John Dewey, Reconstructs Ethics

8/18/2019 John Dewey, Reconstructs Ethics

1/12

John Dewey Reconstructs Ethics

by Dr. Jan Garrett

Altered February 7, 2001

Contents

• Historical Background

• Scientific Inquiry as Model for Ethics

• The Primacy of the Concrete

• Criticism of Traditional Dualisms

• Means and Ends

• Moral and Natural oods

• Science and Ethics

• Testing of !alue Ideas

• Critique of "tilitarianism

• Ethics and Education

• Notes

#ohn De$ey %&'()*&)(+, $as the last of the three ma-or .merican thinkers

identified $ith the late nineteenth and early t$entieth century /hiloso/hical

mo0ement kno$n as /ragmatism1 There $as a time $hen it $ould not ha0e

2een im/lausi2le to call him the greatest .merican /hiloso/her1 During his

lifetime3 he $as immensely influential1 He /u2lished $orks in /sychology3

education3 aesthetics3 ethics3 /olitical /hiloso/hy3 logic3 theory of kno$ledge3

meta/hysics3 and the /lace of religion in culture1 "nlike 0irtually all .merican

/hiloso/hers today3 he $as influential 2eyond the academy1 He had many

disci/les in the field of education1 He $as $idely read 2y the li2erally educated

/u2lic and $as a res/ected commentator on current social /ro2lems1

This introduction to De$ey4s ethical thinking is 2ased u/on Cha/ter 5 of his

Reconstruction in Philosophy1%n&,

. !istorical "ac#$round

Ethical theory $as in0ented 2y the ancient reeks3 /articularly Plato and

.ristotle1 They $ere res/onding to the same social crisis that /roduced the

questioning of Socrates1 Customary or traditional morality $as 2reaking do$n3

and the /hiloso/hers3 $ho in earlier times de0oted themsel0es to the study of

nature3 $ere urged to use their skills in res/onding to this crisis1 .s De$ey sees

mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]


2/12

it3 $hat ha//ened is that /hiloso/hers created an ethical theory $hich ser0ed as

a /artial su2stitute or reinforcement for traditional morality1

This kind of solution3 $hich $as ne0er clearly challenged 2efore De$ey3 is in

his 0ie$ the source of /hiloso/hy4s failure to gi0e ethical inquiry the direction

it needs1 Philoso/hers3 in his 0ie$3 su2stituted an idea of the good or the -ust for traditional morals1 But $hen they did so3 they only created a ne$ standard as

fi6ed and eternal as traditional morals $ere originally thought to 2e1

.ccording to De$ey4s diagnosis3 the history of all earlier ethical theory is the

assum/tion of a single3 fi6ed ideal /attern of life %7the end7, or a single fi6ed

la$ or duty1 Sometimes the ideal is descri2ed as a life of acti0ity in accord $ith

0irtue %as .ristotle descri2ed it,3 sometimes as the most /leasant life %as

hedonistic thinkers called it,3 or the life in accord $ith nature %in the $ords of

the Stoics,1 Sometimes the single la$ is to o2ey od4s $ill3 sometimes it is to

do unto others as you $ould ha0e them do unto you3 and sometimes to act so asto /roduce the greatest /ossi2le 2alance of /leasure o0er /ain for e0eryone

affected1

8hether the fi6ed /oint of morality is an ideal /attern of life or a la$3 the

traditional task of moral /hiloso/hy is then to disco0er it3 clarify it3 defend it

against critics3 and /roceed to a//ly it to /articular cases1

This to/*do$n conce/tion of ethics is neatly /aralleled in the Middle .ges 2y a

similar to/*do$n /icture of reality1 9rom the reeks3 and es/ecially .ristotle3

the Middle .ges inherited the /icture of a closed uni0erse3 an ordered3 limitedand hierarchical $orld order1 In the order of nature3 $e 2egin from the s/here

of fi6ed stars**called fi6ed 2ecause their relations to one another do not change:

the location of the greatest /erfection in nature1 The ladder of nature descends

from the /erfection of the stars to the less regular and /erfect forms of life on

earth1 . similar ladder of su2stances descends from od to man to animals to

/lants1 ;et another ladder of authority descends from the Po/e to the king to

lord to serf1

. %cienti&ic n'uiry as (odel &or Ethics

In De$ey4s account3 early modern science e6/lodes this /icture of a closed

uni0erse and /laces matter on more or less the same footing1 In the ne$ 0ie$ of

nature3 no o2ser0a2le material o2-ect is eternal3 not e0en the stars1

Institutionally3 De$ey 2elie0es3 modern science /romotes a more egalitarian

order1 It is not enough to /u2lish one4s theory or o2ser0ations1


3/12

confirmed 2y a shared rational a2ility to connect the o2ser0ations to the theory

/ro/osed1

Characteristic of modern science is the 0ie$ that there are no $holly final

solutions3 no theories $hose im/ro0ement can 2e ruled out in ad0ance1 This

common/lace concerning science ins/ires De$ey to make $hat is a 2old claimfor ethics: Instead of a single fi6ed end or ideal acti0ity3 $e must make room

for 7a /lurality of changing3 mo0ing3 indi0iduali=ed ends7 and instead of a

single fi6ed la$ or duty3 $e must de0elo/ a conce/tion of 7/rinci/les3 criteria

>and moral? la$s7 as 7intellectual instruments for analy=ing indi0idual or

unique situations17 %&5@,

Many /eo/le ha0e insisted that scientific methods are ina//ro/riate in ethics1

This idea has reinforced the 0ie$ there are t$o cultures $ithin contem/orary

ci0ili=ed life**the sciences and the humanities1 De$ey admitted that science

and ethics $ere on 0ery different tracks1 He claimed3 ho$e0er3 that thedi0ergence arose /rimarily from the fact that the methods of natural science had

radically changed since the late Middle .ges $hile ethics $as stuck in a

/remodern mindset1 It $as his task to hel/ ethics catch u/1

De$ey regards the follo$ing as key features of the scientific method:

&, that ideas are instruments for sol0ing /ro2lems

+, that /ro2lems arise in concrete circumstances3 in 7situations17

@, that disco0ery requires interaction $ith the en0ironment3 i1e13 action u/on the

en0ironment accom/anied 2y o2ser0ation of $hat emerges from that

interaction3 andA, 3 to re/eat a /oint made earlier3 that there are no $holly final solutions1

These ideas are all rele0ant to De$ey4s 0ie$ on ho$ to think a2out ethics1

. )he *ri+acy o& the Concrete and the %ituational

De$ey $rites3

The /rimary significance of the unique and morally ultimate character of the

concrete situation is to transfer the $eight and 2urden of morality to

intelligence1 It does not destroy res/onsi2ility it only locates it1 . moral

situation is one in $hich -udgment and choice are required antecedently too0ert action1 The /ractical meaning of the situation**1 1 1 the action needed to

satisfy it**is not self*e0ident1 It has to 2e searched for1 %&5@,

Peo/le are faced $ith 7conflicting desires 1 1 1 alternate a//arent goods17 They

need to find the right course of action3 the correct good1 They must o2ser0e the

details of the situation3 analy=e it into its factors3 and clarify the o2scure

elements1 They must often de*em/hasi=e 7the more insistent and 0i0id traits7 so


4/12

as not to let $hat seems at first o20ious lead to a /remature -udgment1 They

need to consider $hat /atterns of action suggest themsel0es and trace the

/ro2a2le and /ossi2le consequences of each of them1

Tracing /ro2a2le and /ossi2le results es/ecially demands the use of

imagination and /ast e6/erience1 8ithout them $e cannot considerconsequences 2efore $e act1

De$ey says $e should regard the decision reached 7as hy/othetical and

tentati0e until the antici/ated or su//osed consequences $hich led to its

ado/tion ha0e 2een squared $ith actual consequences7 %&5@,1 He has not

forgotten3 of course3 that moral decisions do not take /lace under strict

la2oratory conditions or that a $ord s/oken in haste cannot al$ays 2e retracted1

Ho$e0er3 a /olicy decision can 2e re0ie$ed1 . decision $hich did not ha0e the

results antici/ated can 2e reconsidered as a $ay of learning ho$ to res/ond

differently to future decisions of a roughly similar kind1

Inquiry of this sort is $hat De$ey descri2es as 7intelligence17 He says that it

must 2e culti0ated in con-unction $ith the follo$ing 0irtues: 7$ide sym/athy3

keen sensiti0eness3 /ersistence in the face of the disagreea2le3 2alance of

interests ena2ling us7 to analy=e /ro2lems and decide intelligently %&5A,1

. $ord a2out 7/ersistence in the face of the disagreea2le17 9or De$ey this

could not /ossi2ly endorse fanaticism %n+,3 2ut gi0ing a $ell*thought out moral

e6/eriment sufficient time to re0eal its 0alue1 In my 0ie$3 this is a 0irtue $e

need in order to defend affirmati0e action against those $ho $ould dismantle it /rematurely1

Some li2eral critics are 2othered 2y De$ey4s denial of fi6ed moral /rinci/les3

arguing that $e need3 for instance3 a fi6ed notion of human rights3 rights that

hold not only no$ 2ut for all time3 as a /rotection against in-ustice and

o//ression1 .nd others of a more conser0ati0e 2ent might say that $ithout

res/ect for od4s $ill as e6/ressed in the Ten Commandments or some

codification of 7family 0alues7 gi0en to humans as 0alid for all time3 the $orld

$ill go to hell in a hand2asket1 De$ey4s a//roach to ethics might 2e regarded

as too relati0istic 2y /eo/le holding either of these t$o 0ie$s1

De$ey4s res/onse to this ty/e of o2-ection has se0eral /arts1 He does admit that

general ideas of -ustice and other goods ha0e 0alue3 2ut3 he claims3 this is only

2ecause they /ro0ide /eo/le $ith 7tools of inquiry into the indi0idual case and

$ith methods of forecasting a method of dealing $ith it17%&5, %n@,


5/12

9or De$ey the error of rigid adherence to eternally fi6ed general ideas is

re0ealed 2y the im/ortance of the concrete situation in ethics1

Consider the candidates for the human good**health3 $ealth3 honor3 friendshi/3

esthetic en-oyment3 learning3 contem/lation of truth3 /leasure3 -ustice3 etc1

Traditional ethics selects one and e6cludes the rest3 or it makes one of thesemost im/ortant and su2ordinates others to it3 or it ranks them in a fi6ed

hierarchy1 These a//roaches do not satisfy and arguments in their fa0or do not

/ersuade1 Mean$hile3 suggests De$ey3 little /rogress is made to$ards

/rocuring such goods in the concrete1 ;ou cannot get these things in general3

you can only get them in /articular3 through action3 $hich is s/ecific3 unique3

indi0iduali=ed3 in a situation1

The situational nature of these 0alues is re0ealed3 says De$ey3 $hen $e

consider that they are not things 2ut $ays of acting1 The 2est $ay to indicate

$hat is at stake is not to use nouns3 like -ustice or health3 2ut1ad0er2s1 7To saythat >a /erson? seeks health or -ustice is only to say that he seeks to li0e

healthily or -ustly17 %&5(,

The distinction 2et$een the artistic and the mechanical is rele0ant in all

de/artments of life3 including those in0ol0ing ethical choice1 Physicians

/roceed artistically $hen they use the tools of their /rofession to inquire

intelligently into the /ro2lem situations they face1 If they $ere to /roceed

other$ise3 they $ould mechanically a//ly /reconcei0ed rules3 o/erating in a

rigid and dogmatic manner1 In this contrast 2et$een the artistic and mechanical3

the $ord 7artistic7 connotes sensiti0ity to conte6t required 2y all intelligentchoice3 including choices of a more o20iously ethical sort %&5,1

De$ey4s 0ie$ of the ethical good leans to$ards $hat $e in /hiloso/hy call

nominalism: em/hasis is /laced u/on the reality of the /articular3 not the

general1 He says that there is no such thing as the good3 only /articular goods1

Moreo0er3 these e6ist only $hen there is something to 2e done %&5,1 The good

$hich is to 2e done has to 2e disco0ered3 aimed for and /roduced 2y reflection

on the trou2le to 2e corrected1 It is not a mistake to classify /ro2lems and their

solutions1 But the general things traditionally considered goods**things such as

health3 $ealth3 industry3 tem/erance3 courage3 /atience3 etc1** ha0e 0alue

2ecause they /romote a fitting res/onse to indi0idual situations %&5*55,1%nA,

. )he Criticis+ o& )raditional Dualis+s

A. (eans and Ends


6/12

The first consequence of De$ey4s a//roach is an attack on the traditional

distinction 2et$een instrumental goods3 $hich are means to something else3

and intrinsic goods3 $hich are desired in themsel0es1

The distinction3 of course3 is a 0ery old one1 8e find an early 0ersion of it in

Plato4s e/u2lic1 Instrumental goods3 $hen they are /urely instrumental3 aredesired only for the sake of something else3 not for their o$n sakes1 .n

e6am/le often gi0en is that of un/leasant medicine $hich one s$allo$s for the

sake of health1 Most /eo/le3 says a character in Plato4s e/u2lic3 think of

-ustice like that3 as something desira2le not for its o$n sake 2ut for the sake of

the re$ards or 2enefits one acquires $hen /eo/le think you ha0e it1 Plato

himself argues that -ustice is3 in fact3 desira2le for its o$n sake %though he does

not deny that there are often ad0antageous side*effects of 2eing -ust,1 9or Plato

and .ristotle3 contem/lation of truth is the 2est e6am/le of a human thing

desira2le in its o$n right1

De$ey remarks3 7It is often thought to 2e the 0ery 2eginning of $isdom3 of

moral discrimination3 to make this distinction >2et$een the intrinsic and the

instrumental good?1 1 1 >C?arried into /ractice it has an im/ort that is tragic1

Historically it has 2een the source and origin of a hard and fast difference

2et$een ideal goods on the one side and material goods on the other7 %&55,1

8hether educated /eo/le consider the intrinsic good to 2e intellectual

contem/lation3 as in ancient reece3 or religious o2ser0ation3 as in the Middle

.ges3 or aesthetic en-oyment3 as occasionally in our time3 the effect is similar1

De$ey claims that3 from the 2eginning of 8estern /olitical thought3 thisconce/tion has reinforced the class structure of society1 The case of .ristotle is

illuminating1 In his sketch of an ideal state3 .ristotle /ro/osed that the la2oring

masses 2e e6cluded from /artici/ation in ci0ic acti0ity1 Their manual la2or $as

needed 2y the state3 so they had to 2e ke/t around3 2ut their e6ercise of this

la2or3 2ecause it $as a 2urden and good only for its consequences3 distorted

their li0es and 2y im/lication their morals1 The assum/tion $as that manual

la2or is inherently 2urdensome and thus merely instrumental1 .ristotle

reasoned that only /ersons freed from menial tasks to engage in go0erning and

contem/lation could li0e truly $orth$hile li0es and thus only a non*la2oring

class could identify $ith the state $hich made these li0es /ossi2le1

Since manual la2or $as still required 2y the system of /roduction3 .ristotle

looked for a su2s/ecies of the human race3 indi0iduals $hose limited mental

/o$ers made them fit for this kind of ser0ice1 He located some of them**not

enough3 2y the $ay**in a human su2grou/ he called natural sla0es3 and he


7/12

-udged that it $ould not 0iolate their /otential to assign them to such a

su2ordinate and /olitically /o$erless role %&55,1

The harmful effect of these ideas goes 2eyond in-ury to the grou/ $hich

.ristotle regarded as natural sla0es1 This theory hel/s /ersuade /eo/le de0oted

to the /erfection of the mind and soul that they should $ithdra$ as much as /ossi2le from acti0ity in0ol0ing material things1 Business and e0en /olitics are

then left to /ersons least concerned $ith intelligence and decency1 The result3

says De$ey3 is the 2rutali=ation of ordinary life %&5',1

De$ey urges us to reinsert intrinsic 0alue into the material life3 into economics1

Not3 of course3 that $e should make /rofit a god1 ather $e should see

/roduction of goods as a moral ser0ice to /eo/le $ho $ill use them1 . 0ocation

can 2e a sacred duty or trust1

If life is to 2e $orth $hile >economic ends? must acquire ideal and intrinsic0alue1 Esthetic3 religious and other ideal4 ends are not thin and meagre or else

idle and lu6urious 2ecause of the se/aration from instrumental4 or economic

ends1


8/12

0irtues merely as a means to something else1 Early "tilitarians such as #eremy

Bentham $ent to this e6treme $hen they said that 0irtues $ere 0alua2le only

2ecause they /romoted /leasure and diminished /ain1 But for De$ey 0irtuous

action is not the only thing intrinsically $orth$hile1 .nd he thinks that all so*

called 0irtues should 2e e0aluated in terms of their actual and /redicta2le

consequences1 If middle*le0el 2ureaucrats $ould e0aluate in this $ay the so*called 0irtue of loyalty to su/eriors3 /erha/s some of history4s greater crimes

$ould ha0e 2een /re0ented1

C. %cience and Ethics

De$ey $rites3 7The e6/erimental logic $hen carried into morals7 -udges e0ery

quality as good to the e6tent to $hich it contri2utes to the resolution of e6isting

ills %&5',1 Thus he dis/utes the shar/ distinction $e are accustomed to make

2et$een natural science and moral inquiry1 The sciences hel/ us recogni=e

/articular /ro2lems and de0elo/ /lans to reduce their se0erity1 9or e6am/le3they /in/oint the /resence of carcinogens in the /roducts $e consume or in the

/ollutants in the atmos/here1 They ena2le us to kno$ ho$ much -unk $e are

getting in our food and gi0e us /ointers a2out ho$ to a0oid it1 In effect3 they

ena2le us to decide $ith some chance of success $hat ste/s to take3

indi0idually and collecti0ely3 to deal $ith /ro2lems created3 increasingly3 2y

our o$n industrial solutions of former /ro2lems1

In De$ey4s a//roach3 the sciences of fact 2ecome /art of the a//aratus of moral

inquiry1 Isolated and 2y itself3 discussion of moral 0alues often seems shrill or

nagging or /edantic1 But $hen natural science can 2e com2ined $ith ethicalconcerns3 the com2ination loses these off*/utting qualities and is much harder

to ignore1 It is to the 2enefit of 2oth scientific and ethical /ractice $hen science

is /ursued for its social rele0ance and its 0ital im/ortance in life1 %&5'*5),

Thus De$ey ad0ocates the destruction of $hat he calls 7the greatest dualism

$hich no$ $eighs humanity do$n3 the s/lit 2et$een the material3 the

mechanical and the scientific >on the one side? and the moral and ideal >on the

other?17 %&5), . focus on concrete /ro2lems goes hand in hand $ith the

destruction of this dualism1 The s/lit can 2e maintained only if $e insist on

o/erating $ith high a2stractions or forget that a2stractions are -ustified only astools for sol0ing /ro2lems1 8hen attention is focused on 7di0ersified

concretes7 %&5), $e reali=e the need to use all a0aila2le intellectual tools to

sol0e s/ecial cases1

. )he )estin$ o& alue deas


9/12

9or De$ey3 inquiry and disco0ery ha0e essentially the same /lace in moral

matters as they do in the sciences of nature1 Ideas are tested in e6/erience1

8hat ha//ens as a result of acting in accord $ith an idea 2ecomes a measure of

its $orth1 eason in ethics3 he says3 takes flesh 7in the methods 2y $hich needs

and conditions3 o2stacles and resources3 of situations7 are analy=ed in detail3

and /lans for addressing /ro2lems $orked out1 %&5),

9ailing to do this $e fall 2ack on a fe$ a2stract ideas $hich /romote the

dra$ing of hasty conclusions1 Bad consequences occur3 2ut instead of

recogni=ing that the fault lies in /olicies that are too sim/leminded3 $e de/lore

these results as arising from in2orn /er0ersity of human nature or 7inhos/ita2le

destiny7 or sim/ly the limitations of the human condition1 But $hen $e focus

on the concrete situation3 inquiry and alert o2ser0ation of consequences

2ecome duties1%&5),

.ll 0alue ideas3 all notions of things that are held to 2e 0alua2le3 are re0isa2le3in De$ey4s 0ie$3 in the same sense that a scientific theory or hy/othesis is

regarded as re0isa2le1 . /ur/ose must 2e considered a $orking hy/othesis until

results confirm it1 Mistakes are to 2e e6/ected3 2ut3 for De$ey3 they are not

accidents to 2e mourned or sins to 2e e6/atiated1 ather3 they are 7lessons in

$rong methods of using intelligence and instructions as to a 2etter course in the

future7 %&',1

. /ti+is+, *essi+is+, and (elioris+

Philoso/hers used to s/end enormous effort on the /ro2lem of e0il: ho$ do $esquare the goodness of od3 or the uni0erse3 or life3 $ith the e6istence of e0ilF

De$ey urges that $e re*concei0e the /ro2lem of e0il as 7the /ractical /ro2lem

of reducing3 alle0iating3 as far as may 2e remo0ing the e0ils of life7 %&'&,1 In

his 0ie$3 it4s not the -o2 of /hiloso/hy to e6/lain a$ay e0ils or -ustify them1

Philoso/hy4s -o2 is to contri2ute to methods that $ill hel/ us disco0er $hat

causes the ills that 2eset humanity %&'&,1 If he $ere ali0e today3 I think he4d

re/lace 7humanity7 $ith 7/lanet7 since ecological science has sho$n us the

interde/endence of all life forms on earth1 De$ey3 I sus/ect3 $ould ha0e 2een a

2ig fan of ecology3 since it is the natural science $hich takes most seriously one

of his recurring /hiloso/hical themes3 the interaction of li0ing creatures $ith

their en0ironment1

De$ey re-ects /essimism a2out the human condition1 7Pessimism37 he says3 7is

a /araly=ing doctrine7 %&'&,1 He also re-ects $holesale o/timism3 es/ecially the

kind that says that this is the 2est of all /ossi2le $orlds3 not needing our efforts

to make it 2etter1 His o$n 0ie$ on this question is meliorism3 from the Gatin


10/12

$ord melior3 meaning 72etter37 as distinct from o/timum3 meaning 72est17

Meliorism holds that ho$e0er 2ad things may 2e3 they can 2e im/ro0ed1 It

encourages the use of indi0idual and collecti0e intelligence to disco0er means

to remo0e o2stacles that 2lock /romotion of the good %&'&*'+,1


11/12

o//ortunity for /ersons to fulfill themsel0es through creati0e solution of

/ro2lems %I2id1,1

. Ethics and Education

De$ey4s o//osition to hard and fast distinctions 2et$een means and ends issignificant for education1 He al$ays concei0ed education as ha0ing a moral

dimension1 Education3 for him3 is a /assage from the $orse to the 2etter3 or it is

not deser0ing of its name %&'A,1 Education is not -ust a /re/aration for

adulthood1 The notion that education is only /re/aration tends to reduce it to a

means3 $hose /oint is /ost/oned until after education is com/leted1 Ha//iness3

or success /ro/erly understood3 in0ol0es sol0ing /ro2lems creati0ely1 If

students come to regard education as a mere means3 then $hat they are learning

is ho$ to li0e alienated li0es1 But if they can 2e gotten to attack /ro2lems in the

right s/irit3 as $ell as $ith effecti0e techniques3 they $ill already 2e in some

$ays successful1 They $ill already 2e sharing in the good life3 though not thegood life in the /o/ular sense of a life of ease and /assi0e en-oyment1

Ske$ering e6aggerated indi0idualism once more3 De$ey denies that the goal of

education is the creation of a fully inde/endent3 self*sufficient adult1 8e should

not o0erstate the de/endence of the child or the inde/endence of the adult

%&',1 . successful adult life $ill in0ol0e all sorts of relations of

interde/endence $ith other human 2eings1 De$ey $rote in &)+ that education

should ne0er end**a 0ie$ that is no$ common/lace1 But he makes the still

re0olutionary additional claim that 7the test of all the institutions of adult life is

their effect in furthering continued education7 %I2id1,

9or De$ey3 this is the -o2 of go0ernment3 2usiness3 and religious institutions:

7to set free and de0elo/ the ca/acities of human indi0iduals $ithout regard to

race3 se63 class or economic status17 %&', In his 0ie$3 this $as the moral

meaning of democracy1 Political and economic arrangements3 like ethical ideas3

should 2e -udged 2y the contri2ution they make to the rounded de0elo/ment of

e0ery mem2er of society1%n,

-otes

&1 #ohn De$ey3 The Middle Works 1899-19243 0ol1 &+: Reconstruction in

Philosophy and Essays &)+ %Car2ondale: Southern Illinois "ni0ersity

Press3 &)'+,1

+1 De$ey e6/licitly critici=es fanaticism in ethics on //1 &5(*&51

@1 See also //1 &5*55: 7Classifications 1 1 1 are tools of insight: their 0alue

is /romoting an indi0iduali=ed res/onse in the indi0idual situation17


12/12

A1 De$ey4s stress that moral inquiry is essentially a2out the concrete case

and that great sensiti0ity to the situation is required for effecti0e moral

-udgments is 0ery much in line $ith .ristotle4s account in Book !I of the

ico!achean Ethics of the e6ercise of phronesis3 $hich is itself

sometimes translated as >/ractical? intelligence1 8here De$ey de/arts

from .ristotle4s 0ie$ is that3 for .ristotle3 the ultimate aim of phronesis3in the /olitical community3 is the creation of an o//ortunity for

/hiloso/hical or religious contem/lation %theoria,3 $hich3 for .ristotle3

is the highest kind of ha//iness of $hich humans are ca/a2le1 But

.ristotelian theoria is for De$ey the /rime /hiloso/hical e6am/le of the

notion of a fi6ed end $hich he $ants to challenge1

(1 #ohn De$ey3 The "ater Works o# $ohn %e&ey' Art as Experience &)@A

%Car2ondale: Southern Illinois "ni0ersity Press,

1 9or further e6/loration of De$ey4s ethical ideas see

#ames Cam/2ell3 (nderstandin) $ohn %e&ey' ature and *ooperati+e

,ntelli)ence %Chicago:

Documents

John Dewey, Reconstructs Ethics