . , . HeNe . - 200 V, ( -1000 V). , . . . BNC (. ) ( 100 mV), . . , , . .

U P.

U = f(P), HeNe .

811 nm.

CCD , + CCD .

3. , . , ( ), ( ). , , , . (, , ). ( ) , ( ). , . . 3.1. 102 108 . , (Plank) ( ), , a a (. Infra Red IR) - . , , . 380750 nm (. . VIS) . , . , , 380 nm, . 200 - 380 nm (. . UV) , 210 nm ( 180 nm). 105 - 200 nm (. . VUV)

25

200 nm , , 195 nm, 145 nm. . . ( ) LiF CaF2. 3.2. . :

je c . (He rtz; 1 Hz = 1 s-1), (nm), (ngstrm; 1 = 10-1 nm) (m). :

, . m-1 , cm1. E = h (eV)).

, . J , , (. NIST) : http://physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData/ASD/lines_form.html , . eV cm1 (1 eV = 8065,541 cm1)

(3.1)

(3.2)

(3.3) 1239,842=

nmeVh vac

cvac =

cvac

==1

26

E(p) E(q): = E(p) E(q) = 1/. : n = /n n 1 + 6, 43281011.

3.3. . , , :

,

,

( ) .

(UV), (VIS) (IR) :

,

3.1 . . . L1 ( 1) (. slit) L2 ( 2) ( ). . , . , , o

27

. , L1 L2 ( 1 2) . :

d d ( ). rad/nm.

. nm/mm /mm. R . R :

( ) .

(3.4)

(3.5)

(3.6)

3.1. .

dd

ddy ,

R

= = =

dd

28

, . . . CCD , , . ( 0,05 100 m) ( ) . ( ) , . 3.4. , . . . . - -. . (. groovs) . : . , ( ). . , ( ) :

m = d (sin + sin)

(3.7)

29

, m d - . . (1/d) . . , . Echelle . 3.2 . ,

. B blaze-. B . blaze-.

m , N . W = Nd

d, W . ,

(3.8)

(3.9)

3.2. .

R mN=

mR Wd

=

30

(. ) ( ) . echelle, 3.3. , .

( 3.3), . . , () . . 3.5. EbertFastie CzernyTurner. 3.4. EbertFastie .

.

3.3. echelle .

3.4. EbertFastie CzernyTurner.

31

, , . CzernyTurner, . , . , . 3.6. 3.6.1. , . . . J . UV-VIS IR , . . 3.6.2. ( , , ) , . :

Irel - , Iaps - , fspec() - . - . . 180 270 nm 270 650 nm. NIST-.

(3.10) ( )rel aps specI I f =

32

3.1 . USB - 2000 30 nm/mm ( 3.5), MSDD1000 0,78 nm/mm ( 3.6). - CCD 2048 , 14 m 200 m. , , ,

. ,

3.5. USB - 2000 . 1 , 4 , 5 - , 6 , 7 - CCD .

.

3.6. MSDD1000 . 11 i 12 , 2 , 3 , 41, 71 i 42, 72 , 5 i 6 , 8 , 9 , 101 i 102 (101 , 102 - CCD ), 111 i 112 - .

33

> 300 nm. . ( ) . CCD ~ 10 % . USB - 2000 ( ), MSDD1000 . , . > 500 nm , . . NIST- .

spec, , . .

= f(spec), . .

. .

34

3.2 , . , . , . . NBS Modified Type FEL-000 ( 1000 W, 2856 K) . 50 cm , 7,900 , 3.7. , 1 % ~ 10 %.

300 400 500 600 700 800 9001

10

100

Spek

traln

a ra

dija

ncija

[W/c

m3 ]

[nm]

NBS model FEL-000300 400 500 600 700 800 900

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

Ose

tljivo

st

[nm]

3.7. FEL .

35

, , .

3.8 McPherson Model 218 EMI 9816 QB .

300 400 500 600 700 800 900

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0 O

setlji

vost

[nm] 3.8. McPherson Model 218 EMI 9816 QB.

4.

() ( n k) . ( ) :

(4.1)

N ( ), , nk, nk n k, gn n, En n, S . (4.1) , . , . I = I(), . , , . ( ) . ( ), . . :

(4.2)

I1 I2, 1 2 ; 1 2, g1 g2 ; 1 2 (4.2) :

exp( )4

nk nk n nnk

h A g EI NS kT

=

2 2 2 2 2 1

1 1 1 1

exp( )I A g E EI A g kT

=

37

(4.3)

. . (4.3) :

(4.4)

(4.4) . :

. (4.3)

a . (4.5) 1/kT. (Ei, yi) Ii, . (Boltzman plot).

(4.5)

2 1

2 2 2 2

1 1 1 1

( ) /

ln ln

E E kT A g IA g I

=

2 1 2 1

2 1 2 1 2 1

( / ) ( / )/ /

A A I IT kTT E E A A I I

= +

%5TT

ln i iii i i

I Ey aA g kT

= =

,3/112

EE

kT%10

/)/(

12

12 AAAA 2 1

2 1

( / ) 5%/

I II I

38

4.1.

4.1. , Ar I.

39

4.1 (, ) USB 2000. . NIST- , i gi. . .

5.

(. Dielectric Barrier Discharge - DBD) 150 . DBD- (Siemens) 1857. , je 5.1. . , , . , . (. silent discharge), . DBD- . DBD . :

1. 2. ( ) 3. 4. - 5. VUV UV 6.

, . DBD - . 100 kPa 300 kPa. . ( ) .

5.1. .

41

, .

+ 2 + 3* + 3 +

: 2, 3, N2 . 3* 2 . . , :

+ + 2 +

+ 3 + 22 +

+ 3* + 22 +

. . - -. , , 0,2% . N2+, N+, , , . : N, N2, N2, N3 N25. , , . . ( 100 s) ( 10 s). N, , . 1860. . N . . 800C .

42

DBD- . . , . , . 1921. 50 Hz 10 kHz. 20 50 mm 1 3 m. . 0,5 2 mm. (). , , . . 5% , 12% . . 5.1. UV 230 290 nm . UV . HR2000 (Ocean Optics) 200 390 nm 0,1 nm. () UV , ( 5.1). UV d , , , . . UV 180 nm.

43

UV ( UV ). , (. , NO, NH3).

, . ~ 1 m . - (Lambert-Beer) :

(5.1)

:

(5.2)

cgas (molekulm-3), I() UV d (m) , I0() gas () (m2molekul-1). gas ()

))(exp()()( 0 dcII gasgas =

=

)()(

ln)(

1 0

II

dc

gasgas

5.1. ( ) . , .

44

, , .

200 250 300 3500

10000

20000

30000

40000

I0() I()

Inte

nzite

t (ar

b. je

d.)

(nm)

5.2. . I0() - ; I() - .

45

5.1 , ( ) UV I0(). , 10- I() , . I(). . I0() I(), (5.2), 3 () ( 6.1) d, c3 molekulm-3. I0()/I() 10 250 270 nm ( 5.2), . 10 .

P , 5 l/min.

c3 = f(P).

. c3 = f(Q), Q

l/min.

46

6.1 298 .

[nm]

1020 [cm2 molecule- l]

[nm]


[nm]


[nm]


185.0 186.0 187.0 188.0 189.0 190.0 191.0 192.0 193.0 194.0 195.0 196.0 197.0 198.0 199.0 200.0 201.0 202.0 203.0 204.0 205.0 206.0 207.0 208.0 209.0 210.0 211.0 212.0 213.0 214.0 215.0 216.0 217.0 218.0 219.0 220.0 221.0 222.0 223.0 224.0 225.0 226.0

65.37 61.87 59.41 56.59 54.24 51.14 48.80 46.06 43.36 40.66 38.64 36.73 35.00 33.49 32.09 31.54 31.15 31.79 32.51 33.65 35.85 38.55 42.00 46.40 51.18 57.16 64.02 71.94 81.04 90.96 102.3 114.6 128.7 143.9 160.1 178.5 198.2 220.0 242.9 268.4 294.3 322.6

227.0 228.0 229.0 230.0 231.0 232.0 233.0 234.0 235.0 236.0 237.0 238.0 239.0 240.0 241.0 242.0 243.0 244.0 245.0 246.0 247.0 248.0 249.0 250.0 251.0 252.0 253.0 254.0 255.0 256.0 257.0 258.0 259.0 260.0 261.0 262.0 263.0 264.0 265.0 266.0 267.0 268.0

351.3 382.9 414.1 447.6 481.4 518.1 554.9 589.1 631.8 672.2 709.4 748.6 781.9 831.4 860.3 897.1 933.3 971.7 993.2 1033 1047 1071 1112 1124 1114 1155 1140 1159 1161 1154 1139 1124 1145 1080 1094 1057 1022 1006 965.7 948.5 884.1 875.4

269.0 270.0 271.0 272.0 273.0 274.0 275.0 276.0 277.0 278.0 279.0 280.0 281.0 282.0 283.0 284.0 285.0 286.0 287.0 288.0 289.0 290.0 291.0 292.0 293.0 294.0 295.0 296.0 297.0 298.0 299.0 300.0 301.0 302.0 303.0 304.0 305.0 306.0 307.0 308.0 309.0 310.0

810.4 798.0 741.5 714.7 669.8 614.0 591.3 545.0 509.6 466.8 432.6 400.1 367.3 325.0 302.5 271.2 246.5 223.8 203.4 175.0 158.5 141.8 128.5 111.1 100.2 87.11 77.53 67.27 59.55 51.24 45.51 39.64 34.63 30.73 26.50 24.01 20.15 18.08 15.65 13.64 12.43 10.20

311.0 312.0 313.0 314.0 315.0 316.0 317.0 318.0 319.0 320.0 321.0 322.0 323.0 324.0 325.0 326.0 328.0 330.0 332.0 334.0 336.0 338.0 340.0 342.0 344.0 346.0 348.0 350.0

9.260 7.947 6.883 6.294 5.199 4.792 4.146 3.757 2.765 3.243 2.041 2.435 1.983 1.250 1.727 1.105 1.300 0.4923 0.4347 0.5343 0.1875 0.2086 0.2082 0.0776 0.1419 0.0641 0.0386 0.0294

6. 1959., (Schawlow) (Townes) . () 1962. , IBM General Electric -, . (< -150oC), . 1970- . - . 1970- . - , CD DVD , - .

:

6.1. : " " . ( ) ( ),

6.1. .

48

( ) ( ). 6.1 , , . . Eg, . , ( ) . h = Eg , , 6.2. (. Photo Diode PD) . , ( 6.2) (Light Emitting Diode - LED). ( ), , 6.2. (. Laser Diode LD).

: (PD) , (LED) , (LD) . 6.1.1. ( ) p- n- , 6.3. . , ( ), Eg2 > Eg1 , . , ,

()

6. 2. .

49

, , . GaAs GaAs/AlxGa1-xAs, 6.3.

Eg1 = 1.424 eV, = hc/Eg1 = 871 nm. , 750 - 880 nm, , . GaAs n = 3,5 AlxGa1-xAs . InP, GaN PbS. 6.2. 6.4 , GaAs . .

n = 3,5, , . ( ) ()

(6.1)

6.3. .

21 0,321

nRn

= = +

50

( ). , , W 10 m, ,

H 2 m, . , 5.5. d :

(6.2)

6.4. .

6.5. .

arcsind =

51

, = 850 nm d = W = 10 m, W = 10o, d = H = 2 m H 50o. 6.6 , (6.2). - . L n, . nL. (. Free spectral range) fs = c/2nL. 6.6

, . = 817.5 nm, = 0.45 nm. fsr fsr = c/2, , n = 3,5 GaAs. L = 215 m, ( L 20 50 cm He-Ne ). 6.3. . ( - )

(6.3) i

J hcPe

=

6.6. AlxGa1-xAs .

52

/ , = QReff (Q , Reff ) hc/ . () , , Jth, . :

:

0 = 68% . 6.7 Jth 14 mA. Jth LED. . Jth.

(6.4)

(6.5)

( )thi

J J hcPe

=

6.7. - .

0 0iP PT=

53

6.4. . (LD) (PD) ( 6.8), .

. 6.9 . .

6.8. ( ).

6.9. .

54

6.1 15 . 2 mA, 0 64 mA. P = P(J).

P = P(J) Jth . P = P(J) J > Jth

= 810 nm. 25 .

55

6.2 . CCD 810 nm. CCD , ( ). 20 . 5 mA 65 mA, 10 mA. :

. GaAs n = 3,5,

.

56

6.3 x-y . 0,5 mm. . 1 m ( ), , 1 mm . . .

W H.

.

7. a , , . , . , . , . , . , , . , , . (). ( ) () . . ( , , ). . .1

:

1. :

+ + + 2 (7.1)

2. :

+ * + , * + + + 2 (7.2) . , , , . (7.2) , * ( ). . Ei Ek

1 ,

a

58

: Ni = Ni0 NiL = Nk R U = RI = a(Ni PI(Ei )NkPI(Ek)) PI(Ei ) Ei. / Ei Ek. ( ) . (. sputtering). , .

a

59

7.1 7.1.

, ( ).2

() () , . , , . . . () .

2 ( ), (. ).

7.1. . , , , , .

a

60

7.1 . , . 15 25, , .

1 mA .

, = (J).

NIST- ( ) . .

a

61

7.2 , . 1 10 kHz 1 V. , , . .

( ) . 64 .

UOG = UOG (t), .

UOG = f(J).

a

62

7.3 ( 7.2). . .

, 1 mm, .

64 . UOG = f(t), .

UOG = f(r), r .

7.2. .

a

63

7.4 () 3

7.3.

NIST- ( ) .

. .

, I = I(J).

3 . .

7.3. . , .

1. . , . , . , . . , , . 6, 45 96 - , . . , , (1997).

2. . , , , (2007).

3. U.Kogelschatz, Plasma Chem. Plasma Process. 23 (2003) 1 - 46. 4. Hans-Joachim Kunze, Introduction to Plasma Spectroscopy, Springer-Verlag, Berlin

Heidelberg (2009). 5. W. Lochte-Holtgreven, Evaluation of Plasma Parameters, in Plasma Diagnostics, ed.

by W. Lochte-Holtgreven, North-Holland Pub. Co., Amsterdam (1968). 6. W. Demtrder, Atoms, Molecules and Photons, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

(2006). 7. G.J.J. Winands, Efficient Streamer Plasma Generation, Ph. D. Thesis, Technische

Universiteit Eindhoven, Eindhoven (2007). 8. B. J. Finlayson-Pitts and J. N. Pitts Jr. Chemistry of the Upper and Lower

Atmosphere, Academic Press, San Diego (2000). 9. W. Demtrder, Laser Spectroscopy, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg (2003). 10. B. Barbieri, N. Beverini and A. Sasso, Optogalvanic spectroscopy, Reviews of

Modern Physics, 62 (1990) 603 644.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

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Laboratorija Savremene Fizike B.obradovic