KISI-KISI METOPEN

7/23/2019 KISI-KISI METOPEN

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KISI-KISI METOPEN

H1. Introduction to research

-Research is simply the process of finding solutions to a problem after a thorough study and

analysis of the situational factors. To be a successful manager it is important for you to knowhow to go about making the right decisions by being knowledgeable about various steps involved

in finding solutions to problematic issues.

-Business research can be described as a systematic and organized effort to investigate a specificproblem encountered in the work setting, that needs a solution. The first step in research is to

know where the problem areas exist in the organization, and to identify as clearly and

specifically as possible the problems that need to be studied and resolved. nce the problem that

needs attention is clearly defined, then steps can be taken to gather information, analyze the data,determine the factors that are associated with the problem and solve is by taking the necessary

corrective measures.Research thus encompasses the process of in!uiry, investigation, examination and

experimentation. "e can now define business research as an organized, systematic, data-based,

critical, ob#ective, scientific in!uiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with thepurpose of finding answers or solutions to it.

$ata can be quantitative%generally gathered by structured !uestions& or qualitative %generated

from broad answers&.

-'pplied research is one to solve a current problem faced by the manager in the work setting,demanding a timely solution. (xample) a product is not selling so well, the manager wants to

know why, so he can take corrective action.

-Basic research%fundamental, pure& is to generate a body of knowledge by trying to comprehend

how certain problems that occur in organizations can be solved.

-*o applied research is done when the problems are currently experienced in your organization,

basic research is done chiefly to make a contribution to existing knowledge.

-' group of research methods will enable managers to understand, predict and control theirenvironment. +nowledge of research and problem-solving processes helps managers to identify

problem situations before they get out of control.

Research and research methods helps managers to)

. dentify and effectively solve minor problems in the work setting


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. +now how to discriminate good from bad research

/. Take calculated risk in decision making

0. 1ombine experience with scientific knowledge while making decisions

"hile hiring researchers the manager should make sure that)

. The roles and expectations of both parties are made explicit.

. Relevant philosophies and value systems of the organization are clearly stated andconstrains are communicated.

/. ' good rapport is established with the researchers

'dvantages of nternal 1onsultants2 Researchers

-The internal team would stand a better chance of being readily accepted by the employees inthe sub-unit of the organization where research needs to be done.

-The team would re!uire less time to understand the structure, the philosophy, climate,

functioning and work systems of the organization.

-They would be available for implementing their recommendations after the research findingsare accepted. They would also be available for evaluating the effectiveness of the changes, and

considering further changes if and when necessary.

-The internal team might cost less, because they need less time to understand the system. 3or

problems that are of low complexity, the internal team would bei deal.

$isadvantages of internal 1onsultants2Researchers

- The internal team may fall into a stereotyped way of looking at the organization and its

problems, because of their long tenure as internal consultants. This would inhibit any fresh ideasand perspectives that might be needed to correct the problem.

- There is a possibility that even the most highly !ualified internal research teams are notperceived as 4experts5 by the staff and management, so that their recommendations don6t get the

attention they deserve.

'dvantages of external 1onsultants2 Researchers

- The external team has a wealth of experience from having worked with different types of

organizations that have had the same or similar problems. They would be able to ponder over


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several alternative ways of looking at the problem because of their extensive problem-solving

experiences in various other organizational setups.

- The external teams might have more knowledge because of their periodic training programs,which the teams within the organization may not have access to.

$isadvantages of external 1onsultants2 Researchers

- The cost of hiring an external team is usually high

- t take more time to understand the organization, they are not readily accepted by employees

- They charge additional fees for their assistance in the implementation and evaluation phases.

+nowledge of research greatly enhances the decision-making skills of the manager.

Ethics in business research refers to a code of conduct or expected societal norm of behaviorwhile conducting research.

H2. Scientific investigation

-*cientific research focuses on solving problems and pursues a step-by-step logical, organized

and rigorous method to identify the problems, gather data, analyses them and draw valid

conclusions there from. 'pplies to both basic and applied research.

*cientific investigation tends to be more ob#ective and helps managers to highlight the most

critical factors on the workplace that need specific attention.

-The hallmarks or main distinguishing characteristics of scientific research may be listed as

follows). 7urposiveness) een goede aanleiding en doel om dit onderzoek te doen

. Rigor) a good theoretical base and a round methodological design would add rigor to a

purposive study. Rigor connotes carefulness, scrupulousness, and the degree of exactitude in

research investigations .

/. Testability) scientific research lends itself to testing logically developed hypotheses to see if

the data support the educated con#ectures or hypotheses that are developed after a careful study

of the problem situation.

0. Replicability) the results are repeated, to see whether the hypotheses are reflective of the truestate of affairs in the population.

8. 7recision and confidence)precision%confidence interval,9-/9& refers to the closeness of the

findings to 4 reality 4 based on a sample. Confidence%confidence level,:8;& refers to the

probability that our estimations are correct.


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eneralizability) refers to the scope of applicability of the research findings in oneorganizational setting to other settings. The wider the range of applicability of the solutions

generated by research, the more useful the research is to the users.

?. 7arsimony) simplicity in explaining the problem that occur, and in generating solutions for the

problem is always preferred to complex research frameworks that consider an unmanageablenumber of factors.%/-08,9-0?&

-$eductive reasoning) we start with a general theory and then apply this theory to specific case..

Example:we know that all high performers are highly proficient in their #obs. f @ohn is a high

performer, we then conclude that he is highly proficient in his #ob.

Aypothesis testing is deductive in nature.

-nductive reasoning is a process where we observe certain phenomena and on this basis arrive at

conclusions. n other words in induction we logically establish a general proposition based on

observed facts.

The hypothetico-deductive method provides a useful, systematic approach to solving basic andmanagerial problems.

The seven steps of the Aypothetico-deductive method)

. dentify a broad problem area

. $efine the problem statement

/. $evelop hypotheses

a. ' scientific hypothesis must meet two re!uirements)

i. t must be testable

ii. t must befalsifiable) it must be possible to disprove the hypothesis

0. $etermine measures

8. $ata collection


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a. The data gathered are statistically analyzed to see if the hypothesis that were

generated have been supported

=. nterpretation of data

a. $ecide whether the hypothesis are supported or not by interpreting the meaning ofthe results of the data analysis.

ther types of research are 1ase studies and action research

1ase studies) involve in depth, contextual analyzes of similar situations in other organizations,

where the nature and definition of the problem happen to be the same as experienced in thecurrent station.

'ction research) is sometimes undertaken by consultants who want to initiate change processesin organizations. Thus, action research is a constantly evolving pro#ect with interplay among

problem, solution, effect or conse!uences and new solutions.

H3. The problem area and the problem statement

' 4problem5 does not necessarily mean that something is seriously wrong with a current

situation that needs to be rectified immediately. ' problem could also indicate an interest in anissue where finding the right answers might help to improve an existing situation.

*econdary data) data gathered through existing sources. %data already exists and do not have to

be collected by the researcher.&

7rimary data) data gathered for research from the actual side of occurrence of events.

t is important for the researcher to be well ac!uainted with the background of the company

studied.

' problem statement is a clear, precise, and succinct statement of the specific issue that aresearcher wishes to investigate. t should be relevant, feasible and interesting.

' problem statement in relevantif it is meaningful from a managerial perspective, an academicperspective or both.

' problem statement isfeasibleis you are able to answer the problem statement within the

restrictions of the research pro#ect.


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The research proposal drawn up by the investigator is the result of a planned, organized, and

careful effort, and basically contains the following)

. The purpose of the study

. The specific problem to be investigated

/. The scope of the study

0. The relevance of the study

8. The research design offering details on)

a. The sampling design

b. $ata collection methods

c. $ata analysis


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=. $ata collection, analysis, and interpretation

?. $eduction

:. Report writing9. Report presentation

. anagerial decision making

-The identification of the broad problem area

This refers to the entire situation where one sees a possible need for research and problemsolving

. currently existing problems

. areas that need to be improved/. conceptual or theoretical issue that needs to be tightened up

0. some research !uestions that a basic researcher wants to answer empirically

2. Preliminary data collection

The nature of information needed by the researcher for the purpose could be broadly classified

under three headings)

. Background information on the organization % the origin and history of the companyC size in

terms of employees, assetsC charterC locationC resourcesCfinancial&

. nformation on structural factors and management philosophy % ask !uestions to management,roles and positions, specialization, communications, control, rewards &

/. 7erceptions, attitudes and behavioural responses of organizational members and client systems

this is also called primary data. % by establishing good rapport with the individuals and followingthe right !uestioning techni!ues the researchers will be able to obtain useful information. Datureof work, superiors, participation demi-saison making, rewards, oportunities.&

The main idea in gathering information on values, structures and processes is that these mightoften reveal the root of the real problem.

Eiterature survey is the documentation of a comprehensive review of the published and

unpublished work from secondary sources of data in the areas of specific interest to the

researcher. The purpose of the literature review is to ensure that no important variable is ignored.

A ood literature survey ensures that:

. important variables that are likely to influence the problem situation are not left out of the

study.

. a clearer idea emerges as to what variables would be most important to consider, why they

would be considered important, and how they should be investigated to solve the problem.


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/. the problem statement can be made with precision and clarity

0. testability and replicability of the findings of the current research are enhanced

8. don6t 4reinvent the wheel5


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H. 4 theoretica$ fra%e&or' and h(othesis deve$o%ent

' theoretical framework represent your beliefs on how certain phenomena are related to each

other and an explanation of why you believe that these variables are associated with each other.

3rom this framework we can develop testable hypotheses to examine whether the theoryformulated is valid or not.

' variable is anything that can take on differing or varying values, 0 main types of variables)

. dependent variables %criterion variable&

. independent variables %predictor variable&

/. moderating variables

0. mediating or intervening variables

Hariables can be discrete%male2female& or continuous%age of an individual&.

'd . the researchers goal is to understand and describe the Fdependent variable6, or to explain its

variability, or predict it. t is the main variable that lends itself investigation

'd . 'n independent variable is one that influences the dependent variable in either a positive

or a negative way.

'd /. The moderating variable is one that has a strong contingent effect on the independentvariable-dependent variable relationship

'd 0. 'n intervening variable is one that surfaces between the time the independent variables

start operating to influence the dependent variable and the time their impact is felt on it.

TAI*) the independent variable helps to explain the variance in the dependent variableC themediating variable surfaces at time tas a function of the independent variable, which also helps

us to conceptualize the relationship between the independent and the dependent variablesC and

the moderating variable has a contingent effect on the relationship between the variables.

' conceptual modelhelps you to structure your decision of the literature.


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The theoretical framework is the foundation on which the entire research pro#ect is based.

' hypothesis can be defined as a logically con#ectured relationship between two or more

variables expressed in the form of a testable statement. By convention in the social sciences, tocall a relationship Fstatistically significant6we should be confident that :8; out of the observed

relationship is true.

-f-then statements) if employees are more healthy, then they will take sick leave less fre!uently.

-f terms such as positive, negative, more than and less than, and the like are used then these

hypotheses are directional, because the direction of the relationship between the variables is

postulated.

-Don-directional hypothesis are those that do postulate a relationship or difference, but offer noindication of the direction of these relationships or differences.

-The null hypothesis is a hypothesis set up to be re#ected in order to support an alternativehypothesis.

-The alternate hypothesis, which is the opposite of the null hypothesis, is a statement expressinga relationship between two variables or indicating differences between groups.

-n deduction, theoretical model is first developed, hypothesis are formulated, data gathered and

then hypothesis are tested. n induction, new hypothesis are based on data already collected and

then are then tested.

H.) e$e%ents of research design

-The research design involves a series of rational decision-making choices. t is important to note

that the more sophisticated and rigorous the research design is, the greater the time, cost andother resources expended on it will be.

$etails of study)

. 7urpose of study%exploration, description, hypothesis testing&. Types of investigation%establishing) causal relationships, correlations, group differences, ranks,

etc.&

/. (xtent of researcher interference%minimal, manipulation and2or control and2or simulation&

0. *tudy setting%contrived, no contrived&8. Init of analysis%individuals, dyads, groups, organizations, machines, etc.&


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$ata analysis)

. 3eel for data

. >oodness of data/. Aypotheses testing

The case study, which is an examination of studies done in other similar organizationalsituations, is also a method of solving problems.

-'n exploratory study is undertaken when not much is known about the situation at hand, or noinformation is available on how similar problems or research issues have been solved in the past.

(xploratory studies are also necessary when some facts are known, but more information is

needed for developing a viable theoretical framework. t is important to note that doing a studyfor the first time in a particular organization does not make the research exploratory in natureC

only when knowledge is scant and a deeper understanding is sought, does the study become

exploratory.

-' descriptive study is undertaken in order to ascertain and be able to describe the characteristicsof the variables of interest in a situation.

The goal of a descriptive study is to describe relevant aspects of the phenomenon of interest from

an individual or other perspective.

-Aypothesis testing is undertaken to explain the variance in the dependent variable or to predict

organizational outcomes.

-t is not difficult to see that in exploratory studies, the researcher is basically interested in

exploring the situational factors so as to get a grip on the characteristics of the phenomenon of

interest. $escriptive studies are undertaken when the characteristics or the phenomenon tob etapped in a situation are known to exist, and one wants to be able to describe them better byoffering a profile of the factors. Aypothesis testing offers an enhanced understanding of the

relationship that exists among variables.

The study in which the researchers wants to delineate the cause of one or more problems iscalled a causal study. "hen the researcher is interested in delineating the important variables

associated with the problem, the study is called a correlational study.

The intention of the researcher conducting a causal study is to be able to state that variable J

causes variable K.

-' correlation study is conducted in the natural environment of the organization with minimuminterference by the researcher with the normal flow of work.

-n studies conducted to establish cause-and-effect relationship, the researcher tries to

manipulatecertain variables so as to study the effects of such manipulation on the dependentvariable of interest.


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-1orrelational studies done in organizations are called field studies. *tudies conducted to

establish cause and effect relationship using the same natural environment in which employees

normally functions are called field experiments.

(xperiments done to establish a cause-and-effect relationship beyond the possibility of the least

doubt re!uire the creation of an artificial, contrived environment in which all the extraneousfactors are strictly controlled., the study is called a lab experiment.

n summary)

. 3ield studies) where various factors are examined in the natural setting in which dailyactivities go on as normal with minimal researcher interference.

. 3ield experiments, where cause-and-effect relationships are studied with some amount of

researcher interference, but still in the natural setting where work continuous in the

normal fashion.

/. Eab experiments, where the researches explores cause-and-effect relationships, not only

exercising a high degree of control but also in an artificial and deliberately created

setting.

The unit of analysis refers to the level of aggregation of the data collected during the subse!uentdata analysis stage.

-Two-person groups are called dyads % husband-wife&. f we want to study buying behaviours we

have to collect data from, lete say,


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easurement is the assignment of numbers or other symbols to characteristicsof ob%ects

according to a prespecified set of rules. you cannot measure ob#ects, you measure their

characteristicsL

There are at least types of variables) one lends itself to ob#ective and precise measurementC the

other is more nebulous and does not lend itself to accurate measurement because of its abstractand sub#ective nature.

Reduction of abstract concepts to render them measurable in a tangible way is called

operationali&inthe concepts.

perationalizing a concept involves a series of steps. The fist step is to come up with a definition

of the construct that you want to measure. Then, it is necessary to think about the content of the

measure. 3inally, the validity and reliability of the measurement scales has to be assessed.

-$imensions are typical characteristics of certain people. perational definition consists in the

reduction of the concept from its level of abstraction, by breaking it into its dimensions andelements, as discussed. 'n operational definition does not describe the correlates of the concept.

ne cannot apply the concepts unless one has understand them and retained them in memory. '

scale is a tool or mechanism by which individuals are distinguished as to how they differ fromone another on the variables of interest to our study.

H., Measure%ent! sca$ing" re$ia+i$it(" va$idit(

' scale is a tool or mechanism by which individuals are distinguished as to how they differ from

on other in the variables of interest to our study.

There are 0 basic types of scales) nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio.

' nominal scale is one that allows the researcher to assign sub#ects to certain categories orgroups. 3or example gender& male C & female. Dominal scales categorize individuals or

ob#ects into mutually exclusive and also collectively exhaustive groups. n other words, there is

no third category into which respondents normally fall. This is easy for measuring percentage or

fre!uencies.

The nominal scales gives some basic, categorical, gross information.

-'n ordinal scale not only categorizes the variables in such a way as to denote differences amongthe various categories, it also rank-orders the categories in some meaningful way. 3or example)

rank the following 8 characteristics in a #ob in terms of how important they are for you, you

should rank the most important item as , the next as until you ranked them for to 8.

The ordinal scale does not give any indication of the magnitude of the differences among theranks.


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-'n interval scale lets us measure the distance between any two points on the scale. This helps us

to compute the means and the standard deviations of the responses on the variables. The interval

scale not only groups individuals according to certain categories and taps the order of thesegroups it also measures the magnitude of the differences in the preferences among the

individuals. %a thermometer is a good example of an interval-scaled instrument.&

-The ratio scale not only measures the magnitude of the differences between points on the scale

but also taps the proportions in the differences. t is the most powerful scale of the four scalesbecause it has a uni!ue zero origin and subsumes all the properties of the other three scales, the

weighing balance is a good example of a ratio scale. %the weighting balance is a good example.&

Thus) the nominal scale highlights the differences by classifying ob#ects or persons into groups,and provides the least amount of info on the variable. The ordinal scale provides some additional

info by rank-ordering the categories of the nominal scale. The interval scale, not only ranks, but

also provides us with info on the magnitude of the differences in the variable. The ratio scale

indicates not only the magnitude of the differences, but also the proportion.

There are main categories of scales) the rating scale and the ranking scale.

-Rating scales have several response categories and are used to elicit responses with regard to the

ob#ect, event, or person studied.-Ranking scales make comparisons between or among ob#ects, events, or persons and eclicit the

preferred choices and ranking among them.

The following rating scales are often used in organizational research)

-The dichotomous scale is used to elicit a Kes or Do answer, as in the example below. Dote that anominal scale is used to elicit the response.(xample) $o you own a carG Kes Do

-1ategory scale uses multiple items to elicit a single response. This also uses the nominal scale

(xample) where do you liveG 9 Best

9 (indhoven

9 Tilburg

-Eikert scale %summated scaled& is designed to examine how strongly sub#ects agree or disagreewith statements on a 8-point scale with the following anchors % interval scale& )

Strong$( disagree disagree neither agree nor disagree agree strong$( agree

1 2 # 4 )


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-*emantic differential scale is used to assess respondents6 attitudes toward a particular brand,

advertisement, ob#ect or individual % interval scale&. (xample)

BeautifulMMMM..ugly

1ourageousMMM..timid

-Dumerical scale is similar to the *emantic $ifferential *cale, with the difference that numbers

on a 8-point or =-point scale are provided, with bipolar ad#ectives at both ends, as illustrated

below. %nterval scale&

(xtremely pleased = < 8 0 / (xtremely displeased

-temized rating scalea 8-point or =-point scale with anchors, as needed, is provided for each

item and the respondent states the appropriate number on the side of each item, or circles therelevant umber against each item. %interval scale& example)

very unlikely unlikely / neither unlikely2nor likely 0 likely 8 very likely

a& will be changing my #ob within the next months -----

b& will take on new assignments in the near future -----

"hen a neutral point is provided, it is a balanced rating scale, and when it is not, it is anunbalanced rating scale. %an increase from 8 to = or : points on a rating scale does not improve

the reliability of the ratings.

-3ixed or constant *um *cale ) the respondents are here asked to distribute a given number ofpoints across various items. %ordinal scale & example) in choosing a toilet soap, indicate theimportance you attach to each of the following five aspects by allotting points for each tot total

99 in all

3ragrance ----

1olor ----

*hape ----

*ize ----

Texture of lather ----

---------------------------

Total points 99


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-*tapel scale) this scale simultaneously measures both the direction and intensity of the attitude

toward the items under study. %interval scale&. (xample

N/ N/ N/

N N N N N N

'dopting modern technology 7roduct innovation nterpersonal skills

- - -

- - -

-/ -/ -/

->raphic rating scale) ' graphical representation helps the respondents to indicate on this scale

their answers to a particular !uestion by placing a mark at the appropriate point on the line.%ordinal scale& example.

Aow would you rate your supervisor on a scale of to 9G

- - 9 excellent

- 8 all right -- very bad

Thefaces scale# which depicts faces ranging from smiling to sad, is also a graphic rating scale.

-1onsensus scale) a panel of #udges selects certain items, which in its view measure the relevant

concept. The items are chosen particularly based on their pertinence or relevance to the concept.

ne such consensus scale is the Thurstone (!ual 'ppearing nterval *cale, where a concept ismeasured by a complex process followed by a panel of #udges.

-n multidimensional scaling, ob#ects, people or both are visually scaled and a con#oint analysis

is performed. This provides a visual image of the relationship in space among the dimensions of

a construct.

-Ranking scales are used to tap preferences between two or among more ob#ects or items %ordinal

in nature&. 'lternative methods used are)

The paired comparison scale is used when among a small number of ob#ects, respondents are

asked to choose between two ob#ects at a time. This helps to assess preferences. This is a good

method if the number of stimuli presented is small.

The forced choice enables respondents to rank ob#ects relative to one another among the

alternatives provided.


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(xample) rank the following magazines you would like to subscribe to in the order of preference,

assigning for the most preferred choice and 8 for the least preferred.

3ortune ---

7layboy ---

Time ---

7eople ---

7revention ---

-The comparative scale provides a benchmark or a point of reference to assess attitudes toward

the current ob#ect, event, or situation under study.

(xample) how useful is it to invest in treasure bondsG

ore useful about the same less useful

/ 0 8

Thus) rating scales are used to measure most behavioral concepts. Ranking scales are used to

make comparisons or rank the variables that have been tapped on a nominal scale.

$ifferent cultures react differently to issues of scaling.

-The goodness of measures isC we need to be reasonably sure that the instruments we use in ourresearch do indeed measure the variables they are supposed to, and that they measure them

accurately.

-reliability is a test of how consistently a measuring instrument measures whatever concept it is

measuring. %concerned with stability and consistency of measurement&

- validity is a test of how well an instrument that is developed measures the particular concept it

is intended to measure. %concerned with whether we measure the right concept&

*everal types of validity tests are used to test the goodness of measures.

- 1ontent validity ensures that the measure includes an ade!uate and representative set of items

that tap the concept. The more the scale items represent the domain or universe of the conceptbeing measured, the greater the content validity.

- 3ace validity indicates that the items that are intended to measure a concept, do, on the face of

it, look like they measure the concept.


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-1riterion-related validity is established when the measure differentiates individuals on a

criterion it is expected to predict. This can be done by establishing concurrent validity or

predictive validity)

(xampleconcurrent validity O when the scale discriminates individuals who are known to be

different.

(xamplepredictive validity O indicates the ability of the measuring instrument to differentiate

among individuals with reference to a future criterion.

-1onstruct validity testifies to how well the results obtained from the use of the measure fit the

theories around which the test is designed. This is assessed through convergent and discriminant

validity, which are explained below.

(xampleconvergent validity) is established when the scores obtained with two different

instruments measuring the same concept are highly correlated.

(xamplediscriminant validity) is established when, based on theory, two variables are

predicted to be uncorrelated, and the scores obtained by measuring them are indeed empirically

found to be so.

Reliability of a measure indicates the extent to which it is without bias %error free& and hence

ensures consistent measurement ocross time and across the various items in the instrument.

The ability of a measure to remain the same over time is indicative of its stability and lowvulnerability to changes in the situation.

The reliability coefficient obtained by repetition of the same measure on a second occasion iscalled test-retest reliability. The higher it is, the better the test-retest reliability and conse!uently,

the stability of the measure across time.

"hen responses on comparable sets of measures tapping the same construct are highly

correlated, we have parallel-form reliability.

The internal consistency of measures is indicative of the homogeneity of the items in the

measure that tap the construct.

The interitem consistency reliability is a test of consistency of respondents6 answers to all items

in a measure.

*plit-half reliability reflects the correlations between two halves of an instrument. The estimates

will vary depending on how the items in the measure are split into two halves.

n a reflective scale, the items are expected to correlate. (ach item is assumed to share a commonbasis.


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' formative scale is used when a construct is viewed as an explanatory combination of its

indicators. ' good formative scale is one that represents the entire domain of the construct.

H. 1 /ata co$$ection %ethods

-$ata can be obtained from primary or secondary sources. 7rimary data refer to informationobtained firsthand by the researcher on the variables of interest for the specific purpose of the

study. *econdary data refer to information gathered from sources already existing.

(xamples of sources of primary data are individuals, focus groups, panels and unobtrusive

sources such as trash can.

. 3ocus groups consist typically of ? to 9 members with a moderator leading the

discussions for about hours on a particular topic, concept, or product. embers are

generally chosen on the basis of their expertise in the topic.

The focus sessions are aimed at obtaining respondents6 impressions and opinions about

the concept or product.They are relatively inexpensive and provide fairly dependable data within a short time.

a. The moderator steers the group persuasively to obtain all the info.

b. The content analysis of the data so obtained provides only !ualitative info.

c. 3ocus groups are used for)

i. exploratory studies

ii. making generalizations based on the info generated by them

iii. conducting sample surveys

. 7anels, like focus groups, are another source of primary information for research

purposes. 7anels meet more than once. ' panel isstatic%the same members overextended periods of time& or dynamic %panel members change from time to time as

various phases of the study are in progress &.

7anels are typically used when several aspects of a product are to be studied from time to

time.the $elphi techni!ue is a forecasting method that uses a cautiously selected panel of

experts in a systematic, interactive manner.

/. Inobtrusive measures originate from a primary source that does not involve people.(xample) The number of different brands of soft drinks cans found in trash bags provide

a measure of their consumption levels.


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(xamples of secondary sources are company records or archives, government publications.

secondary data refer to information gathered by someone other than the researcher conducting

the current study.

$ata collection methods) %blz &

1. Intervie&ing)

a. unstructured intervie$sare so labeled because the interviewer does

not enter the interview setting with a planned se!uence

of !uestions to be asked of the respondent.

the ob#ect is to bring some preliminary issues to the surface so that the researcher can

determine what variables need further in-dept investigation.

b.structured intervie$s are those conducted when it is known at the outset what information isneeded.

Bias refers to errors or inaccuracies in the data collected.

1ertain strategies in how !uestions are posed also help the participants to offer less biased

responses)

The !uestioning techni!ue

3unneling techni!ues the transition from broad to narrow themes.

3ace-to-face interviews provide rich data, offer the opportunity to establish rapport with the

interviewees, and help to explore and understand the complex issues. n the negative side, face-

to-face interviews have the potential for introducing interviewer bias and can be expensive if alarge number of sub#ects are involved. t is best suited to the exploratory stages of research when

the researcher is trying to get a handle concepts.

Telephone interviews help to contact sub#ects dispersed over various geographic regions and

obtain immediate response from them. n the negative side, the interviewer cannot observe thenonverbal responses of the respondents, and the interviewee can block the call. Telephone

interviews are best suited for asking structured !uestions where respondents need to be obtained!uickly from a sample that is geographically spread.

2.0uestionnaires)

' !uestionnaire is a pre-formulated written set of !uestions to which respondents record their

answers, usually within rather closely defined alternatives


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Puestionnaires can be administered personally, mailed to the respondents or electronically

distributed.

7ersonally administered !uestionnaires to groups of individuals help t & establish rapport withthe respondents while introducing the survey & provide clarification sought by the respondents

in the spot and /& collect the !uestionnaires immediately after they are completed. t isexpensive, especially if the sample is geographically dispersed.

The main advantage is that the researcher can collect all the completed responses in a short timeperiod of time.

ail !uestionnaires are advantageous when responses to many !uestions have to be obtained

from a sample that is geographically dispersed. n the negative side, mailed !uestionnaires

usually have a low response rate and one cannot be sure if the data obtained are biased since thenon-respondents may be different from those who did respond.

The language of the !uestionnaires should approximate the level of understanding of therespondents.

Type and form of !uestions)

pen-ended versus closed !uestions allow respondents to answer them in any way they

choose.

a closed !uestion asks the respondent to make choices among a set of alternatives given

by the researcher. They help the respondent to make !uick choices.

7ositively and negatively worded !uestions)

t is advisable to include some negatively formed !uestions as well.

The use of double negative and excessive use of the words 4not5 and 4only5 should beavoided, because they tend to confuse the respondent.

$ouble-barreled !uestion is a !uestion that lends itself to different possible responses to

its subparts. *uch !uestions should be avoided and or more separate !uestions asked

instead.

Responses to 'mbiguous !uestions have built-in bias inasmuch as different respondentsmight interpret such items in the !uestionnaire differently2

Recall Q dependent !uestions) some !uestions might re!uire respondents to recall

experiences from the past that are hazy in their memory.


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Eeading !uestions) !uestions should not be phrased in a way that they lead the respondent

to give the answers that the researcher would like them to give.

by asking a leading !uestion we are signaling and pressuring respondents to say 4no5.

Eoaded !uestions) when a !uestion is phrased in an emotionally charged manner.

Puestions should not be worded such that they elicit socially desirable responses.

Eength of !uestions) simple, short !uestions are preferable to longer ones.

1lassification data2 personal information elicit suck info as age, educational level, marital statusand income.

#. Other %ethods of data co$$ection)

a. 'bservational surveypeople can be observed in their natural work environment.

bservational studies help to comprehend complex issues through direct observation and then, ofpossible, asking !uestions to seek clarifications on certain issues. The data obtained are rich and

uncontaminated by self-report bias. n the negative side, they are expensive, since long periods

of observation are re!uired, and observer bias may well be present in the data.

The researcher can play one of two roles while gathering field observational data)

The researcher may act as a nonparticipant-observer by collecting the necessary data

without becoming an integral part of the organizational system.

The researcher may also play the role of the participant-observer. Aere, the researches

enters the organization and becomes a part of the work team.

"here the observer has a predetermined set of categories of activities to be studied, it is a

structured observational study.

't the beginning of the study it is possible that the observer has no definite idea regarding the

particular aspects need focus. The observer will record practically everything that is observed.

unstructured observational study.

H. 1 Sa%$ing

The process of selecting the right individuals, ob#ects or events as representatives for the entire

population is known as sampling.


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-7opulation refers to the entire group of people, events, or things of interest that the researcher

wishes to investigate.

-'n element is a single member of the population.-The population frame is a listing of all the elements in the population from which the sample is

drawn.

-*ample is a subset of the population. s thus a subgroup of the population.

-' sampling unit is the element that is available for selection in some stage of the samplingprocess.

-' sub#ect is a single member of the sample, #ust as an element is a member of the population.

The reason for using a sample, rather than collecting data from the entire population, are self-evident.

'ttributes or characteristics of the population are generally normally distributed.

*ampling is the process of selecting a sufficient number of the right elements from thepopulation. The ma#or steps include)

. $efine the population

. $etermine the sample frame

/. $etermine the sampling deisgn

a. n probability sampling, the elements in the population have some known, non-

zero chance of being selected as sample sub#ects.

b. n nonprobability sampling the elements to not have a known or predetermined

chance of being selected as sub#ects.

0. $etermine the appropriate sample size

8. (xecute the sampling process

Don-response error exists to the extent that those who did respond to your survey are different

from those who did not on characteristics of interest in your study. important sources of non-response are not-at-homes and refusals.

7robability sampling can either be unrestricted or restricted.

a. unrestricted or simple random samplin) every element in the population has a known and

e!ual chance for selected as a sub#ect


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b. restricted or complex probability samplin) complex probability for possible more

information

the 8 most common complex probability sampling designs) %blz =:&

a. systematic samplin) drawing every nth

element in the population starting with a randomlychosen element between and n.

b. stratified random samplin) eerst groepen maken en dan uit deze groepen elementen

selecteren

proportionate and disproportionate stratified random samplin)

*elect 9; members from each stratum. That is, the members represented in the sample from

each stratum will beproportionatefor the total number of elements in the respective strata.

$isproportionate stratified random sampling) the number of sub#ects from each stratum wouldnow be altered, while keeping the sample size unchanged. 're maid either when some strata aretoo small or too large.

c. cluster samplin) the raget population is first divided into clusters. Then, a random sample of

clusters is drawn and for each selected cluster either all the elements or a sample of elements areincluded in the sample.

sinlestae and multistae cluster samplin) cluster sampling can also be done in several

stages and is then known as multistage cluster sampling.

d. area samplin) %specific type of cluster sampling& clusters consists of geographic areas such ascountries, city blocks, etc.

e. double samplin:a sampling design where initially a sample is used in a study to collect somepreliminary information of interest and later a subsample of this primary sample is used to

examine the matter in more detail.

-n Don-probability sampling, the elements in the population do not have any probabilities

attached to their being chosen as sample sub#ects.-Convenience samplin) refers to the collection of information from members of the population

who are conveniently available to provide it.

- is most often used during the exploratory phase of a research pro#ect and is perhaps the best

way of getting some basic info !uickly and efficiently.

- Purposive samplin) the sampling here is confined to specific types of people who can provide

the desired information, either because they are the only ones who have it, or conform to some

criteria set by the researcher. ma#or types of purposive sampling)


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(udment samplin) used when a limited number or category of people have the info that

is sought.

)uote samplin) ensures that certain groups are ade!uately represented in the studythrough the assignment of a !uota.

' reliable and valid sample should enable us to generalize the findings from the sample to the

population under investigation.

7recision refers to how close our estimate is to the true population characteristics.

1onfidence denotes ho$ certain we are that our estimates will really hold true for thepopulation.

(fficiency in sampling is attained when, for a given level of precision %*tandard error&, the

sample size could be reduces, or for a given sample size, the level of precision could be

increased.

>rounded theory) expresses the idea that theory will emerge from data through an iterativeprocess that involves repeated sampling, collection of data en analysis of data until Ftheoretical

saturation6 is reached.

+i#ken of formules terug komen in oude tentamens, zo nodig nog toevoegenLLL

H 11. 0uantitative data ana$(sis

The first step in data preparation is data coding. $ata coding involves assigning a number to theparticipants6 responses so they can be entered into a database. 'fter responses have been coded,

they can be entered into a database. 'fter the data are keyed in, they need to be edited.

$ata editing deal with detecting and correcting illogical, inconsistent or illegal data and

omissions in the info returned by the participants of the study.

*nconsistent responses are responses that are not in harmony with other information.

*lleal codes are values that are not specified in the coding instructions.

'missions may occur because respondents did not understand the !uestions, did not know theanswer or were not willing to answer the !uestion.

$ata transformation, a variation of data coding is the process of changing the original numerical

representation of a !uantitative value to other values.

'nother type of data transformation is reverse scoring.


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$ata transformation is also necessary when several !uestions have been used to measure a single

concept.

3re!uencies simply refer to the number of times various subcategories of a certain phenomenonoccur. 3re!uencies can also be visually displayed as bar charts, histograms or pie charts.

There are / measures of central tendency) the mean, median, and the mode.

mean %average& is a measure of central tendency that offers a general picture of the data

without unnecessarily inundating one with each of the observations in a data set,

the median is the central itemin a group of observations when they are arrayed in either anascending or descending order.

the mode is the most fre!uently occurring phenomenon.

easures of dispersion include the range, the standard deviation, the variance and theinter!uartile range.

range refers to the extreme values in a set of observations.

the variance is calculated by subtracting the mean from each of the observations in the data set,taking the s!uare of this difference and dividing the total of these by the number of observations.

the standard deviation offers an index of the spread of a distribution or variability in the data.

"e would like to see the nature, direction and significance of the bivariate relationships of the

variables used in the study. ' correlation matrix is used to examine relationships betweeninterval and2or ratio variables.

Relationship between nominal variables) chi-s!uare test.

chi-s!uare test of significance helps us to see whether or not two nominal variables are related.

Besides that test, other tests such asfisher exact probability testand the Cochran ) test are used

to determine the relationship between nominal variables.

' 7earson correlation matrix will indicate the direction, strength, and significance of thebivariate relationship among all the variables that were measured at an interval or ratio scale.

The correlation could range from -.9 and N.9.

1ronbach6s alpha is a reliability coefficient that indicates how well the items in a set are

positively correlated to one another. The closer cronbach6s alpha is to , the higher the internal


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reliability. Reliabilities less than 9.< are considered to be poor, those in the range 9.= acceptable

and those over 9.? good.

3actorial validity can be established by submitting the data for factor analysis.

1riterion-related validity can be established by testing the power of the measure to differentiateindividuals who are known to be different.

1onvergent validity can be established when there is a high degree of correlation between

different sources responding to the same measure.

$iscriminant validity can be established when distinctly different concepts are not correlated toeach other.

H. 12 uantitative date ana$(sis! h(othesis testing

The null hypothesis is presumed true until statistical evidence, in the form of a hypothesis test,indicates otherwise.

There are kinds of errors classified as type + error and type 2 error. ' type error, also referred

to as alpha, is the probability of re#ecting the null hypothesis when it is actually true. ' type

error, also referred to as beta, is the probability of failing to re#ect the null hypothesis given thatthe alternative hypothesis is actually true.

*tatistical power %-

)

is the probability of correctly re#ecting the null hypothesis.

*tatistical power depends on)

'lpha

(ffect size) is the size of a difference or the strength of a relationship in the population.

*ample size

,nivariate statistical techniquesare used when you want to examine two-variable relationships.

f you are interested in the relationship between many variables, multivariate statisticaltechniques are re!uired.


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The one sample t-test is used to test the hypothesis that the mean of the population from a sample

is drawn is e!ual to a comparison standard. %formule pagina //:&

The wilcoxon signed-rank test is a nonparametric test for examining significant differencesbetween two related samples or repeated measurements on a single sample.

cnemar6s test is a nonparametric method used on nominal data. t assesses the significance of

the difference between two dependent samples when the variable of interest is dichotomous.

cnemar6s test s a rather straightforward techni!ue to test marginal homogeneity.arinalhomoeneityrefers to e!uality between one or more of the marginal row totals and the

corresponding marginal column totals.

'n independent samples t-test is carried out to see if there are any significant differences in the

means for two groups in the variable of interest. That is, a nominal variable that is split into twosubgroups is tested to see if there is a significant mean difference between the two split groups

on a dependent variable.

'n 'DH' helps to examine he significant mean differences among more than two groups on

an interval or ratio-scaled dependent variable.

*imple regression analysis is used in a situation where one independent variable is hypothesized

to affect one dependent variable.

The basic idea of multiple regression analysis is similar to that of simple regression analysis.

nly in this case, we use more when one independent variable to explain variance n thedependent variable.

*tandardized regression coefficients or beta coefficients are the estimates resulting form amultiple regression analysis performed on variables that have been standardized.

' dummy variable is a variable that has two or more distinct levels, which are coded 9 or .

$ummy variables allow ut to use nominal or ordinal variables as independent variables toexplain, understand or predict the dependent variable.

ulticollinearity is an often encountered statistical phenomenon in which two or more

independent variables in a multiple regression model are highly correlated. ' common cutoff

value is a tolerance value of 9,, which corresponds to a H3 of 9.

H. 12 /ata ana$(sis and interretation

-Degative !uestions need to be turned around on the scale so a = is for example a this is called

cateori&ation

-1ronbach6s alpha is a reliability coefficient that indicates how well the items in a set are

positively correlated to another.


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-*teps)

1hecking the reliability of measures) 1ronbach6s alpha

btaining descriptive statistics) fre!uency distributions

$escriptive statistics) measures of central tendencies and dispersions

nferential statistics) 7earson correlation

Aypothesis testing

verall interpretation and recommendations to the 7resident

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