Iron constructions for factory buildings in Berlin in thenineteenth and early twentieth century

Paradoxically iron constructions which were decisive

for the development of Berliner metal and metal toolindustries were seldomly and only gradually appliedfrom 1837 through 1870 for the erection of shops andfactories, at that often in combination with wooden

elements of construction. (The oldest industrialbuilding of Germany, the foundry assembly hall builtby C. G. Langhans (1825), is not in Berlin). The first

cast and wrought iron weight carrying structure forutilitarian buildings in Berlin was constructed for thestorehouse of the Schickler' sche Zuckersiederei(1835) by F. Hesse, after having visited England, and

the first inner iron skeleton construction was erectedby L. Persius and L. Dannenberger on the

Mhlendammbridge (1844-48).Essential for the use of iron constructions was the

challenge of fire protection. The conflagrations ofl831 and 1838 which destroyed the Factory ofCockerill and the Dammmhlen, and the fire whichravaged the opera (1843) gradually set off more andmore the use of the new building material iron in theBerliner construction engineering. As early as 183 1fireproof iron roofings were built for steam boilershops. All the same iron constructions had been built

abroad much before that, for instance structuralsystems for milis and storehouses in England. A1so

market halls were erected with iron elements. But foreconomical reasons the building material iron wasonly used for Berliner shops and factories by the 40's.

The late works of the architect K. F. Schinkel,

such as the Bauakademie (1831-35) and the

Miran Mislin

Packhofspeicher (1835) served partly as model forthe emerging Berliner industrial architecture. Bothbuildings have been cited in the literature of thehistory of architecture as landmarks of construction.They were looked upon as anticipation of serial

building as well as forerunners of modero skeleton

and frame constructions (Ausstellungskatalog 1981).K. F. Schinkel had experienced impulses fromEnglish factories which he had investigated during

his study trip to England 1826 (Riemann 1986). TheEnglish stripped down, utilitarian architecture ofwarehouses and docks were though not taken intoaccount by Schinkels followers, although a newcritical point of architecture and construction had

been achieved with the Albert-Docks in Liverpool(184l~50). The early English iron constructions

infIuenced the construction of industrial architectureand railway station building s in Berlin though also byfirst hand information (Frhauf 1991 ).

In the following a selection of iron constructionelements, columns, roof constructions and fIoorstructural systems are going to be displayed, toillustrate the specific development in Berlin.

COLUMNS

The slender iron cast columns gradually got carriedout in Berlin since the 40's, partly because theunbreakable wooden counterparts in warehouses and

factories needed a diameter 01'0,50 cm. Normally the

Proceedings of the First International Congress on Construction History, Madrid, 20th-24th January 2003, ed. S. Huerta, Madrid: I. Juan de Herrera, SEdHC, ETSAM, A. E. Benvenuto, COAM, F. Dragados, 2003.

1440

large supporting capitals carried two beams as joist(for instance: industrial courts at Bethanien-Damm59, Leuschner Damm 9, WaldemarstraBe 27). The

architect L. Hesse proposed for the above cited fire-proof storehouse building also cast iron hollow

columns for all the tour stories, following Englishmodels. The beams and joists were performed thoughin wood. The stories rested on three rows of columnswith a diameter of 18, 3 cm, 15,7 cm and 13 cm, thewall thickness being l,3 cm. Die lower columns hadto carry a compressive stress of approx. I 600 kg,having a weight of approx. 260 kg each. (fig. 1).

Chronologica11y the columns of Hesses' storehousebuilding were followed up by shops and factories for A.

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Figure 1Storehouse for he Schicklcr'sche Zuckersiederei. 1835,details of he construction

M.Mislin

Borsig (1837-40, ]844 and 1861) in Bcrlin, howeveronly tor groundfloor assembly halls. The mastercarpenter G. Schamweber designed cast iron columnsfor the saw tooth roof hall of the carpet weaving miliPreatorius & Protzen at the Engelufer (1854). Thesecolumns had at the height of the transmission roller flatfixed cast p]ates which served as basis for the brackets.(fig. 2) Likeweise the smithy shop of F. A. Egells at the

ChausseestraBe 2 was erected with hollow cast ironco]umns (1851), following experiments in the assemblyshop where iron supports with a height of over 5,76 m

had been built and the construction of a two storiedadministration building was breadthwise bridged overby a row of columns.

In the years 1844-48 the Royal Milis at theMhlendamm were erected with an inner ironske]eton construction. Hollow columns wjth a

diametre of approx. 36,5 cm up to 20 cm were usedfrom the ground to the t100r carrying in the transverseand longitudinal direction fish belly shaped railwaymetals above the capita]s (Rothe 1849).

Leaving aside the cast iron coIumns of the saw

tooth roof hall of W. Borchert at the Kochstral3e 30

Figure 2Carpet weaving mili, 1857, saw tooth roof

Iron Constructions for factory buildings in Berlin 1441

Figure 3

Locomotive assembly hall A. Borsig, 1844, latticed columns

built in 1866, the most outstandig conSlructions withiron columns before 1880 that should be mentionedwere the low buildings o' the Royal Artillerie shopsat Spandau and the railway shops o' the RoyalEastern Railway.

Also the 'amous 'actories o' L. Loewe at theHollmannstraBe 32 (1870-1882), just like the grindingdepartment and the assembly hall at the HuttenstraBe

17-20 (1896-98), were erected with iron columns. Inthe same way the seven stories o' the Ermeler-Tobacco 'actory at the BreitenstraBe 1I (1877-78)rested on rows of cast iron columns with a diametreof 15 cm up to 42 cm.

Cast iron columns were used for shops andassembly halJs up to the 90's, 'or instance at the

Kappler'sche factory 'or mill building at thePrinzenallee 75-76 (1890), at the industrial court atthe AdalbertstraBe 70 (1898), at the dyeworksSchwendy at the Kpenicker StraBe 7a (1894), andeven at the mounting shops Scha'er & Walcker at the

LindenstraBe 18-19.

Riveted and screwed wrought iron columns were inuse in Berlin 'or industrial architecture only after 1890.The supports were assembled to 1, L, and E profileswhich were held together by cross-shaped or diagonalflat irons. In this manner the assembly shops o' C.Flohr, at the Chausseestral.\e 28, and o' L.Schwartzkopt'f at the ChausseestraBe 20, both machineshops o'L. Loewe (1895 and 1897) at the Huttenstral.\e17, and at the Wiebestral.\e which were tom down in

1994, showed these latticed columns. Also the foundry

o' A. Borsig at Berlin-Tegel (1896-97), just like theboiler plant at the same place (1896-98), and thelocomotive hall (1900) were erected with latticedcolumns. (fig. 3) The AEG machine factory at theFeldstraBe- and Ackerstral.\e (1896-98), the AEGturbine halJ at the Berlichingenstral.\e (1908), and theAEG machine shops at the BrunnenstraBc 107a were'urnished with steel columns, often with a rectangularcross section. (fig. 4).

In the early phase o' industrialization (1808-40) it

was possible to find out the reaction, the hending

1442

Figure 4

AEG VoltastraSe 8-29, 1911, steel columns

moment as well as lateralloading and shearing forcesof weight-carrying structures analytically and partlyrelying on the parallelogram of forces. The tabular

data for strength tests of different materials and theirbest cross section allowed every academically orpractically trained master builder or master craftsman

to define the dimensions for roof structures and floorconslructions, iron colunms and masonry walls.

In the 60's it was possible to determine the crosssection of iron girders by calculating the secondmoment and the section moment. Stress transfer ofthe beam support and frame work truss which wasoften used for industrial buildings could be estimatedby the Ritter'sche method and following the rules of

graphical statics by C. Culmann.

For the first time static stability had to be provenaccording to public announcement from August, 2nd

1864. Paragraph 14 of the announcement asked forall iron cast construction elements to be in suchdimensions as to garantee under continuous stress anabsolute stability of 2,5 kg/per 2 mm2 and a relativestability of 5 kg/per 2 mm 2, and for wrought iron a

stability of 7 kg/per 2 mm 2. The static calculationsand lhe garantee for iron constructions were furnishedby the contracting firms for iron constructions.

M.Mislin

ROOF STRUCTURES

According to commentaries of L. Klasens the architectL. Hesse also designed the first saddleback roof with

the building material of wrought iron in Prussia forthe already above mentioned storehouse (Klasen1876). The construction of the roof resembled a

wooden construction with double-posts-roof,however did not take into calculation loads due towind and snow. The placing of the bowstring girder,rafters and struts to eleminate the arch trust followedthe French wrought iron constructions, foremost themarket hall of Magdalena in Paris (AllgemeineBauzeitung 1838).

The roof construction of the machine shop of A.Borsig at the ChausseestraJ3e (1844) also followed the

model of the triple roof of the Magdalena market hall.For the span of 16,75 m a triangular system withrafters and beams measuring 22,5 cm x 15 cm waschosen. The ron elements were cast iron rafter headsand supporting purlins, wrought iron diagonalmembers and round tension rods which were securedby eye bolts.

The of recent rediscovered drawings disclose thatA. Borsig did not carry out plain iron constructions athis first machine shops at the ChausseestraJ3e(1837-44). Borsig's craft masters A. Pardow and A.

Karchow built 1844 a noticable frameworkconstruction of an English three-dimensional purlinwith lifted horizontal tiebacks, following the modelsof roof system of the machine shop of the London-Birmingham-Railway (1836) and the Hungerfordmarket hall in Manchester (AIIgemeine Bauzeitung1838).

In 1844 the roof of the Borsig locomotive hall atthe Thorstra/3e was erected with a slightly improvedEnglish triangular rafter system without purJins. Tocope with the span of 18,78 m the English models oftriangular roof systems which were introduced for therailway station halls and passangers waiting rooms of

the London-Birmingham-Railroad (1836) werefollowed. The roof framing was put together by twoflat iron guide rails (7,62 cm x 1,27 cm), rafters filledwith wooden battens, cast iron struts with T-shapedcross sections, vertical suspension rods as well astiebacks which coped with the shear strength of therafters (Mislin 2002). (fig. 5).

This construction system was not only used formarket halls and railway stations in England. In the

Iron Constructions for factory buildings in Berlin 1443

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Figure 5Locomotive assembly hall A. Borsig, 1856, addition

50's the roof of a foundry of the Austrian Lloyd inTrieste was built in a similar way as the Borsig's roofwith a rafter system. Through to the 70's this Englishtriangular rafter system was mentioned in themanuals for building constructions of E. Brandt andL. Klasen (Allgemeine Bauzeitung 1857; Brandt1871).

The Borsig machine shops at the ChausseestraBebeing mainly roofed with wooden carpenter roof

structures and only very rarely with combined hangingtrusses made of iron and wood, the resurrected Royalmills at the Mhlendamm displayed with the skeletonconstruction a total innovation which remainedunrivaled for a long time. The unsual roof structurewas sloping from both sides to the middle of thebuilding. The rafters of the pent roof and the joints

were T -shaped rails, whereas the beams were

constructed with cross-shaped cast iron profiles. Thedrawings for the Royal Mills belonged to the propertyof the Prussian Fiscal Department, being drawn up bythe Hofbaurat L. Persius and the mili builderDannenberg (Wiebe 1861). (fig. 6).

The latticed girder which was put to use in the late

40's in bridge art, was introduced to rising structureswith great delay. The roof structure of the market hallat the Rue du Chateau d' Eau (1857-58) was designedprior to a construction of the saw tooth roof for the

Artillerie shops at Berlin-Spandau for which the ruralmasterbuilder Beyer had succeeded in calculating fora latticed girder in transverse direction (1868) (Wiebe1859). (fig. 7).

A. Borsig executed a number of interesting roofconstructions for his shops in the years 1848-58 which

were inspired by the bridge constructions in

1444 M.Mislin

Figure 6Roya! Mils at the Mhlcndamm, 1844-48

commission. The roof system ofthe 15,12 m spannedjoinery was built by the masonry and earpenter masters

A. Pardow and H. MlIer built as rafter roof constl1lctionwith suspended double pitch-roof and tiebacks,suspended and diagonal rods of round bar-steel. Nearly

at the same time with the erection of the rai]way stationHamburger Bahnhof (1847-49) A. Borsig built his newrolling mili in Berlin-Moabit. The roof system of therolling mili was put together by latticed girders with

tiebacks which spanned over a width of 15,20 m and21,50 m. Because of the great areh trust the butments

were supported by the mas siv external masonry wallwhich was ornamented by the architeet J. H. Strack like afortress so that the roof construction was hidden. This

constructural inconsistency was overcome by thelatticed girder roof system of the hammer mili hall(1852-54) with a complete barrel vault roof which mostprobably is unique in the history of industrial building

architecture, performed as one-room eonstruction

without intermediate columns and spanning a total of21,20 m (Mislin 1993).

In this context speciaI mention should be made ofthe barrel vauIt roof designed by the A. Borsig shops

Figure 7Artillerie shop Spandau, 1857-58

[ron Constructions for factory buildings in Berlin 1445

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Figure 8Barrel vault roof A. Borsig, 1852-54, one-room building

for the Dortmunder Bergbau- und Httengesellschaftand for the muck and rolling mili in Wiirtzlila/Finnland(1853-56), Amazingly the firmly fixed framework

latticed girder with walled in tiebacks beneath thefloor and spans for the roof frame of 2, 10m, 23,25 mand 24,80 m, and lantero towers were built before W.Barlow succeeded in erecting the St. Pancras stationin London (Wiebe 1859). (fig. 8).

!856-57 the master craftsmen A. Pardow and O.Sauerteig built a Polonceau truss covering the tendershop of A. Borsig at the ThorstraBe 48-53, composed

of a series of united triangles (Mislin 2002). The ironvertical elements called for a static calculation of theroof structure which was carried out by the mastercraftsmen. Remarkable for the history of constructionsis the faet that up to this date the statistic ealculating

engineer 1. Weisbach had not ca1culated Polonceau

trusses in the second edition of his manual Statics ofsolid bodies (1850-51). (fig. 9).

However the first Polonceau tmss of the Berlinerindustrial building s most probably was buih 1851 for thesmithy of F. A. Egells at the ChausseestraBe 3, spannjng12,60 m. 1856-58 also the machine shop of A. Borsig at

the ChausseestraBe 1 made use of three Polonceautmsses with spans of 11,83 m, 18,37 and 10,50 m, theeonstruction combining wood, cast and wrought iron.

Whereas the struts of the Polonceau trussesremained through the 90's fabricated of wood with arectangular cross section of 21 cm x 21 cm, thecompression columns were usually made of cast ironrails and the tie rods of round rod-steel. For theironworks A. Borsig at Berlin-Moabit the firstPolonceau truss, made of t1at and angle iron was

carried out (LAB Rep 226).

1446

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Figure 9

Polonceau truss roof A. Borsig, 1844, 1856

1866 the building master Bayer developed for theArtillerie shop at Spandau a saw tooth roof truss withbeam support EquaJly new was the triangular framework with ]antern which was executed for thehammer smithy of Schwartzkopff at the AckerstraBe96 made of wood and iron rod diagonals, covering aspan of 23,50 m. (fig. 7).

Beginning at the early 70's more and more iron

constructions were put to use for a]] kinds of roofframings. The cast iron roofs did not display transversedistribution which had been norma]]y employed for thewooden systems shallow pitch roofs by using roofjoists. All the more it became of importance to makeuse of tension elements in oder to balance the raftershear. By manufacturing triangulated systems the roofstructurcs were ment to be non-sliding supporting

structures.

M.Mislin

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Already in 1882 A. V ogt designed a machine shop

for the L. Loewe Kreuzberg complex with an innovativeiron construction. The garden court at the AlteJacobstraBe had already been built over by the machineshop, and the remaining side wings were left without

free spaces. In closing up to these building s with a

western annex new constructive ideas were performed,such as roof and axial construction made of ro]]ed bars,wrought and cast iron supporting elements and cast iron

columns. The placing ofthe assembly ha]] between thealready existing wings without windows resulted in acompletely glazed roof pane. A grid of stecl angles heldpanes of glasses measuring 75 cm x 75 cm. This raof-lighting system could compete with the later on erected

halls at Moabit (1896-98), and the assembly hall s ofAEG, A. Borsig and Siemens & HaJske, built in the

years 1896-99 and 1908-10. (fig. ] O).

Iron Constructions for factory buildings in Ber1in 1447

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Figure 1

Assembly hall L. Schwartzkopff. 891

(1908) (span 25, LOm), and the AEG machine hall at

the HussitenstraSe (1911). (span 31 m) (fig. 15).Compared with the turbine halI the novelty was the

consistent use of steel section instead of latticedgirders and frameworks with small elements and

tieback which had reduced the space of similarassembly hall s before. The lighting effects of a glazedpane between the roof framing had been experienced

DDDti

Figure 12Assembly hall L. Loewe, 1897

before at the machine halI of L. Loewe (1882), themachine hall at the Brusse]s world exhibition (1910),and was further developed by K. Bernhard for the silkweaving milI Michels & Cie. at Nowawes (1912)(Bernhard 1914).

The arrangement of a main hall and subordinate

halIs for the assemb1y which had been first developedby K. Bernhard for StraJ3burg (19 ) and consecutively

o

Iron Constructions for factory buildings in Berlin 1449

Fiure 13

AEG-Assembly hall HussitenstraBe, 1911

in Berlin-Moabit shows the deliberate designing of

the construction, Compared with American factoricsit proves that these principies of construction hadalready been implemented in the 90's for iron and

steel framed structures of machine shops (for instanceNewport Ship Building, 1890, and Berlin lron BridgeCo., 1891, with a fassade of running fenestration, a1so

around the corners).

FLOOR CONSTRUCTlONS

The period of seventy to eighty years use of ironcolumns is closely connected with the introduction offire-resistent floors, a1though columns exploded onfire. Despite the danger of fire at production sites andgrowing standards for industrial bui1dings wooden

floors continued to be in use, and only few combinedconstructions of beams and iron girders were built.

AIso the fire-proof cap vaults with bricks whichwere used at Schinkel' s Bauakademie already 1835,were not introduced for industrial architecture before1850. We found a modest construction of cap vaultsat the glassworks at the Salzufer 4, dating from 1864.

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A. Borsig Polonceau truss 1896

1450

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AEG Turbine hall, ] 908, cross section

On]y in the 80's the cap vaults carne more and more

in use. Besides the typica] inner construction ofwooden beams with ]oad bearing I-girders and hollowcast iron co]umns with capita]s the spaces betweenthe I-girders were filled up with flat brick cap vaultswhich were ]ater on called Prussian cap vaults. Thenew paint mili of the Beringer factory at theEinsteinufer 65 (1889), the AEG works at theAckerstraBe 76 (1893-96) and the small engines shopsby B. Behrens at the VoltastraBe (1911-13) were

furnished with Prussian cap vau]ts.Beam floors across severa] columns which had

been performed at the English docks and storehousesbetween ] 800 and ]839 turned up in Berliner industria]architecture earliest at the storehouse by L. Hesse(1835), at Schinkel' s packing storehouse (1832-35),

and a]so at the administration building of F. A. Egells(1847). Possib]y these floors have been calcu]ated in

neglecting the moment detennination by oversizing

the ]oad-carrying e]ements, simp]y p]acing beamsacross two co]umns, section by section and side byside (Hertwig ]94]).

The new floors of the rebui]t Roya] Milis at theMh]endamm by L. Persius (1848) represent a verysinguJar construction. The beams of 3,76 up to 5,03 m

M.Mislin

]ength were shaped like a fish belly, in each section

they paired two rai]s which were p]aced on thecapita]s of iron co]umns (Rothe 1849). (fig. 6).

Of equaI interest is the construction of a galleryfloor with iron girders at the drilling works of theRoya] Artillerie shop at Spandau (1855), the joist

beams having been rep]aced at the new building(1859) by wrought iron ]atticed girders (Wiebe 1859).

The static advantages of enforcing girders by areverse hanging truss or a reinforced girder wereknown since the midd]e of the 30's. R. Wiegmannimproved the reinforced girder and introduced this

construction together with the Polonceau truss about

1839-40 into the German speaking professionalcirc1es. The reinforced girder, usually a woodenbeam, was p]aced on a cast iron column, the bottombeing connected to the seating with two s]anted

tiebacks. This girder cou]d on]y be performed inindustrial buildings where no massiv ]oads had to becarried (LAB Rep ]0-02).

For the smithy of F. A. Egells at the ChaussseestraBe3 a reverse hanging truss was built in 1850. For floorsof smaller sheds and steam boi]er shops of theKhlstein factory at the Sa]zufer 4 plain and doub]ereverse hanging trusses were performed ] 882, ] 888and 1893.

Corrugated metal floors combined with ironsection girders were not on]y used for pre]iminarystorage bui]dings but fixed with cement screed, even

for mu]ti-storied factories (for instance Kh]stein,Sa]zufer 4, ] 882).

In the 80's the search for suitab]e so]utions for fire-proof floors was enforced to match the growing

standard s of fire protection between stories and animproved ]oad support. The building magazine s andmanua]s, amongst others the Deutsche Bauzeitung of

the architects and engineers association and the latereditions of G. A. Breymann construction manual ofthe 90's, pub]ished a number of iron reinforced blockfloors which eventuaIly were not carried out becauseof costs. In our research work we on]y found very fewreinforced block floors in the drawing p]ans.

The combination between bricks and steel sectiongirders for reinforced block floors which were toimprove the tension strength often fai]ed because oftechnica] or structural defects. Reinforced concrete

floors following the patent of Monier were moresuccessful. This construction was improved incalcu]ation and performance in the 90's by M.

lron Constructions for factory buildings in Berlin 1451

Koenen. After having developed the ribbed floor(1894) which combined concrete ribs made of 1-

girders at a space of 25-30 cm with the concrete floor

as a whole, he designed about 1895 the KoenenscheVoutenp1atte (vault rib) where the iron elementswere p1aced in the middle of the plate and on top ofthe double T-flooring system. The final pieces arethus stressed like brackets whereas the centre piece iscarried like fixed beams. Like this the ribs could beplaced at intervalls of approx. 2 m. Koenensche rib

floors (joinery) and Koenensche Voutenplatten(machine tool shop) were performed for L. Loewe atMartinikenfelde (1897 and 1898) for a use load of I500 kg and spanning 3 m (Mislin 2002). (fig. 12).

Stone floors with solid plate and enforcing ribs onend or joined bricks were rarely used in Berlinershops. In this context mention should be made of that

all buildings with reinforced concrete needed a specialbuilding permit. Only on decree of the ministry forpublic works, on April 16th 1904, standards for the

use of reinforced concrete in design and constructionof building s were released, thereby facilitating abuilding permit (Baltz 1905).

SKELETON STRUCTURES

Plain iron constructions of the Berliner industrialarchitecture were not openly performed, but hiddenbehind masonry walls:

- 1844--48 Royal Milis at the Mhlendammbrcke(fig. 6).

- 1878 Tobacco Factory W. Ermeler & Co.

- 1882 Machine Hall L. Loewe at Kreuzberg(fig. 10).

The factory buildings of L. Loewe at theHuttenstraBe (1896-99) mark a tuming point in the

history of constructions and of industrial buildings.

For the three storied building reinforced rib floors,

cast iron columns and masonry wall were combinedto make a true skeleton building. The outer wallswere reduced to piers and apron walls, instead of thehitherto known masonry walls vast window paneswere created.

At the beginning of the twentieth century the well

known assembly halls by P. Behrens for the AEG at

Moabit (1908) and at Wedding (1911) self-assuredly

represent the skeleton construction of modern

architecture.

REFERENCE LlST

Allmeine Bauzeitung. 1838. 187.

Allgemeine Bauzeitung. 1838.244.

Allgemeine Bauzeitung. 1857. 133; Brandt. E. 1871.

Lehrbuch der Eisenkonstruktionen.

Ausstellungskatalog 1981.Schinkel. K. F.. Werke und

Wirkungen. Berlin.

Baltz. C. 1905. Preul3isches Baupolizeitrecht.Bernhard, K. 1914. Der Neubau der Seidenweberei Miche1s

& Co. in Nowawes bei Potsdam. Z-VDI 58.Hertwig, A. 1941. Die Entwicklung der Statik der

Baukonstruktionen im 19. Jahrhundert. Technikgeschichte:

30.K1asen, L. 1876. Handbuch der Hochbaukonstruktionen in

Eisen. Leipzig.LAB Rep. 226: B 122.

LAB Rep. 10-02: 2139.

Mislin. M. 1993. Zur Wiederentdeckung der Borsig

Bauzeichnungen. 1ndustriebau 3.

Mislin, M. 2002. Industriearchitektur in Berlin. Tbingen:

Wasmuth Verlag.Riemann, O. 1986. K. F. Schinkel. Reise nach England.

Schottland und Paris im Jahre 1826. Mnchen.

Rothe 1849. Konstruktionen.

Wiebe. F. K. H. 1859. Skizzenbuch fr den Ingenieur 17:1-2; 18; 19: 1; 1861. Die Mhle. Stuttgart.