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Kinesiology 173: Foundations of Kinesiology
Module 3.1: Social-Psychological Kinesiology
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND PHYSICAL FITNESS?
Physical Activity: Umbrella term including bodily movement that
_____________________________________________________________________________________
demands of the day.
Physical Fitness: __________________________________________________________________
[body composition, cardiovascular fitness, flexibility, muscular strength, and muscular endurance]
WHAT IS EXERCISE?
Exercise is ____________________, _________________________________ with the goal of
______________________ and/ or improving __________________________.
HOW DO WE CHANGE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY BEHAVIORS?
• Behavior modification is the process of permanently changing negative behaviors to positive behaviors that will lead to better health and well-being.
Transtheoretical Model
• Model that suggests behavioral change occurs in stages.
• Individuals can enter and exit the behavioral modification at different stages.
• The most effective change strategies are
________________________________________________________ that target these processes.
• At each stage the goal is to get an individual to progress to the next stage.
• Precontemplation stage: Stage of change in which people are _____________________ to change behavior.
• May even be unaware that the behavior is problematic.
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• Goal is to make the health risks of the behavior known.
• Contemplation stage: Stage of change in which people are considering changing behavior in the
next _______________________________________________.
• Goal is to get individual to try out a new behavior.
• Preparation stage: Stage of change in which people are getting ready to make a change within the next month.
• Goal is to get individual to _________________________________________________ in the new behavior.
• Action stage: Stage of change in which people are actively changing a negative behavior or adopting a new, healthy behavior.
• Goal is to get individual to _______________________________________________ new behavior.
• Maintenance stage: Stage of change in which people maintain behavioral change for
___________________________________________________________________.
• Goal is to prevent relapse.
• Relapse: To slip or fall back into unhealthy behavior(s) or fail to maintain healthy behaviors.
• Goal is to re-engage with healthy behavior.
Self-Efficacy
• Self-efficacy is the _____________________________________________________________ in our abilities to successfully achieve a task.
• When we are able to bring about behavioral modifications it in turn increases an individual’s self-efficacy.
• Self-efficacy also increases the likelihood of successful behavioral modification.
• Individuals with high self-efficacy are _____________________________________________ to adhere to a behavior modification program.
• Individuals with low self-efficacy are more likely to choose non-challenging tasks that are easy to accomplish.
• These individuals are ____________________________________________________ to drop out of a program if any set-backs occur.
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• The most important and powerful predictor of self-efficacy is
_____________________________________________________________________________.
• Individuals with no exercise experience will have much lower self-efficacy regarding their abilities to engage in an exercise program.
• Many people have prior failed experiences with trying to exercise to lose weight.
• Most weight loss interventions fail because the focus is on the
______________________________________________________________________________.
• Successful programs focus on achievable goals.
WHAT IS A SPORT?
They’re part of ________________________ past and present, but every culture has its own definition of
sports. One can hardly understand sport if one does not begin with some conception of what sports are.
Activity:
• A form of play that involves participation for __________________________________.
• Often lacks _________________________ and can take place anywhere.
• Allows for and involves exploration, self-expression, dreaming, and pretending.
Games:
• An aspect of play that involves _______________________________________.
• Has ________________________________ governing _________________________
• Involves public evaluation.
Sports:
• A specialized form of game involving gross motor movement, _______________________, and
_________________________________.
• Often requires ______________________________________________________.
• Has an outcome that is important to individuals other than the competitors.
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WHY DO WE CARE ABOUT SPORTS?
Because it is an enormous part of our society representing _______________ of the most-read newspaper
in U.S., 15% of major network time, and over $150 Billion in Gross Domestic Product.
The forms of sport in any given society evolve out of the _____________________________________ of that particular group and can be understood primarily through understanding the __________________________________________________________________________________.
Using _______________________________________ can help prevent us from not applying our own _________________________________________ when we study other cultures.
Conjunctural analysis enables the interrogation of the existence of an object at the intersections of the ________________________________________________________________________ so that we may better understand the particular circumstances, the conjuncture … under which our objects of study came to be and have meaning.
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Kinesiology 173: Foundations of Kinesiology
Module 3.2: Development of Sport Behavior
WHAT MADE YOU START PLAYING SPORTS? AND WHY THOSE SPORTS?
For every family that has children participating in athletics, sports has either always been a part of the
_____________________________ or it has _____________________________of the family culture.
WHAT ROLE DOES OUR FAMILY HAVE ON THE SPORTS WE PLAY?
Parental influence is expressed two ways (Eccles & Harrold, 1991):
• Parents who value an activity are:
• Parents help children:
Birth Order:
• Firstborns have only parents as role models
• Later-born children have _____________________________to emulate
• Firstborns are _____________________________to engage in _________________________.
WHAT ROLE DO OUR FRIENDS HAVE ON THE SPORTS WE PLAY?
• Being with friends is an important motivator for _______________________________________
• Comparison with peers is an important source of _____________________________ information
• Peer relationships revolve around _____________________________. This may be why sport is
very important to social development (acceptance, popularity, status)
• Example: The order in which children are picked in P.E. class relates to both athletic
_____________________________________.
WHAT OTHER FACTORS PLAY A ROLE IN THE SPORTS WE PLAY?
Greendorfer (1992) identified 3 clusters of determinants (or causes) of active sport participation.
1. _____________________________ – The individuals who serve as role models.
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2. _____________________________– personality variables, achievement motivation, self
efficacy, etc.
3. _____________________________– The context in which socialization takes place.
HOW DO PERSONAL ATTRIBUTES INFLUENCE THE SPORTS WE PLAY?
Harter’s Model of _____________________________________________________:
• Examines the interactions and influences upon self-esteem of _______________, Developmental
factors, Individual differences in children.
• Positive and negative affect (feelings) directly relate to achievement and are a consequence of
_____________________________.
• Perceptions and self confidence are also related to achievement.
• The model suggests that developmental changes in _____________________________ occur
from early childhood through older adulthood.
• Individuals evaluate themselves through comparisons with others their own age along 5
dimensions:
_____________________________, _____________________________,
_____________________________, _____________________________,
_____________________________
Data collected from a sample of fourth grade children found that those that were more attracted to sport
also perceived themselves to be more competent. Why?
IS THERE AN ATHLETIC PERSONALITY?
Schurr, Ashley, & Joy (1977) : In a study of almost 2000 collegiate varsity athletes and non-athletes, there
was _________________________________________________________________________________
that distinguished athletes from non-athletes.
But, when athletes were categorized by sport, several differences did emerge.
Individual sport athletes exhibited:
• Higher levels of objectivity
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• _____________________________________
• Less anxiety
• Less abstract reasoning
Athletes that played team sports exhibited:
• More extroversion
• ___________________________________________
• Less ego strength
_____________________________________________
Refers to a visual inspection of the Profile of Mood States (POMS) for elite athletes
Elite athletes are__________________________when compared to established norms for the 5
negative mood states and above average for the vigor category (positive mood state).
Sensation Seeking :
• The need for varied, novel, and complex sensations and experiences, and the willingness to take
________________________________________for the sake of experience.
• Optimal Stimulation Level: the degree of risk under which an individual prefers to function.
• High SS tend to desire activities that are exciting and are inclined to avoid stimuli with little
potential for risk taking.
• Athletes desire __________________________sensation compared to non-athletes.
WHAT ABOUT MOTIVATION?
Synonyms – inspiration, enthusiasm, will to win
Definition – the ________________and ___________________of behavior (Sage, 1977).
• ______________ - Refers to whether the _____________ seeks out, approaches, or is attracted to
certain situations.
• _____________ – Refers to how much ____________ a person puts forth in a particular
situation.
Note: That while it is convenient to separate these two things, for most people these constructs are closely
related.
ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
• An interaction model that specifies personality and situational factors as determinants of
achievement behavior (Atkinson, 1964; McClelland, 1961).
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Motive to ________________________________________ (MAS):
Intrinsic motivation- behavior due to internal motivations such as joy, fun, pleasure, etc.
Self confidence
Self efficacy
Perceptions of personal competence
Prefers tasks of ______________________________________________________
Motive to _________________________________________ (MAF):
Extrinsic motivation– behavior motivated by external sources such as reward.
Ego protection
Prefer tasks of _______________________________________________________
AFFILIATION MOTIVATION
The drive to relate to other people on a social basis.
______________________-Oriented: oriented more toward social approval, viewing competing with
others as a positive state.
______________________-Threatened: feeling threatened when facing an affiliation-oriented activity,
where they might let others down.
HOW DO YOU LEARN TO PLAY SPORTS?
Through a process called __________________________________.
• Socialization is an active process of _____________________________ and social
_______________________________, which occurs as we interact with one another and become
acquainted with the social world.
• Through this process individuals learn __________________, ________________, and behaviors
associated with a given social role (McPherson & Brown, 1988).
Bandura’s (1977) ____________________________________________
• Examines the roles of modeling, imitation, and vicarious learning in relation to socialization.
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• Humans have the ability to ______________________________________________, as well as
form opinions regarding the _________________________________________ (self efficacy).
• Socialization occurs as a result of _______________________________________(observing,
integrating, and copying the proper and/or desirable behaviors of others) as well as
_______________________________________.
• Learning is flexible. By manipulation of ________________________ and _________________
of the socialization, individuals may be taught any skill.
• Therefore, any behavior, regardless of complexity, may be _______________________________
behaviors. Examination of these component behaviors will allow for the overall skill to be
learned.
WHAT IS MODELING?
Modeling provides information regarding _______________________________________________.
By observing others we form a cognitive representation of their actions that serve as a
________________________________________.
Four component processes:
• _________________________________
• Retention
• _________________________________________________
• Motivation
Types of Modeling:
• Observational learning (watching others perform a skill)
• Live vs. video
• Verbal vs. silent
• Step by step vs. all at once
Age and developmental level influence the effectiveness of modeling:
• ___________________________ perform equally well regardless of the type of modeling (silent
vs. verbal)
• ___________________________ improve performance through verbal modeling
What type of Modeling would be the most helpful for complex, multi-step skills?
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The effectiveness of each type of modeling would depend on ___________________ and the
_________________________________________.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF REINFORCEMENT
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov: Classical Conditioning with Dogs
• The dogs learned that the bell was associated with the presentation of food.
• Associations are set up between two stimuli
• The ____________________stimulus (e.g., a bell)
• The ________________________ stimulus (e.g., food)
• Conditioned Response: The dogs salivated to the sound of the bell in anticipation for the
upcoming food.
This experiment was the first to show that ____________________ (or conditioning) is strengthened
by _________________________
John Broadus Watson: Little “Albert” Experiments
A white laboratory rat was placed near Albert and he was allowed to play with it. At this point, the child
showed no fear of the rat. He began to reach out to the rat as it roamed around him. In later trials, Watson
and Rayner made a loud sound behind Albert's back by striking a suspended steel bar with a hammer
when the baby touched the rat. Not surprisingly in these occasions, Little Albert cried and showed fear as
he heard the noise.
• An _______________________ was presented with a white rat (the conditioned stimulus) to
which was later paired with a loud noise (the unconditioned stimulus). The child was trained to
become _____________________________ at the sight of the rat (the conditioned response).
• Little Albert was also trained to be frightened of furry objects, like a stuffed animal and even a
white coat.
SO CAN WE APPLY CLASSICAL CONDITIONING TO SPORT ?
Conditioning is a ________________________________________________. It does not apply to
_________________________________________________________.
Therefore, conditioning is _____________________________ tool for learning a skill.
But it may be used to condition an ______________________________________________________.
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WHAT ABOUT OTHER FORMS OF REINFORCEMENT?
Burrhus Frederic “B. F.” Skinner: _____________________________________________
• Learning of a behavior occurs through rewards. The correct response is
________________________, the incorrect response is ____________________________.
• Example: Crowd applause, Coach patting player on the head when s/he comes off the field, etc.
• Problem: Execute behavior to ____________________________
Punishment: Used to decrease the occurrence of ____________________________________.
Two types of punishment:
Something __________________________________ occurs after the undesirable response
(e.g., forced to run laps after attempting to harm a competitor)
Removal of _____________________________________ after the undesirable response
(e.g., benching a player after attempting to harm a competitor).
Habituation: An ________________________________________________________________ that
provokes behavior, as well as a the development of a threshold for tolerating and interpreting certain
stimuli.
Example: Shooting a Free Throw during a basketball game in a hostile environment.
SO HOW DO YOU LEARN TO PLAY SPORTS?
We learn how to play sports through _________________________________________________.
Whereby we ________________________________________ to form a cognitive representation of their
actions and __________________________________________________ them; and through
____________________________________________refine our actions until they match our reference of
correctness.
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HOW DOES SOCIALIZATION INFLUENCE THE SPORTS WE PLAY?
• The process of socialization largely explains differences in sport participation as a function of
Race/Ethnicity, Sex, and Geographic Differences.
•
•
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Kinesiology 173: Foundations of Kinesiology
Module 3.3: Interscholastic Sports
READING ASSIGNMENT: KIN173_3_1_Shields_2005_TheSportBehaviorOf.pdf
TRENDS IN YOUTH PARTICIPATION
• ___________________ children participate in organized sport in America
• Little League Baseball is the largest organization with ________________ participating annually
• Soccer is growing faster than any other sport over the last decade
• Girls sport participation represents approximately ____________% of all youth participation
• Participation __________________ between 10-18 years of age.
– At age 10: 45% participation
– At age 18: _____________% participation
• __________% of youth sport participants drop out each year (Burton, 1986)
• ____________% drop out by age 12 (Roberts, 1986)
WHY CHILDREN PARTICIPATE IN SPORTS
1. _______________________
2. To be with ____________________________________
3. Opportunity to improve skills and learn new ones
4. For the excitement of _________________________
WHY DO CHILDREN DROP OUT OF SPORT?
1. ________________
2. ____________________________
3. Scolded for making mistakes by parents/coach
4. Overemphasis on ______________________________
5. Too much pressure
6. Coach was a poor teacher
7. Lost interest
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SO WHY SHOULD CHILDREN PARTICIPATE IN SPORT?
The 2 most often cited reasons are that “_________________________” and “_____________________”
The SBC statement mistakenly assumes that:
All athletes have the same or similar ___________________________________
That sport provides ____________________ that are not available in any other activities.
But,
Sports offer many ___________________________, both positive and negative.
People who choose or are selected to participate in sports ______________________________.
The meaning and importance of playing sports depends on ______________________________.
The socialization that takes place in sports may also occur in other activities.
So what about the SBHA statement?
What people are really talking about are the ________________________________________!
According to the Surgeon General: Participation in competitive sports is associated with an
_______________________________ such that participation incurs more
______________________________________.
Positives of Youth Sport
Comparison of _____________________________
_____________ improvement
___________________ accomplishment
Preparation for life
PROBLEMS WITH YOUTH SPORT
• Parents and coaches ___________________________________________ children
• Sport may ______________________ values, attitudes, and behaviors inconsistent with social
norms (e.g., fighting, disrespect for officials)
• _________________: Both acute trauma and overuse
• Skilled athletes lose out on educational chances
– Worse for certain sports (e.g., tennis, figure skating, speed skating, skiing, gymnastics)
WHEN ARE CHILDREN READY TO PLAY ORGANIZED COMPETITIVE SPORTS?
Most experts believe that children develop the cognitive and social abilities to understand the complex
relationships in competitive sports between ___________________________________________.
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SHOULD CHILDREN SPECIALIZE THEIR SPORT PARTICIPATION?
• A growing number of coaches have begun to push the idea of sport specialization to increase the
likelihood that their child might receive
______________________________________________________________________________.
• Based upon the idea posited by Malcom Gladwell that suggested expertise only occurs after
_______________________ hours of practice.
• This concept equates all practice as equally beneficial, largely ignoring factors such as the
type of
____________________________________________________________________.
• In studies examining the association between hours of practice and sports expertise,
the hours of practice only account of 20% of a person’s likelihood for becoming an
expert.
• Assumes that anyone can become an expert, largely ignoring evidence regarding
________________________________________________________________________.
• Athletes who specialize in a single sport are ______________________________________
to compete at national levels than multi-sport athletes across all sports.
• Sport specialization increases the risk of:
• Incurring any injury (odds ratio of 1.6 [95% CI 1.28 to 2.06]).
• Incurring an overuse injury (odds ratio of 1.48 [95% CI 1.09 to 2.03]).
• Incurring an upper extremity overuse injury (odds ratio 1.96 [95% CI 1.17 to 3.43]).
• Incurring a lower extremity injury:
• Moderate specialization (odds ratio 2.38 [95% CI 1.86 to 3.05]).
• High specialization (odds ratio 2.58 [95% CI 1.88 to 3.54]).
YOUTH SPORTS IN THE U.S.
• The U.S. is different from virtually all other countries (Canada and Japan are exceptions) in that
youth sport is _________________________________________.
• In other countries (e.g., Europe) youth sport is sponsored by _____________________________.
• What effect might this have on America’s youth?
ARGUMENTS FOR & AGAINST INTERSCHOLASTIC SPORTS
For:
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• Generates _____________________________
• Promotes parental, alumni, & community support for school programs
• Allows for the development and display of _____________________________________ at large
• Involves students in activities and increases interest in academic activities
Against:
• ______________________________________ of students from academic activities
• Perpetuates dependence and conformity and focuses attention on performance orientation
• Relegates most students to __________________________________________
• Injury causing
• Deprives ___________________________________________ of resources, facilities, staff, etc.
WHAT ROLE DO INTERSCHOLASTIC SPORTS PLAY ON SOCIAL STATUS?
• For males, popularity is strongly tied to _________________________________ in secondary
schools.
– The athlete, regardless of other attributes (e.g., academics, other extra-curricular
activities), is favored over the nonathlete.
– The highest status is achieved by being considered _______________________________
• For females, popularity is judged more by their _____________________________________
than their scholarship or athletics.
– However, this is quickly changing as athletics and association with the “in-crowd” are
more common-place.
• High school athletes receive substantial reward for their participation and success with examples
including:
– ___________________________________ from peers, teachers, etc.
– May become a “legend in his/her own time”
– Receive praise and honor from the community
– _______________________________________ from businesses
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– Popularity with __________________________________________
CONSEQUENCES OF INTERSCHOLASTIC SPORT FOR THE SCHOOL
• Aside from athletic contests, schools have few collective goals.
– Therefore, sport promotes _________________________________________________
• Interscholastic sport competitions unify the entire school.
– The collective following of an athletic team (i.e., fanship) can ______________________
– However, this may only be true for winning teams
• School administrators can ___________________________________________ through sport.
– Athletes must obey school rules if they want to compete.
– Athletes must maintain certain grades to compete
• It gives students _________________________________________________and something to
do with their time.
• Athletic contests may serve to damped _________________________________________
between towns, neighborhoods, and schools
• However, the problem lies in that symbolic or ritualized violence may become actual violence
between players or spectators.
THE STUDENT-ATHLETE
Empirical evidence supports that high school athletes (as a group) receive better grades than nonathletes,
and they have higher academic aspirations.
Why?
• Athletic participation builds ______________________________________________________
and teaches achievement orientation. These qualities can be applied to academics.
OR…
• Athletes may have higher GPAs due to the fact that
_____________________________________________________________________________.
• This means that some students with poor academic performance are not allowed to play
and thus, are classified as nonathletes.
• Sport participation and grades may further be due to other factors such as receiving
___________________________________________________________________________
from sympathetic teachers.
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Kinesiology 173: Foundations of Kinesiology
Module 3.4: Intercollegiate Athletics
READING ASSIGNMENT: KIN173_3_2_CollegeAthletes.pdf
KIN173_3_3_Buzuvis_2010_TitleIX.pdf
THE COLLEGIATE STUDENT-ATHLETE
• Nation-wide the NCAA recognizes over 460,000 individuals as “Student-Athletes” competing
across 24 different sports.
• The term “Student-Athletes” came about in response to a 1953 ruling from the Colorado Supreme
Court that upheld a determination that a University of Denver football player was
______________________________________________________________________________
of the University and therefore the University was obligated to provide workers’ compensation
for football injuries.
• The NCAA created the term “Student-Athlete” to
______________________________________________________________________________
THE STUDENT-ATHLETE
• Asserts that athletes are primarily __________________________________________________.
• Places additional rules/regulations regarding coursework, classroom attendance, and
grades in return for a free education.
• Amateur athletes – the athlete is not permitted to be paid for athletic performance.
• Financial aid is not considered to be payment for participation as the level of financial aid
is ______________________________________________________________________
at a given institutions/conferences.
• Football and basketball athletes are ________________________________________ to receive
special treatment during the admissions process compared to other students (i.e., admitted despite
being below the published requirements).
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THE COLLEGIATE STUDENT-ATHLETE AND ADMISSION
• Proposition 48 was created in _________________ to respond to allegations of special treatment
during
________________________________________________________________
• Must complete 11 core courses during high school (3 English, 2 math, 2 social studies, 2 natural
or physical science, 2 foreign language or computers)
• Proposition 42 was created in response to the _______________________________ of Prop.48
• Enables athletes who only partially meet the academic requirements of Prop. 48 to earn a regular
scholarship for their first year based ____________________________________.
• However, they would have to compete with other need-based student from the entire
student body.
• The athlete is still _____________________________________________ during the first year.
• Proposition 48 was later revised to require completion of 16 core courses during high school. 10
core courses completed prior to the athletes senior year of high-school that are unable to be
retaken to improve the grade.
• Sets eligibility based upon a combination of
____________________________________________________________________________.
OTHER OBSTACLES FOR THE COLLEGIATE STUDENT-ATHLETE
• _________________________________________________ and mental fatigue
• Media attention
• Demanding coaches
• ___________________________________________________________
• _____________________________________________________________
STUDENT-ATHLETE VS STUDENT-EMPLOYEE
• The debate regarding the extent to which athletes should be considered as employees is long-
standing.
• Primarily focused upon _________________________________________________.
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• Viewing the athlete as an employee the Institution places itself at risk for
_____________________________________________________________________________.
• However, being able to provide additional incentives to athletic recruits increases the likelihood
of the athlete attending the Institution.
•
•
•
• 2019 California District Course ruling that non-cash benefits can be given to student athletes
without restriction.
• A University can now incentivize students to sign by offering
________________________________________________________________________
• So long as the expense can be interpreted as having educational benefits, the expense can
be justified.
THAT MUST MEAN THAT THERE IS PLENTY OF MONEY FOR EVERYONE THEN?
• NO!
• Most athletic programs ___________________________________________________________
• Winning programs do not always translate into increased funds
• Accomplishments of athletic programs _________________________________________
contributions for academics
– In fact, many donors will refuse to contribute to the school unless all of their contribution
goes toward athletics.
THEN WHERE DOES ALL THE MONEY GO?
• At most schools, only ________________________________________________ turn a profit.
– These two sports are expected to pay for the entire athletic program
– But approximately _______________________ of these programs do make money…
• If a surplus occurs, the money is spent on improving the athletics program
• Revenue producing sports (Bball and Football) are funded using a _____________________
approach
– Travel budgets, university sponsored pregame parties, etc.
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CONSEQUENCES OF BIG BUSINESS IN COLLEGE ATHLETICS
• Lack of adequate money leads to a ____________________________________.
– No budget cuts in football and basketball as they are the only sports producing revenue
• Cuts most frequently occur in the “minor sports” (e.g., wrestling, lacrosse, gymnastics, etc.)
• Women’s sports are less vulnerable to budget cuts ___________________________________
• These budgetary choices lead to:
– ________________________________________________________
– Increased dominance of male sports (i.e., football and basketball)
– Increased pressure to win
– Decision making for the university is influenced by big business (e.g., booster
organizations may influence the hiring and firing of coaches)
– Fewer seats are available for the students
– _______________________________________ (e.g., academic, drug use, etc.)
JUST A FEW HIGHLIGHTS IN COLLEGIATE CHEATING
• In 1929 the ______________________________________ reported on widespread illegal
recruiting practices
• In 1985, Hart Lee Dykes, testified against 4 schools (one of them being Illinois) that
___________________________________________________________during recruitment.
• 1993 “Free Shoes University”, During FSU’s run to the national championship in 1993, nine
Florida State players violated NCAA rules by
____________________________________________________________________________
• 1994, the University of Miami- Pell Grant scandal, positive drug tests, multiple criminal offenses,
gambling on big plays, etc.
• In 1994, Baylor University was caught faxing a term paper to a junior college player so that
player could pass his English class and be eligible for the next season.
• From 1980 to 1995, twelve schools finish first in the major college football polls. __________ of
these teams received sanctions by the NCAA or faced serious controversies because of rule
violations.
• In 2001, scandal in Coaching Principles and Strategies of ____________________________class
taught by University of Georgia assistant men's basketball coach ____________________ Jr.
• He “fraudulently awarded grades of A to three men's basketball student-athletes by
allowing them to miss class and tests”.
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• In 2014, an investigation into academic fraud revealed that 35 out of 70 classes that the 2005
University of North Carolina National Championship Basketball team took were fraudulent
classes.
• Classes did not meet yet grades of A- were awarded to the basketball players. The players
taking the fraudulent classes will retain their degrees. The team will retain their National
Championship Title.
• NCAA investigation revealed that this practice has been going on for at least 18 years at the
University of North Carolina…
TITLE IX OF THE __________________________________________________
“No person in the US shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, or denied the benefits
of, or be subjected to discrimination under any educational programs or activity receiving federal aid”
• Bans sex discrimination in ________________________, be it __________________________
discrimination
• Before Title IX, many schools saw no problem in refusing to admit women or having strict limits
on the number admitted.
• In 2008, women received ______________% of medical degrees, compared with 9% in 1972
• In 2007, women earned 48% of law degrees, compared with __________% in 1972
• In 2006, __________% of all doctoral degrees to US citizens went to women, up from 25% in
1977.
Title IX covers every aspect of federally funded education programs.
APPLICATION OF TITLE IX TO SPORT
• Women must have an _________________________ to participate as a whole, not on an
individual basis.
• Governs the overall __________________________ and ____________________ in athletic
programs.
3 Compliance Codes
• Athletic financial assistance
• Financial assistance must be awarded based on the _____________________________.
The test is ________________________________________________.
• Accommodation of athletic interests & abilities
3 factors looked at consecutively
• 1st: Whether opportunities for male/female students are provided
______________________________________________________________________.
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• 2nd: Where there is negligence in the first part, whether the institution can show a
________________________________________________________________________
toward reaching the goal of part one.
• 3rd: Where the first and second factors are not met, the institution must prove that
members of the under-represented sex have been
__________________________________________________________________.
• Other program areas
• All other benefits, opportunities, and treatments afforded sports participants are to be
______________________________________________________________________.
TITLE IX MYTHS
Title IX only pertains to athletics.
• Although Title IX is associated mostly with athletic programs, it is not just a “sports” law.
• The law applies to ______________________________________________________________.
Girls and women are less interested in sports than boys and men.
•
Title IX acts as a quota system for women in sports.
• Quotas are based on pre-determined numbers.
•
Schools must offer the same number of men’s and women’s teams.
• Title IX only dictates that __________________________________________ must be afforded
to both genders.
• Schools _______________________ have to offer the same number of teams or a particular
sport.
Athletic opportunities for men have decreased due to Title IX.
• Participation rates have _______________________________________________ at the high
school and college levels.
Schools must cut men’s athletic teams to be in compliance with Title IX.
•
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WHO IS TO BLAME: BUDGETS OR PUBLIC IMAGE
• Despite the desire to fund every sport possible, the economic situation at most institutions makes
that difficult.
• Athletic Directors must make the choice on how they want to fund the various sports teams.
• Rather than _____________________________________________________________.
• Because of the general negative attitude in sports towards Title IX, many Directors and Coaches
________________________________ there instead of shouldering the blame and risking their
jobs.
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Kinesiology 173: Foundations of Kinesiology
Module 3.5: Aggression and Violence in Sports
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AGGRESSION AND VIOLENCE
Aggression
• Definition: Any form of behavior (Physical or Psychological) directed toward the
__________________________________________________________________________
another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment.
Forms of Aggression
______________________________________________ (often confused with aggression):
Purposeful, goal directed behaviors that do not involve intended harm
1. No Intent to Harm
2. Legitimate Force
______________________________________________: Aggressive behavior committed to
achieve a non-aggressive goal. This form of aggression may take place as a byproduct of an
athlete’s attempt to achieve his/her goal.
1. Intent to ______________________________________
2. Goal to ______________________________________
3. No Anger
______________________________________________ (Violence): Aggressive behavior
involving anger with the primary goal of harm or injury.
1. Intent to ______________________________________
2. Goal to ______________________________________
3. Anger
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THEORIES OF AGGRESSION
Most often cited reasons for Aggressiveness in Sports:
1. Natural Instinct
2. _________________________________________________________
3. _________________________________________________________
4. Violence in Media / Professional Levels
Ethological Predispositions:
_____________________________ Theory - Lorenz (1966), aggression is an innate fighting instinct
that developed through the course of evolution.
Aggression is similar to a pressure cooker. The fighting instinct spontaneously generates
aggressive energy that continues to build up until it is released through an aggressive act.
Testosterone: A naturally occurring steroid hormone commonly found in Anabolic steroids. Taken to
enhance muscle development, strength, or endurance. Often cited as a reason for increased
aggressiveness (“Roid Rage”).
Natural Testosterone and Sports
• Testosterone levels of male athletes were measured multiple times before and after a
competition.
• Immediately prior to the competition, testosterone levels increased.
• The winning athletes had _____________________testosterone levels relative to the
losers.
Natural Testosterone and Crimes
• Similarly, male and female criminals who commit more violent crimes have
__________________________________________ levels of Testosterone.
So will injecting a Person with Testosterone make them more aggressive?
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Social Predispositions:
_______________________________________-Aggression Hypothesis – Dollard et al. (1939)
• Frustration, which occurs due to the blocking of goal directed behavior, induces an
aggressive drive, which in turn facilitates aggressive behavior.
• Frustration, therefore, always leads to some form of aggression and aggression always
stems indirectly from frustration.
________________________________________ Theory – Bandura (1973)
• Aggression is a learned social behavior and as such, is acquired, elicited, and maintained
in the same manner as other behaviors.
• Sport teaches and encourages aggressive behavior.
Bandura (1965) – the Bobo doll study
• Several conditions in which a child observed a model interact with a Bobo doll
• The model committing an aggressive act on the Bobo doll (either live or on film)
• The model interacting with the Bobo doll in a non-aggressive manner
• The child then witnessed the modeler receive praise/reward or punishment for
their aggressive actions.
Results:
If the model was rewarded for aggressive acts - the child committed
____________________________________________________________________
If the model was repremanded for aggressive acts - the child committed
____________________________________________________________________
If the model was repremanded for aggressive acts but the child was offered a
reward for imitating the aggressive behavior - the child committed more aggressive
acts.
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Media Influences on Aggression
• Aronson, Wilson, & Akert (2005) - A long-term study of over 700 families found an
association between the amount of time spent watching violent television as a teenager and
the likelihood of committing acts of aggression later in life.
• Goldstein & Arms (1971) – empirically showed that those individuals that watched football,
ice hockey, and wrestling reported ______________________________________________
compared to those individuals that watched gymnastics and swimming.
• Smith (1996) contends that violence in youth hockey comes from the professional level
because hockey encourages aggression to advance to the upper levels.
• Young hockey players learn aggressive behavior through reinforcement and
modeling (Bandura).
VIOLENCE AND SPORT
• Dating back as far as the first Olympic Games certain sports (e.g., boxing) have acceptable forms
of competition despite the brutal violence associated with them.
• These sports still exist today and violence is still encouraged.
AGGRESSION AND SPORT
• ________________________________________________ Nature of Sport: Aggression is
released on the field and therefore, reduced during non-sport environments.
• ________________________________________________Nature of Sport: Sport facilitates
aggression because learning and reinforcement of aggression (through sport) will increase the
probability of future aggression.
DOES SPORT PARTICIPATION LEAD TO INCREASED VIOLENCE IN ATHLETES?
• Athletes account for approximately ______________ of sexual assaults on college campuses.
• A study of 1,000 athletes and 10,000 students revealed that athletes are _________ times more
likely to commit date rape.
• At Division I Universities, male college athletes, compared with the rest of the male student
population, are responsible for a significantly higher percentage of the sexual assaults reported to
judicial affairs offices on the campuses.
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• At least 3 significant factors have been identified that may contribute to this issue.
1. ________________________________________________________________ – Through
socialization processes athletic teams foster gender segregation. Male athletes may display the
effects of this socialization by engaging in reckless or violent behavior as proof of their
masculinity
2. ________________________________________________________________– Male
socialization is a preconditioning to aggressive behavior as an appropriate response for achieving
one’s goals. This includes sexual gratification despite the unwillingness of another.
3. ________________________________________________________________– various drugs
can stimulate aggressive behavior and are widely used by college and professional athletes.
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Kinesiology 173: Foundations of Kinesiology
Module 3.6: Performance Enhancers in Sports
READING ASSIGNMENT: KIN173_3_4_Savulescu_2004_WhyWeShouldAllow.pdf
DEFINE PERFORMANCE ENHANCERS?
Societal Focus: __________________________________ used to enhance athletic performance.
Modern Focus: Any ___________________________________________________ designed to provide
an advantage in performance.
SO WHAT ARE SOME EXAMPLES OF PERFORMANCE ENHANCING DRUGS?
Steroids in Sport
• Steroids are primarily used in contact sports, weight lifting, boxing, sprinting, & throwing events.
• Some proven effects of Steroids include:
• Increase in ___________________________________
• Increase in body weight
• Increase in arm girth
• Increase in leg girth
• Increase in _______________________________________________________
• The most common form of Steroids used in sports are Anabolic Steroids which are analogs of
testosterone.
• These can be very difficult to detect since there are over 100 different types which can be taken
orally, injected, or used in gels and creams.
• In the US, these drugs are classified as ______________________________________________.
Is it dangerous to take Steroids?
• The average American generally believes that taking steroids is
______________________________________________________________________________.
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• In a 1991 Sports Illustrated interview, former Los Angeles Raider Lyle Alzado blamed his brain
cancer on his 20 years of steroid use.
• Yet, 50 years of research has failed to find any relationship between steroid use and the
T-cell lymphoma that killed Alzado.
• Some new clinical trials are now using high-dose steroids to _______________________
• Steroids are frequently used to prevent muscle wasting in HIV positive and AIDS patients.
• Other common medical uses for steroids:
• Burn Victims
• Hypogonadism
• Anemias
• Low Libido and Erectile Dysfunction
• Low energy associated with aging
• Cosmetic procedures
If steroids are safe for these things, why are Steroids considered Dangerous in Sport?
• Under physician supervision, and in the absence of ___________________________________,
steroids present no more risk than other prescription treatments.
• But, steroids are a controlled substance!
• Unless athletes have a prescription they are forced to obtain these substances from
outside the ________________________________________________ community.
• Steroids which are classified as safe for animals do not always have the quality control
and standardization of human medications.
• Athletes turn to individuals who are not qualified to provide dosing information.
• The amount of steroid in pills is __________________________________
depending on brand and type.
• In excess dosages, ALL steroids have health hazards.
• Severe heath risks include:
• Liver failure – coatings used to stop the digestive system from destroying steroids are
unable to be processed by the liver.
• Cardiovascular problems
• Neurological issues
• Blood born pathogens from needle exposures
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• Other heath risks include:
• Acne
• Hair loss
• Female masculinization
• Testicular atrophy
• Impotence
• Gynecomastia – the development of breasts in males
• Excessive body and facial hair growth in females
• In adolescence, steroid use can result in:
• Premature halting of skeletal maturation and growth.
• Accelerated puberty changes.
• Increased mood swings and feelings of depression.
Stimulants in Sport
• Stimulants are primarily used in cycling, running, endurance, and contact sports.
• Some proven effects of Stimulants include:
• Decreased _________________________________________________________
• Decreased _________________________________________________________
• Decreased time to exhaustion
• Increased alertness
• Caffeine, amphetamines, cocaine, ephedrine, modafinil, and most ADHD medications fall under
this classification.
• Side effects of Stimulants include:
• Increased Anxiety
• Dysrhythmias and heart palpitations
• Hypertension
• Addiction
• Hallucinations
• Heat exhaustion
Depressants in Sport
• Depressants are primarily used in shooting sports and skiing.
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• Some proven effects of Depressants include:
• Decreased _________________________________________________________
• Decreased _________________________________________________________
• Improved concentration
• Beta blockers, benzodiazepine, and alcohol fall under this classification.
• Side effects of Depressants include:
• Addiction
• Lack of energy
• Lethargy
• Increased mood swings and feelings of depression.
Analgesics in Sport
• Analgesics – pain killers - are primarily used in endurance and contact sports.
• Some proven effects of Analgesics include:
• Reduced _________________________________________________________
• Increased relaxation
• Reduced _________________________________________________________
• Aspirin, Codeine, Morphine, Heroin, and Corticosteroids fall under this classification.
• Side effects of Analgesics include:
• Addiction
• Lack of energy
• Low blood pressure
• Increase injury severity
Diuretics in Sport
• Diuretics are primarily used in horse and motor racing, boxing, wrestling, and martial arts.
• Some proven effects of Analgesics include:
• Reduced _________________________________________________________
• Increased flow of urine
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• Mask presence of other drugs
• Diuretics are primarily used in horse and motor racing, boxing, wrestling, and martial arts.
• Some proven effects of Analgesics include:
• Reduced body weight
• Increased flow of urine
• Mask presence of other drugs
Blood Doping in Sport
• Blood doping is primarily used in cycling and endurance sports.
• Athlete withdraws blood well in advance of competition. The red blood cells are harvested,
concentrated, and frozen. The body naturally regenerates red blood cells. The frozen cells are
then thawed, and re-introduced before a critical event.
• Some proven effects of Blood Doping include:
• Increased ability to ________________________________________________________
• Increased time to exhaustion
• Greater _________________________________________________________
• Blood transfusion or drugs such as Erythropoietin which stimulate bone marrow to produce red
blood cells are used.
• Side effects of Blood Doping include:
• Infections
• Transfusion reactions
• Increased blood viscosity
• Increased likelihood of a heart attack or stroke
• Training at altitude has been found to produce similar effects.
WHY DO ATHLETES USE PERFORMANCE ENHANCERS?
• Athletes devote their lives to improving their skills and chasing success. Anything that may help
them achieve these goals is considered.
• If it is believed that their _________________________________________________ are using
drugs to enhance performance, athletes may also use to ensure victory.
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• ______________________________________________________________ athletes to improve
performance and play when injured (occurs at high school, college, and professional levels).
• Beer and tobacco companies underwrite sporting events.
• Peer Pressure – especially apparent among adolescents who want to fit in.
• ______________________________________________________________ and curiosity –
athletes that score highly on these traits like to experiment and try new things.
• Issues related to self esteem – low self esteem and feelings of helplessness increase drug abuse
• Pain – due to acute or frequent injury caused by unusual demands placed on the body
• Fatigue – the demands of training may be excessive
BUT WHAT MAKES AN ATHLETE USE PERFORMANCE ENHANCERS?
_____________________________________________ Model of Drug Use - Donovan, Egger,
Kapernick and Mendoza (2002)
• Explains athletes’ drug use as the result of the interaction between appraisals of threat, benefit,
morality, legitimacy on attitudes and intentions toward drug use.
• Other influences such as reference groups (other athletes and coaches), personality, and the
affordability and availability of drugs are also included.
_____________________________________________ Model of Drug Use - Strelan & Boekman (2003)
• Explains athletes' drug use in terms of criminal behavior.
• Posits that an athlete's decision to use drugs are the consequence of an analysis of deterrents
relative to benefits moderated by situational factors (e.g., type of drug or perceived prevalence)
THE PROBLEM WITH STUDYING PERFORMANCE ENHANCERS
• Is that there is __________________________________________________________________
about the prevalence of drug use among athletes of any level (Kayser, Mauron, & Miah, 2007)!
• The majority of studies have focused on alcohol and steroid use.
• Depending on the study methodology, reports range from:
• ___________________________% of high school and collegiate athletes use Alcohol.
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• ___________________________% of all athletes use some form of performance-
enhancing drugs.
BRIEF HISTORY OF PERFORMANCE ENHANCERS
Performance Enhancing Drugs are nothing new…
Ancient Greek and Romans consumed hallucinogens and stimulants prior to competition and
battle believing that they enhanced performance.
Prior to WWII boxers, cyclists, & European soccer players used mixtures of cocaine, alcohol, and
caffeine to enhance performance.
______________________________% of track & field athletes at the 1972 Olympic Games
reported using some form of steroids.
The question below was posed to elite athletes:
Would you take a magic drug that would guarantee victory in any competition, but would kill you
5 years after you take it?
o
SHOULD PERFORMANCE ENHANCERS BE ALLOWED IN SPORTS?
According to the World Anti-Doping Agency: The use of artificial enhancements to gain an advantage
over others in competition, is cheating and is fundamentally contrary to the spirit of sport. Further,
doping robs athletes who play by the rules of their right to competition that is safe and fair.
Arguments Against Performance Enhancers Arguments For Performance Enhancers
