Transport CanadaSafety and Security

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TP 2076ENovember 1997

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Copyright © Minister of Supply and Services Canada, 1995Issued under the authority of the Minister of TransportFirst edition - 1984Second edition - 1987Third edition - 1995Fourth edition -1997

Available in English or French in Canada through many aviation book stores and other booksellers or by mail from

AERONAUTICAL PUBLICATION SERVICES (AARNG)TRANSPORT CANADA

Place de VilleOttawa, OntarioK1A 0N8

Tel: 1-800-305-2059613-993-7284

Fax: 613-998-7416Internet: http://www.tc.gc.ca/aviation

Also available in English and French combined on CD-ROM.

Catalogue No. T52-54/1997EISBN 0-660-17258-5

Copyright

All rights reserved by Transport Canada. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in anyform or by means now known or to be invented, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording,or by any information storage or retrieval system without written permission from Transport Canada , except forthe brief inclusion of quotations in a review.

The information in this publication is to be considered solely as a guide and should not be quoted as orconsidered to be a legal authority. It may become obsolete in whole or in part at any time without notice.

Printed and bound in CanadaPublished and distributed by Transport Canada

WARNING:The information in this publication is current only to date of submission for printing. CANADA AIR PILOT (CAP),CANADA FLIGHT SUPPLEMENT (CFS), AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION PUBLICATION (AIP Canada), NOTAMs, InformationCirculars and amendments to Air Regulations that affect any information in this publication, which are issuedsubsequently, may amend or supplement the information in this manual. They must therefore be consulted toensure that information being used is current.

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL iii

FOREWORD

FOREWORD

Welcome to the challenging world of instrument flying! Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) operation has become themost common mode for cross-country travel for both general aviation and the airlines. Therefore, it is necessaryfor IFR pilots to understand thoroughly the functions and limitations of the system, and the procedures whichmust be followed.

This manual provides students and experienced pilots with information on today’s aircraft, satellite and ground-based instrument systems, departure, en route and approach procedures, and air traffic control regulations. Theemphasis is on approaches, because any malfunction or misinterpretation is most critical in this segment of flight.

The first part of the manual, which deals with the physiological effects and human factors encountered ininstrument flying, applies to both pilots in training and seasoned IFR pilots. The second part reviews the natureand use of principal cockpit instruments, the major instrument systems on board, radio navigation systems and anintroduction to basic instrument flying. It should be read by pilots in training.

Both experienced and student pilots should peruse Part 3, which outlines specific air traffic control procedures forIFR operation, from airspace through to radio procedures.

Part 4 deals with IFR flight procedures from flight planning to the termination of the flight. It should be read byall instrument pilots. Part 5 outlines the theory and application of helicopter attitude instrument flying. Part 6gives a brief outline of suggested IFR training programs including lesson plan titles and length.

Much of the information in this manual is drawn from the Air Regulations, The Canada Air Pilot, the Air TrafficControl Manual of Operations (MANOPS) and the A.I.P. Canada. The reader should have access to the CanadaAir Pilot, the Canada Flight Supplement and En route and Terminal Area Charts as he or she reads Part 4 - IFRFlight Procedures.

Pilots are cautioned that although this manual was current at the time of going to print, certain information maychange from time to time. Therefore, it is imperative that the latest information provided in AIP Canada, CAPand CFS be used while flying at all times.

Please address correctionsadditionssuggestions to:

Transport CanadaAARREOttawa, OntarioK1A 0N8

Fax: 613-990-6215

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUALiv

Transport CanadaSafety and Security

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E D I T O R SF L I G H T T R A I N I N G ( A A R R E )Ross BeckGuy Labrie

The editors wish to thank the following individuals and theirrespective organizations within Transport Canada for theirvaluable contributions to this manual:

D I A G R A M S , M A P SA E R O N A U T I C A L I N F O R M A T I O N S E R V I C E S ( A A R N )

G R A P H I C D E S I G N , L A Y O U T,P H O T O G R A P H Y, C O V E RTR A I N I N G TE C H N O LO G Y SE C T I O N (AARE - TTS)

A E R O M E D I C A L S E C T I O NC I V I L A V I A T I O N M E D I C I N E ( A A R G )

H E L I C O P T E R S E C T I O NFLIGHT TRAINING AND AIR CARRIER STANDARDS

Bill OstranderRob Freeman

F R E N C H V E R I F I C A T I O NF L I G H T T R A I N I N G ( A A R R E )Guy Labrie

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SUMMARY OF CONTENTS

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL v

P A R T 1 :PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS RELATED TO INSTRUMENT FLIGHT

1.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 1-21.2 OXYGEN AND ALTITUDE ............................................................................. 1-21.3 OTHER EFFECTS ......................................................................................... 1-41.4 ORIENTATION AND DISORIENTATION ......................................................... 1-5

P A R T 2 :INSTRUMENTATION, NAVIGATION SYSTEMS AND BASIC INSTRUMENT FLYING

2.1 INSTRUMENTS ............................................................................................ 2-22.2 NAVIGATION SYSTEMS .............................................................................. 2-332.3 BASIC INSTRUMENT FLYING ...................................................................... 2-63

P A R T 3 :AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES

3.1 INTRODUCTION TO AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES ................................................. 3-23.2 CANADIAN AIRSPACE ................................................................................ 3-133.3 IFR SEPARATION ...................................................................................... 3-213.4 RADIO PROCEDURES ................................................................................ 3-24

P A R T 4 :IFR FLIGHT PROCEDURES

4.1 FLIGHT PLANNING ..................................................................................... 4-24.2 DEPARTURE PROCEDURES ........................................................................... 4-74.3 EN ROUTE PROCEDURES ........................................................................... 4-154.4 HOLDING PROCEDURES ........................................................................... 4-194.5 ARRIVAL PROCEDURES .............................................................................. 4-234.6 INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURES ..................................................... 4-364-7 EMERGENCIES .......................................................................................... 4-604-8 TRANSPONDER OPERATION ...................................................................... 4-63

P A R T 5 :HELICOPTER ATTITUDE INSTRUMENT FLYING

5.0 DEFINITIONS ............................................................................................. 5-25.1 THEORY ..................................................................................................... 5-45.2 ATTITUDE AND POWER CONTROL .............................................................. 5-45.3 STABILIZATION SYSTEMS ............................................................................. 5-95.4 INSTRUMENT FLIGHT ................................................................................. 5-95.5 HELICOPTER APPROACHES ........................................................................ 5-125.6 EMERGENCIES .......................................................................................... 5-13

P A R T 6 :IFR TRAINING PROGRAMME

6.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 6-26.2 GROUND TRAINING ................................................................................... 6-36.3 SYNTHETIC FLIGHT TRAINING .................................................................... 6-86.4 FLIGHT TRAINING .................................................................................... 6-10

APPENDICES:

APPENDIX 1: DEFINITIONS ............................................................................... APP-2APPENDIX 2: ABBREVIATIONS ......................................................................... APP-10APPENDIX 3: RULES OF THUMB ...................................................................... APP 15APPENDIX 4: REFERENCES FOR INSTRUMENT FLYING .......................................APP-18

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P A R T 1 :PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS RELATED TO INSTRUMENT FLIGHT

1.1 INTRODUCTION

1.2 OXYGEN AND ALTITUDE

1.2.1 The Atmosphere ............................................................................ 1-21.2.2 From the Air to the Tissues ............................................................ 1-21.2.3 Altitude Effects .............................................................................. 1-31.2.4 Hypoxia ........................................................................................ 1-31.2.5 Prevention of Hypoxia ................................................................... 1-31.2.6 Hyperventilation ........................................................................... 1-31.2.7 Treatment of Hypoxia and Hyperventilation ................................. 1-4

1.3 OTHER EFFECTS

1.3.1 The Effects of Alcohol ................................................................... 1-41.3.2 Drugs ............................................................................................ 1-41.3.3 Fatigue .......................................................................................... 1-4

1.4 ORIENTATION AND DISORIENTATION

1.4.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 1-51.4.2 Sensory Illusions ............................................................................ 1-5

a. Kinesthetic Illusions .................................................................... 1-5b. Visual Illusions ........................................................................... 1-5

1. White-Out and Black Holes ................................................ 1-62. False Horizons ..................................................................... 1-6

c. Vectional Illusions ...................................................................... 1-6d. Vestibular illusions ..................................................................... 1-7

1. Linear Accelerations ............................................................. 1-72. Angular Accelerations .......................................................... 1-73. Graveyard Spin .................................................................... 1-84. Coreolis Effects .................................................................... 1-85. The Leans ............................................................................ 1-8

1.4.3 General Factors ............................................................................. 1-81.4.4 Preventing Disorientation .............................................................. 1-91.4.5 Overcoming Disorientation ........................................................... 1-9

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2.1 INSTRUMENTS

2.1.1 INTRODUCTION

a. Aircraft Instrumentation ........................................................................................................ 2-2b. Instrument Range Markings .................................................................................................. 2-3c. Lighting ................................................................................................................................ 2-4d. Instrument Malfunctions ...................................................................................................... 2-4e. Basic “T” Instrument Panel ................................................................................................... 2-4

2.1.2 PILOT-STATIC SYSTEM AND INSTRUMENTS .................................................................................... 2-5a. General ................................................................................................................................. 2-5b. Principles .............................................................................................................................. 2-6c Inherent Errors ...................................................................................................................... 2-6d. System Malfunctions ............................................................................................................. 2-7e. Pilot Checks .......................................................................................................................... 2-7f. Pitot-static Instruments ......................................................................................................... 2-8

1. Airspeed Indicator and V Speeds ......................................................................................... 2-82. Altimeter ........................................................................................................................... 2-93. Radar Altimeter ............................................................................................................... 2-114. Altitude Alerting Systems .................................................................................................. 2-115. Vertical Speed Indicator .................................................................................................... 2-126. Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator ............................................................................... 2-12

g. Air Data Systems ................................................................................................................. 2-121. General ............................................................................................................................ 2-122. Components ..................................................................................................................... 2-133. Air Data Outputs ............................................................................................................. 2-134. Inherent System Errors ...................................................................................................... 2-13

h. Angle-of-Attack System ....................................................................................................... 2-141. General ............................................................................................................................ 2-142. System Components........................................................................................................... 2-14

2.1.3 GYROSCOPIC SYSTEMS AND INSTRUMENTS ................................................................................ 2-14a. General ............................................................................................................................... 2-14b. Principles ............................................................................................................................ 2-15

1. Rigidity in Space .............................................................................................................. 2-152. Precession ........................................................................................................................ 2-15

c. Gyro Power Sources ............................................................................................................ 2-161. Vacuum Power System ...................................................................................................... 2-162. Electrical Power System .................................................................................................... 2-16

d. Gyroscopic Instruments ...................................................................................................... 2-161. Attitude Indicator ............................................................................................................ 2-162. Heading Indicator ........................................................................................................... 2-173. Rate and Quality of Turn Indicators ................................................................................. 2-184. The Gyrosyn Compass System ............................................................................................ 2-20

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2.1.4 MAGNETIC COMPASS ................................................................................................................ 2-21a. General ............................................................................................................................... 2-21b. Principles ............................................................................................................................ 2-21c. Magnetic Dip ...................................................................................................................... 2-21d. Compass Construction ........................................................................................................ 2-22e. Compass Errors ................................................................................................................... 2-22

1. Deviation ........................................................................................................................ 2-222. Dip Error ........................................................................................................................ 2-23

f. Use of the Magnetic Compass ............................................................................................. 2-24

2.1.5 FLIGHT DIRECTOR SYSTEMS ..................................................................................................... 2-24a. General ............................................................................................................................... 2-24b. Flight Director Indicator ..................................................................................................... 2-24

1. Fixed Aircraft Symbol ...................................................................................................... 2-242. Command Bars ............................................................................................................... 2-243. Glide Slope Indicator ....................................................................................................... 2-244. Localizer Deviation Pointer .............................................................................................. 2-245. Slip Indicator .................................................................................................................. 2-256. Flight Director Control Panel ........................................................................................... 2-25

c. Horizontal Situation Indicator ............................................................................................ 2-25d. Flight Director Computer ................................................................................................... 2-26e. Other Types of Flight Director Systems ............................................................................... 2-26f. Electronic Flight Instrument System ................................................................................... 2-26

1. Primary Flight Display (PFD)........................................................................................... 2-272. Navigation Display (ND) ................................................................................................. 2-273. Display Select Panel (DSP)................................................................................................ 2-274. Display Processor Unit....................................................................................................... 2-275. Weather Radar Panel ........................................................................................................ 2-276. Multifunction Display....................................................................................................... 2-287. Multifunction Processor Unit............................................................................................. 2-28

2.1.6 MISCELLANEOUS INSTRUMENTS.................................................................................................. 2-28a. TCAS................................................................................................................................... 2-28b. HUD ................................................................................................................................... 2-30c. Weather Radar ..................................................................................................................... 2-31d. Mode S Transponder ............................................................................................................ 2-32e. GPWS.................................................................................................................................. 2-33f. Instrument Comparator ....................................................................................................... 2-33

2.2 NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

2.2.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................ 2-33

2.2.2 NAVIGATION AIDS (NAVAIDS) .................................................................................................... 2-33a. Radio Theory ...................................................................................................................... 2-33

1. Wave Characteristics ........................................................................................................ 2-332. Radio Frequency Categories .............................................................................................. 2-343. Radio Waves .................................................................................................................... 2-344. Radio Propagation ........................................................................................................... 2-355. Interference to Aircraft Navigation Equipment .................................................................. 2-35

b. Very-high and Ultra-high-frequency Radio Aids .................................................................. 2-351. VOR ............................................................................................................................... 2-35

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL ix

2. TACAN .......................................................................................................................... 2-363. VORTAC ........................................................................................................................ 2-364. VHF Direction Finding ................................................................................................... 2-365. Omnitest or VOR Equipment Test ..................................................................................... 2-36

c. Radar Systems ..................................................................................................................... 2-36d. Precautionary Use of Navigation Aids ................................................................................. 2-37

2.2.3 VOR NAVIGATION ................................................................................................................... 2-37a. General ............................................................................................................................... 2-37b. VOR Accuracy .................................................................................................................... 2-38

1. Requirement for Checks .................................................................................................... 2-382. VOR Test Facility ............................................................................................................. 2-383. VOR Check Point Signs ................................................................................................... 2-384. Dual VOR Check ............................................................................................................ 2-385. Airborne VOR Check ........................................................................................................ 2-38

c. Aircraft VOR Components ................................................................................................. 2-381. VOR Receiver .................................................................................................................. 2-382. Navigation Indicator ....................................................................................................... 2-393. Track Arrow .................................................................................................................... 2-394. Reference Line ................................................................................................................. 2-39

d. Determination of Position ................................................................................................... 2-401. Heading .......................................................................................................................... 2-402. Position Fix ..................................................................................................................... 2-40

e. Flight to a VOR Station ...................................................................................................... 2-401. Bracketing ....................................................................................................................... 2-402. Track to the Station .......................................................................................................... 2-413. Time Check ..................................................................................................................... 2-41

2.2.4 DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT........................................................................................... 2-42a. General ............................................................................................................................... 2-42b. Basic Principles .................................................................................................................... 2-42c. DME Components and Operations .................................................................................... 2-42d. Flying a DME Arc ............................................................................................................... 2-43

1. Calm Conditions .............................................................................................................. 2-432. Wind Drift....................................................................................................................... 2-443. Arcing to a Final Approach................................................................................................ 2-44

2.2.5 AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER SYSTEM .................................................................................. 2-44a. Description ......................................................................................................................... 2-44b. Limitations and Benefits ...................................................................................................... 2-44c. ADF Components ............................................................................................................... 2-45

1. Receiver ........................................................................................................................... 2-452. Control Box-Digital Readout Type ................................................................................... 2-463. Antennae ......................................................................................................................... 2-464. Bearing Indicator ............................................................................................................. 2-46

d. ADF Operations ................................................................................................................. 2-471. Monitoring....................................................................................................................... 2-472. Homing .......................................................................................................................... 2-473. Tracking from a Station ................................................................................................... 2-484. Position Fix by ADF ........................................................................................................ 2-485. Time Computation .......................................................................................................... 2-48

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2.2.6 RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR .................................................................................................. 2-48

2.2.7 THE INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS) ............................................................................... 2-49a. General Description ............................................................................................................ 2-49b. Localizer .............................................................................................................................. 2-49

1. Ground Equipment .......................................................................................................... 2-492. Signal Transmission .......................................................................................................... 2-503. Localizer Receiver ............................................................................................................ 2-50

c. Glide Slope Equipment ....................................................................................................... 2-511. Transmitter ..................................................................................................................... 2-512. Signal Receiver ................................................................................................................ 2-51

d. ILS Marker Beacons ............................................................................................................ 2-521. General ........................................................................................................................... 2-522. Outer Marker (OM) ........................................................................................................ 2-523. Middle Marker (MM) ..................................................................................................... 2-524. Back Marker (BM) .......................................................................................................... 2-53

e. Lighting Systems ................................................................................................................. 2-531. General ........................................................................................................................... 2-532. Runway Visibility Measurement ........................................................................................ 2-533. Runway Visual Range (RVR) ............................................................................................ 2-53

f. NDBs at Marker Beacon Sites ............................................................................................. 2-54

2.2.8 MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM ..................................................................................................2-54a. System Description ............................................................................................................. 2-54b. ILS Limitations ................................................................................................................... 2-55c. MLS Advantages ................................................................................................................. 2-55d. Approach Azimuth Guidance .............................................................................................. 2-55e. Back Azimuth Guidance ..................................................................................................... 2-55f. Elevation Guidance ............................................................................................................. 2-56g. Range Guidance .................................................................................................................. 2-56h. Data Communications ........................................................................................................ 2-56

2.2.9 AREA NAVIGATION .................................................................................................................... 2-56a. General ............................................................................................................................... 2-56b. VOR/DME ......................................................................................................................... 2-56c. Loran C ............................................................................................................................... 2-57d. GPS .................................................................................................................................... 2-58

1. How does GPS work? ....................................................................................................... 2-582. Differential GPS ............................................................................................................. 2-583. Accuracy, Availability and Integrity ................................................................................... 2-584. GPS Approaches ............................................................................................................... 2-595. En route and Terminal Operations .................................................................................... 2-59

e. OMEGA ............................................................................................................................. 2-59

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f. INS - Inertial Navigation .................................................................................................... 2-591. The System ...................................................................................................................... 2-592. Operation ........................................................................................................................ 2-603. Errors .............................................................................................................................. 2-604. Ring Laser Gyro ............................................................................................................... 2-615. RLG in an INS ............................................................................................................... 2-616. The Strapdown INS ......................................................................................................... 2-617. Advantages of a RLG ....................................................................................................... 2-618. Pilot Procedures ............................................................................................................... 2-61

g. FMS - Flight Management System ...................................................................................... 2-62h. Airspace................................................................................................................................ 2-62

2.3 BASIC INSTRUMENT FLYING

2.3.1 ATTITUDE INSTRUMENT FLYING................................................................................................. 2-63a. Introduction......................................................................................................................... 2-63b. Concept ............................................................................................................................... 2-63c. Attitude and Power Control ................................................................................................. 2-64d. Trim Technique.................................................................................................................... 2-64e. Scan Technique .................................................................................................................... 2-64f. Adjusting Attitude and Power............................................................................................... 2-65

2.3.2 ATTITUDE INSTRUMENT FLYING MANOEUVRES ......................................................................... 2-66a. Stalls and Stall Recovery ...................................................................................................... 2-66

1. Approach Stalls ................................................................................................................ 2-662. Take-off and Departure Stalls ........................................................................................... 2-67

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P A R T 3 :AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES

3.1 INTRODUCTION TO AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES

3.1.1 AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES ................................................................................................................ 3-2a. Air Traffic Control.................................................................................................................. 3-2b. Flight Service Stations ........................................................................................................... 3-2

1. Pre-Flight Planning Service ................................................................................................. 3-32. Airport Advisory Service ...................................................................................................... 3-33. Vehicle Control Service ........................................................................................................ 3-34. Remote Airport Advisory and Remote Vehicle Control Service................................................. 3-35. En route Flight Information Service ..................................................................................... 3-46. Emergency Service ............................................................................................................... 3-47. VFR Flight Plan Processing and Alerting Service................................................................... 3-48. Weather Observing Service .................................................................................................. 3-49. NAVAIDS Monitoring Service............................................................................................. 3-410.Broadcast Service ................................................................................................................ 3-4

3.1.2 FLIGHT INFORMATION SERVICE ................................................................................................... 3-4a. General ................................................................................................................................. 3-4b. Bird Activity Information ...................................................................................................... 3-5c. Chaff Information ................................................................................................................. 3-5d. Severe Weather Information .................................................................................................. 3-5e. Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) ................................................................... 3-5

3.1.3 IDENTIFICATION OF AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES UNITS ....................................................................... 3-63.1.4 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT ........................................................................................................... 3-63.1.5 FLIGHT PRIORITY ....................................................................................................................... 3-73.1.6 CLEARANCES AND INSTRUCTIONS ................................................................................................ 3-73.1.7 NOISE ABATEMENT RUNWAY ASSIGNMENT .................................................................................. 3-8

3.1.8 RADAR ........................................................................................................................................ 3-8a. General ................................................................................................................................. 3-8b. Systems ................................................................................................................................. 3-8c. Procedures ............................................................................................................................. 3-9d. Obstacle Clearance during Radar Vectors .............................................................................. 3-9e. Radar Traffic Information .................................................................................................... 3-10f. Severe Weather Information ................................................................................................ 3-10

3.1.9 VISUAL GROUND AIDS............................................................................................................... 3-10a. Approach Lighting Systems .................................................................................................. 3-11

1. Category I and II .............................................................................................................. 3-112. Other Types of Lighting ..................................................................................................... 3-113. Strobes ............................................................................................................................. 3-114. ARCAL............................................................................................................................ 3-11

b. VASIS - Visual Approach Slope Indicator System................................................................. 3-12c. Aerodrome Markings............................................................................................................ 3-12

1. Runway Markings ............................................................................................................ 3-122. Taxiway Markings ............................................................................................................ 3-123. Ramp Markings................................................................................................................ 3-12

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3.2 CANADIAN AIRSPACE

3.2.1 GENERAL .................................................................................................................................. 3-13

3.2.2 CANADIAN DOMESTIC AIRSPACE ............................................................................................... 3-13a. Northern Domestic Airspace ............................................................................................... 3-13b. Southern Domestic Airspace ............................................................................................... 3-13

3.2.3 CONTROLLED AIRSPACE ............................................................................................................ 3-13a. High Level Controlled Airspace ........................................................................................... 3-14b. Low Level Controlled Airspace ............................................................................................ 3-14

1. Low Level Airways ........................................................................................................... 3-142. Control Area Extensions ................................................................................................... 3-143. Terminal Control Areas .................................................................................................... 3-154. Control Zones .................................................................................................................. 3-155. Transition Areas ............................................................................................................... 3-15

3.2.4 ALTIMETER SETTING REGION .................................................................................................... 3-153.2.5 STANDARD PRESSURE REGION ................................................................................................... 3-153.2.6 CLASSIFICATION OF AIRSPACE .................................................................................................... 3-17

3.2.7 SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE .............................................................................................................. 3-18a. General ............................................................................................................................... 3-18b. Military Operations Areas (MOA) ....................................................................................... 3-18c. Military Activity Areas (MAA) ............................................................................................ 3-18d. Danger Areas ....................................................................................................................... 3-18e. Restricted Areas ................................................................................................................... 3-18f. Advisory Airspace ................................................................................................................ 3-18g. Altitude Reservations ........................................................................................................... 3-19h. Rocket Ranges ..................................................................................................................... 3-19

3.2.8 CANADIAN MINIMUM NAVIGATION PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS AIRSPACE ........................... 3-193.2.9 NORTH ATLANTIC MNPS AIRSPACE .......................................................................................... 3-20

3.3 IFR SEPARATION

3.3.1 GENERAL .................................................................................................................................. 3-21

3.3.2 VERTICAL SEPARATION .............................................................................................................. 3-21A. Minima and Procedures ...................................................................................................... 3-21B. Separation between Flight Levels and Altitudes ................................................................... 3-21

3.3.3 LONGITUDINAL SEPARATION ..................................................................................................... 3-21A. Minima and Procedures ...................................................................................................... 3-21B. Phraseology ......................................................................................................................... 3-21

3.3.4 LATERAL SEPARATION ................................................................................................................ 3-21a. General ............................................................................................................................... 3-21b. Controlled Low Level Airspace ............................................................................................ 3-22c. Change of Direction at and above FL 180 ........................................................................... 3-22d. Lateral Protected Airspace and IFR Instrument Approach Procedures (Low Altitude) ......... 3-22

3.3.5 WAKE TURBULENCE SEPARATION .......................................................................................... 3-23

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3.4 RADIO PROCEDURES

3.4.1 BASIC RADIO PROCEDURES ....................................................................................................... 3-24a. General ............................................................................................................................... 3-24b. Radiotelephony Contact ...................................................................................................... 3-24c. Message Acknowledgement ................................................................................................. 3-24d. Readability Scale and Communication Checks .................................................................... 3-24

3.4.2 RADIO TELEPHONE COMMUNICATIONS...................................................................................... 3-25a. ICAO International Phonetic Alphabet/Morse Code ........................................................... 3-25b. Aircraft Call Signs ............................................................................................................... 3-25c. Ground Station Call Signs ................................................................................................... 3-26d. Numbers ............................................................................................................................. 3-26e. Decimal Points .................................................................................................................... 3-26

3.4.3 COMMUNICATIONS PROCEDURES AT UNCONTROLLED AERODROMES ......................................... 3-26a. General Considerations ....................................................................................................... 3-26b. Establishment of Mandatory Frequencies ............................................................................ 3-27c. Aerodrome Traffic Frequency (ATF) .................................................................................... 3-27d. Use of MF and ATF ............................................................................................................. 3-27e. IFR Arrival Procedures at Uncontrolled Airports . ................................................................ 3-28f. IFR Departure Procedures at Uncontrolled Aerodromes ...................................................... 3-28g. IFR Procedures at Uncontrolled Aerodromes in Uncontrolled Airspace ............................... 3-29

3.4.4 INTERNATIONAL AIR-GROUND COMMUNICATIONS .................................................................... 3-29a. Types of Emission ............................................................................................................... 3-29b. Selective Call System (SELCAL) .......................................................................................... 3-29

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P A R T 4 :IFR FLIGHT PROCEDURES

4.1 FLIGHT PLANNING

4.1.1 REQUIREMENT TO FILE A FLIGHT PLAN ....................................................................................... 4-24.1.2 PURPOSES OF FLIGHT PLANNING ................................................................................................. 4-24.1.3 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN FLIGHT PLANNING ...................................................................... 4-24.1.4 IFR FLIGHT PLAN FORM ............................................................................................................ 4-34.1.5 ICAO FLIGHT PLAN FORM ......................................................................................................... 4-44.1.6 IFR FUEL REQUIREMENTS .......................................................................................................... 4-44.1.7 CHANGES TO THE FLIGHT PLAN .................................................................................................. 4-54.1.8 EQUIPMENT FAILURES ................................................................................................................. 4-64.1.9 ATC CLEARANCE ........................................................................................................................ 4-6

4.2 DEPARTURE PROCEDURES

4.2.1 GENERAL .................................................................................................................................... 4-74.2.2 REQUEST FOR PUSH-BACK ........................................................................................................... 4-74.2.3 PRE-TAXI CLEARANCE PROCEDURES ............................................................................................ 4-7

4.2.4 TAXI CLEARANCE ........................................................................................................................ 4-8a. General ................................................................................................................................. 4-8b. Instrument Check .................................................................................................................. 4-8c. Taxi Holding Position ........................................................................................................... 4-9d. Common ATC Phraseologies ................................................................................................ 4-9e. Transponder .......................................................................................................................... 4-9f. Runway Selection .................................................................................................................. 4-9

4.2.5 IFR CLEARANCE ......................................................................................................................... 4-9a. Basic Procedures .................................................................................................................... 4-9b. Mach Number - Clearances ................................................................................................. 4-11c. Standard Instrument Departures (SID) ............................................................................... 4-11d. Noise Abatement Procedures ................................................................................................ 4-12e. Clearance Read-back ........................................................................................................... 4-12f. VFR Release of an IFR Aircraft ........................................................................................... 4-13g. Take-off Clearance .............................................................................................................. 4-13

4.2.6 TAKE-OFF CRITERIA AND MINIMA.............................................................................................. 4-13a. Take-off Minima .................................................................................................................. 4-13b. Take-off Criteria................................................................................................................... 4-14c. Obstacle and Terrain Clearance ............................................................................................ 4-14

4.3 EN ROUTE PROCEDURES

4.3.1 POSITION REPORTS ................................................................................................................... 4-15

4.3.2 ALTITUDE ................................................................................................................................. 4-15a. General ............................................................................................................................... 4-15b. Minimum IFR Altitudes ..................................................................................................... 4-16c. Altitudes in Designated Mountainous Regions .................................................................... 4-16d. Altitude Reports .................................................................................................................. 4-17

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4.3.3 CLIMB OR DESCENT ................................................................................................................. 4-17a. General ............................................................................................................................... 4-17b. VFR Climb and Descent ..................................................................................................... 4-17

4.3.4 IFR FORMATION FLIGHTS ......................................................................................................... 4-184.3.5 ONE-THOUSAND-ON-TOP ......................................................................................................... 4-184.3.6 CLEARANCE LIMIT .................................................................................................................... 4-18

4.4 HOLDING PROCEDURES

4.4.1 GENERAL .................................................................................................................................. 4-194.4.2 HOLDING CLEARANCE .............................................................................................................. 4-194.4.3 STANDARD HOLDING PATTERN ................................................................................................. 4-204.4.4 ENTRY PROCEDURES ................................................................................................................. 4-204.4.5 NON-STANDARD HOLDING PATTERN ........................................................................................ 4-204.4.6 TIMING .................................................................................................................................... 4-214.4.7 SPEED LIMITATIONS .................................................................................................................. 4-214.4.8 DME HOLDING PROCEDURES .................................................................................................. 4-224.4.9 SHUTTLE PROCEDURE ............................................................................................................... 4-224.4.10 HOLDING PATTERNS DEPICTED ON EN ROUTE AND TERMINAL CHARTS .................................... 4-22

4.5 ARRIVAL PROCEDURES

4.5.1 DESCENT PLANNING.................................................................................................................. 4-23a. Introduction......................................................................................................................... 4-23b. Arrival Fixes ......................................................................................................................... 4-23

1. Terminal Area Fixes - General ........................................................................................... 4-232. Fixes Formed by Intersections ............................................................................................. 4-233. Fix Tolerance Factors ......................................................................................................... 4-23

4.5.2 STAR........................................................................................................................................ 4-24

4.5.3 PROFILE DESCENTS.................................................................................................................... 4-24a. General ................................................................................................................................ 4-24b. ATC Revisions ..................................................................................................................... 4-24

4.5.4 ADVANCE NOTICE OF INTENT IN MINIMUM WEATHER CONDITIONS ......................................... 4-25

4.5.5 CONTROL TRANSFER ................................................................................................................. 4-25a. IFR Units - Towers ............................................................................................................... 4-25b. Initial Contact with Towers .................................................................................................. 4-25

4.5.6 APPROACH CLEARANCE

a. General ................................................................................................................................ 4-26b. Straight-in Approaches ......................................................................................................... 4-27c. Visual - Contact Approaches ................................................................................................ 4-28

1. Visual Approach ............................................................................................................... 4-282. Contact Approach ............................................................................................................. 4-28

d. Position Reports ................................................................................................................... 4-28e. Missed Approach Instructions .............................................................................................. 4-29f. Speed Adjustments - Radar Controlled Aircraft .................................................................... 4-29g. Taxiing ................................................................................................................................. 4-30

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4.5.7 APPROACH AND ALTERNATE MINIMA ......................................................................................... 4-30a. Approach Ban ...................................................................................................................... 4-30b. Landing Minima .................................................................................................................. 4-31

1. Visual References............................................................................................................... 4-312. Altimeter Setting Requirements .......................................................................................... 4-313. Use of Straight-in Minima ................................................................................................ 4-31

c. Alternate Minima................................................................................................................. 4-32

4.5.8 AIRCRAFT CATEGORIES .............................................................................................................. 4-334.5.9 CORRECTIONS FOR TEMPERATURE ............................................................................................. 4-334.5.10 REMOTE ALTIMETER SETTING.................................................................................................... 4-33

4.5.11 TRANSITIONS TO THE APPROACH ............................................................................................... 4-34a. Radar Vectors ....................................................................................................................... 4-34b. On Airways .......................................................................................................................... 4-34c. Off Airways.......................................................................................................................... 4-35d. Arc Transitions ..................................................................................................................... 4-35

4.5.12 APPROACH PLANNING................................................................................................................ 4-35

4.6 INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURES

4.6.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................ 4-36a. Non-Precision Approaches (NPA) ....................................................................................... 4-37b. Precision Approaches............................................................................................................ 4-37

4.6.2 THE INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURE ................................................................................ 4-37a. Procedure Construction ...................................................................................................... 4-37b. Initial Segment .................................................................................................................... 4-38c. Intermediate Segment ......................................................................................................... 4-38

1. Straight-in Approaches ...................................................................................................... 4-392. Procedure Turns ................................................................................................................ 4-40

d. Final Segment ..................................................................................................................... 4-421. Non-Precision Approaches.................................................................................................. 4-432. Turns over the FAF ........................................................................................................... 4-443. Precision Approaches ......................................................................................................... 4-44

e. Missed Approach Segment ................................................................................................... 4-44

4.6.3 VISUAL MANOEUVRING DURING APPROACHES .......................................................................... 4-45a. General ............................................................................................................................... 4-45b. Transition to Visual Flight.................................................................................................... 4-45

1. General ............................................................................................................................ 4-452. Restrictions to Visibility ..................................................................................................... 4-463. Visual Cues ...................................................................................................................... 4-474. Pilot Reaction Time .......................................................................................................... 4-47

c. Circling................................................................................................................................ 4-48d. Missed Approach Procedure ................................................................................................ 4-49

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4.6.4 NDB APPROACHES .................................................................................................................... 4-49a. Station Passage ..................................................................................................................... 4-49b. 5-T Check............................................................................................................................ 4-50c. NDB Approach - Beacon-Off-The-Field .............................................................................. 4-50d. Beacon-On-The-Field Approach .......................................................................................... 4-51

4.6.5 VOR APPROACHES ................................................................................................................... 4-52

4.6.6 LOC AND LOC (BC) APPROACHES ........................................................................................... 4-52a. LOC Approaches ................................................................................................................. 4-52b. LOC (BC) Approaches ........................................................................................................ 4-52

4.6.7 ILS APPROACHES ....................................................................................................................... 4-54a. Cat I..................................................................................................................................... 4-54b. Cat II ................................................................................................................................... 4-54c. Flying the ILS ...................................................................................................................... 4-54

4.6.8 RADAR APPROACHES .................................................................................................................. 4-57a. General ............................................................................................................................... 4-57b. Precision Approach Radar (PAR) ......................................................................................... 4-57c. Aerodrome Surveillance Radar (ASR) .................................................................................. 4-58

4.6.9 RNAV APPROACHES .................................................................................................................. 4-58a. GPS Approaches .................................................................................................................. 4-58

1. General Provisions ............................................................................................................ 4-582. GPS Overlay Approaches ................................................................................................... 4-593. GPS Stand-Alone Approaches ............................................................................................ 4-59

b. Multi-Sensor Approaches ..................................................................................................... 4-60

4.7 EMERGENCIES

4.7.1 DECLARATION OF EMERGENCY .................................................................................................. 4-604.7.2 COMMUNICATION FAILURE IN IFR FLIGHT ............................................................................... 4-614.7.3 REPORTING MALFUNCTIONS OF NAVIGATION AND COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT .................. 4-634.7.4 FUEL DUMPING ........................................................................................................................ 4-63

4.8 TRANSPONDER OPERATION

4.8.1 GENERAL .................................................................................................................................. 4-634.8.2 HIGH-LEVEL AIRSPACE - IFR FLIGHT ........................................................................................ 4-644.8.3 LOW-LEVEL AIRSPACE - IFR FLIGHT .......................................................................................... 4-644.8.4 PHRASEOLOGY .......................................................................................................................... 4-644.8.5 MODE C ................................................................................................................................. 4-644.8.6 VFR FLIGHT ............................................................................................................................ 4-644.8.7 EMERGENCIES ........................................................................................................................... 4-654.8.8 COMMUNICATION FAILURE ....................................................................................................... 4-654.8.9 UNLAWFUL INTERFERENCE (HIJACK) ......................................................................................... 4-65

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P A R T 5 :HELICOPTER ATTITUDE INSTRUMENT FLYING

5.1 DEFINITIONS ............................................................................................................................... 5-25.2 THEORY ...................................................................................................................................... 5-4

5.3 ATTITUDE AND POWER CONTROL................................................................................................ 5-4a. Control and Performance Instruments ................................................................................... 5-5b. Pitch Attitude Control ........................................................................................................... 5-6c. Bank Attitude Control ........................................................................................................... 5-7d. Trim Techniques..................................................................................................................... 5-8e. Instrument Cross-Check ........................................................................................................ 5-8

5.4 STABILIZATION SYSTEMS............................................................................................................... 5-95.5 INSTRUMENT FLIGHT................................................................................................................... 5-95.6 HELICOPTER APPROACHES ......................................................................................................... 5-12

5.7 EMERGENCIES............................................................................................................................ 5-13a. Partial Panel ......................................................................................................................... 5-13b. Autorotation ........................................................................................................................ 5-14c. Unusual Attitudes ................................................................................................................ 5-14d. Inadvertent IMC.................................................................................................................. 5-15

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P A R T 6 :IFR TRAINING PROGRAMME

6.1 INTRODUCTION

6.1.1 GENERAL .................................................................................................................................... 6-26.1.2 ADVICE TO PERSONS CONDUCTING TRAINING ............................................................................ 6-26.1.3 COMPLETION OF TRAINING ......................................................................................................... 6-3

6.2 GROUND TRAINING

6.2.1 COURSE OUTLINE ...................................................................................................................... 6-36.2.2 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 6-36.2.3 VFR REVIEW .............................................................................................................................. 6-46.2.4 FLIGHT PLANNING GENERAL ...................................................................................................... 6-46.2.5 DEPARTURES ............................................................................................................................... 6-46.2.6 EN ROUTE .................................................................................................................................. 6-46.2.7 ARRIVAL ..................................................................................................................................... 6-46.2.8 APPROACHES ............................................................................................................................... 6-46.2.9 EMERGENCIES ............................................................................................................................. 6-46.2.10 FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS ................................................................................................................ 6-56.2.11 NAVIGATION INSTRUMENTS AND EQUIPMENT ............................................................................. 6-56.2.12 COMPASSES ................................................................................................................................. 6-56.2.13 OTHER NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT IN USE .................................................................................... 6-56.2.14 METEOROLOGY - INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 6-56.2.15 AIR MASSES ................................................................................................................................ 6-56.2.16 COLD FRONTS ............................................................................................................................ 6-66.2.17 WARM FRONTS ........................................................................................................................... 6-66.2.18 THUNDERSTORMS ....................................................................................................................... 6-66.2.19 ICING, TURBULENCE, FOG .......................................................................................................... 6-66.2.20 CHARTS ...................................................................................................................................... 6-66.2.21 WEATHER REPORTS .................................................................................................................... 6-66.2.22 WEATHER PLANNING .................................................................................................................. 6-66.2.23 REVIEW AND DISCUSSIONS .......................................................................................................... 6-76.2.24 FLIGHT PLANNING IFR ............................................................................................................... 6-76.2.25 FLIGHT PLANNING COMPUTER PROBLEMS .................................................................................. 6-76.2.26 GENERAL NAVIGATION PROBLEMS ............................................................................................... 6-76.2.27 FLIGHT PLANNING EXERCISE ...................................................................................................... 6-76.2.28 PRACTICE EXAM ......................................................................................................................... 6-7

6.3 SYNTHETIC FLIGHT TRAINING

6.3.1 Basic Instrument Review ............................................................................................................ 6-86.3.2 Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) ............................................................................................ 6-86.3.3 Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range (VOR) ................................................................ 6-96.3.4 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) .................................................................................... 6-96.3.5 Holding ..................................................................................................................................... 6-96.3.6 Approaches and Missed Approaches ........................................................................................... 6-96.3.7 Air Traffic Services (ATS) Clearances/Procedures ..................................................................... 6-106.3.8 IFR Cross Country .................................................................................................................. 6-10

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6.4 FLIGHT TRAINING

6.4.1 INSTRUMENT FLYING ................................................................................................................ 6-116.4.2 AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER (ADF) ................................................................................... 6-116.4.3 VERY HIGH FREQUENCY OMNIDIRECTIONAL RANGE (VOR) ..................................................... 6-116.4.4 DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME) ............................................................................. 6-116.4.5 HOLDING ................................................................................................................................. 6-116.4.6 APPROACHES AND MISSED APPROACHES .................................................................................... 6-126.4.7 AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES (ATS) CLEARANCES/PROCEDURES .......................................................... 6-126.4.8 IFR CROSS COUNTRY ............................................................................................................... 6-12

APPENDIX 1:Definitions .......................................................................................................................................... APP-2

APPENDIX 2:Abbreviations .................................................................................................................................... APP-10

APPENDIX 3:Rules of Thumb ................................................................................................................................ APP-15

3.1 GROUNDSPEED CHECK........................................................................................................... APP-153.2 APPROXIMATE BANK ANGLE FOR RATED TURNS ...................................................................... APP-153.3 RATE OF DESCENT TO FLY A GLIDE PATH ............................................................................... APP-153.4 PITCH (ATTITUDE) CHANGES ................................................................................................. APP-163.5 TO INTERCEPT AN ARC FROM A RADIAL .................................................................................. APP-163.6 TO INTERCEPT A RADIAL FROM AN ARC................................................................................. APP-163.7 LEADPOINTS FOR TURNS TO HEADINGS .................................................................................. APP-163.8 TIME AND DISTANCE CALCULATIONS USING NDB.................................................................. APP-163.9 ALTITUDE CORRECTIONS........................................................................................................ APP-163.10 DRIFT CORRECTION............................................................................................................... APP-163.11 INTERCEPTING NDB TRACKS ................................................................................................. APP-173.12 TURN RADIUS FOR 30° BANK ANGLE...................................................................................... APP-17

APPENDIX 4:References for Instrument Flying....................................................................................................... APP-18

4.1 SYMBOLS AND LEGENDS ON CHARTS....................................................................................... APP-184.2 GENERAL REFERENCE MATERIAL............................................................................................. APP-184.3 INSTRUMENT CRITERIA........................................................................................................... APP-184.4 AIRSPACE INFORMATION ......................................................................................................... APP-184.5 METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION........................................................................................... APP-184.6 REQUIREMENTS FOR AN INSTRUMENT RATING ........................................................................ APP-184.7 SIMULATORS AND GROUND TRAINING DEVICES...................................................................... APP-184.8 NORTH ATLANTIC OPERATIONS.............................................................................................. APP-184.9 AEROMEDICAL INFORMATION ................................................................................................. APP-194.10 CAT II ILS APPROACH REQUIREMENTS ................................................................................... APP-19

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LIST OF FIGURES

P A R T 1

1-1 FROM AIR TO LUNG ........................................................................ 1-21-2 OXYGEN CARRIAGE AND ALTITUDE..................................................... 1-31-3 DECOMPRESSION AND TIMES OF USEFUL CONSCIOUSNESS ..................... 1-31-4 EFFECTS OF HYPERVENTILATION ON O2 LEVELS IN BRAIN AND BLOOD..... 1-41-5 RUNWAY VISUAL ILLUSION ............................................................... 1-61-6 PITCH-UP ILLUSION ........................................................................ 1-6

P A R T 2

2-1 CONTINUOUS OR ANALOGUE DISPLAYS.............................................. 2-22-2 COUNTER AND DRUM DISPLAYS........................................................ 2-22-3 COMBINATION DISPLAY.................................................................... 2-32-4 COLOUR MARKINGS ON INSTRUMENTS ............................................... 2-32-5 WARNING FLAGS ............................................................................ 2-42-6A “BASIC T” - LIGHT AIRCRAFT ............................................................ 2-42-6B “BASIC T” - MODERN JET................................................................. 2-42-6C “BASIC T” - AIRSHIP ........................................................................ 2-52-6D “BASIC T” - VINTAGE TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT......................................... 2-52-7 VENTING OF A PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM .................................................. 2-52-8 DUAL PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM.............................................................. 2-62-9 STATIC PORT .................................................................................. 2-62-10 PITOT TUBE.................................................................................... 2-62-11 OAT GUAGE ................................................................................. 2-72-12 TYPES OF AIRSPEED INDICATORS......................................................... 2-82-13 COMBINATION AIRSPEED/MACHMETER ................................................ 2-92-14 PNEUMATIC ALTIMETER..................................................................... 2-92-15 TYPES OF ALTITUDE ......................................................................... 2-92-16 COMPUTER INDICATOR ALTIMETER.................................................... 2-112-17 RADAR ALTIMETER INDICATOR ......................................................... 2-112-18 ALTITUDE ALERTING SYSTEM ........................................................... 2-122-19 FACE OF VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR ................................................ 2-122-20 INSTANTANEOUS VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR...................................... 2-122-21 ANGLE-OF-ATTACK SENSOR ............................................................ 2-142-22 ANGLE-OF-ATTACH INDICATOR........................................................ 2-142-23 UNIVERSALLY MOUNTED GYRO....................................................... 2-152-24 PRECESSION FORCE........................................................................ 2-152-25 TYPICAL SUCTION GUAGE .............................................................. 2-162-26 ATTITUDE INDICATOR..................................................................... 2-162-27 HEADING INDICATOR..................................................................... 2-172-28 COMPASS CONTROLLER.................................................................. 2-182-29 TURN AND SLIP INDICATOR............................................................. 2-182-30 TURN CO-ORDINATOR ................................................................... 2-192-31 TYPICAL READINGS OF THE TURN CO-ORDINATOR .............................. 2-192-32 AIRCRAFT AT SAME BANK ANGLE, BUT DIFFERENT AIRSPEEDS ................ 2-202-33 MAGNETIC COMPASS ..................................................................... 2-212-34 ISOGONIC LINES ........................................................................... 2-212-35 VFR AND IFR CHARTS SHOWING MAGNETIC VARIATION................ 2-21/22

LI

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F

FI

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LIST OF FIGURES

2-36 CALCULATION OF MAGNETIC FROM TRUE.......................................... 2-222-37 MAGNETIC DIP............................................................................. 2-222-38 COMPASS CORRECTION CARD......................................................... 2-232-39 NORTHERLY TURNING ERROR.......................................................... 2-232-40 ACCELERATION ERROR.................................................................... 2-232-41 FLIGHT DIRECTOR INDICATOR.......................................................... 2-242-42 FLIGHT DIRECTOR MODE SELECTORS................................................ 2-242-43 HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR................................................. 2-252-44 EFIS PRIMARY FLIGHT DISPLAY........................................................ 2-262-45 EFIS NAVIGATION DISPLAY............................................................. 2-272-46 OTHER DATA ON EFIS DISPLAYS ..................................................... 2-272-47 TCAS CAUTION AREA ................................................................... 2-282-48 TCAS CLIMB RESOLUTION ADVISORY .............................................. 2-292-49 TYPICAL HUD DISPLAY ................................................................. 2-302-50 WEATHER RADAR DISPLAY.............................................................. 2-312-51 STORMSCOPE................................................................................ 2-322-52 INSTRUMENT COMPARATOR............................................................. 2-322-53 RADIO WAVE ............................................................................... 2-332-54 TABLE OF RADIO FREQUENCIES........................................................ 2-342-55 TRANSMISSION OF RADIO WAVES .................................................... 2-352-56 NAVCOM CONTROL PANELS ........................................................ 2-382-57 NAVIGATION INDICATOR................................................................. 2-392-58 TRACK BAR DEFLECTIONS ............................................................... 2-392-59 LEFT-RIGHT ENVELOPES .................................................................. 2-392-60 TO-FROM ENVELOPES ................................................................... 2-402-61 VOR INDICATIONS........................................................................ 2-402-62 VOR ORIENTATION....................................................................... 2-402-63 VOR POSITION FIX....................................................................... 2-412-64 BRACKETING A VOR RADIAL........................................................... 2-412-65 VOR TIME CHECK ........................................................................ 2-412-66 DIGITAL DME.............................................................................. 2-422-67 SLANT RANGE MEASUREMENT ......................................................... 2-422-68 SEGMENTS OF A DME ARC............................................................. 2-432-69 STAYING ON A DME ARC .............................................................. 2-432-70 FINAL APPROACH ARC ................................................................... 2-442-71 NDB CONTROL PANELS ................................................................ 2-442-72 FIXED CARD BEARING INDICATOR .................................................... 2-462-73 NDB BEARINGS ........................................................................... 2-462-74 HOMING TO AN NDB................................................................... 2-462-75 BRACKETING AN NDB MAGNETIC BEARING ...................................... 2-472-76 TRACKING FROM AN NDB ............................................................. 2-482-77 POSITION FIX BY NDB .................................................................. 2-482-78 RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR ......................................................... 2-492-79 RMI WITH VOR AND NDB INPUTS................................................. 2-492-80 TRACKING WITH AN RMI ............................................................... 2-492-81 ILS LOCALIZER SIGNAL PATTERN ...................................................... 2-502-82 ILS AREAS OF RELIABILITY............................................................... 2-502-83 GLIDE SLOPE SIGNAL PATTERN ........................................................ 2-512-84 ILS STANDARD CHARACTERISTICS..................................................... 2-522-85 MARKER BEACON LIGHTS ............................................................... 2-522-86 TYPICAL TRANSMISSOMETER INSTALLATION ......................................... 2-53

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2-87 MLS AZIMUTH AND ELEVATION COVERAGE ....................................... 2-552-88 VOR/DME RNAV....................................................................... 2-562-89 AREA NAVIGATION ROUTE ............................................................. 2-572-90 LORAN-C COVERAGE..................................................................... 2-572-91 GPS SATELLITE ORBITS .................................................................. 2-582-92 GPS RECEIVER ............................................................................. 2-592-93 INS CONTROL DISPLAY UNIT ......................................................... 2-602-94 INS MOUNTINGS ......................................................................... 2-612-95 TYPICAL FMS CONTROL UNIT ........................................................ 2-622-96 CANADIAN RNAV ROUTES ............................................................ 2-622-97 ATTITUDE INDICATOR IS CENTRE OF SCAN ......................................... 2-632-98 A STRAIGHT CLIMB ATTITUDE ......................................................... 2-642-99 APPROACH DESCENT ATTITUDE ....................................................... 2-652-100 45° BANK STEEP TURN .................................................................. 2-652-101 EXCESSIVELY LOW PITCH................................................................. 2-67

P A R T 3

3-1 TYPICAL ATC RADAR SCREEN............................................................ 3-93-2 APPROACH LIGHT LEGEND ............................................................. 3-103-3 VASIS AND PAPI ......................................................................... 3-113-4 FINAL APPROACH VASIS PRESENTATION............................................ 3-123-5 CANADIAN DOMESTIC AIRSPACE ...................................................... 3-133-6 CONTROL AREAS .......................................................................... 3-143-7 CONTROL AREA VERTICAL DIMENSIONS ............................................ 3-143-8 LOW LEVEL AIRWAYS ..................................................................... 3-153-9 STANDARD PRESSURE AND ALTIMETER SETTING REGIONS ...................... 3-163-10 AIRSPACE CLASSIFICATION ............................................................... 3-163-11 CMNPS AIRSPACE........................................................................ 3-193-12 NAT MNPS AIRSPACE .................................................................. 3-203-13 LATERAL SEPARATION OF AIRWAYS.................................................... 3-223-14 OFF AIRWAY TRACKS (NON-RNAV) ................................................ 3-223-15 TRACKS ON HIGH-LEVEL VOR AIRWAYS ........................................... 3-233-16 TRACKS ON NDB AIRWAYS ............................................................ 3-233-17 HIGH LEVEL TRACKS - CHANGE OF DIRECTION .................................. 3-23

P A R T 4

4-1 DOMESTIC IFR FLIGHT PLAN ............................................................ 4-44-2 ICAO IFR FLIGHT PLAN .................................................................. 4-54-3 TORONTO DEPARTURE SEQUENCE ...................................................... 4-74-4 EDMONTON AERODROME CHART ...................................................... 4-84-5 TAXI HOLDING POSITION................................................................. 4-94-6 TRANSPONDER CONTROL UNIT......................................................... 4-94-7 SID - PILOT NAVIGATION............................................................... 4-104-8 SID - VECTOR .............................................................................. 4-114-9A NOISE ABATEMENT PROCEDURE A.................................................... 4-124-9B NOISE ABATEMENT PROCEDURE B.................................................... 4-124-10 CHANGES TO ENROUTE MINIMUM ALTITUDES .................................... 4-154-11 DESIGNATED MOUNTAINOUS REGIONS ............................................. 4-17

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4-12 STANDARD HOLDING PATTERN........................................................ 4-194-13 HOLD ENTRY SECTORS................................................................... 4-214-14 LEFT HAND PATTERN ENTRY ........................................................... 4-214-15 DME HOLDING PROCEDURE.......................................................... 4-214-16 PUBLISHED HOLDING PATTERNS ...................................................... 4-224-17 FIX FORMED BY INTERSECTION OF TWO RADIALS ................................ 4-244-18 STAR FOR CALGARY ..................................................................... 4-254-19 PROFILE DESCENT FOR TORONTO..................................................... 4-264-20 ALTITUDE CORRECTION CHART ....................................................... 4-334-21 REMOTE ALTIMETER SETTING ........................................................... 4-344-22 PUBLISHED TRANSITION TO APPROACH ............................................. 4-344-23 DME ARC INTERCEPTION ............................................................... 4-354-24 TYPICAL APPROACH SEGMENTS ........................................................ 4-374-25 STRAIGHT-IN APPROACH CRITERIA.................................................... 4-384-26 TYPICAL ILS APPROACH SEGMENTS .................................................. 4-394-27 VARIATIONS OF THE PROCEDURE TURN ............................................. 4-414-28 PROCEDURE TURN ENTRY SECTORS .................................................. 4-424-29 PROCEDURE TURN AREAS ............................................................... 4-434-30 VISUAL MANOEUVERING AREA - CIRCLING APPROACH ........................ 4-484-31 CIRCLING APPROACH OPTIONS ....................................................... 4-484-32 CIRCLING RESTRICTIONS................................................................. 4-494-33 NDB APPROACH.......................................................................... 4-504-34 BEACON-ON-THE-FIELD APPROACH.................................................. 4-514-35 VOR APPROACH TO FREDERICTON................................................... 4-524-36 VOR/DME APPROACH TO NORTH BAY ........................................... 4-534-37 LOC (BC) APPROACH TO WINNIPEG ............................................... 4-544-38 ILS CAT II APPROACH TO VANCOUVER ............................................ 4-554-39 ILS APPROACH TO TORONTO .......................................................... 4-564-40 ON COURSE, ON GLIDEPATH ........................................................ 4-574-41 PAR TRAFFIC PATTERN ................................................................... 4-584-42 MULTI-SENSOR RNAV APPROACH................................................... 4-594-43 DIGITAL TRANSPONDER.................................................................. 4-63

P A R T 5

5-1 LANDING ON A RIG ........................................................................ 5-45-2 ARCTIC OPERATIONS ....................................................................... 5-55-3 TYPICAL HELICOPTER INSTRUMENT PANEL............................................ 5-75-4 GOING BACK TO SHORE ................................................................ 5-115-5 FAILED ATTITUDE INDICATOR........................................................... 5-125-6 IFR/NIGHT AUTOROTATION PROCEDURE........................................... 5-13

P A R T 6

6-1 IFR GROUND TRAINING .................................................................. 6-26-2 RECOMMENDATION FOR INITIAL INSTRUMENT FLIGHT TEST .................... 6-36-3 LEVEL II PILOT TRAINER.................................................................... 6-86-4 PILOT TRAINER EFIS DISPLAY ............................................................ 6-86-5 LEVEL II FLIGHT TRAINING DEVICE ..................................................... 6-96-6 LEVEL II CONVENTIONAL INSTRUMENTS AT NIGHT .............................. 6-10

LIST OF FIGURES

PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 1-1

PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS RELATED

TO INSTRUMENT FLIGHT

1.1 INTRODUCTION1.2 OXYGEN AND ALTITUDE1.3 OTHER EFFECTS1.4 ORIENTATION AND DISORIENTATIONP

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INTRODUCTION

I nstrument flight, the ability to maintaincontrol of an aircraft without outside visualreferences and often under adverse weatherconditions, is one of the most skilled tasks

a pilot can achieve. Such skill however is not anatural attribute and can only be gained bycareful training, constant practice and amethodical approach. More than any othertype of flying, it demands a suspension of beliefin the physical sensations which we have learnedto trust from birth and substituting learnedresponses to instrument displays. To cope withthis transition we need to understand the body’sresponse to a number of factors in ourenvironment. These include hypoxia andhyperventilation, visual illusions, vestibularstimulation, spatial disorientation and theeffects of fatigue, distraction, anxiety and fear.In this section of the manual the basicphysiological information needed to approachthis job with confidence will be presented, aswell as some detailed guidance on how toovercome spatial disorientation.

OXYGEN AND ALTITUDE

1.2.1THE ATMOSPHERE

The standard barometric pressure at groundlevel is 760 millimetres of mercury (mm. Hg) or14.7 lbs. per sq. inch (psi). In this chapter weare going to use millimetres of mercury becauseit is normally used in physiology, but poundsper square inch will also be given because this isthe calibration of most cabin pressure gauges.

Atmospheric pressure is the product of theweight of gasses surrounding the earth and theirgravitational attraction. It is halved (380 mm.of mercury: 7.3 psi) at 18,000 ft., and becomesone quarter at 34,000 ft. The composition ofthe atmosphere however remains unchanged upto about 100,000 ft. It consists of 78%nitrogen, 21% oxygen and less than 1% carbondioxide and traces of rare gasses. Nitrogen,although the major component, is an inert gasnot involved in respiration.

1.2.2FROM THE AIR TO THE TISSUES

The body requires oxygen in adequatequantities to metabolize (burn) proteins, fats,and carbohydrates to produce the energy for cellmetabolism and body function. Suchmetabolism produces carbon dioxide and water.Carbon dioxide is excreted from the lungs andexcess water is one of the waste materials.

To understand the process of respiration it isnecessary to understand partial pressures. In amixture of gasses under pressure, each gas willexert a pressure equal to its proportion in themixture. This is it’s partial pressure. At sea leveltherefore the partial pressureof oxygen in dry air will be21% x 760 or 160 mm. Hg.As we breathe the dry air ishumidified in the nose andthroat. This introduces thepartial pressure of watervapour which is 47 mm.Hg., a figure constant withincreasing altitude.Therefore the partial pressureof oxygen will be reduced to(760 - 47) x 21% or 150mm. Hg. in the upper partof the lungs. (See Fig. 1-1).

Air is carried to the lungs by a series of tubes callbronchi. These terminate in clumps of tiny airsacs or alveoli which arise from the end of thebronchi like bunches of grapes. Each air sac issmall but their total surface area is almostequivalent to that of a tennis court. The alveoliare surrounded by numerous blood vessels andonly a very thin membrane exists between theblood cells which will carry oxygen to the tissuesand the oxygen in the alveoli.

The oxygen passes from the alveoli to the bloodcells because of the higher oxygen pressure inthe lung and is carried by Hemoglobin to thetissues.

As oxygen enters the cells, CO2 , the endproduct of metabolism, enters the blood and iscarried to the lungs. There it enters into thealveoli and mixes with the O2. The partialpressure of CO2 in the alveolus is normallyabout 40 mm of Hg so the partial pressure ofO2 is reduced to 105-110 mm Hg (150 - 40).

WVPTRSATALVO2

= Water vapour pressure= Tracheal= Saturated= Alveolar= Oxygen

AIR

SATAIR

TR O2

ALVO2

-47WVP

x 21%O2

-40pCO2

760 713 150 110(103)

Pressure in mms. of Hg.

FROM AIR TO LUNGS

���

���

���

���

���

FIG. 1-1 • FROM AIR TO LUNGS

1.2

1.1

PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 1-3

1.2.3ALTITUDE EFFECTS

So far we have been discussing the situation atsea level. As we ascend the total atmosphericpressure will decrease and so will the partialpressure of oxygen. Hemoglobin’s ability tocarry oxygen varies according to an S-shapedcurve (Fig. 1-2). At the top of the curve,where the partial pressure of oxygen is high,oxygen saturation is high. At a partial oxygenpressure of 60 mm Hg however the saturationdrops very sharply. 60 mm Hg is the partialpressure of oxygen at 10,000 ft. and above thisaltitude additional oxygen is required if thetissues are to be adequately oxygenated.

1.2.4HYPOXIA

Hypoxia means a lack of adequate oxygen. Inaviation this is usually due to a reduction inoxygen due to altitude (hypoxic hypoxia) or dueto a lack of blood (hemoglobin) to carry theoxygen (anemic hypoxia). This can occur due toloss of blood from stomach ulcers, menstrualperiods or blood donations. It can also becaused by the hemoglobin being blocked bycarbon monoxide for which it has an affinity210 times that which it has for oxygen. Heavysmokers may have from 5 - 8% of theirhemoglobin blocked in this way meaning thattheir physiological altitude on the ground isalready 5-7,000 ft.!

Hypoxia is insidious. This is its major danger.Even the minor degree of hypoxia experiencedat 5,000 ft. reduces night and peripheral vision.Most pilots can operate safely up to a cabinaltitude of 10-12 thousand ft. if they are ingood health and are not smokers. Above thatthey will begin to experience impaired judgmentand euphoria or lack of concern. Increasinghypoxia interferes with muscular coordination,mental calculation and reasoning power.Unconsciousness may occur before the pilot hasbecome aware of the problem. Althoughdifferent pilots may react differently to hypoxia,each individual pilot will go through the samestages on each occasion. Being exposed tohypoxia in a high altitude chamber therefore is agood method of learning your own reactions. Itdoes not however mean that with unexpectedhypoxia you will always be forewarned.

Although unconsciousness may come on quite

slowly, the time of useful consciousness is muchshorter. This is the time in which we canrecognize the problem and take measures toprevent it. It varies with the absolute cabinaltitude and the rate of ascent. A sudden loss ofcabin pressure at high altitude for example givesmuch less time for reaction than a slow ascent tothe same altitude. Fig. 1-3 gives examples ofthese items and you will notice at above 50,000ft. the time of useful consciousness is 15 secondsor less, the time it takes the blood to circulateonce from the lungs to the brain.

1.2.5PREVENTION OF HYPOXIA

Aircraft oxygen systems are ofthree types. The continuousflow system is the mostcommon although it iswasteful of oxygen. Diluterdemand systems vary thepercentage of oxygen withincreasing altitude by abarostat. At cabin altitudesabove 30,000 ft. pressuredemand regulators are requiredto ensure that the partialpressure of oxygen supplied tothe lung is adequate.

If available, oxygen should be used from theground up at night if cabin altitude is going tobe excessive. Above 10,000 ft. cabin altitudeoxygen should always be available and the pilotsshould watch each other carefully for symptomsof breathlessness, increasing instrument errors,personality changes or evidence of poorjudgement. Smokers will be at particular risk.Keep an eye on the cabinaltitude, be aware of thedangers and you will notbecome a victim.

1.2.6HYPERVENTILATION

The rate at which we breatheis regulated by the amount ofcarbon dioxide in the lungsand the blood. The normalbreathing rate is 12-14 breathsper minute. If we breathefaster than this at rest we do

100

85

0 60 120

15 000 feet - 40 mm. Hg20 000 feet - 23 mm. Hg

%Oxygen in the blood

Partial pressure oxygen (mms. Hg)

10 000 feet S.L.

SAFE

UNSAFE

OXYGEN CARRIAGE & ALTITUDE

FIG. 1-2 • OXYGEN CARRIAGE AND ALTITUDE

DECOMPRESSION ANDTIMES OF USEFUL CONSCIOUSNESS

10,000 feet

20,000 feet

30,000 feet

40,000 feet

50,000 feet

> 1 hour

5-12 minutes

45-75 seconds

18-30 seconds

15-20 seconds or less

FIG. 1-3 • DECOMPRESSION AND TIMES

OF USEFUL CONSCIOUSNESS

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not increase the amount of oxygen in the blood- it is already at its maximum - but we decreasethe carbon dioxide. This causes the blood tobecome more alkaline which in turn leads toconstriction in the blood vessels of the head andneck reducing the blood supply - and so theoxygen supply - to the brain. Fig. 1-4illustrates this.

Hyperventilation is an increase in the rate anddepth of breathing and is caused by stress,anxiety, over concentration and fear. All thesefactors are in play with a difficult instrumentapproach in bad weather conditions. They areparticularly common in inexperienced pilotswho do not yet have confidence in theirabilities. The breathing rate increases andsymptoms begin to appear. These are a feelingof lightheadedness, a coldness around themouth, tingling in the fingers and toes and latermuscular spasms. Paradoxically there is often afeeling of breathlessness which worsens thesituation.

It should be noted that there are severalsimilarities in the symptoms of hypoxia andhyperventilation and that ultimately both ofthem cause a reduction of oxygen delivery to thebrain. The symptoms of hyperventilation willdisappear if the breathing is slowed or thebreath is held temporarily. Often the victimwill feel nausea and lightheadedness for sometime afterwards.

1.2.7TREATMENT OF HYPOXIA AND HYPERVENTILATION

Because the symptoms are similar the treatmentmust deal with both problems safely without thepilot having to make a diagnosis. This can bedone as follows:

1/ Below 10,000 ft. - severe hypoxia is unlikelyand the pilot should slow the breathing rateto 12 - 14 breaths per minute maximum.The breath may be held briefly but avalsalva manoeuvre should not beperformed.

2/ Above 10,000 ft. - oxygen should be turnedon and three or four deep breaths takenimmediately. If the symptoms are due tohypoxia they will improve immediately. Ifthey do not improve the rate of breathingshould be controlled as above.

OTHER EFFECTS

1.3.1THE EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL

Numerous experiments with experienced pilots,both in aircraft and simulators, demonstratethat alcohol and aviation don’t mix. Althoughthe Criminal Code limit for blood alcohol whileoperating a motor vehicle is at present 80mg.%, levels as low as 10 mg.% have beenshown to increase the number of pilot errors inroutine instrument procedures. The effect onthe organ of balance in theinner ear has beendemonstrated to last as long as24 hours when enough alcoholhas been taken to produce ablood level of 100 mg.% Ahangover can be nearly asdangerous as the drinkingitself. Remember, the AirRegulations prohibit acting as acrew member within 8 hoursafter the consumption ofalcohol or while under theinfluence of any amount ofalcohol.

1.3.2DRUGS

Illicit drugs and flying do not mix. If you fly,DO NOT USE ILLICIT DRUGS! Over the counterdrugs such as cold cures, cough medicines,stomach medicines and allergy pills can haveunpredictable effects which may be dangerousunder visual conditions but become lethal whenflying on instruments. Combination of drugssuch as anti-depressants and nasal sprays maycause dangerous elevations of blood pressureand serious irregularities of the heart.Antihistamines and stomach pills are oftenadditive in their effect and may cause sleepinessand depression. Self medication in order to fly isalways dangerous. Don’t be caught out!

1.3.3FATIGUE

Fatigue, either chronic or acute, is a seriousproblem. Particularly when flying oninstruments where accuracy and concentration

Dry Air

Tracheal Gas

Alveolar Gas

Arterial Blood

Mixed Venous

MinimumBrain Level

Normal Hyperventilation

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 180

EFFECTS OF HYPERVENTALATION ON O2 LEVELS IN BRAIN AND BLOOD

200160

O2 Tension - mm Hg

FIG. 1-4 • EFFECTS OF HYPERVENTILATION

ON 02 LEVELS IN BRAIN AND BLOOD

1.3

PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 1-5

are vital, fatigue decreases attention, causespilots to accept lower standards and interfereswith critical judgement. It exaggerates thesymptoms of all the other conditions we havediscussed. It is increased by uncomfortablecockpit conditions, poor eating habits and poorphysical conditioning. It may be caused by, orcan itself cause, sleeplessness and depression. Itis often at its most dangerous at the end of a tripin bad weather where all that remains is thatfinal instrument letdown.

ORIENTATION ANDDISORIENTATION

NOTE:Most of this section is from the “Pilot’s Guide toMedical Human Factors”, Health and WelfareCanada, 1992. Reproduced with permission ofthe Minister of Supply and Services Canada,1993.

1.4.1INTRODUCTION

To most people orientation means being awareof their position in space (and time), but to thepilot orientation is sometimes just knowingwhich way is up. We rely on three systems formost of our orientation. These are thekinesthetic sensors (muscle - bone - joint sense),vision and the vestibular (labyrinth) organs in theinner ear. Vision is the dominant sense and isintegrated with the vestibules whose prime roleis to coordinate eye movements with bodymovements. This is achieved by multipleconnections in the brain between the nervesthat control the eyes and the organs of balance.

On the earth’s surface our sense of orientation isremarkable. Even with the eyes closed we are(subconsciously) aware of the position of all ourbody parts. Standing, we can sense the natureof the surface underfoot. Sitting or lying, wesense the texture of surfaces and are able tomake rapid movements to maintain balance ifcircumstances change.

In flight, orientation is more difficult becausewe are routinely exposed to forces other thangravity. A lot of training and experience isneeded to develop the stored mental imagesrequired for this medium. Often, the sense we

have learned to trust on the ground gives usunreliable information in the air. In instrumentmeteorological conditions (IMC), we must relyon instruments instead of our instincts or wemay become the victim of illusions (falseimpressions) and suffer disorientation. Althoughunderstanding the causes of disorientation willnot avoid its occurrence, it does demystify it andallow us to cope with the consequences.

1.4.2SENSORY ILLUSIONS

A. KINESTHETIC ILLUSIONS

Pilots use the phrase “flying by the seat of thepants” to describe the (subconscious) positionsense used in flight on most days. Whenperipheral vision is limited, however, this sensebecomes dangerously unreliable. Experience hastaught us that gravity acts toward the centre ofthe earth and that the gravitational pull is“down”. In an aircraft making a coordinatedturn, the force we feel is actually centrifugal,acting out from the radius of turn. In a loopingmanoeuvre, the situation is even more bizarrebecause at the top of a loop the blindfoldedpilot would sense the earth’s pull as being up,not down. We need to develop a mentalencyclopedia of unusual positions before we canbegin to analyze correctly our kinestheticsensations; even then they are often wrong. Thewise pilot knows that when kinesthetic sensationsand the instruments disagree, the instruments areright!

B. VISUAL ILLUSIONS

Vision may be separated into central andperipheral, although the two are alwaysintimately connected. Central or focused visionis used for object recognition but peripheralvision is our main source of spatial orientation.Central vision illusions are usuallymisunderstandings of what we see; peripheralillusions are false impressions of movement orrotation.

Central visual illusions are often affected byexpectancy. A pilot’s judgement may be biasedby previous experience and preconception.Pilots accustomed to flying from airfieldssurrounded by tall trees may misjudge theirheight on approaches in the Arctic where thetrees are short and stunted. Pilots accustomedto a wide runway may feel uncomfortably high

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on approach to a narrow runway. The narrowrunway appears to be longer and farther away,causing a late flare and early touchdown. Thiseffect is also responsible for the difficulty thatinexperienced pilots have rounding out at night.Because the runway lights are outside the hardsurface, they make the runway appear wider andthe tendency is to round out high.

A good example of another central visualillusion is shown in Fig. 1-5. This is what apilot sees on a normal 3° approach to twoidentical runways, one of which has a 2° uphilland the other a 2° downhill slope. The uphillslope presents a larger (taller) image at the retinawhich is interpreted as being high: the tendencyis for a low approach to be flown and theaircraft may make contact before the round outhas been completed. The downhill slope givesthe impression of being too low, a flat approachis likely and round out may be made too high.

1. WHITE-OUT AND BLACK HOLES

White-out and black holes, both due to lackof contrast, cause many accidents. In white-out a layer of fresh snow on the groundmerges with a white sky and indistincthorizon to make depth perception practicallyimpossible. A similar effect may be causedby blowing snow, particularly in helicoptersin the hover. Under white-out conditions,experienced pilots have flown aircraft intothe ground while manoeuvring at low levels.Float plane pilots have similar problemsmaking landings on glassy water. It iscommon practice for them to set up aconstant, low-rate descent under theseconditions rather than trying to estimatethe height above the water.

During night visual approaches to runwaysin dark, featureless areas such as unlightedwoods or over water, the lack of ambientclues to orientation interferes with depthperception. Such areas are known as blackholes.

In these conditions, pilots often over-estimate their altitude, and, whileconcentrating on maintaining a constantvisual angle of approach, describe an arcwhich results in premature contact with theground. A frequent altimeter crosscheck isvital to avoid this problem.

Disorientation is alsomore common taking offat night in “black hole”conditions. It isimperative that pilotsmake the transition toinstruments immediatelyupon take off andanticipate possible pitchup illusions (see Fig. 1-6)

2. FALSE HORIZONS

False perceptions of thehorizontal can beconfusing. Lining up with sloping cloudtops, particularly between layers, is notuncommon. At night, when flying oversparsely populated areas,ground lights and starsmay be confused, givinga feeling of tilt or nosehigh attitude. A dimlylit, straight road in thedistance can be mistakenfor the horizon. Takingoff into a black hole, thereceding shoreline maybe mistaken for thehorizon, with disastrousresults.

C. VECTIONAL ILLUSIONS

Illusions of false movement are common anddifficult to ignore. Most car drivers haveexperienced a common vectional illusion. At atraffic light the neighbouring car creeps forwardand you appear to be slipping backward. Manyof us have jumped on the brakes with thissensation! Helicopter pilots, trying to hold atight hover over water, feel they are movingbecause of the motion of the waves: over fieldsthe movement of the grass in the rotor wash orblowing snow create a similar illusion. Illusionsof vertical movement can be caused byraindrops running down the windscreen of anaircraft in cloud.

Angular vection occurs when there is rotation inthe field of peripheral vision. Full-visionsimulators make use of this by moving the sceneoutside the windscreen: the viewer’s sensation isthat the simulator is rotating, not the scenery.The astonishing power of these illusions can befelt at an Imax cinema as the viewer drops from

2% uphill 2% downhill

NORMAL 3% GLIDESLOPERunways of same width and length

FIG. 1-5 • RUNWAY VISUAL ILLUSION

GAt Rest

GAccelerating Accelerating

RR

G

G = GravityR = ResultantI = Inertia

FIG. 1-6 • PITCH-UP ILLUSION

PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 1-7

dizzying heights to the earth while actuallyfirmly seated.

AUTOKINESIS

A small, fixed light viewed steadily at nightappears to move. The movement is actuallycaused by the eyes losing fixation, drifting awayand then jumping back to the target. Pilots,however, have altered course to avoid a collisionwith such lights, believing they are movingaircraft. The feeling can be overcome bydeliberately looking away from the light andthen back again. If lights are multiple, bright orlarge, this illusion is uncommon.

D. VESTIBULAR ILLUSIONS

Vestibular Illusions are the most complex anddangerous. The labyrinth contains two relatedorgans; the otoliths , sensitive to linearacceleration, and the semicircular canals, sensitiveto angular acceleration. Although both organsare similar in function, they will be describedindividually for simplicity.

1. LINEAR ACCELERATIONS

There are two otoliths in each inner ear, setat right angles to each other. One recordsaccelerations in the horizontal plane, theother in the vertical plane. They are locatedin the common bulbus portion at the baseof the semicircular canals and consist ofhairlike fibres tipped by tiny calcium stonesthat project into the fluid (endolymph)filling the vestibular system. These hairfibres sway like weeds in a river current,swept by movements of the endolymphcaused by acceleration forces. Themovements generate nerve impulses whichthe brain interprets as changes of head orbody position in the linear plane.

On the ground this system is accurate, butunder the conditions of flight the otolithscan give rise to incorrect information. Thepitch-up illusion is an example. (Fig. 1-6)When the aircraft is stationary on thetarmac, the otoliths sense only gravity,acting downward. When the aircraftaccelerates for takeoff, a new force is sensedas the hair cells are swept backward by theinertia of the fluid. The brain resolves thetwo forces (gravity and acceleration) as asingle resultant force acting downward andbackward. We have learned to interpret

such a force as the head being tiltedbackwards, so the pilot feels that the nose ofthe aircraft is pitching up. In normalconditions the sensation is corrected byvision, but when a take-off is being made atnight from a well lit airfield into a “blackhole”, it is difficult to ignore. The normalreaction to pitch-up is to push forward onthe stick. Accident reports from such casesoften state “...the aircraft struck the groundat a steep angle on the runway heading”.

With deceleration a similar but opposite(pitch-down) illusion occurs. Suddendecelerations, such as those caused bydropping the speed brakes or lowering theflaps, sway the otoliths forward and thepilot feels that the nose of the aircraft isdropping. This illusion is most likely tooccur on final approach at slow speed andthe reaction of pulling back on the stickmay cause a stall.

2. ANGULAR ACCELERATIONS

The semicircular canals are responsive toangular accelerations. Each canal is filledwith a viscous fluid (endolymph) intowhich sensitive hair cells, similar to those inthe otoliths, project which are affected byfluid movement. There are three canals ineach (inner) ear, lying in the planes roughlycorresponding to pitch, roll and yaw.Movement of the hair cells in the canals isrecognized as rotation.

If a glass of water is rotated, because ofinertia initially the water will move after theglass. In the same way, as we enter a turn,the fluid in the canal system lags behind thebony canal so the hair cells are displaced,telling us we have entered the turn. As theturn is continued the fluid begins to moveand, after 10-30 seconds, the movement issynchronized with the walls of the canal andthe deflected hair cells return to a neutral(upright) position. The feeling of turningwill then disappear but, when the turn iscompleted and the aircraft levels out, inertiawill cause the endolymph to continue toflow, although the canals are now still. Thehair cells will be momentarily swept in theopposite direction and a sensation of anopposite turn will be felt which may last for10-20 seconds. This is the opposite turningillusion.

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3. GRAVEYARD SPIN

The opposite turning effect can cause a verydangerous illusion. An inexperienced pilotenters a spin under instrument conditions.After two or three turns the initial sensationof spinning will disappear. When theappropriate corrective action is taken,however, and the spin stops, the pilot willexperience a sensation of turning in theopposite direction. If this is acted upon,the spin will be re-entered with disastrousresults. Similarly in a spiral dive, pullingback on the stick without correcting forbank feels much like a full recovery and theinexperienced pilot whose sensation ofturning is absent may believe the aircraft islevel and that a recovery has been made.The result of this illusion has been calledthe “graveyard spin”.

4. COREOLIS EFFECTS

The coreolis (excess G) illusion, caused byinappropriate head movements, is the mostconfusing and dangerous of the vestibularillusions. Because the semicircular canalsare interconnected, movement of fluid intwo canals at the same time can cause fluidmovements in the third canal. Here is anactual case:

“The pilot, taking off in marginalconditions, entered cloud. While climbingand accelerating a left turn was initiated andat the same time the pilot turned his headquickly downward, and to the right, tolocate a switch. The semicircular canalwhich initially sensed the acceleration wasrepositioned by this head movement, and asecond canal in a new plane was stimulated.The combined effects caused a movementof fluid in the third canal and the pilotexperienced a violent sensation of tumbling.Because the vestibular organs also stabilizethe eyes by reciprocal connections in thebrain, focused vision was affected and to thepilot the whole scene, including theinstruments, appeared to “rotate”.

Under such conditions it is extremelydifficult to maintain control of an aircraft.

WARNING:

Turning the head sharply while in IMC,particularly if the movement is against thedirection of turn, is extremely hazardous.

5. THE LEANS

The otoliths are very sensitive. Changes inacceleration as small as 0.01 G per secondcan be detected. The semicircular canals areless sensitive and, if the pilot is distracted,roll rates of up to 3° per second may gounnoticed. For example, a pilot, flyingstraight and level, is studying a chart ortalking while the aircraft slowly drops onewing 15°. Becoming aware of the incorrectattitude, the pilots makes a quick recovery.Since the brain did not sense the originalbank but now senses the correction, thepilot will feel that the aircraft is in a 15°bank in the direction of the recovery, eventhough the instruments clearly indicatedlevel flight. The feeling is so compellingthat the pilot leans toward the opposite sideof the aircraft to maintain a feeling ofbalance. The feeling is disturbing ratherthan dangerous but extremely common.Usually, it is short lasting but one welldocumented case in cloud lasted for over anhour.

1.4.3GENERAL FACTORS

It is extremely difficult to mimic theseconditions in the air, even under the hood, butmost can be demonstrated in simulators. Thehead-turning (excess G) phenomenon can bedemonstrated by spinning a blindfolded subjecton a piano stool while head movements aremade. This must be demonstrated with greatcare, however, as the subject can easily bethrown from the stool by the body’s rightingreaction.

Disorientation is not a disease or an illness; evenexperienced pilots suffer from it. Fatigue,inattention, alcohol or a hang-over all makedisorientation more likely to occur. Flying witha cold can also cause problems if one ear clearsbefore the other on ascent. The suddendifference in pressure in the two inner ears mayproduce a short-lasting but acute sense of

PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 1-9

vertigo (spinning) which is known asalternobaric vertigo.

1.4.4PREVENTING DISORIENTATION

Spatial disorientation is not totally preventableand can and does happen to anyone. However,perhaps the most important prevention tool isto know about the various misleading sensationsand to learn how to avoid them when possible.This involves awareness/anticipation, experienceand training, and the pilot’s own capabilitiesand limitations.

A. AWARENESS/ANTICIPATION

Adequate pre-flight preparation, includingknowledge of the weather you are going toencounter during your flight, is veryimportant. Prepare alternate plans for poorweather conditions, and carefully reviewany factors affecting approaches or landings.Avoid physiological factors that influenceyour ability to cope with disorientation likealcohol, fatigue, stress or poor nutrition.

B. EXPERIENCE/TRAINING

The recency and overall level of experienceplay tremendous roles in a pilot’s ability tofly well on instruments. Instrument flyingis a skill which erodes with time; onlyfrequent use of this skill will allow you tomaintain it at your highest - therefore safest- level. Unless you are competent and current,avoid flying IMC.

A good instrument scan helps in preventingdisorientation. It is also important to scanat the right time. It is a good rule to forceyourself to scan more frequently than feelscomfortable, especially when some of thewarning factors for spatial disorientation arepresent.

C. PILOT KNOWLEDGE

As a pilot you must know your capabilitiesand limitations. You should establish amental checklist for yourself, and adjustyour flight accordingly. Establish prioritiesand remember that basic flying tasks comefirst. Do not let over confidence, excessivemotivation or peer pressure interfere withgood judgement.

1.4.5OVERCOMING DISORIENTATION

The following are standard procedures andrecommendations to be used if you think youare suffering from spatial disorientation in anyform:

A. GET ON THE INSTRUMENTS

Increase your scan, understand what theinstruments are telling you, and believethem , regardless of your sensations.Concentrating on the instruments andmaking them “read right” is a definite wayto bring the aircraft under control whendisorientation strikes. It will also shortenthe effects of the symptoms ofdisorientation. Delay intuitive actions untilconfirmed by checking instruments. Thenstay on instruments, but not to the point offixation. Make them “read right” by forcingyourself to establish and maintain a rigorousinstrument scan. Do not try to transitionback and forth between instruments andvisual references.

B. RESTRICT HEAD MOVEMENTS

Minimize head movements to establish aconstant frame of reference from the neck.This will tend to reduce the effects ofdisorientation and shorten the recoverytime.

C. FLY STRAIGHT AND LEVEL

Once you obtain straight and level flightusing your instruments, avoid furthermanoeuvres until you have regained fullorientation and sensory illusions areminimized. If necessary, declare anemergency.

D. USE COCKPIT RESOURCES

If available, use another crew member toconfirm and monitor flight parameters. Ifyou become disorientated for any reason,transfer control to the other pilot; then, geton instruments to regain orientation.Seldom will both crew members experiencedisorientation at the same time. If theaircraft has an autopilot, use it!

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INSTRUMENTATION, NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

AND BASIC INSTRUMENT FLYING

2.1 INSTRUMENTS2.2 NAVIGATION SYSTEMS2.3 BASIC INSTRUMENT FLYINGP

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INSTRUMENTS

2.1.1INTRODUCTION

A. AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTATION

The cockpit instruments in any aircraft can bedescribed in a variety of ways. They may, forexample, be grouped into the following fourbroad, functional categories:

1. CONTROL INSTRUMENTS: Informationrelating to the aircraft’s attitude and powerbeing supplied is displayed on the controlinstruments. Includes attitude indicatorand engine control instruments.

2. PERFORMANCE INSTRUMENTS: Informationrelating to the performance of the aircraft asdetermined by the airspeed indicator,altimeter, vertical speed indicator, headingindicator, magnetic compass and turn co-ordinator or turn and bank indicator..

3. NAVIGATION INSTRUMENTS: Informationrelating to the aircraft’s position in relationto a particular NAVAID or reference pointis presented on the navigation instruments.Can include NDB, VOR, ILS, GPS, INS,Loran C and Omega.

4. MISCELLANEOUS INSTRUMENTS : Theseinstruments present information relating to:

a/ the condition of aircraft systems(hydraulic, electrical, pressurization,oxygen);

b/ the position of aircraft ancillaries andcontrol surfaces (landing gear, flaps,trim systems).

A particular instrument or display may also beclassified into one of the following types,depending upon how it presents theinformation to the pilot:

1. CONTINUOUS OR ANALOG: These displays(See Fig. 2-1) are found in most aircraftinstruments in current usage. The simplestform consists of a circular scale swept by asingle pointer, which allows the pilot todetect trends or changes from the relativeposition of the pointer when a precisereading is not always necessary.

2. DIGITAL: Digital displays (See Fig. 2-2) areideal for the presentation of specificnumerical values and are normallycomposed of some form or combination of:

a/ ELECTRICAL - usually LEDs or lights;b/ COUNTER - a wheel marked with

consecutive numbers which move indiscrete steps from one number to thenext at given change-over points; and

c/ DRUM - a wheel marked withconsecutive numbers or with a scale,which rotates steadily for a continuousoutput.

3. COMBINATION: Combines digital displays forprecise readings with analog displays fortrend information. Most commonlyassociated with EFIS. (See Fig. 2-3)

4. SYMBOLIC: Used to display information of aqualitative nature and to show trends.Symbolic displays generally attempt to showthe graphic relationship between thesymbols presented and the information tobe assimilated by the pilot. An HSI is anexample.

2.1

FLIGHTINSTRUMENT

"MISCELLANEOUS"INSTRUMENT

ENGINEINSTRUMENT

NAVIGATIONINSTRUMENT

FIG. 2-1 • CONTINUOUS OR ANALOG DISPLAYS

LBS. FUEL

REMAINING15

2 1 MILES4 2

FIG. 2-2 • COUNTER AND DRUM DISPLAYS

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 2-3

5. PICTORIAL: Pictorial displays processnavigational inputs and convert them tocreate a visual display of the outside worldtotally within the cockpit. An EFISnavigational display is an example.

Aircraft instruments may also be describedaccording to the following service they provideto the pilot:

1. SITUATION INFORMATION: Generalorientation is provided. The pilot is toldwhat the aircraft is doing, or where it is.The pilot must interpret all availableinformation and combine it with his or herown knowledge and experience to plan andexecute all necessary corrections. Anexample of this type of instrument wouldbe an attitude indicator.

2. COMMAND INFORMATION: The pilot isdirected to his next course of action. This isusually done by the presentation of an errorsignal which must be rectified. Generally,the error signals are derived by the routingof several situation information signalsthrough a precisely programmed computer.A flight director falls into this category.

3. STATUS INFORMATION: Additional datareceived by the pilot which are not directlyconcerned with the actual control of theaircraft. Quantity gauges such as oxygenand fuel would be included as a part ofstatus information.

The manner in which instruments may beinterpreted, under widely varyingcircumstances, can also be categorized as in thefollowing:

1. QUANTITATIVE READING: Quantitativereading is the determination of an exactnumerical value, i.e. the reading of theprecise indicated altitude on an altimeter.

2. QUALITATIVE READING : Judging theapproximate value, the deviation from adesired indication or value, and thedirection of the indication. For example,the cross-checking of an altimeter after aninadvertent nose down pitch change showsthe aircraft to be 50 feet below the desiredcruising altitude and still slowly descending.

3. CHECK READING: Verifyingthat a desired indication orvalue is being properlymaintained. An exampleis the normal cross-checking of an altimeterduring stable, level flight.

4. SETTING: An indicator isadjusted to a desired value,i.e., setting power, or tomatch another indicator,i.e., engine synchronization.

5. TRACKING: Tracking is theintermittent or continualadjustment of aninstrument:

a/ to maintain a desiredindication or value( c o m p e n s a t o r ytracking), i.e., theadjustment of theattitude indicatorpitch bar for level-flight reference,following a largeairspeed change; or

b/ to follow a movingreference (pursuittracking), i.e., thetrack deviation bar of an HSI(Horizontal Situation Indicator) whenintercepting the desired track.

B. INSTRUMENT RANGE MARKINGS

Coloured markings are used on manyinstruments to identify operating ranges:

780 780 HYD FLUID LODUCT OVERTEMP

68 68

97.0 97.0

FUEL FLOW

END

OIL TEMPPRES325325

1580 1580

-CAS-OIL DSPL120120 58 58

NI

PROPTORQ

ITT

FIG. 2-3 - COMBINATION DISPLAY

COLOUR MEANING REMARKS

GREEN SAFE Normally in the form of arcs which depict the normal operating range

YELLOW CAUTION To show limited operation or aprecautionary range

RED DANGER Arcs normally show a range where operation is prohibited, while radial lines depict minimum and maximum safe operating limits.

FIG. 2-4• COLOUR MARKINGS ON INSTRUMENTS

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C. LIGHTING

White lighting is the desired standard forcockpits and instruments, combined with greycockpit interiors. Some of the advantages ofthis combination are:

1/ white lighting permits the unrestricted useof colour;

2/ warning indicators become moreprominent; and

3/ the mounting of black instrument casesagainst a grey background emphasizes thesize and shape of individual instruments.

Individual instruments currently in use may belighted by:

1/ integral lighting, which is built right intothe instrument;

2/ ring, eyebrow, or post lighting, all of whichare fitted to the exterior of the instrumentcase; and

3/ various types of flood-lighting.

D. INSTRUMENT MALFUNCTIONS

Some instruments incorporate warning or OFFflags, which come into view for one of thefollowing reasons:

1/ an instrument or system has lost all or someelectrical power;

2/ the rotor in a gyroscopic unit is operating attoo low a speed; or

3/ the signal received by a navigationalinstrument is either non-existent or tooweak.

NOTE:The absence of warning flags from a display is noguarantee of correct instrument function.Although any instrument is subject to failure ormalfunction, most have no device to indicateserviceability. The pilot must continually monitorto detect any abnormal indication, and thenattempt to determine whether the instrument itselfis at fault.

E. “BASIC T” INSTRUMENT PANEL

The internationally-agreed standard layout forprimary flight instruments is the “Basic T”. The“Basic T” features a compact grouping to reducethe over-all scan, and, since the eye scans more

efficiently from side to side,the primary grouping ishorizontal. Fig. 2-6 A-Dshow examples of the “BasicT” in various types of aircraft.

Components of the “Basic T”are:

1. ATTITUDE INDICATOR:a/ the attitude indicator is

located in prime topcentral position;

b/ a combination of a FIG. 2-5 • WARNING FLAGS

FIG. 2-6B • "BASIC T" - MODERN JET

FIG. 2-6A • "BASIC T" - LIGHT AIRCRAFT

moving horizon and fixed aircraft symbol isideal, since the instrument and earthhorizon are then always aligned duringtransitions; and

c/ the attitude indicator may incorporate theturn-and-slip indicator plus commandinformation.

2. AIRSPEED INDICATOR:a/ the airspeed indicator is located to the left

of the attitude indicator; andb/ it could be fitted with critical speed

markings and/or possibly be oriented toprovide visual cues (i.e., approach speed inthe 3 o’clock position closest to the attitudereference).

3. ALTIMETER:a/ the altimeter is located to the right of the

attitude indicator; andb/ a radio or radar altimeter should be located

nearby when fitted.

4. HEADING REFERENCE:a/ this is located immediately below the

attitude indicator; andb/ HSI is the ideal equipment; when not

fitted, this space could be allotted to theRMI/DRMI.

5. VERTICAL-SPEED INDICATOR:The vertical-speed indicator is located below thealtimeter.

6. TRACK INDICATOR:The track indicator is located below the airspeedindicator when the aircraft is not HSI-equipped.

NOTE:Older or modified aircraft may not conform to thisstandard “Basic T”. Pilots should use cautionwhen changing from one aircraft to another forinstrument flight.

2.1.2PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM AND INSTRUMENTS

A. GENERAL

Aircraft constantly encounter atmospherepressure changes as they climb, descend,accelerate or decelerate. The pitot-static system- sensitive to airspeed, altitude, and rates ofaltitude change - provides the pressure

i n f o r m a t i o ndisplayed on cabininstrumentation.

An outside airtemperature sensormust be installedfor air data systems.

The airspeedindicator is ventedto both pitot and static lines. The airspeedindicator reacts to changes between pitot air andstatic air. The altimeter and vertical speed indicator,however, require venting to only the static line

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FIG. 2-6D • "BASIC T" - VINTAGE TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT

FIG. 2-6C • "BASIC T" - AIRSHIP

Static Port

Pitot Tube

Impact Chamber

On

Off

PitotHeat Switch

120 90 60 30 0 -30°F

05

10

15

2025

100

01200140

0

160

0180

0200

PRESS

ALT

T.A.S.KTS

AIRSPEED

KNOTS

180

160

140

120100

80

60

40200

240 40MPH

MPH

230

10155

0

510

15

20VERTICAL SPEED

100 FEET PER MIN

UP

DN

AIRSPEEDVERTICAL VELOCITYALTIMETER

0

5

9 18 ALT 2

7 36 4

299298

300

FIG. 2-7• VENTING OF A PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM

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(Fig. 2-7). The system shown employs a heatedpitot tube to prevent ice formation, a necessaryfeature for flight in instrument conditions.

B. PRINCIPLES

A pitot-static system supplies air pressuresensations directly to differential pressure flightinstruments for the measurement of aircraftspeed and altitude, as shown in Fig. 2-8.

The pitot tube is a ram air pressure-sensingdevice usually mounted near the leading edge ofthe wing and connected to the back of theairspeed indicator case by a tube. Due to itslocation, the pitot tube is susceptible to foreignmatter such as dirt, water and ice. Aircraft usedfor instrument flight must have a heated pitottube (Fig. 2-7) to reduce the possibility of iceobstructing the intake port. Because foreignmatter may enter the pitot tube, pilots shouldcarefully inspect the pitot tube and test the heatingelement before flight.

The static line vents the pitot-static instrumentsto the outside, or ambient, air pressure throughthe static port. The static port (Fig. 2-9) maybe located in various places on different types ofaircraft and more than one port may be used.Regardless of location, the port is alwayspositioned so the plane of the opening is parallelto the relative air flow. By comparison, theplane of the pitot tube opening is nearlyperpendicular to the relative wind. The pressuresensed at the static ports is transferred to thecabin instruments by a tube.

Because moisture condensation within pitot andstatic lines can cause erroneous instrumentreadings, a condensation sump is usuallyprovided in the system. In addition, some pitottubes (Fig. 2-10) have condensation drains.Aircraft used for instrument flight have analternate static source because the static line canfreeze shut or the static port can ice over.

Generally, on non pressurized aircraft, thealternate static source is in the cabin. Whenused, this source introduces some error in theinstruments because the cabin air pressure islower than outside air pressure due to airflowover the cabin. Airspeeds and altitudes readhigher than normal. The vertical airspeedindicator shows a momentary climb as thealternate static source is opened, followed by

stabilization and normal readings thereafter.

An outside air temperaturesensor is usually a probemounted to a point along theaircraft’s longitudinal axis.The probe compresses theimpaction air to zero speed,thus producing and measuringa stagnation temperature. It isshielded to reduce errors fromsolar radiation and thermalradiation to the relativeairflow.

C. INHERENT ERRORS

Varying magnitudes of the errors described hereare present within the pitot-static system of anyaircraft. Full details of a particular system must,therefore, be obtained fromAircraft Flight Manuals.

DENSITY ERROR:Density error results fromvariations in atmosphericpressure and temperature. Itmust normally be determinedwith the aid of a flight computer(solve for Density and/or TrueAltitude of True Airspeed).Airspeed, mach indicators andpressure altimeters are affectedby density error.

FIG. 2-8 • DUAL PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM

FIG. 2-9• STATIC PORT

FIG. 2-10• PITOT TUBE

POSITION (INSTALLATION) ERROR:This error results from incorrect pressuresensations caused by disturbed airflow aroundthe pitot head and/or static vents. It may beeither a positive or negative value, which variesaccording to:

a/ airspeed;b/ angle of attack;c/ aircraft weight;d/ acceleration;e/ aircraft configuration; andf/ rotor downwash (helicopters).

Position error can be sub-divided into twocomponents:

1/ FIXED - a set of values common to allaircraft of a given type (which can bedetermined from correction charts in theappropriate AFM);

2/ VARIABLE - a random set of overstresses,deformed skin panels, etc.

Airspeed, mach indicators and pressurealtimeters are affected by position error.

COMPRESSIBILITY ERROR:Compressibility error results from air beingcompressed in the pitot tube inlet, generally ataltitudes above 10,000 feet and calibratedairspeed in excess of 200 knots. It generallyproduces indicated airspeed readings that aretoo high.

HYSTERESIS:Hysteresis results from the imperfect elasticity ofaneroid capsules and springs which tend toretain a given shape even though the externalforces have changed. It is present during rapidaltitude changes and for a short durationthereafter. Hysteresis affects pressure altimeters.

REVERSAL ERROR:Reversal error results from induced false staticpressure sensations caused by large or abruptpitch changes which give a momentaryindication in the opposite direction. It affectspressure altimeters and vertical-speed indicators.

D. SYSTEM MALFUNCTIONS

Various blockages of the pitot-static system canoccur. The most common problems are:

1/ the pitot heat has not been activated, or hasfailed, and ice has formed in the intake;

2/ ice has accreted over static vents; or

3/ foreign objects have entered the system.

Blockage effects may be categorized as follows:

CAUTION:Pitot icing can occur at a relatively slow rate,causing a gradual reduction in pitot pressure.This results in a slow decrease in indicatedairspeed rather than a frozen condition.

E. PILOT CHECKS

Pilot checks of the pitot-static system relating tospecific instruments are covered in theappropriate sections. In general:

1/ ensure the removal of protective covers;2/ confirm the functioning of the heater

element; and3/ visually inspect for:

a/ bent or loose pitothead mounting,

b/ fuselage deformationsin the vicinity of thestatic vents, and

c/ foreign material in thepitot tube or staticvents.

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 2-7

INSTRUMENT

ALTIMETER

VERTICAL-SPEEDINDICATOR

AIRSPEEDINDICATOR

STATICBLOCKAGE

"Freezes" atconstant value

"Freezes" atzero

Under-reads inclimb and over-reads indescent

PITOTBLOCKAGE

n/a

n/a

Over-readsin climb andunder-readsin descent

FIG. 2-11• OAT GAUGE

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F. PITOT-STATIC INSTRUMENTS

1. AIRSPEED INDICATOR AND V SPEEDS: Thepilot can receive a great deal of informationfrom the airspeed indicator. Regardless oftemperature or altitude, the airspeedindication is the same for specific aircraftperformance. For example, if the aircrafthas an indicated stalling speed of 62 kts atsea level, it will stall at the same indicatedairspeed at 5,000 ft (all other factors beingequal). Vented to both pitot and staticlines, the airspeed indicator reacts to anychange between ram (dynamic) air pressureand static (passive) air pressure. The greaterthe differential between these two readings,the greater the airspeed.

The instrument (Fig. 2-12, 2-12A)contains a single pressure diaphragmconnected to the pitot line; the airtight casesurrounding the diaphragm is vented to thestatic line. Pitot ram air expands thediaphragm proportional to speed, anddiaphragm movement is transferred to theneedle on the instrument face by means of amechanical linkage.

BASIC AIRCRAFT SPEEDS

Indicated airspeed (IAS) reflects trueairspeed (TAS) only when ICAO standardatmospheric conditions prevail, i.e.,temperature 15°C, and pressure of 29.92 in.Hg at sea level. Calibrated airspeed (CAS)corrects the indicated airspeed for errorsprimarily resulting from the position of thestatic source and, to a much lesser degree,from pitot tube locations. The major errorsare mainly due to differences in airflow overthe static port at varying angles of attack.The errors usually are greatest in the lowand high speed ranges and smallest innormal operating speeds. Calibratedairspeed tables correct the whole range ofindicated airspeed for these installationerrors and can be found in the aircraft flightmanual.

The flight computer calculates the TAS byconverting the IAS under actual conditionsto a standard temperature and pressure.This conversion is necessary because thepitot-static system operates accurately onlyat the standard conditions mentionedabove.

By using a flightcomputer, the pilot cancalculate the TAS byapplying the actual outsideair temperature to thepressure altitude. Someairspeed indicatorsincorporate a TAScomputer (Fig. 2-4)enabling the pilot to readTAS directly from theoutermost scale on theface of the indicator.

AIRSPEED COLOUR

MARKINGS AND V SPEEDS

The face of the airspeedindicator on GeneralAviation (GA) aircraftusually shows both statuteand nautical miles perhour (Fig. 2-4). It alsohas coloured arcs to showimportant speed limitsand operating speed limitsand operating ranges,along with various Vspeeds relating to thecolour markings orairspeed bugs on theinstrument. (see Fig. 2-12 and 2-12A)

Pilots should remember that all of thesemarkings and airspeed limitations on theinstrument are expressed in calibratedairspeeds. Other V speeds can be found inthe AIP, General chapter.

V SPEEDS DEFINITIONS

velocity: stall, power off, cleanvelocity: stall, landing

configurationvelocity: maximum for flap

operationvelocity: maximum for gear

operationvelocity: best angle to climb at

gross weightvelocity: best rate of climb at

gross weightvelocity: manoeuvring velocity: never exceedvelocity: minimum control

speed

VSIVSO

VFE

VLO

VX

VY

VAVNEVMC

FIG. 2-12 • TYPES OF AIRSPEED INDICATOR

FIG. 2-12A • TYPES OF AIRSPEED INDICATOR

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 2-9

The white arc on the airspeed indicatordesignates the flap operating range. The greenarc shows the normal operating range, and theyellow (caution) arc signifies the smooth aircruising range. A red line usually indicates theVne (never exceed) speed. Pilots should neveruse the caution range during turbulentatmospheric conditions. The aircraft manualdefines additional V speeds not shown on theairspeed indicator.

Some airspeed indicators incorporate aMachmeter for high speed operations. Itprovides a continuous indication of the ratio ofan aircraft’s airspeed to the local speed of sound.(Fig. 2-13). Some airspeed indicators alsoincorporate a maximum allowable airspeedpointer which continuously displays themaximum allowable airspeed for a particularaircraft (Fig. 2-12A).

2. ALTIMETER: The altimeter senses the normaldecrease in air pressure that accompanies anincrease in altitude. The airtight instrument caseis vented to the static port. With an increase inaltitude, the air pressure within the casedecreases and a sealed aneroid barometer(bellows) within the case expands. Thebarometer movement is transferred to theindicator (Fig. 2-14), calibrated in feet anddisplayed with two or three pointers. Differenttypes of indicators display indicated altitude in avariety of ways.

Generally, this instrument responds immediatelyto altitude changes. During climbs anddescents, however, the altimeter may lag behindthe aircraft’s actual altitude. For this reason,some lead is necessary when levelling off tocompensate for this characteristic. A simple ruleof thumb is to lead the desired level-off altitudeby 10% of the vertical velocity.

An indication of feet above sea level is possibleonly if the current altimeter setting is in thewindow on the face of the instrument.

Caution should be exercised when reading thethousands of feet pointer or indicator of thealtimeter as it can often be misleading.

ALTIMETER SETTING WINDOW

The altimeter is a calibration unit because theaneroid barometer cannot differentiate betweenactual altitude changes and changes in thebarometric pressure of the airmass itself. Thealtimeter setting window (Fig. 2-14) allows thepilot to set the current altimeter setting on asmall scale, calibrated in inches of mercury. The

indicator responds only toaltitude changes, as long asthe altimeter setting isaccurate and the pilot“updates” the current settingas new reports come in.

An aircraft altimeter whichhas the current altimetersetting applied to the subscaleshould not have an error ofmore than + 50 ft whencompared on the groundagainst a knownaerodrome/runway elevation.Altimeter initial certificationrequirements are + 20 ft. at sea level increasingto + 230 ft. at 40,000 ft. If the error is morethan + 50 ft. the accuracy of the altimeter isquestionable and theproblem should beinvestigated prior to flight.Investigation could includeupdating the altimetersetting, comparing withother altimeters, adjusting forheight of location ofaltimeter and many otherpossibilities.

ALTITUDE DEFINITIONS

Vertical separation of aircraft isbased on local altimeter settings.The definitions below areimportant because pressurevariations en route require changes in the altimetersetting, and TAS computations are based ontemperature and pressure conversions. See Fig. 2-15.

a/ Indicated altitude is read directly from thealtimeter when set to current barometricpressure.

b/ Pressure altitude is read from the altimeter

FIG. 2-13 • COMBINATION AIRSPEED/MACHMETER

FIG. 2-14 • PNEUMATIC ALTIMETER

SEA LEVEL

PRESSUREALTITUDE

TERRAIN

STANDARD DATUM PLANE

TRUEALTITUDE

ABSOLUTEALTITUDE

FIG. 2-15 • TYPES OF ALTITUDE

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when set to the standard barometricpressure of 29.92 in. Hg.

c/ Density altitude is the pressure altitudecorrected for non-standard temperature.

d/ True altitude is the exact height above meansea level.

e/ Absolute altitude is the actual height abovethe earth’s surface.

INHERENT ERRORS

The pneumatic altimeter is subject to thefollowing errors:

a/ Position Error: In some installations,position error can be of considerablemagnitude.

b/ Scale Error: Commonly referred to asinstrument error, scale error is caused by theaneroids not assuming the precise sizedesigned for a particular pressure difference.This error is irregular throughout the rangeof the instrument (it might be -30 feet at1,000 feet and +50 feet at 10,000 feet).The tolerances for this error became largeras the measured altitude is increased.

c/ Mechanical Error: Mechanical error iscaused by misalignment or slippage in thegears and linkage connecting the aneroidsto the display, or in the shaft of thebarosetting knob.

d/ Density Error: ICAO Standard Atmosphereconditions seldom prevail, and the resultingdensity error is only partially offset by thediligent application of correct altimetersettings (station or standard pressure). Itcan generally be disregarded for Air TrafficControl purposes, since all pressurealtimeters in close proximity react in thesame way, and vertical separation ismaintained.

NOTE:Whenever terrain clearance is a factor, the effects ofdensity error should be computed and the necessarycorrection applied, especially during very coldtemperatures. See AIP for detailed method to calculatetrue altitude, or CAP GEN for altitude correction charts.

e/ Hysteresis: This error is a lag in the altitudeindications caused by the elastic propertiesof the materials used in the aneroids. Itoccurs when an aircraft initiates a large,rapid altitude change or an abrupt level-off

from a rapid climb or descent. It takes aperiod of time for the aneroids to catch upwith the new pressure environment; hence,a lag in indications. This error has beensignificantly reduced in modern altimetersand is considered negligible at normal ratesof descent for jet aircraft.

f/ Reversal Error: During abrupt or rapidattitude changes, reversal error occurs; it isonly momentary in duration.

ALTIMETERS ARE SUBJECT TO

THE FOLLOWING EFFECTS:a/ Effect of Mountains: Winds which are

deflected around large single mountainpeaks or through the valleys of mountainranges tend to increase speed, which resultsin a local decrease in pressure (Bernoulli’sPrinciple). A pressure altimeter within suchan airflow would be subject to an increasederror in altitude indication by reason of thisdecrease in pressure. This error will bepresent until the airflow returns to “normal”speed some distance downwind of themountain or mountain range. Windsblowing over a mountain range at speeds inexcess of about 50 knots and in a directionperpendicular (within 30 degrees) to themain axis of the mountain range oftencreate the phenomena known as “Mountainor Standing Wave”.

b/ Downdraft and Turbulence: Downdrafts aremost severe near a mountain and at aboutthe same height as the summit. Thesedowndrafts may reach an intensity of 83feet/second (5,000 feet/minute) to the lee ofhigh mountain ranges such as the Rockies.Although Mountain Waves often generatesevere turbulence at times, flight throughwaves may be remarkably “smooth” evenwhen the intensity of downdrafts andupdrafts is considerable. As these smoothconditions may occur at night, or when anovercast exists, or when no distinctive cloudhas formed, the danger to aircraft isenhanced by the lack of warning of theunusual flight conditions. Consider thecircumstances of an aircraft flying parallel toa mountain ridge on the downwind sideand entering a smooth, intense downdraft— although the aircraft starts descendingbecause of the downdraft due to the localdrop in pressure associated with the wave,

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 2-11

both the rate of climb indicator and thealtimeter will initially not indicate adescent; in fact, both instruments mayactually indicate a “climb” for part of thisdescent.

c/ Pressure Drop: The “drop” in pressureassociated with the increase in wind speedsextends throughout the Mountain Wave,that is, downwind and to “heights” wellabove the mountains. Isolating thealtimeter error due solely to the MountainWave, or from error due to non-standardtemperatures, would be of little value to apilot. Of main importance is thatMountain Waves and non-standardtemperature, in combination, may result inAN ALTIMETER OVER READING BYAS MUCH AS 3,000 FEET.

COMPUTER INDICATOR

Operation of the computer-indicator (Fig. 2-16) is automatic with the application of ACpower. A failure warning flag with the wordOFF, located in the face of the instrument, givesan OFF indication to the pilot in case of apower interruption or a component fault. If theOFF indication is caused by power failure, theflag will disappear when the power is restored.If the OFF indication is the result of acomponent failure, the flag will remainunchanged.

SERVO/PNEUMATIC ALTIMETER

Operation of the servo-pneumatic system isdetermined by the pilot’s mode selection. Theinstrument is energized for operation in theprimary servo mode at take-off or in flight bymoving the RESET/STBY switch to the RESETposition. In the event that the instrument haschanged to the standby mode of operation as aresult of a fault in the system, the pilot mayreset the altimeter to the servo mode byselecting the RESET position. Under “no go”conditions, the system will immediately refer tothe standby mode when the reset switch isreleased. Any of the following conditions willcause the failure-monitor circuit to de-energizethe relay, and the STBY warning flag to appear:

a/ primary power failure;b/ servo amplifier or motor failure;c/ switch failure;d/ relay failure; ande/ gear train failure.

Before flight, the followingchecks should be performed (oras indicated in the AFM):

a/ set current barometricpressure, usingbarosetting knob;

b/ computer-indicator —plus or minus 50 feetof known elevation;

c/ s e r v o / p n e u m a t i cRESET mode — plusor minus 50 feet ofknown elevation andplus or minus 40 feetof computer-indicator display; and

d/ servo/pneumatic STBY mode — plusor minus 50 feet of known elevation.

3. RADAR ALTIMETER: A radaraltimeter (sometimescalled a radio altimeter)indicates absolute altitudeabove the surface of theearth. A typical radaraltimeter (Fig. 2-17)generally has a singlepointer sweeping alogarithmic scale whichexpands toward 0. Itusually features aminimum altitude markerwhich can be set to adesired altitude aboveground and which generates a visual and/oraudio warning when the aircraft descendsto, or is below, the preset value. The radaraltimeter may also feature a warning flagwhich is actuated whenever large pitch orbank angles introduce a slant rangeinaccuracy.

The equipment determines height bymeasuring the time delay between thetransmission of downward-directed radiowaves and the reception of ground-reflectedsignals. Inaccuracies may be present duringflight over any medium into which radiowaves can penetrate (ice, deep snow), orover rapidly changing terrain.

4. ALTITUDE ALERTING SYSTEM: An altitudealerting system works with altimeter data.The desired level-off altitude is set on thealtitude selector during a climb or descent.

FIG. 2-16 • COMPUTER INDICATOR ALTIMETER

FIG. 2-17 • RADAR ALTIMETER INDICATOR

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The pilot is alerted by aural or visual signalsupon approaching the prescribed altitude insufficient time to establish level flight atthat preselected altitude (usually 1,000 ft.above or below the selected altitude). Atypical altitude alerting system is shown inFig. 2-18.

5. VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR: The VerticalSpeed Indicator (VSI) displays the verticalcomponent of an aircraft’s flight path. Itmeasures the rate of change of staticpressure in terms of feet per minute ofclimb or descent. The VSI automaticallycompensates for changes in atmosphericdensity.

The VSI is in a sealed case connected to thestatic line through a calibrated leak(restricted diffuser). Inside the case, adiaphragm attached to the pointer by asystem of linkages is vented to the static linewithout restrictions.

As the aircraft climbs, the diaphragmcontracts and the pressure drops faster thanthe case pressure can escape through therestrictor, resulting in climb indications; thereverse is true during descent. If level flightis resumed, pressure equalizes in the caseand diaphragm within six to nine secondsand the pointer returns to zero rate ofclimb. The vertical speed indicator has100-ft calibrations with numbers every 500ft (Fig. 2-19).

The vertical speed indicator has twoseparate functions. First, it operates as atrend instrument because it shows deviationsfrom level flight before the altimeterregisters any signs. There is no lag in thisfunction. Second, it serves as a rateindicator. The calibrated leak prevents thepressure differential between the case andthe bellows from equalizing immediately,causing an inherent lag. When the aircraftstarts a climb or descent, it takes a fewseconds for a pressure differential to developbetween the same areas and indicate a rateof movement. The same is true whenlevelling off.

In summary, when the aircraft begins aclimb or descent, the instrumentimmediately displays the change in pitch;

however, the pilot mustwait for six to nineseconds for an accurateindication of the rate ofclimb or descent.Nonetheless, the verticalspeed indicator is valuablein sensing deviations froma selected altitude orestablishing a constant rateof climb or descent.

6. INSTANTANEOUS VERTICAL

SPEED INDICATOR: Aninstantaneous verticalspeed indicator (IVSI) displays verticalspeed information with essentially zero timelag. A single pointerindicates rate of altitudechange against a fixedcircular scale much thesame as a vertical speedindicator. (Fig. 2-20).

This instrument is similarin operation to a verticalspeed indicator, exceptthat accelerometers havebeen added to the linkagebetween the capsule andthe pointers. These senseaccelerations of verticalvelocity and provide appropriate motion tothe pointer before any static pressuredifferential has beenestablished.

G. AIR DATA SYSTEM

1. GENERAL: An air datasystem utilises the pitot-static system and is foundon more sophisticatedaircraft. It measures,processes, and convertsaerodynamic andthermodynamic sensationsinto electrical signals,synchro outputs, or digitalcodes.

This system may be used to activate differentialpressure flight instruments and to provideinformation to numerous other aircraftsystems. It may incorporate features such as:

FIG. 2-19 • FACE OF VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

FIG. 2-18 • ALTITUDE ALERTING SYSTEM

FIG. 2-20 • INSTANTANEOUS VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 2-13

a/ separate systems to drive the pilot andco-pilot displays, with comparisonmonitoring between both systems;

b/ self-test circuits; and

c/ internal failure-monitoring circuits.

2. COMPONENTS: A basic air data systemconsists of the following components:

a/ Sensors. Sensors measure ambientatmosphere surrounding the aircraft.All systems use a pitot tube, static ports,and a temperature probe. Morecomplex systems will also make use ofan angle of attack sensor;

b/ Transducers. Transducers convert thesensed pressure, temperature, andangles to voltages, synchro outputs, ordigital pulses. The accuracy andperformance of the transducers governthe over-all efficiency of the entiresystem;

c/ Computer. A computer can be designedto perform a multitude of functions,such as:

1/ calculating TAS, mach number,corrected static pressure, andcorrected outside air temperature,

2/ originating correction signals totransducers,

3/ driving displays,

4/ supplying signals to navigationcomputers,

5/ controlling aircraft pressurization,and

6/ providing inputs to automaticflight control systems and enginefuel control units.

3. AIR DATA OUTPUTS: A complex air datasystem can supply a great number ofoutputs, many of which may be electronicor mechanical variations on the method ofpresenting one basic parameter of flight (eg.static pressure).

Some of the common outputs are:

a/ Pressure Altitude. Sensed static pressureis corrected to pressure altitude basedon the ICAO Standard Atmosphere;

b/ Airspeed. May be presented as indicatedairspeed or converted into the trueairspeed for use in DR navigation or inDoppler and inertial navigationsystems;

c/ Air Density. Computed according toelementary gas laws and used for enginecontrols;

d/ Mach-Number. Calculated from pitotand static pressures;

e/ Air Temperature. Corrected forfrictional heating and air compressionat the temperature probe;

f/ Angle of Attack. True angle of attack isattained by correcting measured angleof attack for airspeed; and

g/ Rate of Change of Altitude and Speed.May be calculated in the computer.

4. INHERENT SYSTEM ERRORS: Central air datacomputers (CADC) are subject to thefollowing errors:

a/ Position Error. This error varies withaircraft type and external configuration.Flight tests are conducted to plot thiserror on an airspeed, altitude, andconfiguration curve. The computermanufacturer designs a correctivemechanism or electrical circuit tocorrect the static-pressure electricalsignal being supplied to all instruments.This results in calibrated airspeed,actual TAS, calibrated altitude, and trueMach indications on the instruments.Because of the individual aircraft typeposition error, the CADC has to be‘tailored’ to that particular aircraft typeand is not suitable for use in othertypes; and

b/ Scale Error. Also referred to asinstrument error, scale error isassociated with a particular set of

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altitude aneroids and varies withaltitude. The individual aneroids of aparticular CADC can be plotted forscale error. A corrective camshaftdesigned to correct the altitude outputsignal is installed to minimize errors.

NOTE:Failure of certain components in instrumentsreceiving inputs from a CADC can result in thedisplay of invalid information without anaccompanying warning flag or light.

H. ANGLE-OF-ATTACK SYSTEM

1. GENERAL: The angle of attack is the anglemeasured between the relative airflow andthe wing chord line of an aircraft.

An angle-of-attack system may be used to:

a/ depict critical angles of attack during anapproach and landing;

b/ provide stall warning;

c/ assist in establishing optimum aircraftattitude for specific conditions of flight,such as maximum range or endurance;and

d/ verify airspeed indications orcomputations.

2. SYSTEM COMPONENTS: An angle of attacksystem consists of the followingcomponents:

a/ Sensors. One or more sensors protrudeinto the relative airflow. There are twocommon types (Fig. 2-21):

1/ the vane acts like an aerofoil andaligns itself with the relativeairflow;

2/ the probe detects the relativeairflow by sensing differentialpressure through ports or slots.

b/ Transducer. Both types of sensors, whenaligning with the relative airflow,generate a signal which is passed to thecockpit indicator either directly orthrough an air data system;

c/ Indicators. Various display methodsand cockpit indicators are in use. Fig.2-22 gives one example. Informationmay be presented in the form of actualangles, units or symbols; and

d/ Stall-Warning Devices.Most systemsincorporate additionaldevices, such aselectrically operated‘stick shakers’ and/orhorns to warn ofimpending stalls andstick pushers whichactivate if stallrecovery action is notinitiated.

WARNING:Displays relating to approach and landingmay be based on the assumption that theaircraft is always in the normal landingconfiguration. For any system which does notautomatically compensate for variations inconfigurations, the pilot must determine andapply the necessary corrections.

2.1.3GYROSCOPIC SYSTEMS AND INSTRUMENTS

A. GENERAL

The gyro instruments include the headingindicator, attitude indicator and turn co-ordinator (or turn-and-slip indicator). Eachcontains a gyro rotor driven by air or electricityand each makes use of the gyroscopic principlesto display the attitude of the aircraft. It isimportant that instrument pilots understand the

FIG. 2-22 • ANGLE OF ATTACK INDICATOR

Flush mounted in side of aircraft

PROBE

AIR SLOTS

AIR FLOW

AIR FLOW

PROBE TYPE VANE TYPE

VANE

FIG. 2-21 • ANGLE OF ATTACK SENSORS

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 2-15

gyro instruments and the principles governingtheir operation.

B. PRINCIPLES

1. RIGIDITY IN SPACE: The primary trait of arotating gyro rotor is rigidity in space, orgyroscopic inertia. Newton’s First Lawstates in part: “A body in motion tends tomove in a constant speed and directionunless disturbed by some external force”.The spinning rotor inside a gyro instrumentmaintains a constant attitude in space aslong as no outside forces change its motion.This stability increases if the rotor has greatmass and speed. Thus, the gyros in aircraftinstruments are constructed of heavymaterials and designed to spin rapidly(approximately 15,000 rpm for the attitudeindicator and 10,000 rpm for the headingindicator).

The heading indicator and attitudeindicator use gyros as an unchangingreference in space. Once the gyros arespinning, they stay in constant positionswith respect to the horizon or direction.The aircraft heading and attitude can thenbe compared to these stable references. Forexample, the rotor of the universallymounted gyro (Fig. 2-23) remains in thesame position even if the surroundinggimbals, or circular frames, are moved. Ifthe rotor axis represents the natural horizonor a direction such as magnetic north, itprovides a stable reference for instrumentflying.

2. PRECESSION: Another characteristic of gyrosis precession, which is the tilting or turningof the gyro axis as a result of applied forces.When a deflective force is applied to therim of a stationary gyro rotor, the rotormoves in the direction of the force. Whenthe rotor is spinning, however, the sameforces causes the rotor to move in a differentdirection, as though the force had beenapplied to a point 90° around the rim in thedirection of rotation. (Fig. 2-24). Thisturning movement, or precession, places therotor in a new plane of rotation, parallel tothe applied force.

Unavoidable precession is caused by aircraftmanoeuvring and by the internal friction ofattitude and directional gyros. This causes

slow “drifting” and thuserroneous readings.

When deflective forces aretoo strong or are appliedvery rapidly, most oldergyro rotors topple over,rather than merely precess.This is called “tumbling”or “spilling” the gyro andshould be avoided becauseit damages bearings andrenders the instrumentuseless until the gyro iserected again. Some of theolder gyros have caging devices to hold thegimbals in place. Even though cagingcauses greater than normal wear, older gyrosshould be caged during aerobaticmanoeuvres to avoiddamage to the instrument.The gyro may be erectedor reset by a caging knob.

Many gyro instrumentsmanufactured today havehigher attitude limitationsthan the older types.These instruments do not“tumble” when the gyrolimits are exceeded, but,however, do not reflectpitch attitude beyond 85°nose up or nose downfrom level flight. Beyondthese limits the newer gyros give incorrectreadings. These gyros have a self-erectingmechanism that eliminates the need forcaging. The tumble limits of older gyrosand the attitude limitations of the newergyros follow.

FIG. 2-23 • UNIVERSALLY MOUNTED GYRO

FIG. 2-24 • PRECESSION FORCE

INSTRUMENT

ATTITUDEINDICATORS

HEADINGINDICATORS

NEW TYPE

360° of bank

85° of pitch

85° of bank

85° of pitch

OLD TYPE

100° of bank

70° of pitch

55° of bank

55° of pitch

Plane ofPrecession

Plane ofForce

GimbalRings

Rotor

Plane ofRotation

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C. GYRO POWER SOURCES:Air or electricity supply the power to operategyro instruments in light aircraft. If thedirectional indicator and attitude indicator areair-driven (as they generally are), the turn-and-slip indicator is electrically powered. Theadvantage of this arrangement is that if thevacuum system (which supplies air) fails, theinstrument pilot still has the compass and theturn indicator for attitude and directionreference, in addition to the pitot-staticinstruments.

1. VACUUM POWER SYSTEM: Air-driven gyrosnormally are powered by a vacuum pumpattached to and driven by the engine.Suction lines connect the pump to theinstruments, drawing cabin air through thefiltered openings in the instrument case. Asthe air enters the case, it is accelerated anddirected against small “buckets” cast intothe gyro wheel. A regulator is attachedbetween the pump and the gyro instrumentcase to control suction pressure. There isnormally a vacuum gauge, suction gauge(Fig. 2-25) or warning light. Because aconstant gyro speed is essential for reliableinstrument readings, the correct suctionpressure is maintained with a vacuumpressure regulator.

The air is drawn through a filter, to theinstruments and then to the pump where itis vented to atmosphere. The pilot shouldconsult the aircraft operating manual forspecific information with regard to vacuumsystem normal operating values. Low gyrorotation speeds cause slow instrumentresponse or lagging indications, while fastgyro speeds cause the instruments tooverreact in addition to wearing the gyrobearings faster and decreasing gyro life.

2. ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM: An electricgyro, normally used to drive the turncoordinator or turn-and-slip indicator,operates like a small electric motor with thespinning gyro acting as the motor armature.Gyro speed in these instruments isapproximately 8,000 rpm.

Aircraft that normally operate at highaltitudes do not use a vacuum system topower flight instruments because pumpefficiency is limited in the thin, cold air.

I n s t e a d , a l t e r n a t i n gcurrent (a.c.) drives thegyros in the heading andattitude indicators. Thea.c. power is provided byinverters that convertdirect current toalternating current. Insome cases, the a.c. poweris supplied directly fromt h e e n g i n e - d r i v e nalternator or generator.

D. GYROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTS

1. ATTITUDE INDICATOR

BASIC COMPONENTS AND OPERATION

The purpose of the attitude indicator is topresent the pilot with acontinuous picture of theaircraft’s attitude inrelation to the surface ofthe earth. Fig. 2-26shows the face of a typicalattitude indicator. Itshould be noted that otherattitude indicators differ indetails of presentation.

Pitch attitudes aredepicted by the miniaturea i r c r a f t ’ s r e l a t i v emovement up or down inrelation to the horizon bar, also called thegyro or attitude horizon. Usually at leastfour pitch reference lines are incorporatedinto the instrument. Two are below theartificial horizon bar and two are above.

The bank indicator, normally located at thetop of the instrument, shows the degree ofbank during turns through the use of indexmarks. These are spaced at 10° intervalsthrough 30°, with larger marks placed at30°, 60° and 90° bank positions.

The nose of the aircraft is depicted by asmall white dot located between the fixedset of wings or by the point of the triangleas in Fig. 2-26. The sky is represented by alight blue and the earth is shown by blackor brown shading. Converging lines givethe instrument a three-dimensional effect.

5

64

USCT I ON

IN NG

FIG. 2-25 • TYPICAL SUCTION GAUGE

FIG. 2-26 • ATTITUDE INDICATOR

INSTRUMENTATION, NAVIGATION SYSTEMS & BASIC INSTRUMENT FLYING

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 2-17

The small knob near the bottom of theinstrument is used for vertical adjustment ofthe miniature aircraft. During straight-and-level flight the miniature aircraft should beadjusted so that it is superimposed on thehorizon bar.

Once the artificial horizon line is alignedwith the natural horizon of the earth duringinitial erection, the artificial horizon is kepthorizontal by the gyro on which it ismounted. An erection mechanismautomatically rights the gyro whenprecession occurs due to manoeuvres orfriction. When the older-type gyro tumblesas a result of extreme attitude changes, therotor normally precesses slowly back to thehorizontal plane.

Even an attitude indicator in per fectcondition can give slight erroneousreadings. Small errors due to accelerationand deceleration are not significant becausethe erection device corrects them promptly;nonetheless, the pilot should be aware ofthem (refer to the paragraphs below). Largeerrors may be caused by wear, dirty gimbalrings, or out-of-balance parts. Warningflags (see Fig. 2-26) may mean either thatthe instrument is not receiving adequateelectrical power or that there is a problemwith the gyro. Refer to the AFM forspecific details.

Principal Attitude Indicator ErrorsTURN ERROR

During a normal co-ordinated turn,centrifugal force causes the gyro to precesstoward the inside of the turn. Thisprecession increases as the bank steepens;therefore, it is greatest during the actualturn. The error disappears as the aircraftrolls out at the end of a 180° turn at anormal rollout rate.

Therefore, when performing a steep turn,the pilot may use the attitude indicator forrolling in and out of the turn, but shoulduse other instruments (VSI and altimeter)during the turn for specific pitchinformation.

ACCELERATION ERROR

As the aircraft accelerates (e.g., during

takeoff ), there is another type of gyroprecession which causes the horizon bar tomove down, indicating a slight pitch upattitude. Therefore, takeoffs in lowvisibility require the use of otherinstruments such as the altimeter toconfirm that a positive rate of climb isestablished immediately after takeoff.

DECELERATION ERROR

Deceleration causes the horizon bar to moveup, indicating a false pitch down attitude.

ADDITIONAL ASPECTS

Because the attitude indicator is the mostimportant instrument during IFR flight, thepilot should be aware of some additionaluses and characteristics:

a/ if the attitude indicator has nottumbled, it can assist the pilot greatly inrecovering from unusual attitudes;

b/ the attitude indicator displays the degreeof bank used during a turn, but itcannot provide information about thequality (co-ordination) of the turn. Co-ordination can be determined only byusing the ball in the turn indicator; and

c/ the rate of turn is not shown by theattitude indicator but rather the turnindicator. When performing standardrate turns, the pilot should establish theinitial angle of bank by using theattitude indicator, then check the turnindicator to ascertain if the bank angleis correct. After making any necessarycorrections, the pilot maintains theresulting bank on theattitude indicator.

2. HEADING INDICATOR: Theheading indicator, (Fig. 2-27) formerly called thedirectional gyro, uses theprinciple of gyroscopicrigidity to provide a stableheading reference. Thepilot should rememberthat real precession, causedby manoeuvres andinternal instrument errors,as well as apparent FIG. 2-27 • HEADING INDICATOR

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precession caused by aircraft movement andearth rotation, may cause the headingindicator to "drift".

In newer heading indicators, the verticalcard or dial on the instrument face appearsto revolve as the aircraft turns. The headingis displayed at the top of the dial by thenose of the miniature aircraft (Fig. 2-27).Another type of direction indicator showsthe heading on a ring similar to the card ina magnetic compass.

Because the heading indicator has nodirection-seeking qualities of its own, itmust be set to agree with the magneticcompass. This should be done only on theground or in straight-and-level,unaccelerated flight when magneticcompass indications are steady and reliable.

The pilot should set the heading indicatorby turning the heading indicator reset knobat the bottom of the instrument to set thecompass card to the correct magneticheading. On large aircraft, this function isdone using a compass controller (Fig. 2-28).

The pilot of a light aircraft should check theheading indicator against the magneticcompass at least every 15 minutes to assureaccuracy. Because the magnetic compass issubject to certain errors (refer to article2.1.4E), the pilot should ensure that theseerrors are not transferred to the headingindicator.

3. RATE AND QUALITY OF TURN INDICATORS:There are two types of rate and quality ofturn indicators, the turn co-ordinator andthe turn-and-slip indicator (Figs. 2-29 and2-30).

Both of these gyroscopic instrumentsindicate the rate at which the aircraft isturning. The turn co-ordinator contains aminiature schematic aircraft to shown whenthe actual aircraft is turning. The turn-and-slip indicator, on the other hand, has avertical needle which deflects in thedirection the aircraft is turning.

TURN-AND-SLIP INDICATOR

The turn-and-slip indicator (Fig. 2-29)provides the only information of either

wing’s level or bankattitude if the othergyroscopic instrumentsshould fail. This indicatoris sometimes called the"needle and ball". Thisinstrument, along with theairspeed indicator,magnetic compass andaltimeter, can assist thepilot in flying throughinstrument weatherconditions, even when it isthe only gyro instrumentoperating.

The turn needle of the turn-and-bankindicator gives an indirectindication of the bankattitude of the aircraft.When the turn needle isexactly centred, theaircraft is in straight flight.When the needle isdisplaced from centre, theaircraft is turning in thedirection of thedisplacement. Thus, if theball is centred, a leftdisplacement of the turnneedle means the left wingis low and the aircraft is ina left turn. Return to straight flight isaccomplished by co-ordinating aileron andrudder pressures.

The ball of the turn-and-bank indicator isactually a separate instrument, convenientlylocated under the turn needle so the twoinstruments can be used together. Thisinstrument is best used as an indication ofattitude. When the ball is centred within itsglass tube the manoeuvre is being executedin a co-ordinated manner. However, if theball is out of its centre location, the aircraftis either slipping or skidding . The side towhich the ball has rolled indicates thedirection of the slip or skid.

In a slip, the rate of turn is too slow for theangle of bank, and the lack of centrifugalforce causes the ball to be displaced to theinside of the turn. (To correct, decrease theangle of bank, or use rudder to increase therate of turn, or both). In a skid, the rate of

FIG. 2-28 • COMPASS CONTROLLER

FIG. 2-29 • TURN AND SLIP INDICATOR

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 2-19

turn is too fast for the angle of bank, andexcessive centrifugal force causes the ball tobe displaced to the outside of the turn. (Tocorrect, increase the bank angle, or userudder to decrease the rate of turn, or both).

In co-ordinated flight, the needle may beused to measure the rate of turn; in a“standard rate turn”, the needle is alignedwith the left or right marker (dog-house)and the aircraft will turn at the rate of3°/sec or 180° in one minute. Hence, inthese conditions, the needle indicates bothdirection and rate of turn.

The answer to controlling and trimming anaircraft in straight and level flight by meansof the turn-and-bank indicator requires areturn to basic control principles - i.e.,control yaw with the rudder and keep thewings level with aileron. Therefore, whenflying straight and level through the use ofthe turn-and-bank indicator, preventyawing with appropriate rudder pressure,and keep the wings level with appropriateaileron pressure. The needle will not deflectwhile heading is constantly maintained,since no turn exists.

In other words, control the ball with ruddersince the ball moves parallel to a planepassing through the rudder pedals, andcontrol the needle with aileron since theailerons affect bank angle, a primaryrequirement for a normal turn.

It is important that both the needle and ballare used together. The problem associatedwith using these instruments separately isthat although the ball will positivelyindicate that the aircraft is slipping orskidding, just which one of these theaircraft is doing can only be determined byreference to the needle. Furthermore, theneedle will not positively indicate a bankattitude. An aircraft could be in a bankattitude and yet the needle could remaincentred or indicate a turn in the oppositedirection, if controls are not co-ordinated.

TURN CO-ORDINATOR

Most current aircraft have a turn co-ordinator that replaces the older turn-and-slip instrument. A small aircraft silhouetterotates to show how the aircraft is turning

(Fig. 2-30). When the aircraft turns left orright, the aircraft silhouette banks in thedirection of the turn. When the wing ofthe aircraft silhouette is aligned with one ofthe lower index marks, the aircraft is in astandard-rate turn (3°/sec.).

This instrument also senses the roll ratebecause the gyro is tilted on its fore and aftaxis. The electric gyro is cantedapproximately 35°; therefore, the miniatureaircraft banks whenever the actual aircraftrotates about either the yaw or roll axis.This freedom of movement enables the gyroto indicate immediately when the aircraft isturning. After the bank angle for a turn isestablished and the roll rate is zero, theaircraft symbol indicatesonly the rate of turn.

The miniature aircraftmoves independently ofthe ball or inclinometer.The position of the ballindicates the quality of theturn. When the miniatureaircraft depicts a turn andthe ball is not centred, itshows that the turn is notco-ordinated (Fig. 2-31).

If the miniature aircraft islevel and the ball is displaced to either side(Fig. 2-31), the aircraft is flying straightbut with one wing low.

The pilot should understand therelationship of true airspeed and angle ofbank as it affects the rate and radius of turn.Fig. 2-32 shows three aircraft flying withthe same angle of bank but at differentairspeeds. The aircraft with the greatest rate

FIG. 2-30 • TURN CO-ORDINATOR

2 MIN

NO PITCHINFORMATION

RL

TURN COORDINATOR

D. C.ELEC.

2 MIN

NO PITCHINFORMATION

RL

TURN COORDINATOR

D. C.ELEC.

2 MIN

NO PITCHINFORMATION

RL

TURN COORDINATOR

D. C.ELEC.

AAircraft slipping to

inside of turnAircraft skidding to

outside of turnAircraft flying straight

one wing low

CB

FIG. 2-31 • TYPICAL READINGS OF THE TURN CO-ORDINATOR

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of turn is aircraft A. If two aircraft areturning at the same angle of bank, theslower aircraft has the shorter turning radiusand also a greater rate of turn.

A common misconception is that fasteraircraft will complete a 360° turn in theleast time. For example, a jet in a 20° bankflying at a true airspeed of 350 kts requiresapproximately 5.3 minutes to complete a360° turn. Aircraft A, with also a 20° bankbut a true airspeed of 130 kts, requires justtwo minutes to complete a 360° turn.

The radius of turn also increases with anincrease in airspeed, varying with the squareof the true airspeed. Therefore, because thespeed of aircraft C is about three times thatof aircraft A, the turning radius of aircraft Cis approximately nine times that of aircraftA.

4. THE GYROSYN COMPASS SYSTEM: A gyrosyncompass system has a remotely located unitfor sensing the earth’s magnetic field. Itincorporates a gyroscope to providestability. Electrical power is required for itsoperation.

A variety of cockpit indicators may bedriven by a gyrosyn compass system,including fixed-card instruments, ormoving-card indicators such as a radio-magnetic indicator (RMI) or a horizontalsituation indicator (HSI).

All gyrosyn compass systems have a set ofbasic components whose operation issimilar, regardless of the aircraft type:

a/ REMOTE COMPASS TRANSMITTER: Theremote compass transmitter senses theearth’s magnetic field. It is usuallyremotely located to reduce aircraftmagnetic disturbances. The sensingelement is pendulously suspendedwithin a sealed bowl (fluid-filled toprevent excessive swinging) andmaintains a horizontal plane within apitch attitude of +30 degrees. Duringlarge changes in heading, airspeed orpitch the sensing element is displacedfrom the horizontal plan and produceserroneous signals. These generally havelittle effect because of the stability

provided by the gyro, and a return tostraight-and-level, unaccelerated flightagain provides correct orientationsignals;

b/ GYROSCOPE: The gyroscope principle ofrigidity in space is applied to retain afixed position during any aircraft turns.Turning motion of the aircraft aboutthe gyro is then electrically relayed tothe heading indicator;

c/ ERECTION MECHANISM: An erectiontorque motor is used to keep the gyrospin axis in a horizontal plane;

d/ AMPLIFIER: The amplifier is thecoordination and distribution centre forall system electrical signals. Remotecompass transmitter signals are phase-detected to resolve for the 180—degreeambiguity and are sent to the slavingtorque motor to keep the gyro spinsaxis aligned with magnetic north-south.The amplifier also provides high voltageto the slaving torque motor for anyperiods of fast slaving; and

e/ HEADING INDICATOR UNIT: See Fig. 2-27.

NOTE:Some gyrosyn compass systems are capable of non-slaved operation in extreme northern or southernlatitudes where the earth’s magnetic field isdistorted or weak. In this situation:

a. the remote compass transmitter doesnot function;

b. the gyro must be oriented manuallyfor heading and then serves as theonly directional reference;

FIG. 2-32 • AIRCRAFT AT SAME BANK ANGLE BUT DIFFERENT SPEEDS

A130 Kts TAS

B235 Kts TAS

C350 Kts TAS

INSTRUMENTATION, NAVIGATION SYSTEMS & BASIC INSTRUMENT FLYING

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 2-21

c. aircraft turning motion about thegyro is still relayed electrically to theheading indicator; and

d. some form of latitude correction isnecessary to overcome the effects ofapparent precession.

2.1.4MAGNETIC COMPASS

A. GENERAL

The magnetic compass was one of the first flightinstruments. Even today, it is frequently theonly direction-indicating instrument found inaircraft equipped only for VFR flight. Thecompass is a reliable, self-contained unitrequiring no external power source. For thisreason, it is extremely useful as a standby oremergency instrument. To use a magneticcompass satisfactorily, however, the pilot mustunderstand certain principles of magnetism andthe characteristics of a magnetic compass.

B. PRINCIPLES

A magnet attracts ferrous (iron) materials byproducing an external magnetic field. The forceof attraction is greatest at the poles of themagnet and least in the area halfway betweenthe two poles. Lines of force flow from each ofthese poles, then bend around and flow towardthe opposite pole, thus forming a magneticfield.

The earth is a huge magnet, with lines of forceoriented approximately with the north andsouth magnetic poles. Because the aircraftcompass is suspended to swing freely, it tends toalign with the earth’s magnetic lines of force.

The earth’s magnetic poles are some distancefrom the geographic or “true” poles. Themagnetic lines of force do not pass over thesurface in a neat geometric pattern because theyare influenced by the varying mineral content ofthe earth’s crust. For these reasons, there isusually an angular difference, or variation,between true north and magnetic north from agiven geographic location.

Although this variation is not equal at all pointson the earth, it does follow a pattern. Points ofequal variation can be connected by an isogonic

line which can be plottedaccurately on a chart (Fig. 2-34) . In some places thisvariation is easterly; otherplaces it is westerly. Thisvariation is shown on sectionaland IFR charts (Fig. 2-35)using long dashed lines.

The pilot must understand thedifference between true northand magnetic north (calledvariation) because some of thedirectional values used inaviation are stated in terms ofmagnetic north while others are stated in termsof true north. For example, the directionfinding instruments in the aircraft, includingthe magnetic compass, present headinginformation in terms ofmagnetic north. All tracks,headings, and runways arestated in terms of magneticnorth. Maps, however, areconstructed on true north. Inaddition, wind direction isusually given in terms of truenorth, except surface winddirection given by a controltower, which is stated inrelationship to magnetic north.

The pilot must use thevariation to convert a directionexpressed in terms of truenorth to magnetic north. To calculate magneticazimuth, the pilot must subtract easterlyvariation or add westerly variation from the trueazimuth (Fig. 2-36). If the pilot wishes toconvert a magnetic heading to a true heading,he or she must perform theopposite calculations.

C. MAGNETIC DIP

The lines of force in the earth’smagnetic field pass throughthe centre of the earth, exit atboth magnetic poles, and bendaround to re-enter at theopposite pole (Fig. 2-37).Near the Equator, these linesbecome almost parallel to thesurface of the earth. However,

FIG. 2-33 • MAGNETIC COMPASS

15°E

20°E

20°E

25°E

25°E

30°E

30°E

35°E

-25°W

-20°W-25°W

-30°W

-30°W

-5'W

-5'W

-35°

W

-40°

W

-40'

W

-50°

W-55°

W

-60°

W-65°

W

-70°

W-80°

W

-10°W

-20°

W -40°

W

-60°

W

-20°W5'E

1'E

2'E

5'E

10'E

15'E

20'E40'E

10'E

-15°W-10°W

-5°W

0°

0'

0'

40°E45°E

50°E55°E

60°E

100°

E

180°

10°E

5°E

10°E

15°E

NMP

90° 80° 70°60°

50°

40°

55°

45°

30°

20°

65°

100°110°120°

130°

55°

140°

160°

65° 75°

170°

180°

45°

D-1975.0500km

-20'W -1

0'W

-90°

W

150°

75°

-20'W -1

0'W

-90°

W

150°

75°

EA

ST

ER

LY

VA

RIA

TIO

N

WE

ST

ER

LY

VA

RIA

TIO

N

ISOGONIC LINES AGONIC LINE

-45°

W

FIG. 2-34 • ISOGONIC LINES

FIG. 2-35A • IFR CHART

SHOWING MAGNETIC VARIATION

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as they near the poles, they tilt toward the earthuntil in the immediate area of the magneticpoles they dip rather sharply into the earth.Because the poles of a compass tend to alignthemselves with the magnet lines of force, themagnet within the compass tends to tilt or diptoward the earth in the same manner as the linesof force.

D. COMPASS CONSTRUCTION

The aircraft’s magnetic compass is a simple, self-contained instrument (Fig. 2-33). It consists ofa sealed outer case within which is located apivot assembly and a float containing two ormore magnets. A compass card is attached to thefloat with the cardinal headings (north, east,south and west) shown by corresponding letters.Between the cardinal headings, each 30°increment is shown as a number with the lastzero removed. For example, 30° is shown as anumeral 3. The pilot may think of the compasscard as a soup bowl turned upside down andbalanced precisely on the point of a pencil. Itrotates freely and can tilt up to 18°.

The case is filled with an acid-free whitekerosene that helps to dampen oscillations ofthe float and lubricate the pivot assembly. Thepivot assembly is spring-mounted to furtherdampen aircraft vibrations so that the compassheading may be read more easily. A glass face ismounted on one side of the compass case with alubber, or reference, line in the centre.Compensating magnets are located within thecase to correct the compass reading for theeffects of small magnetic fields generated bycomponents of the aircraft (refer to the nextsubsection).

E. COMPASS ERRORS

1. DEVIATION: The compass needle is affectedwhen aircraft electrical equipment isoperated and by the ferrous metalliccomponents within the aircraft. Theseinternal magnetic fields tend to deflect thecompass from alignment with magneticnorth. This tendency is called deviation.Deviation varies, depending upon whichelectrical components are in use.

The local magnetic field may also change asa result of mechanical jolts to the aircraft,

from the installation ofadditional or differentradio equipment, or majormechanical work on anengine such as changing ofthe crankshaft or propeller.The crankshaft and thepropeller are particularlysusceptible to changes ininherent magnetismbecause they rotate invarious magnetic fields.

To reduce the effect of thisdeviation, the aircraftcompass must be checked and compensatedperiodically by adjusting the compensatingmagnets. This procedure is called “swingingthe compass”. During compensation, thecompass is checked at 30°increments. Adjustmentsare made at each of thesepoints, and the differencebetween magnetic headingand compass heading isshown on a compasscorrection card (Fig. 2-38). When flying compassheadings, the pilot mustrefer to this card andmake the appropriateadjustment for the desiredheading. To preserveaccuracy, the pilot mustensure that no metallicobjects such as flashlights or sunglasses areplaced near the compass because they mayinduce significant errors.

40°30°

TM

10° Westerly variation

15°30°

TM

15° Easterly variation

M

When the variation is westerly it is added to true heading to find magnetic heading:030°T + 10°W var.= 040° Magnetic

"WEST IS BEST"

When the variation is easterly it is subtracted from true heading to find magnetic heading:030°T - 15°W var.= 015° Magnetic

"EAST IS LEAST"

FIG. 2-36 • CALCULATION OF MAGNETIC FROM TRUE

FIG. 2-35B • VFR CHART SHOWING

MAGNETIC VARIATION

FIG. 2-37 • MAGNETIC DIP

DIP

DIP

NODIP

MagenticNorthPole

Magentic Equator

NODIP

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 2-23

2. DIP ERROR: As previously mentioned, thecompass card tends to align itself with theearth’s magnetic field. At or near theEquator this causes little or no problem, butas the aircraft nears either of the magneticpoles, the dip error becomes significant.

In this manual, only dip errors in theNorthern Hemisphere are described. (Theerrors are reversed in the SouthernHemisphere). Northerly turning error is themost important error (Fig. 2-39).

The compass card is mounted so that itscentre of gravity is well below the pivotpoint on the pedestal. When the aircraft isin a banked turn, the card also banksbecause of centrifugal force. While the cardis in the banked attitude, the verticalcomponent of the earth’s magnetic fieldcauses the compass to dip to the low side ofthe turn.

The error is most apparent when turningthrough headings close to north and south.When the aircraft makes a turn from aheading of north, the compass brieflyindicates a turn in the opposite direction.When the aircraft makes a turn from aheading of south, the compass indicates aturn in the correct direction but at aconsiderably faster rate than is actuallyoccurring. Thus, when making a 360° rightturn beginning at north, the compass cardinitially turns in the wrong direction; then,as the aircraft passes through east, thecompass “catches up” with the actualheading. Passing through south, thecompass leads the turn considerably. As theaircraft nose passes through west, thecompass should approximate the correctheading. Then, as the aircraft noseapproaches north again, the compass lags.

Pilots must understand that the northerlyturning error occurs only while the aircraftis turning.

Acceleration error occurs during airspeedchanges and is most apparent on headingsof east and west. It is caused by acombination of inertia and magnetic dip.As the aircraft accelerates, the compass card,acting like a pendulum, tilts slightly duringthe acceleration because of the card’s inertia.

This momentary tilting displaces the compasscard from its normal alignment withmagnetic north; therefore, when the aircraftaccelerates in either an easterly or westerlydirection, the compass card momentarilyindicates a turn toward the north (Fig. 2-40).The reverse is true when the aircraftdecelerates. If the aircraft decelerates on aheading of approximately east or west, the

pendulum effect causes the compass card torotate erroneously toward the south.

0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330°

359° 30° 60° 88° 120° 152° 183° 212° 240° 268° 300° 329°

FOR

STEER

FIG. 2-38 • COMPASS CORRECTION CARD

FIG. 2-39 • NORTHERN TURNING ERROR

FIG. 2-40 • ACCELERATION ERROR

Constant Air Speed

Acceleration

Deceleration

NORTHERNHEMISPHERETURNING ERROR

Effect ofNortherlyTurning Error

Magnetic Dip Magnetic Dip

NORTHERNHEMISPHERE

TURNING ERROR

MAGNETICNORTH SOUTH

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Pilots should remember the acronymANDS: accelerate north, decelerate south.

F. USE OF THE MAGNETIC COMPASS

It now should be evident why the magneticcompass is accurate only while the aircraft isflying wings-level in steady-state, non-accelerated flight. Turns using the magneticcompass can be accomplished best with the aidof the turn co-ordinator and the clock.

In a two-minute or standard-rate turn, as shownon the turn co-ordinator, the aircraft turnsthrough 360 degrees in two minutes, or 3°/sec.By dividing by three the number of degrees inthe planned turn, the pilot may determine thenumber of seconds required in a standard-rateturn to accomplish the desired heading change.After rolling the aircraft out on the newheading, the pilot must wait a few seconds forthe compass to settle down. Then he or she cancheck the new heading.

2.1.5FLIGHT DIRECTOR SYSTEMS

A. GENERAL

A flight director system (FDS) combines manyof the previously described instruments toprovide an easily interpreted display of theaircraft’s flight path. The pre-programmedpath, automatically computed, furnishes thesteering commands necessary to obtain and holda desired path.

The major components of a flight directorsystem are the flight director indicator (FDI), ahorizontal situation indicator (HSI), a modeselector and a flight director computer. Thefollowing paragraphs describe a common type ofFDS.

B. FLIGHT DIRECTOR INDICATOR

Elements of a flight director indicator(Fig. 2-41) are:1/ attitude indicator;2/ a fixed aircraft symbol;3/ pitch and bank command bars;4/ glide slope indicator;5/ localizer deviation indicator;6/ slip indicator;7/ warning flag for gyro, computer and glide slope.

1. FIXED AIRCRAFT SYMBOL:The aircraft’s attituderelative to the naturalhorizon is shown by theaircraft symbol and flightcommand bars. The pilotcan adjust the symbol toone of three flight modes.To fly the aircraft with thecommand bars armed, thepilot simply inserts theaircraft symbol betweenthe command bars.

2. COMMAND BARS: Thecommand bars move up for a climb ordown for descent, and roll left or right toprovide lateral guidance. They display thecomputed angle of bank for standard-rateturns to enable the pilot to reach and fly aselected heading or track. The bars alsoshow pitch commands that allow the pilotto capture and fly an ILS glide slope, a pre-selected pitch attitude, or maintain aselected barometric altitude. To complywith the directions indicated by thecommand bars, the pilot manoeuvres theaircraft to align the fixed symbol with thecommand bars. When not using the bars,the pilot can move them out of view.

3. GLIDE SLOPE INDICATOR: The glide slopedeviation pointer represents the centre ofthe instrument landing system (ILS) glideslope and displays vertical deviation of theaircraft from the glide slope centre. Theglide slope scale centreline shows aircraftposition in relation to the glide slope.

4. LOCALIZER DEVIATION POINTER: Thedeviation pointer, a symbolic runway,represents the centre of the ILS localizer, and

ON

0

HDGOFF

GA

VORLOC AUTO

APPMANGS

OFF

ALT HOLD

PITCH CMDMODE SEL VERTICAL MODES

LATERAL MODES

FLT

SEL

Collins

HDG NAVLOC APPR

ALTSEL

ALT VS IAS MACH

FIG. 2-42 • FLIGHT DIRECTOR MODE SELECTORS

FIG. 2-41• FLIGHT DIRECTOR INDICATOR

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 2-25

comes into view when the pilot has acquiredthe glide slope. The expanded scale movementshows lateral deviation from the localizer and isapproximately twice as sensitive as the lateraldeviation bar in the horizontal situationindicator (refer to article 2.1.5C.).

5. SLIP INDICATOR: This provides prompt slipor skid indications.

6. FLIGHT DIRECTOR CONTROL PANEL: Themode selector switch and control panel(Fig. 2-42) provides the input informationused by the FDS to compute the commandand display required for the FDI.

The pitch command control pre-sets thedesired pitch angle of the aircraft for climbor descent. The command bars on the FDSthen display the computed attitude tomaintain the pre-selected pitch angle. Thepilot may choose from among many modesincluding the HDG (heading) mode, theVOR/LOC (localizer tracking) mode, orthe AUTO APP or G/S (automatic captureand tracking of ILS localizers and glidepath) mode. The auto mode has a fullyautomatic pitch selection computer thattakes into account aircraft performance andwind conditions, and operates once thepilot has reached the ILS glide slope. Moresophisticated systems allow more flightdirector modes.

Turning the control clockwise commands aclimb, and counter-clockwise, a descent.The GS (manual glide slope) mode allowsthe pilot to manually reach and maintainthe glide slope through pitch commandindications. The GA (go around) modeprovides climb command information.The pilot places the command bars in aclimb pitch, which is pre-set based on theaircraft performance and remains constant.The pilot may use the GA mode inconjunction with automatic throttle/speedcontrol.

NOTE:

The manual glide slope selection normally is usedwhen the pilot intercepts the slope from above.

The ALT HOLD (altitude hold) switch maybe operated in the HDG and VOR/LOC

modes. Before the aircraft reaches the glidepath, the pilot can also operate the switch inthe AUTO APP mode. When engaged,pitch commands are referenced to thecurrent barometric altitude indicated on thealtimeter. The command bars on the FDIprovide the climb or descent informationrequired to maintain the altitude.

C. HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR

The horizontal situation indicator (HSI) wasdeveloped to assist pilots to interpret and useaircraft navigational aids. There are varioustypes of HSIs, but each performs the samefunction. The HSI (Fig. 2-43) displaysinformation obtained from combinations of theheading indicator, radio magnetic indicator(RMI), track indicator and range indicator. Itmay also display VOR, DME, ILS or ADFinformation.

The aircraft heading is displayed on a rotatingcompass card under the heading lubber line.The card is calibrated in 5° increments. Thebearing pointer provides magnetic bearinginformation from the aircraft to the selectedground station (VOR or ADF). The fixedaircraft symbol and floating track bar display theaircraft’s position relative to the selected track(VOR or ILS localizer).

When a VOR station is selected, the inner doton the track bar azimuth scale indicatesapproximately 5° and the outer dotapproximately 10° (the aircraft’s operatingmanual should give details). In ILS applicationsthe inner dot indicates approximately 1 1/4°and the outer dot approximately 2 1/2°,depending on the actual widthof the localizer. The distancemeasuring equipment (DME)displays slant ranges innautical miles to the selectedDME station and, dependingon the installation, mayoperate in the ILS Mode.

The pilot may adjust the trackselector to indicate any of 360°tracks. To select a desiredtrack, the pilot rotates the headof the track arrow by turningthe track selector knob to thedesired track on the compass

FIG. 2-43 • HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR

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card, and then checks the track selector windowfor precise setting. When the TO-FROMindicator points to the head of the track arrow,it indicates that the selected track, if interceptedand flown, will lead the aircraft to the station.This may be reversed by selecting the reciprocaltrack on the compass card.

To intercept the inbound track, the pilot sets thedesired track in the selector window and cross-checks the TO-FROM indicator to make surethat it points to the head of the track arrow.The pilot turns the aircraft in the shortestdirection to an interception heading (normally30-45°). The pilot then flies the intercept angle,ensuring that the head of the track arrow is inthe top half of the HSI with an adequateinterception angle. The bearing pointer shouldbe between the heading lubber line and thehead of the track arrow. The angle should notexceed 90° from the selected track.

For outbound tracking, the pilot selects thedesired track in the selector window and ensuresthat the TO-FROM indicator points toward thetail of the track arrow. The pilot then turns theaircraft in the shortest direction to aninterception track that places the head of thetrack arrow in the upper half of the HSI with asuitable interception angle (normally 45°).

Immediately after passing the station, the pilotintercepts the outbound track by turning theaircraft to parallel the track. The pilot sets theoutbound track in the selector window. Whenthe track bar and bearing pointer stabilize, thepilot notes the degrees off track and turnstowards the track by this amount, allowing forwind drift. The intercept angle should notexceed 45°.

D. FLIGHT DIRECTOR COMPUTER

The basic flight director computer receivesinformation from the:1/ VOR/localizer/glide slope receiver;2/ attitude gyro;3/ radar altimeter;4/ compass system;5/ barometric sensors.

The computer uses this data to provide steeringcommand information that enables the pilot to:1/ fly a selected heading;

2/ fly a predetermined pitchattitude;

3/ maintain altitude;4/ intercept a selected VOR

or localizer track, andmaintain that track;

5/ fly an ILS glide slope.

E. OTHER TYPES OF FLIGHT

DIRECTOR SYSTEMS

Flight director systems varygreatly. In aircraft equippedwith Flight ManagementSystems (FMS), the flightdirector is much more sophiscated and receivesinput from various sensors and one or more airdata computers. Therefore, the pilot mustconsult the operating instructions for theparticular aircraft model for specificinformation.

F. ELECTRONIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENT SYSTEM

(EFIS)EFIS refers to a system where conventionalelectro-mechanical flight instruments have beenreplaced by cathode ray tubes (CRT). TheseCRTs electronically display flight information inmuch the same presentation as electro-mechanicalinstruments but they also have the flexibility forselecting additional information to be added tothe display and for altering the presentation.

The two most commonly used EFISinstruments are the electronic horizontal situationindicator (EHSI) and the electronic attitudedirector indicator (EADI) (Fig. 2-44 and Fig.2-45) . These can also be called an ND(Navigation Display) or a PFD (Primary FlightDisplay). The system may also include a multi-functional display (MFD) on a larger CRTwhich can provide expanded displays of HSI,radar, and navigation data from flightinstruments and can include other data such aschecklists, emergency procedures, etc. See Fig.2-46 . Data from various sources can beintegrated into various combinations of displaysdepending on the equipment installed.

The EFIS uses input data from several sourcesincluding:

1/ VOR/localizer/glideslope/TACAN/micro-wave landing system (MLS) receiver;

FIG. 2-44 • EFIS PRIIMARY FLIGHT DISPLAY

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 2-27

2/ pitch, roll, and heading rate, andacceleration data from an Attitude HeadingSystem (AHS) or conventional vertical gyro,compass system, and longitudinalaccelerometer;

3/ radar altimeter;4/ air data system;5/ DME;6/ area navigation system (RNAV) (i.e., ONS,

INS, VLF, LORAN, GPS, etc.);7/ vertical navigation system;8/ weather radar system; and9/ ADF.

A typical EFIS is composed of a Primary FlightDisplay, a Navigation Display, a Display SelectPanel, a Display Processor Unit, a WeatherRadar Panel, a Multifunction Display, and aMultifunction Processor Unit.

1. PRIMARY FLIGHT DISPLAY (PFD): The typicalPFD is a multicolor CRT or LCD displayunit that presents a display of aircraftattitude and flight control system steeringcommands including VOR, localizer,TACAN, or RNAV deviation; andglideslope or preselected altitude deviation.Flight control system mode annunciation,autopilot engage annunciation, attitudesource annunciation, marker beaconannunciation, radar altitude, decisionheight set and annunciation, fast-slowdeviation or angle-altitude aler t, andexcessive ILS deviation (when Category IIconfigured) can also be displayed. (SeeFig. 2-44).

2. NAVIGATION DISPLAY (ND): The typical NDis a multicolor CRT or LCD display unitthat presents a plan view of the aircrafthorizontal navigation situation.Information displayed includes compassheading, selected heading, selected VOR,localizer, or RNAV course and deviation(including annunciation or deviation type),navigation source annunciation, digitalselected course/desired track readout,excessive ILS deviation (when Category IIconfigured), to/from information, backcourse localizer annunciation, distance tostation/waypoint, glideslope MGP, orVNAV deviation ground speed, time-to-go,elapsed time or wind, course informationand source annunciation from a second

navigation source, weatherradar target alert, waypointalert when RNAV is thenavigation source, and abearing pointer that can bedriven by VOR, RNAV orADF sources as selected onthe display select panel.The ND can also beoperated in an approachformat or an en routeformat with or withoutweather radar informationincluded in the display.(See Fig. 2-45).

3. DISPLAY SELECT PANEL (DSP): The displayselect panel provides navigation sensorselection, bearing pointerselection, format selection,navigation data selection(ground speed, time-to-go,time, and winddirection/speed), and theselection of VNAV (if theairplane has a VNAVsystem), weather, orsecond navigation sourceon the ND. A DH SETknob that allows decisionheight to be set on thePFD is also provided.Additionally, course,course direct to, heading, and heading syncare selected from the DSP.

4. DISPLAY PROCESSOR UNIT (DPU): Thedisplay processor unit provides sensor inputprocessing and switching, the necessarydeflection and video signals, and power forthe electronic flight displays. The DPU iscapable of driving two electronic flightdisplays with different deflection and videosignals. For example, a PFD on one displayand an ND on the other.

5. WEATHER RADAR PANEL (WXP): Theweather radar panel provides MODEcontrol (OFF, STBY, TEST, NORM, WX,and MAP), RANGE selection (10, 25, 50,100, 200 and 300 nm), and systemoperating controls for the display of weatherradar information on the MFD and theND’s when RDR is selected on the MFDand/or the display select panel.

FIG. 2-45 • EFIS NAVIGATION DISPLAY

FIG. 2-46 • OTHER DATA ON EFIS DISPLAYS

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6. MULTIFUNCTION DISPLAY (MFD): Themultifunction display is a multicolor CRTor LCD display unit that mounts in theinstrument panel in the space normallyprovided for the weather radar indicator.Standard functions displayed by the unitinclude weather radar, pictorial navigationmap, and in some systems, check list andother operating data. Additionally, theMFD can display flight data or nav data incase of the malfunction in either of thePFD’s or ND’s (See Fig. 2-46).

7. MULTIFUNCTION PROCESSOR UNIT (MPU):The multifunction processor unit providessensor input processing and switching andthe necessary deflection and video signalsfor the multifunction display. The MPUcan provide the deflection and video signalsto the PFD and ND displays in the event offailures to either or both display processorunits.

EFIS FeaturesEFIS furnishes the pilot with the followingcommon features:a/ large easy to interpret 5 in. by 5 in. or 5

in. by 6 in. displays for PFD and ND’s;b/ displays that have superior readability

even under full sunlight cockpitlighting conditions;

c/ full screen earth/sky representation onthe PFD adds to the realism of theattitude display;

d/ display only the data needed at the timeit is needed; for example, GS, LOC andradar altitude can be shown duringapproach and removed en route todecrease display clutter;

e/ strapping options allow selecting V baror crosspointer presentations on thePFD, and the addition of a speedcommand display;

f/ multifunction, pilot selectable NDformats; for example, full compass roseor sectored rose (approach or en routemodes) with or without weather radar;and

g/ superior autopilot/flight director modeand NAV source annunciation.

NOTE:This chapter has dealt very generally with a genericEFIS. It is important that specific aircraft operatingprocedures be consulted for detailed information.

2.1.6 MISCELLANEOUS INSTRUMENTS

A. TRAFFIC ALERT AND COLLISION AVOIDANCE

SYSTEM (TCAS)1. OVERVIEW: The Traffic Alert and Collision

Avoidance System (TCAS) is an independentairborne system. It is also known asAirborne Collision Avoidance System(ACAS). It is designed to act as a backup tothe ATC system and the “see and avoid”concept. TCAS consists of four aircraft-mounted antennas, a TCAS Computer Unitand Mode S Transponder, and displays andcontrols in the cockpit. TCAS II continuallysurveys the airspace around an aircraft,seeking replies from other aircraft in thevicinity via their ATC transponders. Thetransponder replies are tracked by the TCASsystem. Flight paths are predicted basedupon these tracks. Paths predicted topenetrate a Collision Area surrounding theTCAS II aircraft are annunciated by TCAS.TCAS generates two types of annunciations:a Traffic Advisory or TA and a ResolutionAdvisory or RA. TCAS provides a time basedalert in that the physical dimensions of aCaution Area will vary as a function ofclosure speed (see Fig. 2-47).

TCAS continuously calculates trackedaircraft projected positions. TAs and RAsare therefore constantly updated andprovide real time advisory and positioninformation.

A Traffic Advisory is displayed 35-48seconds from the time the intruder aircraftis predicted to enter the TCAS aircraft’scollision area. The traffic displayed includesthe range, bearing and altitude of theintruder relative to the TCAS aircraft. The

CAUTIONAREA

TA35-45

SECONDS

WARNING AREA

COLLISONAREA

RA

TA

FIG. 2-47 • TCAS - CAUTION AREA

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 2-29

flight crew is to use this information as anaid to visually locate the intruder in order toavoid a conflict.

TCAS II also monitors a time baseddimension of a Warning Area that extends20-30 seconds from the time at which anintruder would enter the TCAS aircraft’scollision area. Should an intruder enter theWarning Area, an escape strategy in theform of a Resolution Advisory is issued by thesystem. The Resolution Advisory is avertical manoeuvre recommended to beperformed or to be avoided by TCAS II inorder to increase or maintain verticalseparation relative to an intruding aircraft.TCAS III can also order horizontalmanoeuvres. The RA will be annunciatedboth visually and aurally. It will consist ofeither a corrective advisory, calling for achange in aircraft vertical speed, or apreventive advisory, restricting verticalspeed changes.

Once the flight path of the intruder nolonger conflicts with the collision area ofthe TCAS aircraft, TCAS will announce“CLEAR OF CONFLICT” to confirm theencounter has ended. The flight crewshould then return to the original clearanceprofile.

TCAS generates Resolution Advisories andTraffic Advisories against intruder aircraftwith ATC transponders replying in Mode Cand Mode S. These include altitude in theirtransmissions. TCAS uses the altitudeinformation for Resolution Advisorycomputations. TCAS can generate onlyTraffic Advisories against intruder aircraftwhose transponders reply in Mode A (non-altitude reporting).

WARNING:TCAS cannot provide an alert for trafficconflicts with aircraft without operatingtransponders.

2. TCAS TRAFFIC ADVISORY DISPLAY: TCAStraffic can be displayed on a liquid crystal,flat panel TA/RA/VSI which replaces theconventional IVSI (Fig. 2-48). In thisindicator the VERTICAL SPEEDINDICATOR (VSI) takes on the additional

function of displayingtraffic and ResolutionAdvisories, in addition toother traffic informationdesigned to improvesituation awareness.Internal switching ofTCAS automaticallypresents a TCAS TrafficDisplay on the VSI when aTraffic Advisory isnecessary.

A white airplane symbol isdisplayed in the lowercentre of the VSI representing your TCAS-equipped aircraft. A white range ring madeup of 12 dots, each corresponding to anormal clock position, is included. Therange ring surrounds the airplane with aradius of 2 nautical miles and is intended toassist in interpreting TCAS trafficinformation.

TCAS provides colour-coded visual advisoryareas just inside, and adjacent to, the VSIscale. These colour-coded indicationsinstruct the pilot what vertical speed regionis TO BE AVOIDED (RED). If a change invertical speed is necessary, the specific regionof vertical speed the pilot is to “fly-to” isilluminated in GREEN. For example, inthe event of the corrective advisory message“CLIMB - CLIMB - CLIMB”, thePROHIBITED RED Vertical Speed regionmay extend from the extreme limit ofdescent to +1500 FPM as illustrated in Fig.2-48. The GREEN “fly-to” area appearsfrom +1500 fpm to +2000 fpm.

In Fig. 2-48, resolution advisory (RA)traffic (red square) is shown as 300 feetbelow and descending. Traffic advisory(TA) traffic (yellow circle) is shown as 500feet below and descending while proximatetraffic (cyan diamond) is shown as 1200 feetbelow and descending.

3. PILOT CONSIDERATIONS: Anytime a pilotdeviates from a cleared altitude to follow aTCAS Resolution Advisory he or she shouldinform ATC as soon as possible of thedeviation and return to the assigned altitudeas soon as possible after the traffic has passed.Ground Proximity Warning Systems(GPWS) advisories take precedence overTCAS advisories.

FIG. 2-48 • TCAS CLIMB RESOLUTION ADVISORY

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If stick shaker occurs during an RAmanoeuvre, the pilot should immediatelyabandon the RA manoeuvre and execute thestall recovery procedure.

B. HEAD-UP DISPLAY (HUD)A head-up display (HUD) is an electro-opticaldevice which displays flight information nearthe front windscreen so that the pilot cansimultaneously monitor aircraft instruments andthe outside (forward) environment.

PRESENTATION

A HUD receives aircraft control, performanceand navigation data from on-board computersand sensors. The information received is thenprojected onto a combining glass for head-upviewing. HUD symbology is focused at infinityfor optimum effectiveness and pilot comfort.Often, information is presented in digital form.Aircraft pitch information is displayed asstylized pitch lines (pitch ladder).

ADVANTAGES

The most significant advantage of a HUD is theability of the pilot to monitor flight andnavigation data while being “head-up”. Thisadvantage is intuitively obvious in the situationof an approach to an airport in IMC nearminimums, or while flying in VMC in a busyterminal area. Aircraft control is less likely tosuffer while the pilot is looking for the runwayenvironment, and the transition frominstruments to visual references is easier.

DISADVANTAGES

Multitudes of information can be displayed on aHUD (Fig. 2-49). However, the size limitationof a HUD display has an enormous effect onthe “user friendliness” of a HUD. If analoguedisplays are used the symbology becomes veryactive and cluttered. If digital displays are usedthe pilot is denied quick trend informationthereby increasing pilot workload during flight.Digital airspeed and altitude readouts cause thegreatest consternation. In the very latestgeneration of aircraft, this problem has beensomewhat overcome with the adoption of the“wide-angle” HUD.

Although the centralization of information on aHUD reduces the amount of head movementsrequired during instrument flight, the cross-check can break down if the pilot does not

continue a disciplined scan of individualreadouts within the HUD. Because the symbolsdisplayed on the HUD are relatively small andvery close together there appears to be asubconscious tendency to stare at the HUDwithout actually being aware of flightparameters (“magic fixation”).

A HUD requires a suitable background in orderfor the pilot to see the projected display.“Washout” of HUD symbology can occur inhigh light intensity situations such as whenpointing into the sun or when on short final atnight (due to runway and approach lighting).Also, because of the nature of a HUD, colouredbackgrounds cannot be used to enhance thedisplay. For instance, the difference between anose high and nose low pitch attitude is not asapparent (in IMC) looking at a HUD as it islooking at a conventional attitude indicatorwith its blue sky and black ground hemispheres.

An additional problem with a HUD occurswhen the background lighting intensityconstantly changes, as when flying in and out ofcloud or precipitation. Prolonged exposure to

AIRSPEED

HEADING SCALE

CLIMB DESCENT RATE

ALTITUDE

BAROMETRIC SETTING

FLIGHT PATH/PITCH LADDER

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

BANK ANGLE SCALE POINTER

VELOCITY VECTOR

PEAK A/C G'S

CURRENT A/C G'S

MACH NUMBER

ANGLE OF ATTACK

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

12

11

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

21

139 1000-700

30.24R

350 010000

6.10.201.07.5

5 5

5 5

HUD BASIC FLIGHT SYMBOLOGY

αMG

αMG

FIG. 2-49 • TYPICAL HUD DISPLAY

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this situation can cause eye fatigue and inextreme cases may cause air sickness ordisorientation.

SUMMARYAlthough the HUD is a less-than-perfectelectro-optical system, the benefits of a HUDfar outweigh the disadvantages. For this reasonsome new transport aircraft are HUD equipped.

C. WEATHER RADAR

This section will provide a brief overview ofweather radar from theory of operation tooperation in-flight. The use of weather radar isoften the most effective way of avoiding severeweather in the IFR environment. AlthoughATC makes every effort to advise pilots of areasof severe weather and steer them around it, it isthe pilot’s responsibility to avoid severe weather.

CAUTION:Weather radar should not be operated duringrefuelling or when people on the ground arewithin at least 50 feet of the nose of theaircraft. See the Aircraft Flight Manual formore details.

THEORY OF OPERATION

The primary use of weather radar is to aid thepilot in avoiding thunderstorms and associatedturbulence. It is for avoiding - not penetrating -severe weather. Whether to fly into an area ofradar echoes depends on echo intensity, spacingbetween the echoes, and the capabilities of bothpilot and aircraft. Remember that weather radardetects only precipitation drops; it does notdetect minute cloud droplets. A clear area onthe radar screen does not mean that this areadoes not contain cloud.

The geometry of the weather radar radiatedbeam precludes its use for reliable proximitywarning or anti-collision protection. The beamis characterized as a cone-shaped pencil beammuch like that of a flashlight or spotlight beam.

As mentioned earlier, only precipitation (orobjects more dense than water such as earth orsolid structures) will be displayed on theindicator. The best radar reflectors areraindrops and wet hail. The larger the raindrop,the better it reflects. Because large drops in aconcentrated area are characteristic of athunderstorm, the radar displays the storm as a

strong echo. Generally, ice,dry snow and dry hail havelow reflective levels and oftenwill not be displayed by theradar.

Colour radars show intensityof echoes by using colours,usually red or magenta as themost severe (Fig. 2-50).Monochrome radars use thebrightness of the display toindicate intensity.

Extreme weather can usuallybe identified by characteristic patterns: (1)fingers and protrusions; (2) hooks; (3) scallopededges; and (4) U-shaped cloud edges.

ATTENUATION

An extremely important phenomenon for thepilot to understand is that of attenuation.When a radar pulse is transmitted into theatmosphere, it is progressively absorbed andscattered so that it loses its ability to return tothe antenna. This attenuation or weakening ofthe radar pulse is caused by two primarysources: distance and precipitation.

Attenuation because of distance is due to the factthat the radar energy leaving the antenna isinversely proportional to the square of thedistance. For example, the reflected radar energyfrom a target 60 miles away will be one-fourth ofthe reflected energy from a target 30 miles away.

Attenuation due to precipitation is far moreintense and is less predictable. Since some ofthe beam energy is absorbed by precipitation,the beam may not reach completely through thearea of precipitation. If the beam has been fullyattenuated, the radar display will show a “radarshadow” which appears as an end to theprecipitation when, in fact, the heavy rain mayextend for many more miles.

OPERATION IN-FLIGHT

Effective tilt management is the single mostimportant key to more informative weather radardisplays. Three factors should be rememberedwhen using tilt controls:

1/ the earth’s curvature, especially at longdistances;

2/ the radar beam is referenced to the horizon bythe aircraft’s vertical reference system;

FIG. 2-50 • WEATHER RADAR DISPLAY

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3/ adjusting the tilt control causes the beam toscan above or below the plane of the attitudereference system.

In planning deviations, remember to plan for thedeviation early. The following are someconsiderations for planning your deviation:

1/ avoid the brightest returns (or red or magentain a colour radar) by at least 20 miles;

2/ do not deviate downwind unless absolutelynecessary;

3/ when looking for a corridor, ensure it is atleast 40 miles wide if it is between two severecells;

4/ a "blind alley" or "box canyon" situation canbe avoided by switching to the longer ranges toobserve distant conditions from time to time.

NOTE:See the Air Command Weather Manual for a moredetailed explanation.

SUMMARY

To master the use of weather radar takes time andpatience as well as understanding the particularcharacteristics of the radar set you operate. Use theoperating handbook for your particular system toensure greatest safety.

STORMSCOPE

The Stormscope (Fig. 2-51) is a weatheravoidance system that detects electrical dischargesfrom thunderstorms and presents them on adisplay, usually a cathode ray tube (CRT). Thesystem normally consists of an antenna, a systemprocessor, and the CRT.

The loop and sense antenna detects electrical andmagnetic fields produced by lighting. The high-speed processor uses information from the antennato determine distance and direction of electricaldischarges about the aircraft.

A green CRT displays a lightning discharge as anindividual point; a dense arrangement of pointsindicates sever weather. The CRT operates invarious ranges: 25, 50, 100 and 200 nm being astandard set-up.

D. MODE “S” TRANSPONDER

The Mode S transponder is the latest generationtransponder and is now the standard required for

carriage in transport aircraft.The Mode S transponderprovides the functions ofexisting ATCRBS transponders(Modes A and C; identificationand altitude reporting) butbecause of its designcharacteristics, is able to do so ina more efficient manner.

Each Mode S transponder isassigned its own unique 24-bitinterrogation address whichallows it to be individuallyinterrogated. The use of 24-bitaddress provides for more than 16 million differentaddresses, enough to ensure no duplication occurs.

Each interrogation contains theunique address of the aircraft forwhich it is intended. A Mode Stransponder receiving aninterrogation examines it for itsown address. If the addresscorresponds, the transpondergenerates and transmits thenecessary reply; all other aircraftignore the interrogation.

This type of interrogationmanagement ensures that nooverlapping replies arrive at theinterrogator’s antenna(synchronous garbling) andprevents random replies from interrogators withoverlapping areas of coverage (fruit). Thistechnique improves Secondary Surveillance Radar(SSR) performance and increases system capacity.

An additional characteristic of the Mode Stransponder is its ability to provide two-way air-to-air and ground-to-air data link communications.These messages are passed on the two existingtransponder frequencies (1030 MHz and 10904MHz). The air-to-air feature of the data link isrequired to pass complementary manoeuvremessages between two or more TCAS-equippedaircraft which may select the same traffic avoidancemanoeuvre.

The two-way air-to-ground capability, requiringappropriate ground and aircraft equipment, canfacilitate the transmission of air traffic services andother operational messages. The system will act asa back-up to existing VHF voice network and willimprove the system safety by reducing

FIG. 2-51• STORMSCOPE

FIG. 2-52 • INSTRUMENT COMPARATOR

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communication-related errors within the ATCsystem.

The operation of Mode S transponders by theflight crew is identical to conventionaltransponders (Mode A/C). The setting of the 24-bit unique address is a maintenance functionrelated to the registration of the aircraft. TheMode S transponder is required for TCAS IIoperation.

E. GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING SYSTEM(GPWS)

The Ground Proximity Warning Systemprovides alert of possible terrain danger. Visualand aural warnings are provided under any ofthe following conditions:

1/ excessive rate of descent with respect toterrain;

2/ excessive closure rate to terrain;3/ negative climb rate after takeoff or missed

approach before attaining suitable terrainclearance with landing gear up; and

4/ approach too close to terrain with landinggear up after attaining suitable terrainclearance.

When a warning occurs, smoothly pull up andapply engine thrust until the warning ceases.Climb at the maximum practical rate until thewarning ceases or terrain clearance is assured.Determine the cause of the warning if possible.

F. INSTRUMENT COMPARATOR

An instrument comparator system as displayedin Fig. 2-52 is designed to alert pilots to adisagreement between the captain’s and co-pilot’s instruments. When their instrumentsdisagree by more than a pre-set amount, theappropriate button on the comparatorilluminates to warn the pilots. For instance, ifthe heading (HDG) button illuminates, thepilots should check the compasses anddetermine which system is not reading correctly.

RADIO NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

2.2.1INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this section is to describe thenature and operation of basic radio navigationsystems used on board aircraft. Advantages,limitations, components and basic pilotprocedures are presented for six types of systems- VOR, DME, ADF, ILS, MLS, and variousRNAV systems.

2.2.2NAVIGATIONAL AIDS (NAVAIDS)

A. RADIO THEORY

Some basic radio theory isprovided to give a betterunderstanding of the operationof radio navigation systemsand associated terminology.

1. WAVE CHARACTERISTICS

(Fig. 2-53)

Cycle is the intervalbetween any two pointsmeasuring the completionof a single wavemovement.

Wavelength is the actual linearmeasurement, in metres, of one wave.

Amplitude is the strength, or width, of onewave; it decreases with distance from thetransmitting site.

Frequency is the number of cycles persecond. It is expressed in the followingunits:

Kilohertz (KHz) - thousands of cyclesper second;

Megahertz (MHz) - millions of cyclesper second;

Gigahertz (GHz) - billions of cycles persecond.

2.2

Wave lengthin metres

Amplitude

Cycle

FIG. 2-53 • RADIO WAVE

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2. RADIO FREQUENCY CATEGORIES: Radiofrequency categories are shown in Fig. 2-54.

3. RADIO WAVES: Radio waves are radiatedenergy. In free space, they travel in straightlines at the speed of light (approximately186,000 miles per second). They have thesame characteristics as light and heat waves,but are lower in frequency.

They may be subject to the following:

a/ Reflection. A change in direction oftravel of a wave occurs at the surfaceseparating two different media.Whenever reflection occurs the angle ofincidence equals the angle of reflection;

b/ Refraction. The bending of a wave as itpasses obliquely from one medium toanother or through a single medium ofvarying density;

c/ Diffraction. Bending which occurs whena wave grazes the edge of a solid objectthrough which it cannot pass; and

d/ Attenuation. The loss of wave energy asit travels through a medium. All matterhas a varying degree of conductivity orresistance to the transmission of radiowaves. The earth and objects on itattenuate radio waves as do moleculesof air, water and dust in theatmosphere.

The following terms are used in discussingthe transmission of radio waves (Fig. 2-55).

a/ Ionosphere. Layers of rarified ionizedgas believed to be caused by ultra-violetsolar radiation. They range from

approximately 60 to 200 miles abovethe earth and vary according to time ofday, season, and latitude;

b/ Ground Waves. Part of the transmittedradiation that follows the surface of theearth and is directly affected by theearth and its surface features. Groundwaves are not subject to ionospheric orweather changes, but suffer fromsurface attenuation which is directlyproportional to the frequency. (Thelower the frequency, the less theattenuation for a given power);

c/ Space Waves. Part of the transmittedradiation that does not follow thecurvature of the earth or bend aroundobstructions, but generally travelsoutwards or upwards from thetransmitter;

d/ Sky Waves. Part of the transmittedradiation that is reflected or refractedfrom the ionosphere. A sky wave, whenreflected/refracted back by theionospheric layer, will continue toreflect between earth and sky untilcompletely attenuated;

e/ Skip Distance. The distance betweenthe transmitter and the point where thefirst sky wave returns to earth. Itdepends upon the height and density ofthe ionosphere. Great changes in skipdistance occur at dawn and dusk assolar radiation varies the position anddensity of the ionosphere; and

f/ Skip Zone. The distance between the endof the useful ground wave and the pointwhere the sky wave is returned to earth.

DESCRIPTION

Very low frequencyLow frequencyMedium frequencyHigh frequencyVery high frequencyUltra high frequencySuper high frequencyExtremely high frequency

ABBREVIATION

VLFLFMFHF

VHFUHFSHFEHF

FREQUENCY

3 KHZ - 30 KHZ

30 KHZ - 300 KHZ

300 KHZ - 3 MHZ

3 MHZ - 30 MHZ

30 MHZ - 300 MHZ

300 MHZ - 3 GHZ

3 GHZ - 30 GHZ

30 GHZ - 300 GHZ

WAVELENGTH

100,000M - 10,000M

10,000 M - 1,000M

1,000M - 100M

100M - 10M

10M - 1M

1M - 0.10M

0.10M - 0.01M

0.01M - 0.001M

FIG. 2-54 • TABLE OF RADIO FREQUENCIES

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4. RADIO PROPAGATION: Depending upon thefrequency of the radiated signal, radioenergy is most efficiently propagated byonly one of the three main methods -ground, space or sky waves. The followinggeneral rules apply:

a/ up to about 3 MHz (VLF, LF and MF)ground wave transmissionpredominates, although sky waves areused for longer distances;

b/ from 3 to 30 MHz (HF) the range ofthe ground wave decreases rapidly andsky waves are the primary method;

c/ above 30 MHz (VHF, UHF, SHF andEHF) propagation is line-of-sight(space waves), modified by thereflecting effects of various objects onthe earth. The transmission path isgenerally predictable. Ground wavesrapidly attenuate, the sky waves rarelyexist;

d/ from 100 MHz (upper VHF and UHF)the transmission path is highlypredictable and not affected by time ofday, season, precipitation oratmospheric conditions; and

e/ above 3 GHz (SHF and EHF), someattenuation and scattering is caused byprecipitation and the atmosphere.

5. INTERFERENCE TO AIRCRAFT NAVIGATIONAL

EQUIPMENT: The radiation produced byfrequency modulation (FM) and television(TV) broadcast receivers was found to fallwithin the ILS localizer and VOR frequencyband while the radiation produced by theamplitude modulation (AM) Broadcastreceivers was found to fall within thebroadcast band between 98 Khz and 1600Khz. This radiation could interfere withthe correct operation of ILS, VOR andADF equipment.

Pilots of aircraft are therefore cautionedagainst permitting the operation of eitherportable radio, television or cellular phoneson board their aircraft at any time.

The Department of Communications has,after extensive testing, concluded that the

switching on or use ofhand-held electroniccalculators can causeinterference to airn a v i g a t i o n A D Fequipment in the 200-450kHz frequency range whenthe calculator is held orpositioned within 5 feet ofthe loop or sense antenna,or lead-in cableinstallation of the system.

Pilots, especially of smallaircraft and helicopters,are therefore cautioned against allowing theoperation of calculators on board theiraircraft while airborne, and are to ensurethat if carried, the switch of the calculator isin the off position.

Cellular phones have also been shown tointerfere with aircraft instruments andshould not be allowed. Sky phones whichare designed for aircraft use are acceptable.

B. VERY - HIGH - AND ULTRA - HIGH -FREQUENCY RADIO AIDS

1. VOR: The VHF Omnidirectional Range(VOR) operates in the frequency band108.1 to 117.95 Mhz, which is relativelyfree from static and inter ference. Atminimum instrument altitudes, it givesreliable indications at approximately 50NM from the station. Normally the VORmay be received 150 NM to 200 NM fromthe transmitter at high altitudes.

The VOR provides guidance on any trackto or from the station. This is why it iscalled an omni (directional) range.

All Canadian VOR stations operatecontinuously, and some have a simultaneousvoice feature used for emergency air-groundcommunications and weather broadcasts.Station identification consists of the three-letter station identifier keyed in Morse codeat regular intervals. At some locations theVOR voice channel is used to transmit theATIS broadcast.

The accuracy of track alignment of theomni-range is within a tolerance of +3°. At

Skip zone

Ground wave

Sky wave

Space waves

Transmitter

EARTH

Ionesphere

Skip distance

FIG. 2-55 • TRANSMISSION OF RADIO WAVES

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certain stations some sectors may containlarge errors. These sections are indicated inthe remarks column of the station listings inthe Canada Flight Supplement.

2. TACAN: The Tactical Air NavigationSystem (TACAN) is an ultra high-frequency(UHF) omni-directional navigational aidthat provides slant distance, in nauticalmiles from a ground station to an aircraft,and the azimuth in degrees from thestation. Stations are normally referenced tomagnetic north. Equipment consists of aground station transponder and an airbornereceiver/transmitter. The system has a rangeof up to 200 NM, depending on aircraftaltitude.

Canadian TACAN stations are owned andoperated by the Department of NationalDefence. Paired VOR frequencies arepublished on Canadian Aeronautical Chartsto allow civil pilots flying DME equippedaircraft to use the DME function ofTACAN.

3. VORTAC: This is a combination of a VORand TACAN at one location. VORTACprovides azimuth navigational informationon VHF, and azimuth and distanceinformation on UHF. Separate TACANairborne equipment is needed to obtainazimuth data from the TACAN part of thesystem.

Department of National Defence TACANfacilities co-located with Transport CanadaVORs are operated and maintained byTransport Canada.

4. VHF DIRECTION FINDING: VDF equipmenthas been established at a number of FSSsand airport control towers. VDF normallyoperates on pre-selected frequencies in the115 to 144 Mhz range. Informationdisplayed to the controller or FSS positionon a numerical readout gives an accurate(+2°) visual indication of the bearing of anaircraft from the VDF site. This is based onthe radio transmission received from theaircraft, thus giving the VDF operator ameans of providing steering, bearing orhoming information to pilots requesting theservice.

a/ Primary ServicesDirectional guidance to the VDF and,if requested, a bearing from the VDFsite.

b/ Additional ServicesTrack out assistance, estimated times ordistances from the site, or fixes whenused in conjunction with other VDFsite, a VOR radial or a bearing from anNDB.

c/ Emergency ServiceCloud breaking procedures and nocompass homing will be provided whenno other course of action is availableprovided the pilot declares anemergency, or accepts the servicesuggested by the VDF operator.

5. OMNITEST OR VOR EQUIPMENT TEST

(VOT): Low-power (2 W) VHF omnitesttransmitters are installed at a number ofairports to check the accuracy of VORreceivers while aircraft are on the ground.Identification consists of a series of dots.

The VOT radiates a “NORTH” bearingsignal on all azimuths that simulates, in thecockpit, a position on the magnetic north(000) radial from the VOR facility. Thebearing accuracy of the transmitted signal ismaintained within a tolerance of 1°. Theaircraft equipment check is described inArticle 2.2.3B.

C. RADAR SYSTEMS

Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR) detects andreports reflections of aircraft weather, flocks ofbirds, stationary objects, approximate range of80 NM.

Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) transmits an“interrogation beam” to which an airplanetransponder responds, range of 250 NM.

Terminal Surveillance Radar (TSR) systems withboth PSR and SSR information, they arecapable of digitizing primary radar targetsincluding weather data for presentation.

Independent Secondary Surveillance Radar (ISSR)systems which only provide SSR information.

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Radar Digitized Display (RDD-1) is a radarsystem that uses SSR data remoted from a radarsite for display at an area control centre. Thissystem does not display weather or non-transponder equipped aircraft.

D. PRECAUTIONARY USE OF NAVIGATION AIDS

Radio beacons sometimes are subject todisturbances that cause NDB needle deviations,signal fades and interference from distantstations, particularly during night operations.Pilots should be alert for these problems,especially over mountainous terrain.

At times, pilots may observe minor courseneedle fluctuations and brief flag alarm signalson some VORs. (Some VHF receivers are moresusceptible to these irregularities than others).Helicopter rotor speeds and certain propellerRPM settings can cause VOR coursefluctuations. Slight changes to the RPM settingwill normally smooth out this roughness. Pilotsoperating over unfamiliar routes should use theTO-FROM indicator to determine positivestation passage.

Pilots may encounter random glide path signalswhen undertaking back course ILS approachesat certain airports. Pilots should ignore all glidepath indications when using localizer backcourses.

False localizer signals may also occur whenoutside the localizer area of reliable signalcoverage. See Article 2.2.7 for further details.

When pilots observe apparent abnormaloperation of any navigation aid facility, theyshould report it to the appropriate flight servicestation, tower, terminal control unit, or ATCcentre. If it is not practicable to report it at thetime, the pilot may report the trouble afterlanding.

Reports on course shifts are more useful totechnical staff if they contain:

1/ the approximate magnitude of the shift,either in miles or degrees from thepublished bearing;

2/ the direction of the shift;3/ the approximate distance from the aid

at which the observation was made.

Reports concerning the failure of a groundfacility to reply should include the date, time,the location of the aircraft, and a briefdescription of reception and weather conditionsat the time.

2.2.3VOR NAVIGATION

A. GENERAL

The airway system is based primarily on thevery high frequency omnidirectional range(VOR). This extensive system consists of severalhundred ground stations that transmitnavigation track guidance signals used byaircraft in flight.

The VOR navigational system has manyadvantages for the IFR pilot. The VORtransmits in the very high frequency range of108.1 through 117.95 MegaHertz (MHz);therefore, it is relatively free from precipitationstatic and annoying interference caused bystorms or other weather phenomena. Accuracyis another advantage: a track accuracy of plus orminus 1° is possible when flying a VOR radial.Wind drift is compensated for by flying tocentre the track bar indicator.

VOR signals are transmitted on line-of-sight.Any obstacles (buildings, mountains or otherterrain features, including the curvature of theearth) block VOR signals and restrict thedistance over which they are received at a givenaltitude. This can result in “scalloping” - asudden fluctuation of the cockpit indicators -normally for short time intervals. Certainterrain features may produce areas where VORnavigation signals are unusable, so everyinstrument pilot making an “off airways” flightshould be aware of the restrictions along theroute.

Because of greater reception distances at higheraltitudes, it is possible for an aircraft to receiveerroneous indications due to the reception of twoVOR stations operating on the same frequency.Stations on the same frequency are spaced as farapart as possible, but there are, nevertheless, moreVORs than the 160 frequencies available. Thesolution has been to design and classify VORsaccording to the usable cylindrical service volume.

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This is the system by which VOR frequenciesare assigned to stations far enough apart toprevent overlapping, confusing signals. As longas pilots use the proper chart, they are protectedfrom interference between two VORs. Thepilot uses low-altitude charts below 18,000 ftand the high-altitude charts at and above18,000 ft.

B. VOR ACCURACY

1. REQUIREMENTS FOR CHECKS: The AirRegulations and good judgement dictate thatthe VOR equipment of aircraft flying underinstrument flight rules be within specifiedtolerances. Airborne VOR equipment usedon IFR flights must be maintained, checkedand inspected under an approvedprocedure. The pilot normally makes theseoperational checks. In preparing for an IFRflight the pilot should check the aircraft log,then make a physical check on theappropriate VOT (test) frequency todetermine whether the VOR equipmentmeets accuracy requirements.

2. VOR TEST FACILITY: The first method is touse a VOR test facility signal (VOT). Thisis an approved test signal, located on anairport, that enables the pilot to check thereceivers conveniently and accurately. First,the pilot should tune the VOR receiver tothe VOT frequency. These frequencies arecoded with a series of Morse code dots or acontinuous 1020-cycle tone. When thepilot sets the course selector to 0°, the trackbar (TB) indicator should centre and theTO-FROM indicator should read FROM.Then the pilot sets the selector to 180°.The TO-FROM indicator should read TOand the TB should be centred.

The pilot determines the exact error in thereceiver by turning the track selector untilthe TB is centred, and noting the degreesdifference between 180° or 0°. Themaximum permissible bearing error with thissystem check is plus or minus 4°. Apparenterrors greater than 4° indicate that theaircraft receiver is beyond acceptabletolerance. In such circumstances the pilotshould determine the cause of the error andhave it corrected before attempting IFRflight.

The airports with VOTfacilities are listed in theCanada Air Pilot and theC a n a d a F l i g h tSupp l emen t , A i rpo r t /F a c i l i t y D i r e c t o r y .Because the VOT signal isonly a special test signal, itmay be received and usedregardless of the aircraft’sposition on the airport.

3. VOR CHECK POINT SIGNS:A number of aerodromeshave VOR check pointsigns located beside taxiways. These signsindicate a point on the aerodrome wherethere is sufficient signal strength from aVOR to check aircraft VOR equipmentagainst the radial designated on the sign.Frequently a DME distance will also beindicated for check purposes. Themaximum permissible difference betweenaircraft equipment and the designated radialis 4° and 0.5 NM of the posted distance.

4. DUAL VOR CHECK: If neither a test signal(VOT) nor a designated check point on thesurface is available and an aircraft isequipped with dual VORs (unitsindependent of each other except for theantenna), the equipment may be checkedagainst each other by tuning both sets of thesame VOR facility and noting the indicatedbearings to that station. A differencegreater than 4° between the aircraft’s twoVOR receivers indicate that one of theaircraft’s receivers may be beyond acceptabletolerance. In such circumstances, the causeof the error should be investigated and, ifnecessary, corrected before the equipment isused for an IFR flight.

5. AIRBORNE VOR CHECK: Aircraft VORequipment may also be checked whileairborne by flying over a fix or landmarklocated on a published radial and noting theindicated radial. Equipment which variesmore than 6° from the published radialshould not be used for IFR navigation.

C. AIRCRAFT VOR COMPONENTS

1. VOR RECEIVER: In many modern aircraftone control unit is used for both the VOR

FIG. 2-56 • NAVCOM CONTROL PANELS

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receiver and the VHF communicationstransceiver. When located together, theradio is called a NAVCOM (Fig. 2-56).The VOR signals are received on theantenna, normally located on the verticalstabilizer or on top of the fuselage. Thisantenna resembles a “V” lying in ahorizontal plane. The VOR receiverconverts signals from the antenna to thereadings displayed on the navigationindicator.

2. NAVIGATION INDICATOR: The VORnavigation indicator gives the pilot aircraftposition information by means of threecomponents. The track selector, sometimescalled the omnibearing selector or OBS, isused to rotate the azimuth ring, whichdisplays the selected VOR track, (Fig. 2-57). This ring may also show the reciprocalof the selected track.

The TO-FROM/OFF flag indicateswhether the track will take the pilot to orfrom the station. If the aircraft is out ofstation range and cannot receive a reliable,usable signal, the TO-FROM/OFFindicator displays OFF. Also, the OFF flagis displayed when the aircraft is directly overthe station, when abeam of the station inthe area of ambiguity (i.e., directly on eitherside of the station) or when beyond thereception range of the station selected.

When the aircraft heading agrees generallywith the track selector, the track deviationbar (TB) shows the pilot the positionrelative to the track selected and indicateswhether the radial is to the right or left.The TB needle has a 10° spread from centreto either side when receiving a VOR signal.Fig. 2-58 shows that an aircraft 5° off trackwould have the TB one-half of the wayfrom centre to the outside edge. If theaircraft is 10° off track the needle swingscompletely to one side. Each dot on thenavigation indicator represents 2° when thepilot is flying VOR.

3. TRACK ARROW: Each time a track is chosenon the selector, the area around the VORstation is divided into halves or envelopes(Fig. 2-59). It is helpful to think of thedividing line as a track arrow, which runsthrough the station and points in the

direction of the selectedtrack. The TB shows thepilot in which of these twoenvelopes the aircraft islocated. If the aircraft isflying along the track line,the TB needle is centred(Fig. 2-59). If the aircraftflies to the left of the trackarrow (as in position A),the TB needle swings tothe right. If the aircraftmoves to the right of thetrack arrow, (position B),the TB needle swings tothe left.

Whenever the pilot changes the trackselector, he or she should visualize animaginary track arrow over the station. Inthis way, the pilot can lookat the TB and tell inwhich envelope theaircraft is located.

4. REFERENCE LINE: Whenthe pilot selects a track,the position of anotherline is established, ar e f e r e n c e l i n eperpendicular to the trackarrow and intersecting it atthe station. The referenceline divides the VORreception area into twoadditional sectors. The area forward of thereference line is the FROM envelope andthe area to the rear of the reference line isthe TO envelope. The TO-FROMindicator shows in which envelope theaircraft is located. In Fig.2-60 both aircraft displaya FROM reading.

Fig. 2-61 shows thereadings that an aircraftwould receive in eightdifferent locations aroundthe VOR station. In positionA, the aircraft shows acentred TB, indicating thatit is on track; the TO-FROM flag shows FROM.Position B shows a left TBand a FROM indication.

FIG. 2-57 • NAVIGATION INDICATOR

FROM

3033

06

9

12

15

1824

27

O B S

FROM

3033

06

9

12

15

1824

27

O B S

VOR

300°

305°

310°

FIG. 2-58 • TRACK BAR DEFLECTIONS

A B

Track arrowVOR

Left needleenvelope

Right needleenvelope

FIG. 2-59 • LEFT RIGHT ENVELOPES

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Aircraft at positions C and G are in the areaof ambiguity. In this area, the opposingreference signals that actuate the TO-FROM indicator cancel each other andproduce an OFF Indication.

The area of ambiguity widens withincreasing distance from the station. Thegreater the distance, the longer the TO-FROM flag will indicate OFF as the aircraftmoves between the TO and FROMenvelopes.

D. DETERMINATION OF POSITION

1. HEADING: Aircraft heading has absolutely noeffect on the readings of the VOR indicator.No matter which direction the aircraft isheading, the pilot receives the sameindication as long as the aircraft remains inthe same track envelope (Fig. 2-62).

2. POSITION FIX: To determine a fix (withoutDME), the pilot must use two VORstations because the VOR gives onlydirection and not distance from the station.First, the pilot should tune the number oneVOR to one of the desired stations andmake positive identification. Unless thepilot makes positive identification, thatstation should not be used. If a VORstation is shut down for maintenance or thesignal is unreliable because of amalfunction, the navaid identification is nottransmitted.

After identifying the station, the pilotshould centre the TB needle with thepositive FROM indication on the TO-FROM/OFF flag.

The pilot repeats this procedure with theother VOR station. Then, using the chart,the pilot draws a line outbound from theVORs along the radials indicated by thetrack selector. The intersection of thesebearings is the aircraft’s position (Fig. 2-63).

E. FLIGHT TO A VOR STATION

1. BRACKETING: Because there is generally acrosswind, the pilot rarely can intercept aradial, take up the heading of that track,and fly directly to the station. To stay on

track, the pilot must makea series of smallcorrections. The processof intercepting a radialand making thecorrections necessary toremain on track is calledbracketing. The methoddescribed here minimizesthe number of turnsneeded to determine thenecessary wind correction,and requires the leastattention by the pilot.

Fig. 2-64 shows the series of manoeuvresthat a pilot uses in bracketing a radial to aVOR station. The pilot of the aircraft inposition 1 determines that the radial of thedesired VOR station is to the right and thepilot must turn right tointercept it. In position 2,the pilot turns to anintercept angle of 30°.Since the radial is 090° tothe station, the interceptheading is 120° as shownon the heading indicator.

In position 3, the aircraftintercepts the radial. Thepilot immediately turns theaircraft to a 090° heading tocoincide with the inbounddirection of the radial.While using the headingindicator to carefully hold the heading, thepilot in position 4 starts to drift off track. Thepilot then takes up a new intercept heading of070°, a 20° intercept angle. The pilot flies thisnew intercept heading of 070° until re-intercepting the radial, at which time

VOR

Track arrow

Reference line

FROM ENVELOPE

TO ENVELOPE

FIG. 2-60 • TO-FROM ENVELOPES

FROM

FROM FROM

OFF

TO

OFF OFF

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H FROM ENVELOPE

TO ENVELOPE

TO

TO

OFF

FIG. 2-61 • VOR INDICATIONS

FROM

03

612

15

18

21

2430

33

O B SOFF

A

B

C

D

FIG. 2-62 • VOR ORIENTATION

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 2-41

(position 7) he or she divides this interceptangle by two and then turns to the newheading which is 080°.

The new heading of 080° lets the aircraftdrift a little north of track. This informsthe pilot that the desired track headingmust be somewhere between 090°, whichallows the aircraft to drift south of theradial, and 080°, which takes the aircraftnorth of the radial. At no time from thispoint to the station will the pilot turn to aheading less than 080° or heading morethan 090°.

As shown in position 9, the aircraft takes upthe heading of 090°, which allows theaircraft to drift back onto the radial. As theaircraft intercepts the radial at position 10,the pilot turns to a heading between 090°and 080°, then proceeds to the station,tracking the radial with an aircraft headingof 085°.

If the pilot takes up a specific interceptangle and then divides the angle by two, asnecessary, the aircraft brackets the radialwith the least number of turns and holdsthe track with the greatest accuracy.

2. TRACK TO THE STATION: The pilot shouldcheck the heading indicator against themagnetic compass when beginning to track.(The VOR indicator tells the pilot only theposition of the aircraft relative to a certainradial and the pilot must rely upon theheading indicator for aircraft headinginformation).

The most common use of VOR navigationis to fly on a radial from station to station.The pilot selects a radial course on the OBSand tracks that radial by keeping the TBneedle centred, which occurs as long as theOBS is in general agreement with theheading indicator. For example, if theradial is to the right, the indicator will pointto the right, and the pilot must turn in thisdirection to intercept the radial.

As the aircraft passes the VOR station, thepilot receives two basic indications providedthat the aircraft crosses directly over thestation. The most positive indication is thatthe TO-FROM indicator changes to the

opposite reading. (TO toFROM). The second, lesscertain indication is thefluctuation of the TB. Ifthe aircraft passes directlyover the station, the needlefluctuates from side to sideand returns to its originalposition. If the aircraft isleft of track, the needledoes not fluctuate, butcontinues to point to theright. Likewise, if theaircraft is right of track,the needle will point tothe left and not fluctuateas the aircraft passesabeam the station.

3. TIME CHECK: Another usefor VOR is to take a timecheck, which informs thepilot of the timeremaining to fly to astation. For example,while inbound to thestation on the 022° radial(Fig. 2-65) , the pilotwishes to estimate the timeto the station. The pilotelects to use the 030°radial to begin the timecheck, and turns theaircraft to a heading of120°, which is at rightangles to the 030° radial.The OBS is turned to030° and as the needlecentres, the pilot notes thet i m e . I m m e d i a t e l yafterward, the pilot rotatesthe OBS to 040°, which isthe next radial to be usedin the time check. Thepilot then continues tohold the 120° aircraftheading and flies to the040° radial. As the pilotcrosses this radial and theneedle centres, he or shenotes the time and findsthat it has taken twominutes (120 seconds) tomake the 10° radialchange.

0 3

69

12

151821

2427

30

33

0 3

69

12

151821

2427

30

33

115°340°

FIG. 2-63 • VOR POSITION FIX

03

612

15

18

21

2430

33

O B S

TO

03

612

15

18

21

2430

33

O B S

03

612

15

18

21

2430

33

O B S

03

612

15

18

21

2430

33

O B S

03

612

15

18

21

2430

33

O B S

03

612

15

18

21

2430

33

O B S

03

612

15

18

21

2430

33

O B S

03

612

15

18

21

2430

33

O B S

03

612

15

18

21

2430

33

O B S

03

612

15

18

21

2430

33

O B S

12

15S

21

24W30

33N

3

6E

PUSH

12

15S

21

24W30

33N

3

6E

PUSH

12

15S

21

24W30

33N

3

6 E

12

15S

21

24W30

33N

3

6 E

1215

S

2124W

3033

N

36 E

1215

S

2124W

3033

N

36 E

12

15S

21

24W30

33N

3

6E

12

15S

21

24W30

33N

3

6E

12

1521

24W30

33N

3

6E

12 15

2124

W3033

N3

6

E

WIND

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

090°

M

AG

NE

TIC

BE

AR

ING

270°

090°

PUSH

PUSH

PUSH

PUSH

PUSH

PUSH

PUSH

PUSH

VO

R

TO

TO

TO

TO

TO

TO

TO

TO

TO

1

FIG. 2-64 • BRACKETING A VOR RADIAL

03

69

12

151821

2427

30

33

120°

022°

030° 040°

FIG. 2-65 • VOR TIME CHECK

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The formula for determining the timeremaining to the station is:

Therefore, by dividing 120 seconds by 10,the pilot finds that there are 12 minutesremaining to fly to the station. Althoughthis problem can be worked out using anydegree of radial change, 10° of change is thesimplest and fastest to compute.

2.2.4DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT

A. GENERAL

Distance measuring equipment (DME), used bymany pilots because of its convenience duringflight, consists of airborne and groundequipment usually co-located. The DMEprovides distance (and in some systemsgroundspeed) information only from theground facility. DME(P) is precision DMEused in conjunction with MLS.

DME operates in the UHF frequency bandhowever its frequency can be “paired” withVOR or ILS or localizer (LOC) frequencies.The receiving equipment in most aircraftprovide for automatic DME selection through acoupled VOR/ILS receiver. Selection of theappropriate VOR or ILS frequencyautomatically tunes the DME.

DME information can also be received from aTACAN station by tuning in the “paired”frequency. This VHF frequency will be foundin the navigation data box for the groundfacility listed on the en route IFR chart.

The DME operates in the ultra-high frequency(UHF) band and therefore is restricted to line-of-sight transmission. With adequate altitude,the pilot can receive en route DME signals atdistances over 200 NM, with an error of ±0.25NM or 1.25% of the distance, whichever isgreater. Approach DMEs paired with an ILS orLOC have a nominal range of about 40 NM.

B. BASIC PRINCIPLES

The DME operates bytransmitting to and receivingpaired pulses from the groundstation. The transmitter in theaircraft sends out very narrowpulses at a frequency of about1,000 MHz. These signals arereceived at the ground stationand trigger a secondtransmission on a differentfrequency. These reply pulsesare sensed by timing circuits inthe aircraft’s receiver thatmeasure the elapsed timebetween transmission and reception. Electroniccircuits within the radio convert thismeasurement to electrical signals that operatethe distance and ground speedindicators.

C. DME COMPONENTS AND

OPERATIONS

The transceiver (Fig. 2-66)that sends out theinterrogating signal to theground station contains aninternal computer to measurethe time interval that elapsesuntil the response. Theantenna, used for bothtransmission and reception, is a very small“sharks fin” normally mounted on the undersideof the aircraft. Modern DME controlsincorporate digital readouts of frequency, DMEand groundspeed information.

The DME displays information in the form ofdistance to the station and the aircraft’sgroundspeed. Most DME radios exhibit this dataon the face of the radio. The distance to thestation is a slant range, expressed in nautical miles.For example, if an aircraft were directly over theDME station at 6,100 ft AGL, the distanceindicator would read one mile (Fig. 2-67).

The DME receiver can express groundspeed inknots. This value is accurate only if the aircraftis flying directly to or from the station, becausethe DME measures groundspeed by comparingthe time lapse between a series of pulses. Whenaccurate, the groundspeed information allows

TIME IN SECONDSBETWEEN RADIAL

CHANGE

DEGREES OF RADIALCHANGE

TIME TO STATIONIN MINUTES

=

FIG. 2-66 • DIGITAL DME

VORTAC

I nauticalmile

DME measures

slant distance

6100' AGL

FIG. 2-67 • SLANT RANGE MEASUREMENTS

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 2-43

the pilot to make accurate estimates of time ofarrival and accurate checks of aircraft progress.

When the pilot turns the function control knobof the DME receiver to “groundspeed”, there isnot an immediate readout because the DMEmust be on the groundspeed function longenough to compare the time lapse betweenseveral pulse signals.

Certain DME radios have a frequency-holdfunction. These radios are channelled by theprimary VHF navigation radio. When the pilotselects the VOR frequency, the DME alsochannels. The DME hold function retains thefrequency of the original VORTAC station onthe DME while the pilot channels the VORreceiver to another frequency.

A pilot with DME may pinpoint aircraftposition using the radial of a VORTAC and thedistance information from the same VORTAC;whereas a pilot without DME must use radialsfrom two stations to get a position fix. Thepilot also can use DME to establishintersections and holding patterns. When soequipped and cleared by ATC, pilots canestablish holding patterns by reference to radialsand DME. Refer to Article 4.4.8.

Many airports have instrument approachprocedures based on use of VOR and DMEequipment. Normally, an aircraft making thistype of approach has lower minimums thanwhen only the VOR is used.

D. FLYING A DME ARC

1. CALM CONDITIONS: Theoretically, with nowind, a 20° turn every 20° of arc will keepthe aircraft close to the desired arc (Fig. 2-68). Although a DME arc may be flownusing a standard VOR navigation indicatorfor bearing information, pilot orientationand turning points are simplified by usingan RMI.

The pilot can fly the arc most easily byallowing the tail of the RMI needle to move10° ahead of the wingtip position. Thesubsequent 20° turn places the tail of theneedle 10° behind the wingtip position.The pilot holds this heading until the tail ofthe needle moves to 10° ahead of thewingtip, and so on. (Arcs are never less

than 7 NM DME or more than 30 NMDME). Depending on the distance to theVOR/DME, the aircraft will drift inside ofand then beyond the desired arc. The pilotshould attempt to keep the aircraft withinplus or minus 0.5 NM of the arc. Theobstacle clearance area associated with aDME arc is ±4 NM.

Fig. 2-69 shows one way of staying on thearc.

STEP 1a/ Northbound crossing R-090-RMI: tail

reads 090 (on wingtip).b/ Maintain heading 000°M.c/ In no-wind conditions DME distance

will increase, and the RMI needle willmove off the wingtipposition.

STEP 2a/ DME reads 20 NM

plus.b/ RMI tail reads 080 or

10° ahead of wingtip.c/ Turn 20° left to 340.d/ RMI moves to 10°

behind wingtip.

STEP 3a/ Steering 340°M in no-

wind conditions:DME reading will reduce.

b/ DME reading may reduce to less than20 NM but do not worry unless itreduces to below 19.5 DME.

c/ Maintain heading and allow DME toincrease to 20 NM plus the tail of theRMI needle moves 10° ahead of thewingtip.

FIG. 2-68 • SEGMENTS OF A DME ARC

2N

RMI

VORR-090

VOR

N

RMI

1

R-090

20 DMEARC

3

21 3

R-080NW

RMI

VOR

FIG. 2-69 • STAYING ON A DME ARC

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d/ Turn 20° left and repeat the abovesteps.

2. WIND DRIFT: When flying in a wind pilotsrequire practice before they can modify theprocedure above to keep the aircraft close tothe arc. Unlike drift correction on astraight track, the drift changes as theaircraft proceeds around the arc. The pilotshould estimate the new heading, make apositive turn and hold the heading until theDME and RMI readouts show that it istime to turn again.

3. ARCING TO A FINAL APPROACH:Example:20 NM DME Arc (Fig. 2-70)a/ At about 22 DME begin a 90° turn to

the right to roll out on the 20 DMEarc. A rule of thumb that may be usedfor calculating the lead point for theturn from a radial onto an arc is to use0.5% of groundspeed for a standardrate turn and 1% of groundspeed for a1/2 standard rate turn. In this example,a ground speed of 200 knots and a 1/2rate turn was used (200 kts x 1.0% = 2N.M.).

b/ Fly the arc not below the publishedMEA (in this case 3,000’).

c/ On reaching the lead radial (LR 010),the aircraft is 2 NM from the finalapproach radial (000°R). Begin a left-hand turn of approximately 90° tointercept the desired radial.

d/ The pilot may now descend to the nextaltitude published on the profile viewof the instrument procedure chart.

2.2.5ADF - AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER SYSTEM

A. DESCRIPTION

One of the older types of radio navigation is theautomatic direction finder (ADF) or non-directional beacon (NDB). The ADF receiver, a“backup” system for the VHF equipment, canbe used when line-of-sight transmissionbecomes unreliable or when there is no VORequipment on the ground or in the aircraft. It is

used as a means of identifyingpositions, receiving low andmedium frequency voicecommunications, homing,tracking, and for navigationon instrument approachprocedures.

The low/medium frequencynavigation stations used byADF include non-directionalbeacons, ILS radio beaconlocators, and commercialbroadcast stations. Becausecommercial broadcast stationsnormally are not used in navigation, this sectionwill deal only with the non-directional beaconand ILS radio beacon.

A non-directional radio beacon(NDB) is classed according toits power output and usage:

1/ the L radio beacon has apower of less than 50W;

2/ the M classification ofradio beacon has a powerof 50 watts up to 2,000W;

3/ the H radio beacon has apower output of 2,000 Wor more;

4/ the ILS radio beacon is a beacon which isplaced at the same position as the outermarker of an ILS system (or replaces theOM).

B. LIMITATIONS AND BENEFITS

Pilots using ADF should be aware of thefollowing limitations:

Radio waves reflected by the ionosphere returnto the earth 30 to 60 miles from the station andmay cause the ADF pointer to fluctuate. Thetwilight effect is most pronounced during theperiod just before and after sunrise/sunset.Generally, the greater the distance from thestation the greater the effect. The effect can beminimized by averaging the fluctuation, byflying at a higher altitude, or by selecting astation with a lower frequency (NDB

316V

A

B

D

C

LR 0

10 20 DME

ARC

3000'

000R

FIG. 2-70- • FINAL APPROACH ARC

FIG. 2-71 • NDB CONTROL PANELS

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 2-45

transmissions on frequencies lower than 350KHz have very little twilight effect).

Mountains or cliffs can reflect radio waves,producing a terrain effect. Furthermore, someof these slopes may have magnetic deposits thatcause indefinite indications. Pilots flying nearmountains should use only strong stations thatgive definite directional indications, and shouldnot use stations obstructed by mountains.

Shorelines can refract or bend low frequencyradio waves as they pass from land to water.Pilots flying over water should not use an NDBsignal that crosses over the shoreline to theaircraft at an angle less than 30°. The shorelinehas little or no effect on radio waves reachingthe aircraft at angles greater than 30°.

When an electrical storm is nearby, the ADFneedle points to the source of lightning ratherthan to the selected station because the lightingsends out radio waves. The pilot should notethe flashes and not use the indications caused bythem.

The ADF is subject to errors when the aircraft isbanked. Bank error is present in all turnsbecause the loop antenna which rotates to sensethe direction of the incoming signal is mountedso that its axis is parallel to the normal axis ofthe aircraft. Bank error is a significant factorduring NDB approaches.

While the ADF has drawbacks in specialsituations, the system does have some generaladvantages. Two of these benefits are the lowcost of installation of NDBs and their relativelylow degree of maintenance. Because of this,NDBs provide homing and navigationalfacilities in terminal areas and en routenavigation on low-level airways and air routeswithout VOR coverage. Through theinstallation of NDBs many smaller airports areable to provide an instrument approach thatotherwise would not be economically feasible.

The NDBs transmit in the frequency band of200 to 415 KHz. The signal is not transmittedin a line of sight as VHF or UHF, but ratherfollows the curvature of the earth; this permitsreception at low altitudes over great distances.The ADF is used for primary navigation overlong distances in remote areas of Canada.

C. ADF COMPONENTS

Fig. 2-71 shows the major ADF componentsexcept the receiving antenna, which on mostlight aircraft is a length of wire running from aninsulator on the cabin to the vertical stabilizer.

1. RECEIVER: Controls on the ADF receiverpermit the pilot to tune the station desiredand to select the mode of operation. Whentuning the receiver the pilot must positivelyidentify the station. The low or mediumfrequency radio beacons transmit a signalwith 1,020 Hz modification keyed toprovide continuous identification exceptduring voice communications. All airfacilities radio beacons transmit acontinuous two- or three-unit identificationin Morse code, except for ILS front courseradio beacons which normally transmit acontinuous one letter identifier in Morsecode. The signal is received, amplified, andconverted to audible voice or Morse codetransmission. The signal also powers thebearing indicator.

Tuning the ADF: To tune the ADF receiver,the pilot should follow these steps:

a/ turn the function knob to theRECEIVE mode. This turns the set onand selects the mode that provides thebest reception. Use the RECEIVEmode for tuning the ADF and forcontinuous listening when the ADFfunction is not required;

b/ select the desired frequency band andadjust the volume until backgroundnoise is heard;

c/ with the tuning controls, tune thedesired frequency and then re-adjustvolume for best listening level andidentify the station;

d/ to operate the radio as an automaticdirection finder, switch the functionknob to ADF; and

e/ the pointer on the bearing indicatorshows the bearing to the station inrelation to the nose of the aircraft. Aloop switch aids in checking theindicator for proper operation. Closethe switch. The pointer should move

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away from the bearing of the selectedstation. Then release the switch; thepointer should return promptly to thebearing of the selected station. Asluggish return or no return indicatesmalfunctioning of the equipment or asignal too weak to use.

2. CONTROL BOX - DIGITAL READOUT TYPE:Most modern aircraft have this type ofcontrol in the cockpit. In this equipmentthe frequency tuned is displayed as a digitalreadout of numbers rather than tuning afrequency band.

a/ Function Selector (Mode Control) .Allows selection of OFF, ADF, ANT orTEST Position.

ADF - Automatically determinesbearing to selected station and displaysit on the RMI. Uses sense and loopantennae.

ANT - Reception of Radio signals usingthe sense antenna. Recommended fortuning.

TEST - Performs ADF system self-test.RMI needle moves to 315°.

b/ Frequency Selector Switches. Threeconcentric knobs, permit selection ofoperating frequency. Two frequenciescan be preselected. Only one can beused at a time. The transfer switchindicates the frequency in use.

c/ Selected Frequency Indicators. Provides avisual read-out of the frequenciesselected. The numbers can be printedon drums that rotate vertically or, inmore modern sets, they are displayed bylight emitting diodes.

3. ANTENNAE: The ADF receives signals onboth loop and sense antennae. The loopantenna in common use today is a small flatantenna without moving parts. Within theantenna are several coils spaced at variousangles. The loop antenna senses thedirection of the station by the strength ofthe signal on each coil but cannotdetermine whether the bearing is TO orFROM the station. The sense antenna

provides this latterinformation, and alsovoice reception when theADF function is notrequired.

4. BEARING INDICATOR: Asmentioned above, thebearing indicator (Fig. 2-72) displays the bearing tothe station relative to thenose of the aircraft. If thepilot is flying directly tothe station, the bearingindicator points to 0°. AnADF with a fixed card bearing indicatoralways represents the nose of the aircraft as0° and the tail as 180°.

Relative bearing (Fig. 2-73) is the angleformed by the intersectionof a line drawn throughthe centerline of theaircraft and a line drawnfrom the aircraft to theradio station. This angle isalways measured clockwisefrom the nose of theaircraft and is indicateddirectly by the pointer onthe bearing indicator.

Magnetic bearing (Fig. 2-73) is the angle formed bythe intersection of a linedrawn from the aircraft to the radio stationand a line drawn from the aircraft tomagnetic north. The pilot calculates themagnetic bearing by adding the relativebearing shown on the indicator to themagnetic heading of theaircraft. For example, ifthe magnetic heading ofthe aircraft is 40° and therelative bearing 210°, themagnetic bearing to thestation is 250°. Reciprocalbearing is the opposite ofthe magnetic bearing,obtained by adding orsubtracting 180° from themagnetic bearing. Thepilot calculates it whentracking outbound andwhen plotting fixes.

FIG. 2-72 • FIXED CARD BEARING INDICATOR

Recipricol bearing(from the station)

NDB

Mag

netic

nor

th

Magnetic

heading

Magnetic bearing

Relative bearing

*

* To the station

FIG. 2-73 • NDB BEARINGS

1

2

NDB

Flight path resulting from crosswind when no corrective action is taken (0° relativebearing is maintained)

Flight path without crosswind or when adequatecorrective action was takenfor crosswind

WIND

FIG. 2-74 • HOMING TO AN NDB

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 2-47

D. ADF OPERATIONS

1. MONITORING: Since the ADF receivernormally has no system failure or “OFF”warning flags to provide the pilot withimmediate indication of a beacon failure orreceiver failure, the ADF audio must bemonitored. The “idents” should bemonitored anytime the ADF is used as a solemeans of en route navigation. During thecritical phases of approach, missed approachand holding, at least one pilot or flight crewmember shall aurally monitor the beacon“idents” unless the aircraft instrumentsautomatically advise the pilots of ADF orreceiver failure.

2. HOMING: One of the most common ADFuses is “homing to a station”. When usingthis procedure, the pilot flies to a station bykeeping the bearing indicator needle on 0°when using a fixed-card ADF (Fig. 2-74).The pilot should follow these steps:

a/ tune the desired frequency and identifythe station. Set the function selectorknob to ADF and note the relativebearing;

b/ turn the aircraft toward the relativebearing until the bearing indicatorpointer is 0°; and

c/ continue flight to the station bymaintaining a relative bearing of 0°.

Fig. 2-74 shows that if the pilot mustchange the magnetic heading to hold theaircraft on 0° the aircraft is drifting due to acrosswind. If the pilot does not makecrosswind corrections, the aircraft flies acurved path to the station while the bearingindicator pointer remains at zero. Theaircraft in position 2 must keep changing itsheading to maintain the 0° relative bearingwhile flying to the station.

The bracketing method used here isbasically the same as that explained inArticle 2.2.3 E (1). The major difference isthat bracketing a VOR requires the pilot tobracket a radial identified by the TB needle,whereas bracketing an ADF magneticbearing requires the pilot to identify it byusing both the bearing indicator and theheading indicator.

Assume the pilot of the aircraft in position 1(Fig. 2-75) desires to intercept the 090°magnetic bearing to the non-directionalbeacon. The pilot then sets up an interceptangle of 30° which is shown by the 120°heading of the aircraft. The ADF pointerindicates 340°. Because the magneticbearing equals the magnetic heading of theaircraft and the relative bearing, the pilotadds 120° (the relative bearing) and findsthat the aircraft is on the 100° magneticbearing.

12

15S

21

24W30

33N

3

6E

PUSH

ADF

0 3

69

12

151821

2427

30

33

12

15S

21

24W30

33N

3

6E

PUSH

ADF

0 3

69

12

151821

2427

30

33

12

15S

21

24W30

33N

3

6 E

ADF

0 3

69

12

151821

2427

30

33

12

15S

21

24W30

33N

3

6 E

ADF

0 3

69

12

1521

2427

30

33

18

1215

S

2124W

3033

N

36 E

ADF

0 3

69

12

1521

2427

30

33

18

1215

S

2124W

3033

N

36 E

ADF

0 3

69

12

1521

2427

30

33

18

12

15S

21

24W30

33N

3

6E

ADF

0 3

69

12

1521

2427

30

33

18

12

15S

2124W30

33N

3

6E

ADF

0 3

69

12

1521

2427

30

33

18

ADF

0 3

612

1521

2427

30

33

18

ADF

0 3

612

1521

2427

30

33

18

WIND

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

090°

M

AG

NE

TIC

BE

AR

ING

270°

090°

PUSH

PUSH

PUSH

PUSH

PUSH

PUSH

12 15

2124

W3033

N3

6

E

PUSH

12 15

2124

W3033

N3

6

E

PUSH

FIG. 2-75 •BRACKETING AN NDB MAGNETIC BEARING

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NOTE:Whenever the aircraft heading and relativebearing equal more than 360° the pilot shouldsubtract 360° from the resulting figure. The pilotthen follows the rest of the bracketing procedure.

3. TRACKING FROM A STATION: A pilot can useADF to track from a station by employingthe principles of bracketing a magneticbearing. Fig. 2-76 illustrates an aircrafttracking outbound from a station with acrosswind from the north. The reciprocalbearing is 090°, and the pilot tracks thisbearing by flying the aircraft with 10° ofwind correction. The pilot knows that theaircraft is tracking a reciprocal bearingbecause the heading indicator (080°) andrelative bearing (190°) equal the magneticbearing (270°).

4. POSITION FIX BY ADF: The ADF receivercan help the pilot to make a definiteposition fix by using two or more stationsand the process of triangulation. Todetermine the exact location of the aircraft,the pilot should use these procedures:

a/ locate two stations in the vicinity of theaircraft. Tune and identify each;

b/ set the function selector knob to ADF,then note the magnetic heading of theaircraft as read on the heading of theaircraft as read on the headingindicator. Continue to fly this headingand tune in the stations previouslyidentified, recording the relative bearingfor each station;

c/ add the relative bearing of each stationto the magnetic heading to obtain themagnetic bearing. Correct themagnetic bearing for east-west variationto obtain the true bearing; and

d/ plot the reciprocal for each true bearingon the chart. The aircraft is located atthe intersection of the bearing lines(Fig. 2-77).

5. TIME COMPUTATION TO FLY TO A STATION:Computing time to the station is basically thesame for ADF as it is for VOR (refer to Article2.2.3. E (2)) therefore, a brief example issufficient here. The basic procedure is to:

a/ turn the aircraft until the ADF pointeris either at 090° or 270° and note thetime; and

b/ fly a constant magnetic heading untilthe ADF pointer indicates a bearingchange of 10°. Note the time again andapply the following formula:

For example, if it takes 45 sec to fly abearing change of 10°, the aircraft is:

45 / 10 = 4.5 min from the station

To find distance to a station multiply timeby distance covered in oneminute using TAS orpreferably G/S.

As with VOR procedures,a 10° bearing change is thesimplest and easiest to usein making this calculation.If the pointer moves sorapidly that a satisfactorytime check cannot beobtained during a 10°bearing change, this rapidmovement indicates thatthe aircraft is very close tothe station.

2.2.6RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR

Many radio magnetic indicator(RMI) systems are designed foruse with either an ADF orVOR station by selecting witha switch either VOR or ADF.(Fig. 2-79)

The radio magnetic indicator(RMI) is both a bearingindicator and a headingindicator (Fig. 2-78). Theheading indicator uses a

12

15S

21

24W30

33N

3

6 E

PUSH

ADF

0 3

69

12

151821

2427

30

33

WIN

D

090° RECIPROCAL BEARING

FIG. 2-76 • TRACKING FROM AN NDB

STATION A

STATION B

FIG. 2-77 • POSITION FIX BY NDB

TIME IN SECONDSBETWEEN BEARING

CHANGE

DEGREES OF BEARINGCHANGE

TIME TO STATIONIN MINUTES

=

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“slaved gyro”, i.e., the heading indicator isconnected to a remotely located magneticcompass and is automatically “fed” directionalsignals. The heading indicator always shows thedirection of the aircraft in relation to magneticnorth.

Therefore, the pointer of the bearing indicatoralways displays the actual magnetic bearing tothe non-directional beacon. The tail of thepointer indicates the reciprocal bearing. Thissystem lessens the pilot’s task and furtherminimizes the possibility of errors.

The RMI further simplifies tracking to a stationbecause the pilot needs to refer to only oneinstrument instead of two. The pilotdetermines the magnetic heading by looking atthe heading indicated on the azimuth card, andthe magnetic bearing shown by the pointer.The aircraft heading used to compensate forwind drift does not influence the magneticbearing as long as the aircraft remains on thebearing. As shown in Fig. 2-80, the pilot flyingeastbound on the 095° magnetic bearing with10° of north wind correction sees a display onthe RMI of 085° magnetic heading (aircraftheading) and 095° magnetic bearing (to thestation).

2.2.7THE INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM

A. GENERAL DESCRIPTION

Instrument landing system (ILS) facilities are ahighly accurate and dependable means ofnavigating to the runway in IFR conditions.When using the ILS, the pilot determinesaircraft position primarily by reference toinstruments. The ILS consists of:

i/ the localizer transmitter;ii/ the glide path transmitter;iii/ the outer marker (can be replaced by an

NDB or other fix);iv/ the approach lighting system.

ILS is classified by category in accordance withthe capabilities of the ground equipment.Category I ILS provides guidance informationdown to a decision height (DH) of not less than200 ft. Improved equipment (airborne andground) provide for Category II ILS approaches.

A DH of not less than 100 ft.on the radar altimeter isauthorized for Category II ILSapproaches.

The ILS provides the lateraland vertical guidance necessaryto fly a precision approach,where glide slope informationis provided. A precisionapproach is an approveddescent procedure using anavigation facility aligned witha runway where glide slopeinformation is given. Whenall components of the ILS system are available,including the approved approach procedure, thepilot may execute a precision approach.

B. LOCALIZER

1. GROUND EQUIPMENT: Theprimary component of theILS is the localizer, whichprovides lateral guidance.The localizer is a VHFradio transmitter andantenna system using thesame general range asVOR transmitters(between 108.10 MHzand 111.95 MHz).Localizer frequencies,however, are only on odd-tenths, with 50 KHzspacing between each frequency. Thetransmitter and antenna are on thecenterline at the opposite end of the runwayfrom the approach threshold.

The localizer back course isused on some, but not all,ILS systems. Where theback course is approvedfor landing purposes, it isgenerally provided with a75 MHz back markerfacility or NDB located 3to 5 NM fromtouchdown. The course ischecked periodically toensure that it isxpositioned w i t h i ns p e c i f i e d tolerances.

FIG. 2-78 • RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR

FIG. 2-79 • RMI WITHVOR AND NDB INPUTS

033

30 27 24

2118

15

1296

3

090° MAGNETIC BEARING

FIG. 2-80 • TRACKING WITH AN RMI

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2. SIGNAL TRANSMISSION: The signaltransmitted by the localizer consists of twovertical fan-shaped patterns that overlap atthe centre (Fig. 2-81). They are alignedwith the extended centerline of the runway.The right side of this pattern, as seen by anapproaching aircraft, is modulated at 150Hz and is called the “blue” area. The leftside of the pattern is modulated at 90 Hzand is called the “yellow” area. The overlapbetween the two areas provides the on-tracksignal.

The width of the navigational beam may bevaried from approximately 3° to 6°, with 5°being normal. It is adjusted to provide atrack signal approximately 700 ft wide atthe runway threshold. The width of thebeam increases so that at 10 NM from thetransmitter, the beam is approximately onemile wide.

The localizer is identified by an audio signalsuperimposed on the navigational signal.The audio signal is a two-letteridentification preceded by the letter “I”,e.g., “I-OW”.

The reception range of the localizer is at least18 NM within 10° of the on-track signal.In the area from 10° to 35° of the on-tracksignal, the reception range is at least 10 NM(Fig. 2-82). This is because the primarystrength of the signal is aligned with therunway centerline.

3. LOCALIZER RECEIVER: The localizer signal isreceived in the aircraft by a localizerreceiver. The localizer receiver is combinedwith the VOR receiver in a single unit. Thetwo receivers share some electronic circuitsand also the same frequency selector,volume control, and ON-OFF control.

The localizer signal activates the verticalneedle called the track bar (TB). Assuminga final approach track aligned north andsouth (Fig. 2-81), an aircraft east of theextended centerline of the runway (position1) is in the area modulated at 150 Hz. TheTB is deflected to the left. Conversely, ifthe aircraft is in the area west of the runwaycenterline, the 90 Hz signal causes the TBto deflect to the right (position 2). In theoverlap area, both signals apply a force to

the needle, causing a partial deflection inthe direction of the strongest signal. Thus,if an aircraft is approximately on theapproach track but slightly to the right, theTB is deflected slightly to the left. Thisindicates that a correction to the left isnecessary to place the aircraft in precisealignment.

At the point where the 90 Hz and 150 Hzsignals are of equal intensity, the TB iscentred, indicating that the aircraft islocated precisely on the approach track(position 3).

When the TB is used in conjunction withthe VOR, fullscale needle deflection occurs

at 10° either side of the track shown on thetrack selector. When this same needle isused as an ILS localizer indicator, full-scaleneedle deflection occurs at approximately2.5° from the centre of the localizer beam.

VHF RunwayLocalizer

UHF Glide PathTransmitter

FRONT COURSE

TO

0 3

612

15

18

21

2430

33

O B S

TO

0 3

612

15

18

21

2430

33

O B S

111

2

TO

0 3

612

15

18

21

2430

33

O B S

333

FIG. 2-81 • ILS LOCALIZER SIGNAL PATTERN

35°

35°

10°

10°

10 NM

18 NM

FRONT COURSE

RUNWAY

AREA OF LOCALIZER FULL SCALE DEFLECTION WITH "OFF" FLAG OUT OF VIEW

3° - 6° BACK COURSE

10 NM

18 NM

35°

35°

FIG. 2-82 • ILS AREAS OF RELIABILITY

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Thus the sensitivity of the TB isapproximately four times greater when usedas a localizer indicator as opposed to VORnavigation.

In the localizer function, the TB does notdepend on a correct track selector setting inmost cases; however, the pilot should set thetrack selector for the approach track as areminder of the final approach.

When an OFF flag appears in front of thevertical needle, it indicates that the signal istoo weak, and, therefore, the needleindications are unreliable. A momentaryOFF flag, or brief TB needle deflections, orboth, may occur when obstructions or otheraircraft pass between the transmittingantenna and the receiving aircraft.

C. GLIDE SLOPE EQUIPMENT

1. TRANSMITTER: The glide slope providesvertical guidance to the pilot during theapproach. The ILS glide slope is producedby a ground-based UHF radio transmitterand antenna system, operating at a range of329.30 MHz to 335.00 MHz, with a 50kHz spacing between each channel. Thetransmitter is located 750 to 1,250 ft downthe runway from the threshold, offset 400to 600 ft from the runway centerline.Monitored to a tolerance of ± 1/2 degree,the UHF glide path is “paired” with (andusually automatically tuned by selecting) acorresponding VHF localizer frequency.

Like the localizer, the glide slope signalconsists of two overlapping beamsmodulated at 90 Hz and 150 Hz (Fig. 2-83). Unlike the localizer, however, thesesignals are aligned above each other and areradiated primarily along the approach track.The thickness of the overlap area is 1.4° or.7° above and .7° below the optimum glideslope.

This glide slope signal may be adjustedbetween 2° and 4.5° above a horizontalplane (Fig. 2-84). A typical adjustment is2.5° to 3°, depending upon such factors asobstructions along the approach path andthe runway slope.

False signals may be generated along the

glide slope in multiples of the glide pathangle, the first being approximately 6°above horizontal. This false signal will be areciprocal signal (i.e. the fly up and flydown commands will be reversed). Thefalse signal at 9° will be oriented in thesame manner as the true glide slope. Thereare no false signals below the actual slope.An aircraft flying according to the publishedapproach procedure on a front course ILSshould not encounter these false signals.

2. SIGNAL RECEIVER: The glide slope signal isreceived by a UHF receiver in the aircraft.In modern avionics installations, thecontrols for this radio are integrated withthe VOR controls so that the proper glideslope frequency is tuned automaticallywhen the localizer frequency is selected.

The glide slope signal activates the glideslope needle, located in conjunction withthe TB (Fig. 2-83). There is a separateOFF flag in the navigation indicator for theglide slope needle. This flag appears whenthe glide slope signal is too weak. Ashappens with the localizer, the glide slopeneedle shows full deflection until theaircraft reaches the point of signal overlap.At this time, the needle shows a partialdeflection in the direction of the strongestsignal. When both signals are equal, theneedle centres horizontally, indicating thatthe aircraft is precisely on the glide path.

The pilot may determine precise locationwith respect to the approach path by

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18

21

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2

1

LOCALIZER OVERLAP

GLIDE SLOPE

3

FIG. 2-83 • SLIDE SLOPE SIGNAL PATTERN

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referring to a single instrument because thenavigation indicator provides both verticaland lateral guidance. Fig. 2-83, position 1,shows both needles centred, indicating thatthe aircraft is located in the centre of theapproach path. The indication at position 2tells the pilot to fly down and left to correctthe approach path. Position 3 shows therequirements to fly up and right to reachthe proper path. With 1.4° of beamoverlap, the area is approximately 1,500 ftthick at 10 NM, 150 ft at 1 NM, and lessthan one foot at touchdown.

The apparent sensitivity of the instrumentincreases as the aircraft nears the runway.The pilot must monitor it carefully to keepthe needle centred. As said before, a fulldeflection of the needle indicates that theaircraft is either high or low but there is noindication of how high or low.

D. ILS MARKER BEACONS

1. GENERAL: Instrument landing systemmarker beacons provide information ondistance from the runway by identifyingpredetermined points along the approachtrack. These beacons are low-powertransmitters that operate at a frequency of75 MHz with 3 W or less rated poweroutput. They radiate an elliptical beamupward from the ground. At an altitude of1,000 ft, the beam dimensions are 2,400 ftlong and 4,200 ft wide. At higher altitudes,the dimensions increase significantly.

2. OUTER MARKER (OM): The outer marker (ifinstalled) is located 3 1/2 to 6 NM from thethreshold within 250 ft of the extendedrunway centerline. It intersects the glideslope vertically at approximately 1,400 ftabove runway elevation. It also marks theapproximate point at which aircraftnormally intercept the glide slope, anddesignates the beginning of the finalapproach segment. The signal is modulatedat 400 Hz, which is an audible low tonewith continuous Morse code dashes at a rateof two dashes per second. The signal isreceived in the aircraft by a 75 MHz markerbeacon receiver. The pilot hears a tone overthe speaker or headset and sees a blue lightthat flashes in synchronization with theaural tone (Fig. 2-85). Where geographic

conditions prevent the positioning of anouter marker, a DME unit may be includedas part of the ILS system to provide thepilot with the ability to make a positiveposition fix on the localizer. In most ILSinstallations, the OM is replaced by anNDB.

3. MIDDLE MARKER (MM): Middle markers havebeen removed from all ILS facilities in Canadabut are still used in the United States. Themiddle marker is located approximately .5 to.8 NM from the threshold on the extended

runway centerline. The middle markercrosses the glide slope at approximately 200 to250 ft above the runway elevation and is nearthe missed approach point for the ILSCategory I approach.

Outer Marker Located3.5 To 6 Miles

From end of RunwayModulated 400 Hz

Activates Blue LightKEYING: Continuous Dashes

OUTER MARKER

Modulated 1300 HzActivates Amber Light

KEYING: Alternating Dot & Dash

MIDDLE MARKERVHF

RUNWAY LOCALIZER

UHF GLIDE PATH

TRANSMITTER

*Between750' & 1250'

3500'±250' *75'

*200'

*915'

*5 miles(typical)

*475'

*1000'

Approx. 1.4°width (Full

Scale Limits)

Above Horizontal(Nominal)

*2920'

1000'RUNWAY LENGTH

7000' (typical)

. - . - . - . - . - . - . -

- - - - - - - - - -

*Figures supplied are for illustration only ; not necessarily standard.

*5°

3°

Outer markers and middle markers are no longer required in an ILS. Often an NDB is used in place of an outer marker.

NOTE :

FIG. 2-84 • ILS STANDARD CHARACTERISTICS

MM

OM

FM/Z

MARKER BEACON

SPKER

OFF

PH

PULLHI SENS

VOL

MARKER BEACON INDICATOR LIGHTS - Indicate passage of OM, MM, and airway beacons. The OM light is blue, the MM light is amber and the airway light is white. Pictured configuration has Press-To-Test and dimming features. Other types and configurations may be encountered.

RECEIVER SENSITIVITY SWITCH - Increases sensitivity of the receiver in “HI” position for airway use. “LO” position preferred for ILS work to more accurately pinpoint location of OM and MM.

SPEAKER / PHONE SWITCH - Selects speaker or phones for reception of aural tones. In some aircraft centre position turns receiver off. May be located remotely from indicator lights.

1.

2.

3.

1

23

FIG. 2-85 • MARKER BEACON LIGHTS

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4. BACK MARKER (BM): The back course marker(BM), if installed, is normally located on thelocalizer back course approximately four tosix miles from the runway threshold. TheBM low pitched tone (400 Hz) is heard as aseries of dots. It illuminates the aircraft’swhite marker beacon light. An NDB orDME fix can also be used and in mostlocations replace the BM.

E. LIGHTING SYSTEMS

1. GENERAL: Various runway environmentlighting systems serve as integral parts of theILS system to aid the pilot in landing. Anyor all of the following lighting systems maybe provided at a given facility: approachlight system (ALS), sequenced flashing light(SFL), touchdown zone lights (TDZ) andcenterline lights (CLL-required for Cat IIoperations.) Further information onrunway and approach lighting systems canbe found in the Canada Air Pilot.

2. RUNWAY VISIBILITY MEASUREMENT: In orderto land, the pilot must be able to seeappropriate visual aids not later than thearrival at the decision height (DH) or themissed approach point (MAP).

Until fairly recently, the weather observersimply “peered into the murk”, trying toidentify landmarks at known distances fromthe observation point. This method israther inaccurate; therefore,instrumentation was developed to improvethe observer’s capability.

The instrument designed to provide visibilityinformation is called a transmissometer. It isnormally located adjacent to a runway. Thelight source (Fig. 2-86) is separated from thephoto-electric cell receiver by 500 to 700 ft.The receiver, connected to the instrumentreadout in the airport tower, senses thereduction in the light level between it andthe light source caused by increasingamounts of particulate matter in the air. Inthis way the receiver measures the relativetransparency or opacity of the air. Thereadout is calibrated in feet of visibility and iscalled runway visual range (RVR).

3. RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE (RVR): The RVR isthe maximum distance in the direction of

take-off or landing at which the runway orthe specified light or markers delineating itcan be seen from a height corresponding tothe average eye-level of pilots at touchdown.

Runway visual range readings usually areexpressed in hundreds of feet. For example,“RVR 24” means that the visual range alongthe runway is 2,400 ft. In weather reports,RVR is reported in a code: R36/4000FT/D; meaning RVR for Runway 36 is4000 ft and decreasing. Because visibilitymay differ from one runway to another, theRVR value is always given for the runwaywhere the equipment is located. At times,visibility may even vary at different pointsalong the same runway due to a localcondition such as a fog bank, smoke, or aline of precipitation. For this reason,additional equipment may be installed forthe departure end and mid-point of arunway.

Runway visual range reports are intended toindicate how far the pilot can see along therunway in the touchdown zone; however,the actual visibility at other points along therunway may differ due to the siting of thetransmissometer. The pilot should take thisinto account when making decisions basedon reported RVR.

Runway visual range is not reported unlessthe prevailing visibility is less than twomiles or the RVR is 6,000 ft or less. This isso because the equipment cannot measureRVR above 6,000 ft. When it is reported,RVR can be used as an aid to pilots indetermining what to expect during the final

Photo-Electric Cell Sealed Beam Light

APPROX.500' TO 700'

TOWER READOUT PANEL

RUNWAY

VISUALRANGE

HUNDREDSOF FEET

FIG. 2-86 • TYPICAL TRANSMISSOMETER INSTALLATION

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stages of an instrument approach.Instrument approach charts state theadvisory values of visibility and RVR. RVRis limiting only for the approach ban whichrestricts or bans approaches if the RVR isreading below 1200. See 4.5.7 (A) forfurther.

Runway visual range information isprovided to the ATC arrival control sector,the PAR position, and the control tower orFSS. It is passed routinely to the pilot whenconditions warrant. RVR information maybe included in aviation weather reports.

Ground visibility will continue to bereported and used in the application oftake-off and landing minima. At runwayswith a transmissometer and digital readoutequipment or other suitable means, RVR isused in lieu of prevailing visibility indetermining the visibility minima unlessaffected by a local weather phenomenon ofshort duration.

The normal RVR reading is based on arunway light setting of strength 3. If thelight settings are increased to strength 4 or5, it causes a relative increase in the RVRreading. No decrease in the RVR reading isevident for light settings of less than setting3. Pilots shall be advised when the runwaylight setting is adjusted to 4 or 5. If theRVR for a runway is measured at twolocations, the controller identifies thetouchdown location as “Alfa” and the mid-runway location as “Bravo”.

In all cases, the pilot can request a lightsetting suitable for his or her requirements.When more than one aircraft is conductingan approach, the pilot of the second aircraftmay request a change in the light settingafter the first aircraft has completed itslanding.

Because of the complex equipmentrequirements, RVR usually is only availableat more active airports and not necessarilyfor all runways. If RVR equipment is notavailable or temporarily out of service for agiven runway, the pilot uses the observermethod to provide visibility information.In this case, the visibility is expressed asmiles or fractions of a mile. The

relationship between RVR values andvisibility is shown below.

NOTE:These are designated values, not exact numericalequivalents.

F. NDBS AT MARKER BEACON SITES

Additional aids may be available to assist thepilot in reaching the final approach fix. One ofthese aids is the NDB which can be co-locatedwith or replace the outer marker (OM) or backmarker (BM). It is a low-frequencynondirectional beacon with a transmittingpower of less than 25 W and a frequency rangeof 200 KHz to 415 KHz. The reception rangeof the radio beacon is at least 15 NM. In anumber of cases an en route NDB is purposelylocated at the outer marker so that it may serveas a terminal as well as an en route facility.

As a general rule radio beacons carry one letterMorse code identifiers. When the radio beaconis located at the outer marker, the identifier isformed by eliminating the standard letter “I”and using the letter of the localizer identifier.For example on the ILS approach for runway 07at Ottawa, the localizer identifier is IOW. Theidentifier for the radio beacon, which is locatedat the outer marker, is O.

2.2.8MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM (MLS)

A. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

The time-referenced scanning beam MicrowaveLanding System (MLS) has been adopted byICAO as the standard precision approachsystem to replace ILS. MLS provides precisionnavigation guidance for alignment and descentof aircraft on approach to a landing byproviding azimuth, elevation and distance. Thesystem may be divided into five functions:

RVR VISIBILTY(FEET) (STATUTE MILES)

1400........................1/42600........................1/24000........................3/45000........................1

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 2-55

1/ Approach azimuth;2/ Back azimuth;3/ Approach elevation;4/ Range; and5/ Data communications.

With the exception of DME, all MLS signalsare transmitted on a single frequency throughtime sharing. Two hundred channels areavailable between 5031 and 5090.6 MHz. Bytransmitting a narrow beam which sweeps acrossthe coverage area at a fixed scan rate, bothazimuth and elevation may be calculated by anairborne receiver which measures the timeinterval between sweeps. For the pilot, the MLSpresentation will be similar to ILS with the useof a standard CDI or multi-function display.

B. ILS LIMITATIONS

The Instrument Landing System (ILS) hasserved as the standard precision approach andlanding aid for the last 40 years. During thistime it has served well and has undergone anumber of improvements to increase itsperformance and reliability. However, inrelation to future aviation requirements, the ILShas a number of basic limitations:

1/ site sensitivity and high installation costs;2/ single approach path;3/ multi path interference; and4/ channel limitations - 40 channels only.

C. MLS ADVANTAGES

As previously mentioned, ILS has limitationswhich prohibit or restrict its use in manycircumstances. MLS not only eliminates theseproblems; but also offers many advantages overILS including:

1/ elimination of ILS/FM broadcastinterference problems;

2/ provision of all-weather coverage up to ±60degrees from runway centerline, from 0.9degree to 15 degrees in elevation, and out of20 NM;

3/ capability to provide precision guidance tosmall landing areas such as roof-topheliports;

4/ continuous availability of a wide range ofglide paths to accommodate STOL and

VTOL aircraft and helicopters;5/ accommodation of both segments and

curved approaches;6/ availability of 200 channels - five times

more than ILS;7/ potential reduction of CAT I minimums;8/ improved guidance quality with fewer flight

path corrections required;9/ provision of back-azimuth for missed

approaches and departure guidance;10/ elimination of service interruptions caused

by snow accumulation; and11/ lower site preparation, repair, and

maintenance costs.

D. APPROACH AZIMUTH GUIDANCE

The approach azimuth antenna normallyprovides a lateral coverage of 40° either side ofthe centre of scan (Fig. 2-87). Coverage isreliable to a minimum of 20 NM from therunway threshold and to a height of 20,000 ft.The antenna is normally located about 1000 ft.beyond the end of the runway.

E. BACK AZIMUTH GUIDANCE

The back azimuth antenna provides lateralguidance for missed approach and departurenavigation. The back azimuth transmitter isessentially the same as the approach azimuthtransmitter. However, the equipment transmitsat a somewhat lower data rate because the

+20°

-20°

5 NM 20 NM

-40°

+40°

5 NM 20 NM

5,000'

20,000'

15°

15°

BACK AZIMUTH

AZIMUTH(Elevation coverage is similar)

NOTE: Not to Scale ELEVATION

FIG. 2-87 • MLS AZIMUTH AND ELEVATION COVERAGE

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guidance accuracy requirements are not asstringent as for the landing approach. Theequipment operates on the same frequency asthe approach azimuth but at a different time inthe transmission sequence. On runways thathave MLS approaches on both ends, theazimuth equipment can be switched in theiroperation from the approach azimuth to theback azimuth and vice versa. Fig 2-87 showsMLS azimuth coverage volumes.

F. ELEVATION GUIDANCE

The elevation station transmits signals on thesame frequency as the azimuth station. Theelevation transmitter is normally located about400 ft from the side of the runway between thethreshold and the touchdown zone. Fig. 2-87shows coverage volumes for the MLS elevationsignal. It allows for a wide range of glide pathangles selectable by the pilot.

G. RANGE GUIDANCE

Range guidance, consistent with the accuracyprovided by the azimuth and elevation stations, isprovided by the MLS precision DME (DME/P).DME/P has an accuracy of + 100 ft as comparedwith + 1200 ft accuracy of the standard DMEsystem. In the future it may be necessary to deployDME/P with modes which could be incompatiblewith standard airborne DME receivers.

H. DATA COMMUNICATIONS

The azimuth ground station includes datatransmission in its signal format which includesboth basic and auxiliary data. Basic data mayinclude approach azimuth track and minimumglide path angle. Auxiliary data may includeadditional approach information such as runwaycondition, wind-shear or weather.

2.2.9AREA NAVIGATION

A. GENERAL

Area Navigation (RNAV) can be defined as amethod of navigation that permits aircraftoperation on any desired course within thecoverage of station-referenced navigation signalsor within the limits of a self contained systemcapability, or a combination of these.

RNAV was developed to provide more lateralfreedom and thus more complete use ofavailable airspace. This method of navigationdoes not require a track directly to or from anyspecific radio navigation aid, and has threeprincipal applications:

1/ A route structure can be organized betweenany given departure and arrival point toreduce flight distance and traffic separation;

2/ Aircraft can be flown into terminal areas onvaried pre-programmed arrival anddeparture paths to expedite traffic flow; and

3/ Instrument approaches can be developedand certified at certain airports, withoutlocal instrument landing aids at that airport.

Navigation systems which provide RNAVcapability include VOR/DME, DME/DME,LORAN C, GPS, OMEGA and self containedInertial Navigation Systems (INS) or InertialReference Systems (IRS).

B. VOR/DMEA common general aviation RNAV system is thetrack-line computer (TLC), based on azimuthand distance information from a VORTAC. Itis also called the RHO-THETA system. With thetrack-line computer the pilot effectively movesor off-sets the VORTAC to any desired locationif it is within reception range. This “phantomstation” is created by setting the distance (RHO)and the bearing (THETA) of the waypoint from

FIG. 2-88 • VOR / DME RNAV

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a convenient VORTAC in the appropriatewindows of the waypoint selector (Fig. 2-88).A series of these “phantom stations” orwaypoints make up an RNAV route.

Fig. 2-89 illustrates how the VOR/DME RNAVis used to navigate from Belgrade to Haines on adirect route. This route crosses the 180° radial23 NM south of the Mystic VORTAC.Therefore, the pilot sets waypoint #1 as 180/23on the control panel. Waypoint #2 is 15 NMfrom MEEKER VORTAC on the 360° radial, or360/15 on the panel. Waypoint #3 is 360/22.

The direct route from Belgrade to Haines is 191NM, 24 NM less than the VICTOR airwayroute.

The pilot could also place waypoint #3 on thedestination airport, allowing navigation fromwaypoint #2 direct to the Haines airport. TheDME readout would give a constant indicationof the remaining distance to the destination.The pilot would specify waypoint #3 as 064/49(in reference to the MILTON VORTAC).Modern Flight Management Systems (FMS)often use DME/DME (RHO-RHO) systemswhich compare numerous DME signals (whencoverage is available) to provide position andtime and distance information.

C. LORAN-CLORAN-C is a pulsed hyperbolic systemoperating in the 90 to 110 kHz frequency bandwhich is used for marine and air navigationwhere signal coverage is available. The system isbased upon the measurement of the timedifference in the arrival of signal pulses from agroup or chain of stations. A chain consists of amaster station linked to a maximum of foursecondary stations with all of the signalssynchronized with the master. The LORAN-Creceiver measures the time difference betweenthe master and at least two of the secondaries toprovide a position fix.

The North American LORAN-C coverage areais limited to the continental United States,southern Canada and the east and west coasts(See Fig. 2-90). A.I.P. Canada and theapplicable equipment manufacturers manualsshould be consulted for updated coverageinformation and station selectionrecommendations.

LORAN-C system inaccuracies are mainlyattributable to distance from the ground station,receiver geometry relative to ground transmitterbaselines, and propagation anomalies associatedwith the earth’s surface.

Because of the good repeatable accuracy ofLORAN-C where adequate signal strength isavailable, the system has the potential to be used

for non-precision approaches. Most LORAN-Creceivers used in general aviation are approvedfor VFR use only. Equipment that is approvedfor IFR use should be clearly indicated in theaircraft or in the aircraft log books. It is the

VICTOR AIRWAY ROUTEAREA NAVIGATION ROUTE

108.2 MYS-- -.-- ...MYSTIC

TAC - 19

111.8 EKR. -.- .-.MEEKER

TAC - 55

109.2 MIP-- ... .--.MILTON

TAC - 29

BELGRADE

WAYPOINT 1180/23

WAYPOINT 2360/15

WAYPOINT 3360/22

HAINES

75

33

58

49

FIG. 2-89 • AREA NAVIGATION ROUTE

130° 120° 90°

30°

40°

50°

60°

100°110°120°130°140°150°160°170°180° 90° 80° 70° 60° 50° 40° 30°70°70°

160°

150°

140°

110° 80°

GREENLANDBAFFIN

VICTORIA

ISLAND

ALASKA

YUKONTERRITORY

BRITISHCOLUMBIA

ALBERTA

MANITOBA

ONTARIO

QUEBECNEWFOUNDLAND

NOVA SCOTIA

P.E.I.

N.B.

ATLANTIC OCEAN

ARCTIC OCEAN

PACIFICOCEAN

HudsonBay

Regina

Winnipeg

St. John's

..

..

..

.

..

.

.

.

ISLAND

CANADA

UNITED STATES

NORTHWEST TERRITORIESWhitehorse

Vancouver Quebec

Ottawa

Toronto

Charlottetown

P.E.I.

Charlottetown

50°

30°

40°

40°

50°20°

20° 60°

Halifax

FrederictonMontreal

60°70°100°

SASKATCHEWAN

Edmonton

.

FIG. 2-90 • LORAN-C COVERAGE

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pilot’s responsibility to ascertain the IFRapproval status of installed LORAN-Cequipment before commencing an IFR flight.

D. GPS (GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM)GPS is a satellite positioning system developedby the United States Department of Defence(DOD) for use on land, sea and in the air. Itwill likely be the major component of the ICAO- designated GNSS - Global Navigation SatelliteSystem. The full GPS constellation has 24operational satellites to provide continuous,highly accurate three-dimensional positioninformation globally. The Russian GLONASSsystem and European INMARSAT may addsatellites to the GNSS constellation to provideredundancy.

1. HOW DOES GPS WORK?: Operating in11,900 NM orbits, each satellitecontinuously transmits signals on 1227.6and 1575.42 mHz. The GPS receiverautomatically selects the signals from fouror more satellites to calculate a three-dimensional position, velocity and time.Using the un-encrypted coarse acquisitionnavigational signal (C/A code) which willbe available to all civil users, systemaccuracy will be at least 100 metreshorizontally and 140 metres vertically, 95%of the time. Unlike ground basednavigation systems, GPS provides globalcoverage with virtually no signalinaccuracies associated with propagation inthe earth’s atmosphere. Signal masking canoccur with mountainous terrain, man-madestructures and with poor antenna locationon the aircraft. It is significant that GPSaccuracy is better than anything we have hadbefore for en route and non-precisionapproach guidance.

Each GPS satellite has 4 atomic clocks onboard, because precise timing is the key toGPS navigation; this guarantees an accuracyof one nanosecond, or one billionth of asecond. The satellites broadcast this timealong with data used by receivers tocalculate satellite position.

The performance of the satellites ismonitored by stations located around theworld, and a master control station inColorado Springs has the capability to send

up corrections if errors aredetected.

In addition to accurate 3-D position information,GPS also gives a directreading of velocity - bothspeed and direction ofmotion. This means thatdisplayed groundspeedsare very responsive toactual speed changes,and pilots will notice amarked improvement overgroundspeeds generated byDME or LORAN-C. The availability ofdirection of motion allows quicker warningof off-course deviations, making forsmoother operation.

2. DIFFERENTIAL GPS: Differential techniquescan be used to achieve the accuracy requiredfor more demanding operations. This isdone by locating a receiver on the ground ata precisely-surveyed position. This receiveris also able to calculate the errors in thesatellite signals. These errors can be datalinked to aircraft in the form of correctionswhich can be applied by the aircraft receiverto reduce position error to as low as 2 to 5metres.

There are two types of differential: localand wide area; local is essentially describedabove. Wide area differential would useground stations spaced hundreds of milesapart feeding a master control station whichwould send correction data up togeostationary satellites.

3. ACCURACY, AVAILABILITY AND INTEGRITY:Aviation navigation systems must meetstringent accuracy, availability and integrityrequirements. Accuracy and availability areobvious. Integrity is the ability of thesystem to warn a user when there issomething wrong with the system. Forexample, ILS signals are monitoredelectronically, and if the monitors detect amalfunction they must shut down the ILSwithin 6 seconds. This results in a flag onthe flight deck and a missed approach.

One way to achieve integrity is throughreceiver design, and the GPS receiver TSO

FIG. 2-91 • GPS SATELLITE ORBITS

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 2-59

C-129 calls for Receiver AutonomousIntegrity Monitoring (RAIM). RAIMrequires at least 6 satellites in view. Themore the better. RAIM works bycomparing position solutions usingdifferent combinations of satellites.Comparing these solutions can lead to theconclusion that a satellite is broadcastingincorrect data, and the receiver can thenignore that satellite.

WARNING:Only GPS receivers which meet TSO C-129are currently approved as the primary navaidfor IFR operations. If this standard is notmet, grossly incorrect data may be supplied bythe satellite with no error indication.

4. GPS APPROACHES: GPS is approved for non-precision approaches (NPAs), includingVOR, VOR/DME, NDB and NDB/DME.This approval is subject to certain criteria:

a/ receiver meets TSO C-129 standard;

b/ all approach waypoints must be in theavionics database;

c/ all approaches which may be flownusing GPS must be listed in theCanada Air Pilot.

Using differential techniques, GPS should becapable of providing sufficiently accurate andreliable data to allow precision approaches toCategory I minima. It is theoreticallypossible that GPS could even be used forCategory II or III approaches; however, it isnot certain if all the integrity issues necessaryfor these approaches can be resolved. See AIPCanada for more information on GPSoverlay and standalone approaches.

5. EN ROUTE AND TERMINAL OPERATIONS: GPSmay be used as the primary IFR flightguidance for oceanic, domestic en route andterminal operations if the followingprovisions and limitations are met:

a/ the GPS navigation equipment usedmust be approved in accordance withthe requirements specified in TSO C-129, and operated in accordance withthe approved flight manual or flight

manual supplement;and

b/ monitoring of thetraditional navigatione q u i p m e n t i snecessary except forinstallations which useRAIM for integritym o n i t o r i n g .Monitoring is alsorequired when therea r e i n s u f f i c i e n tsatellites in view forRAIM to operate; and

c/ for NAT MNPS navigation a GPSinstallation with TSO C-129authorization may be used to replaceone of the other approved means oflong-range navigation. For flightwithin CMNPS or RNPC airspaceGPS may serve as the sole long-rangenavigation system.

NOTE:If there is a discrepancy between GPS and thetraditional NAVAID(s), the pilot must revert tothe traditional NAVAID(s) for navigation.

E. OMEGAOmega is a network of eight VLF transmittingstations located throughout the world toprovide worldwide signal coverage for marineand air navigation. These stations transmitprecisely timed signals in the VLF band (10-13kHz). Because of the low frequency, signals canbe received to ranges of thousands of miles.Omega signals are affected by propagationvariables which may degrade fix accuracy. Thesevariables include daily variation of phasevelocity, polar cap absorption, and sudden solaractivity. Precipitation static and other electricalactivity can also affect system operation.Omega provides a normal system accuracy of 2to 4 NM worldwide.

With certain limitations, OMEGA navigationsystems are approved for en route IFR withinmost classes of RNAV airspace. OMEGA is notapproved for instrument approach procedures.

F. INS (INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM)1. THE SYSTEM: Inertial Navigation Systems

(INS) are completely self-contained and

FIG. 2-92 • GPS RECEIVER

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independent of ground based navigationaids. After being supplied with initialposition information, it is capable ofupdating with accurate displays of position,attitude and heading. It can calculate thetrack and distance between two points,display cross track error, provide ETAs,ground speed and wind information. It canalso provide guidance and steeringinformation for the autopilot and flightinstruments.

The system consists of the inertial platform,interior accelerometers and a computer. Theplatform, which senses the movement of theaircraft over the ground, contains twogyroscopes. These maintain theirorientation in space while theaccelerometers sense all direction changesand rate of movement. The informationfrom the accelerometers and gyroscopes issent to the computer, which corrects thetrack to allow for such factors as therotation of the earth, the drift of theaircraft, speed, and rate of turn. Theaircraft’s attitude instruments may also belinked to the inertial platform.

The accuracy of the INS is dependent onthe accuracy of the initial positioninformation programmed into the system.Therefore, system alignment before flight isvery important. Accuracy is very highinitially following alignment, and decayswith time at the rate of about 1-2 NM perhour. Position updates can be accomplishedin flight using ground based references withmanual input or by automatic update usingmultiple DME or VOR inputs.

2. OPERATION: To operate a typical system,power is applied and the INS is activated.As the gyro’s spin up and the platform isaligned with the aircraft’s attitude, akeyboard (Fig. 2-93) is used to advise thesystem of the aircraft’s present position,normally in terms of latitude and longitude,and magnetic variation. This information isintegrated into a mathematical modelwithin the computer and, by a procedureknown as g yrocompassing , the systemreckons its north reference point.

As the system is aligning, the co-ordinatesof each waypoint along a planned route are

entered into the computer.Additional informationsuch as ground tracks,ground speed, and desiredETAs may also be enteredin some systems.

Once airborne, therequired information isnormally displayed on acontrol display unit(CDU) in either a CRT ordigital format (Fig. 2-93).The INS may also beinterfaced with otherequipment and instruments in the aircraft.For example, a HSI may receive and displaythe information or an auto pilot may beconnected to the INS so the navigationinformation may be used to manoeuvre theaircraft.

En route, the pilot recalls the desiredwaypoint from the computer. Thecomputer provides and displays steering anddistance information to the aircraft’s normalnavigation instruments. Alterations ordeviations from the preplanned route maybe carried out by simply entering the co-ordinates of the new desired waypoint intothe computer.

3. ERRORS: Many factors contribute to errorsin an inertial navigation system. In-flighterrors arise from imperfections in gyros,accelerometers and computers. Initialmisalignment may cause additional errors.Some errors and their effects are discussedin the following paragraphs.

Initial Levelling. If the platform is notcorrectly levelled the resultant tilt angle willallow the accelerometer to “see” the effect ofgravity and thus have outputs besides truevehicle accelerations. The result of this isdistance errors.

Accelerometers. The imperfect sensitivityand alignment of the accelerometers fromwhich all information is drawn will lead tovelocity and distance errors.

Integrator Errors. Integration errors may bedue to drift, faulty calibration, non-linearityof errors in the initial conditions established

FIG. 2-93 • INS CONTROL DISPLAY UNIT

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 2-61

(rounding off in the equation). Dependingon which stage of integration the errorsoccur, they may or may not increase withtime and may be in any of the velocity,distance or position solutions.

Initial Azimuth Misalignment. An error dueto misalignment in azimuth will give rise tovelocity errors. Once integrated thesevelocity errors will lead to ever increasingdistance and position errors.

Levelling Gyro Drift. The randomprecession of gyros will tend to turn theplatform away from the horizontal causingan oscillation action as the accelerometerstry to correct. This oscillation, dependingon its period, will cause velocity andsubsequent distance errors.

Azimuth Gyro Drift. Small position errorsmay occur due to azimuth gyro drift.However, gyro drift about the azimuth axisproduces in-flight azimuth errors that aresmall compared to the initial misalignmenterrors in azimuth.

Computer Errors. Errors in the computerare attributable to two basic causes;hardware limitations and approximationsmade in deriving equations. As moderndigital computers eliminate mosthardware/software problems only minorapproximation errors remain.

4. RING LASER GYRO: The ring laser gyro is atriangle shaped device with a silicone bodyand a gas filled cavity. A cathode and twoanodes are used to excite the gas andproduce two laser beams travelling inopposite directions. Reflectors in eachcorner are used to reflect the lasers aroundthe unit’s body.

If the two laser beams travel the samedistance, there will be no change in theirfrequency. However, if the unit is moved(accelerated), one light beam will travel agreater distance to the detector than theother beam. The beam travelling thegreater distance will have a lower frequencythan the beam travelling the shorterdistance. The detector analyzes thesefrequency changes and sends the

information to thecomputer, which thentranslates the data intomovement in space.

5. RING LASER GYRO IN AN

INS: By using three ringlaser gyros and threeaccelerometers placed atright angles, it is possibleto interpret all movementof the aircraft in space.This type of system has nomoving parts and makes itideal for “strapdown”inertial systems.

6. THE STRAPDOWN INS: A strapdown INS isone that is “hard mounted” to the aircraft.There is no need for a stabilized platformsuch as that utilized in a conventional INS(Fig. 2-94).

As the aircraft flies along, the ring lasergyros detect vertical acceleration, headingand velocity changes. Rather thancontinuously repositioning the sensorpackage, as in a conventional system, thecomputer recognizes the changes andmathematically processes them. By usingcomputer software to maintain the inertialreferences, the stabilized platform with itsmotors, gimbals and angular measuringdevices is eliminated.

7. ADVANTAGES OF A RLG: The ring laser gyroINS combines high accuracy, low powerrequirements, small size and light weightwith an instant alignment capability. Inaddition, because there are no moving partsinvolved, the ring laser gyros INS generallyhas a very high serviceability rate.

8. PILOT PROCEDURES: Most gross navigationalerrors associated with INS or ONSnavigation involve pilot error rather thanequipment error. It is extremely importantthat proper INS procedures are followedwhen entering waypoints and using the INSfor navigation. In particular, cross-check ofall data by both pilots is essential prior toentering it into the system for navigation.See the North Atlantic MNPS OperationsManual for more detailed guidance.

Azimuth Axis

Roll AxisPitch Axis

Stable Element

Pitch Gimbal

Pitch Gimbal

Outer Roll G

imbal

Outer Roll G

imbalPitch Gimbal

Outer Roll G

imbal

Inner Roll G

imbal

FIG. 2-94 • INS MOUNTINGS

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G. FMS (FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS)Flight management system (FMS) is the termused to describe an integrated system that usesnavigation, atmospheric and fuel flow data fromseveral sensors to provide a centralized controlsystem for flight planning, and flight and fuelmanagement. The system processes navigationdata to calculate and update a best computedposition based on the known system accuracyand reliability of the input sensors. This systemmay also be referred to as a multi-sensor RNAV.FMS controls differ widely between aircrafttypes and manufacturers, but Fig. 2-95 gives atypical arrangement.

The heart of any FMS is the navigationcomputer unit. It contains the micro processorand navigation data base. A typical data basecontains a regional or worldwide library ofnavaids, waypoints, airports and airways.

FMS sensor input is supplied from externalDME, VOR, air data computer (ADC) and fuelflow sensors. Usually one or more long rangesensors such as INS, IRS, ONS, LORAN-C orGPS are also incorporated. Depending on thecapabilities of the navigation sensors, most flightmanagement systems are approved for en routeIFR in most classes of RNAV airspace.Instrument approach procedures based on multisensor FMS equipment are being introduced inCanada. An example is shown at Fig. 4-42.

H. AIRSPACEWith the development of reliable and accurateRNAV systems, both domestic and oceanicairspace were reorganized to make use of rigidRNAV performance specifications. Examples ofcurrent RNAV airspace are:

1/ the North Atlantic Minimum NavigationPerformance Specifications (NAT MNPS)airspace uses the North Atlantic OrganizedTrack System (OTS) based on accurateRNAV separation criteria (Fig. 3-12);

2/ the Northern Track System and Arctic TrackSystem in the Northern and Arctic ControlAreas are based on the Canadian MinimumNavigation Performance Specifications(CMNPS) (Fig. 3-11); and

3/ domestically, the Required NavigationPerformance Capability (RNPC) Airspacehas been developed to make use of both

random and fixed RNAV routes (thisincludes all of southern Canada)(Fig. 3-11).

At present there are three types of RNAV routesavailable in Canadian airspace besides theorganized track system:

1/ Random routes at FL 390 and above;

2/ Fixed T-routes between city pairs FL 310and above (see CFS); and

3/ Minimum Time Tracks (MTT) betweenvarious city pairs available by NOTAMdaily (MTTs are on a trial basis only).

For more detailed information and actualboundaries of MNPS, CMNPS and RNPCairspace, refer to AIP Canada and theDesignated Airspace Handbook (TP 1820).

FIG. 2-95 • TYPICAL FMS CONTROL UNIT

TYPE

Random

T-Routes

MTT

DESCRIPTION

Random Routes

Fixed routesbetween city pairs

Minimum TimeTrack-certain citypairs by NO TAM

ALTITUDES

FL390 orabove

FL310 orabove

BetweenFL350-FL390

FIG. 2-96 • CANADIAN RNAV ROUTES

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BASIC INSTRUMENT FLYING

2.3.1ATTITUDE INSTRUMENT FLYING

A. INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this section is to provide a briefreview of the techniques of attitude instrumentflight, including stall and stall recoverymanoeuvres. For a more detailed explanationand for a description of more instrumentmanoeuvres, see exercise 24 of the FlightTraining Manual (FTM).

Attitude instrument flying is an extension of theconcept of attitude flying. The establishment ofa specific pitch and bank attitude, accompaniedby a designated power setting, will causepredictable aircraft performance. Therefore, ifpitch, bank and power are determined throughreference to the flight instruments and thedesired performance is confirmed by theseinstruments, the definition and technique ofattitude instrument flight is clearly evident.

There are three basic ingredients to attitudeinstrument flying:

1/ scan;2/ interpretation; and 3/ aircraft control.

The human body is subject to sensations whichare unreliable when interpreting the aircraft’sactual attitude; therefore, the pilot must learn todisregard these sensations and control theaircraft through proper scan and interpretationof the flight instruments.

Proper scan is vital to the instrument pilot. Ofcourse, instrument flying requires that certaininstruments be used more often duringparticular manoeuvres. This is called selectiveradial scan. During a constant airspeed climb,for instance, the altimeter is less important thanthe airspeed indicator. Under instrumentmeteorological conditions, the pilot uses theattitude indicator to determine the aircraft’spitch and re-establish an attitude that willcorrect the airspeed to the desired value.

The attitude indicator replacesthe normal outside visualreferences; therefore, it is theprincipal attitude controlinstrument for the radial scan.When scanning, the pilotshould regard the attitudeindicator as the hub of a“wagon wheel”, and the otherinstruments as spokes. (Fig. 2-97).

The second importantingredient in instrument flyingis proper instrumentinterpretation. The attitude indicator providesan artificial horizon to replace the natural one;hence, proper interpretation is extremelyimportant. See the FTM p. 151 for more detail.

The last ingredient, aircraft control, results fromscan and interpretation. It is simply a matter ofapplying the proper control pressures to attainthe desired aircraft performance. Thesepressures are the same as in visual flight exceptthat smaller and smoother control inputs arerequired.

B. CONCEPT

The concept of control and performanceattitude instrument flying can be applied to anyaspect of instrument flight. Under this concept,instruments are divided into three broadcategories: control, performance and navigation.

1. CONTROL INSTRUMENTS: Controlinstruments indicate attitude of the aircraftand power (thrust/drag) being supplied tothe aircraft. These instruments arecalibrated to permit adjustments in definiteamounts. They include the attitudeindicator and engine control instruments(tachometer, manifold pressure, RPM,EPR).

2. PERFORMANCE INSTRUMENTS: Performanceinstruments indicate the actual performanceof the aircraft which can be determined fromthe airspeed/mach, turn-and-bank, verticalspeed indicators, altimeters, headingindicator, turn co-ordinator, magneticcompass.

3. NAVIGATION INSTRUMENTS: Navigation

2.3

FIG. 2-97 • ATTITUDE INDICATOR IS CENTRE OF SCAN

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instruments indicate the position of theaircraft in relation to a particularnavigational aid that has been selected.These can include NDB, VOR, ILS, INS,GPS, Loran C, and Omega.

C. ATTITUDE AND POWER CONTROL

Proper control of aircraft attitude is the result ofknowing when and how much to changeattitude, and then smoothly changing it by adefinite amount. Aircraft attitude control isaccomplished by proper use of the attitudeindicator. The attitude indicator provides animmediate, direct and corresponding indicationof any change in aircraft pitch and/or bankattitude.

Pitch changes are accomplished by changing thepitch attitude of the reference line by setamounts in relation to the horizon bar. Thesechanges are made in bar widths or degrees,depending upon the type of attitude indicator.On most attitude indicators a bar widthrepresents approximately 2 degrees of pitchchange.

Bank changes are accomplished by changing thebank attitude or bank pointers by set amountsin relation to the bank scale. Normally, thebank scale is graduated by 0, 10, 20, 30, 60 and90 degrees, and this scale may be located at thetop or bottom of the attitude indicator.Generally, an angle of bank that approximatesthe degrees to be turned is recommended;however, it should not exceed 30 degrees ininstrument flight. The TAS and the desired rateof turn are factors to be considered.

Proper power control results from the ability tosmoothly establish or maintain desired airspeedsin co-ordination with attitude changes. Powerchanges are accomplished by throttleadjustment and with reference to the powerindicators. Little attention is required to ensurethat the power indication remains constant onceit is established, because these indications arenot affected by such factors as turbulence,improper trim or inadvertent control pressures.

D. TRIM TECHNIQUE

The aircraft has been correctly trimmed when itmaintains a desired attitude with all control

pressures neutralized. It ismuch easier to hold a givenattitude constant by relievingall control pressures. Inaddition, more attention canthen be devoted to theperformance and navigationinstruments and other cockpitduties.

First, apply control pressure toestablish a desired attitude andthen adjust the trim so that theaircraft will maintain thatattitude when the flightcontrols are neutralized. Trim the aircraft forco-ordinated flight by centring the ball of theturn-and-slip indicator. This is done by usingrudder trim in the direction the ball is displacedfrom centre.

Changes in attitude, power or configurationmay require a trim adjustment. Independentuse of trim to establish a change in aircraftattitude invariably leads to erratic aircraftcontrol and is not recommended. Smooth andprecise attitude changes are best attained by acombination of control pressures and trim.

E. SCAN TECHNIQUE

Scanning, or cross checking as it is sometimesknown, is the continuous and logical observationof flight instruments . A methodical andmeaningful instrument scan is necessary tomake appropriate changes in aircraft attitudeand performance.

The control and performance concept ofattitude instrument flying requires that the pilotestablish an aircraft attitude and power settingon the control instruments which should resultin the desired aircraft performance. The pilotmust be able to recognize the requirements for achange in attitude or power or both. By cross-checking the instruments properly (scan), thepilot can determine the magnitude anddirection of adjustment required to achieve thedesired performance.

Scan can be reduced to the proper division ofattention and interpretation of the flightinstruments. Attention must be efficientlydivided between the control and performanceinstruments and in a sequence that will ensure

FIG. 2-98 • A STRAIGHT CLIMB ATTITUDE

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comprehensive coverage of the flightinstruments. The pilot must quickly interpretwhat he or she sees when looking at theinstruments and must become familiar with thefactors to be considered in dividing his or herattention properly.

A factor influencing scan technique is thecharacteristic manner in which instrumentsrespond to changes of attitude and power. Thecontrol instruments provide direct andimmediate indications of attitude and powerchanges. Changes in the indications on theperformance instruments will lag slightly behindchanges of attitude or power. This lag is due toinertia of the aircraft and the operatingprinciples and mechanisms of the performanceinstruments.

To develop the technique of always referring tothe correct instrument at the appropriate time,you must continually a s k y ou r s e l f t h e s equestions:

1/ What information do I need?2/ Which instruments give me the needed

information?3/ Is the information reliable?

As mentioned earlier, the attitude indicator isthe only instrument that the pilot shouldobserve for any appreciable length of time. It isalso the instrument that the pilot should observethe greatest number of times. An example of ascan demonstrates this; the pilot glances fromthe attitude indicator, then a glance at theairspeed indicator, back to the attitudeindicator, and so forth (wagon wheel techniqueor radial scan). Of course different phases offlight will require slightly different scantechniques. This is called selective radial scansince the pilot will use particular instruments tocarry out a particular task.

A correct or incorrect scan can be recognized byanalyzing certain symptoms of aircraft control.Symptoms of insufficient reference to thecontrol instruments are readily recognizable.The pilot should have some definite attitudeand power indications in mind that should bemaintained. If the performance instrumentsfluctuate erratically through the desiredindications, then the pilot is probably notreferring sufficiently to the control instruments.This lack of precise aircraft control is called

chasing the indications.

Too much attention to thecontrol instruments can berecognized by the followingsymptoms — if the pilot has asmooth, positive andcontinuous control over theindications of the controlinstruments but largedeviations are observed tooccur slowly on theperformance instruments, acloser scan of the performanceinstruments is required.

The indications on some instruments are not aseye-catching as those on other instruments. Forexample, a 4-degree heading change is not asobvious as a 300 to 400-feet-per-minute change on thevertical-speed indicator.Through deliberate effort andproper habit, the pilot mustensure that all the instrumentsare included in the scan. Ifthis is accomplished,deviations on the performanceinstruments should beobserved in their early stages.

A correct scan results in thecontinuous interpretation ofthe flight instruments, whichenables the pilot to maintain proper aircraftcontrol at all times. Remember, rapidly lookingfrom one instrument to another withoutinterpretation is of no value. Instrumentsystems and the location of the flightinstruments vary. Pilot ability also varies.Therefore, each pilot should develop their ownrate and technique of checking the instrumentswhich will ensure a continuous and correctinterpretation of the flight instruments. Referto the Flight Training Manual, Exercise 24 for amore detailed explanation and examples of scantechniques during various stages of flight.

F. ADJUSTING ATTITUDE AND POWER

The control and performance concept ofattitude instrument flying requires theadjustment of aircraft attitude and power toachieve the desired performance in relation tothe capabilities of your aircraft. A change of

FIG. 2-99 • APPROACH DESCENT ATTITUDE

FIG. 2-100 • 45° BANK STEEP TURNS

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aircraft attitude and/or power is required whenany indication other than that desired isobserved on the performance instruments.However, it is equally important for the pilot toknow what to change and how much of a pitch,bank or power change is required.

The phrase “Attitude plus power equalsperformance” summarizes the philosophybehind instrument flying. In other words, anaircraft’s performance is the product of attitudeand power. Performance is expressed in terms ofairspeed, altitude, rate of climb or descent, orother criteria. If either attitude or power ischanged, a change in performance will result.

The pilot knows what to change byunderstanding which control instrument toadjust to achieve the desired indications on theperformance instruments. Bank attitudecontrol is used to maintain a heading or adesired angle of bank during turns. Powercontrol, in conjunction with a slight attitudechange, may be used for maintaining orchanging the airspeed while at a constantaltitude. Power may also be used to establish arate of climb or descent at a given airspeed ortrim setting.

How much to adjust the attitude or power orboth is, initially, an estimate based on familiaritywith the aircraft and the amount the pilotdesires to change the indications on theperformance instruments. After making achange of attitude or power, the pilot shouldobserve the performance instruments to see ifthe desired change has occurred. If it has not,further adjustment is required.

To sum up, instrument flight is a continuousprocess of:

a/ establishing an attitude and power settingon the control instruments;

b/ trimming;c/ scanning; andd/ adjusting.

These procedural steps can be applied to anyinstrument manoeuvre and should result inprecise attitude instrument flying.

2.3.2ATTITUDE INSTRUMENT FLYING MANOEUVRES

The following manoeuvres are described in theFlight Training Manual for full and partial paneland will not be duplicated here:

1/ Straight-and-Level Flight;2/ Climbing;3/ Descending;4/ Turns;5/ Steep Turns;6/ Change of Airspeed; and7/ Unusual Attitudes and Recoveries.

A. STALLS AND STALL RECOVERY

There are many different configurations fromwhich to enter stall manoeuvres; however, forthe purpose of this section, stalls will bediscussed in reference to the realm of operationsmost frequently encountered in instrumentflight. The entry procedures described aredesigned for training pilots to recover frominduced stalls for training purposes. Thesemanoeuvres should be accomplished in VMC ata safe altitude - normally with recovery plannedfor a minimum of 3000 ft. AGL. See theAircraft Flight Manual for recommendedprocedures.

1. APPROACH STALLS:

Straight-ahead: In the approach mode stall,the pilot establishes the aircraft in theconfiguration suitable for the type ofaircraft, i.e., flaps and undercarriagepositioned as specified in the aircraft flightmanual as appropriate for an approach tolanding.

The pilot must maintain altitude byconstantly increasing elevator back pressureas the airspeed decreases toward theapproach speed. When the approach speedis attained, the pilot should decrease thepitch attitude of the miniature aircraft inthe attitude indicator to initiate a descent.When the aircraft is established in aconstant-rate, straight-ahead descent atapproach speed the pilot should increasethe pitch attitude to approximately thesecond pitch reference line above thehorizon (normally 10°) to purposely induce

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a stall in this configuration. The pilot mustmaintain the selected pitch attitude andremain on the heading from which themanoeuvre was begun.

The pilot should star t recovery whenbuffeting begins, by simultaneouslylowering the miniature aircraft to thehorizon (or as required in the AFM) on theattitude indicator and adding maximumallowable power. Maintaining the levelflight attitude causes the airspeed toincrease. Once the aircraft reaches a safeairspeed, the pilot should increase pitch toinitiate a climb at this speed until reachingthe altitude from which the manoeuvrebegan.

Turning: The pilot executes a turningapproach stall in much the same manner asthe straight-ahead approach stall (reducingpower to the approach setting; maintainingaltitude until the airspeed has decreaseduntil the instrument indications have“settled down”). At this time the pilotincreases the pitch attitude smoothly to thesection pitch reference line above thehorizon, and begins a 15° - 20° bank turnin either direction. The pilot maintains thepitch and bank through the use of theattitude indicator until buffeting occurs.

The recovery procedure is the same as forthe straight-ahead approach stall except thatthe wings are to be levelled and the recoveryheading is maintained. See the FTMsection on Unusual Attitudes andRecoveries.

2. TAKE-OFF AND DEPARTURE STALLS:

Straight-ahead: The pilot reduces power toflight idle, or approximately 15 in. Hgmanifold pressure, and maintains altitude,using the attitude indicator, vertical speedindicator and altimeter as references. As theairspeed decreases to lift-off speed, the pilotsets a wings-level, straight-ahead climb andincreases power at a pitch angle that causesa power-on, straight-ahead stall.

The pilot accomplishes this by adjusting thepitch of the miniature aircraft to the secondpitch reference line above the horizon (or asrequired in the aircraft type). The pilot

must also maintain theinitial heading until a stallbuffet occurs. As the air-speed decreases, the pilotmust increase backelevator pressure to holdthe pitch attitude selected.Direction and controlmust be maintainedstrictly by use of therudder.

When the buffet occurs,the pilot should pitchdown to the horizon bar,add maximum allowable power and allowthe aircraft to accelerate. The recoveraltitude should be maintained and themanoeuvre completed on the same headingas used throughout the stall. Afterattaining climb airspeed, the pilot shouldreduce power to the climb setting.

Turning: The turning take-off anddeparture stall begins in the same manner asthe straight-ahead departure stall. The pilotreduces power and maintains altitude. Asthe airspeed decreases to lift-off speed, thepilot increases the pitch to the second pitchreference line, applies increased power and amakes a 15°-20° bank in either direction.The pilot maintains this climbing turnattitude on the attitude indicator until astall buffet occurs. To recover, the pilotlowers the pitch attitude to the horizon bar,levels the wings and maintains the recoveryaltitude and heading. As the airspeedapproaches climb, the pilot should reducepower to the climb setting.

FIG. 2-101 • EXCESSIVELY LOW PITCH

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AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES

3.1 INTRODUCTION TO AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES3.2 CANADIAN AIRSPACE3.3 IFR SEPARATION3.4 RADIO PROCEDURESP

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INTRODUCTION TO AIRTRAFFIC SERVICES

3.1.1AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES

AIRPORT CONTROL SERVICE is provided by airportcontrol towers to all traffic on the manoeuvringarea of an airport and to aircraft operating in thevicinity of an airport.

AREA CONTROL SERVICE is provided by AreaControl Centres (ACCs) to IFR and controlledVFR flights operating within specified controlareas.

CONFLICT RESOLUTION is resolution of potentialconflicts between IFR/VFR and VFR/VFRaircraft that are radar identified and incommunication with ATC.

TERMINAL CONTROL SERVICE is provided by IFRunits (ACCs) or Terminal Control Units(TCUs) to aircraft operating within specifiedcontrol areas.

TERMINAL RADAR SERVICE is additional serviceprovided by IFR units to VFR aircraft operatingwithin Class C, D and E airspace.

ALERTING SERVICE is notification of appropriateorganizations regarding aircraft in need of searchand rescue services, or alerting of crashequipment, ambulances, doctors and any othersafety services.

FLIGHT INFORMATION SERVICE is advice andinformation provided by ATC, in addition tocontrol information, to enhance the safety andefficiency of flight (refer to Article 3.1.2).

ALTITUDE RESERVATION SERVICE includes theservices of the Airspace Reservation Unit (ARU)and Area Control Centres (ACCs) in provisionof reserved altitudes for specified air operationsin controlled airspace and in providinginformation concerning these reservations andmilitary activity areas in controlled anduncontrolled airspace.

AIRCRAFT MOVEMENT INFORMATION SERVICE isprovided by ACCs for the collection, processingand dissemination of aircraft movement

information for use by Air Defence Unitsrelative to flights operating into or withinCanadian Air Defence Identification Zones(CADIZ).

CUSTOMS NOTIFICATION SERVICE (ADCUS) isprovided, on request, by ATC units for advancenotification of customs officials for transborderflights at specified “ports of entry”. ADCUSinformation is contained in the Canada FlightSupplement.

GROUND CONTROL Provided by an airport or aground controller to aircraft and vehicles on themanoeuvring area of the airport.

A. AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL

Air traffic is composed of all aircraft in flightand those operating on the manoeuvring area ofan aerodrome.

Air traffic control (ATC) in Canada is handledby qualified personnel of the Canadian Forces,Transport Canada Aviation or may be providedby a private agency such as at the Southportairport. All control is predicated upon knowntraffic. Also, an aircraft may be under thecontrol of only one ATC unit at any given time.

ATC OBJECTIVES: The objectives of ATC may besummarized as follows:

a/ the maintenance of a safe, expeditious andorderly flow of traffic;

b/ the prevention of collisions;c/ the provision of advice and information to

pilots; andd/ the alerting of appropriate agencies when an

aircraft needs assistance.

NOTE:The provision of control services is normally theprimary responsibility of an ATC unit.

B. FLIGHT SERVICE STATIONS - SERVICES

Approximately 100 flight service stations arestaffed by flight service specialists whoseprimary responsibility is to provide efficientflight planning, flight information and advisoryservices to pilots. Flight service specialists workclosely with other agencies in their provision of

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services. They relay air traffic controlinstructions and aircraft position reports;disseminate meteorological information; andinitiate and participate in searches for missing oroverdue aircraft. Flight Service Stations offerthe following services:

1. PRE-FLIGHT PLANNING SERVICE: The flightservice specialist provides a pre-flightplanning service accessible through walk-in,local telephone and long distance toll-freetelephone to assist pilots in planning andconducting their flights safely. Acomprehensive display of aviation andweather information with continualupdating as new data becomes available ismaintained at the FSS. The specialistinforms the pilot of occurring or expectedweather conditions along the proposedflight route, with emphasis on hazardousweather. A pilot may also obtaininformation on airways, status ofNAVAIDs, communications facilities,special regulations, suggested routes,distances, landmarks, etc. Finally, specialistsaccept and process flight plans and flightnotifications; and arrange for customsnotification, when requested, for trans-border flights.

There are two types of weather informationservice:

The Aviation Weather Information Serviceconsists of the provision of factual weatherinformation obtained from actual weatherreports, official weather forecasts andapproved graphic or weather chart productsbut does not involve the interpretation ofthis information. This service is availablefrom all FSS and is usually provided toflights whose destinations are within 500miles from the station.

The Aviation Weather Briefing Serviceconsists of the provision of meteorologicalinformation through the process ofselection, interpretation, elaboration andadaptation of relevant charts and reports.At designated FSS the briefers areauthorised to provide, in addition to factualweather information, an interpretation andadaptation of meteorological information tofit the changing weather situation and thespecial needs of the user, consultation and

advice on special weather problems; and, onrequest, flight documentation for longrange flights. FSS designated to providethis service have access to weatherinformation for North America, and insome cases, for Western Europe and/or thePacific Rim area.

2. AIRPORT ADVISORY SERVICE: The airportadvisory service is given to aircraft prior totakeoff or landing and is intended for thesafe movement of aircraft at uncontrolledaerodromes. The service is delivered on theMF and consists of current data on runway- active or preferred, wind, altimeter,summary of known pertinent aircrafttraffic, ground traffic, weather, NOTAM,and other relevant information. After theinitial advisory, the specialist may requestposition reports to keep track of aircraftmovement within the MF and will informpilots of the positions and intentions ofpotentially conflicting traffic, thus allowingpilots to organize a safe traffic flow. Thisadvisory service is also provided at selectedairports with a collocated FSS and controltower when the tower is closed.

3. VEHICLE CONTROL SERVICE: The flightservice specialist controls the movement ofground traffic on the airport manoeuvringarea to provide for the safe movement ofaircraft and ground traffic. Ground trafficdoes not include aircraft, however, itincludes all other traffic such as vehicles,pedestrians and construction equipment.This service is also delivered at selectedairports with a collocated FSS and controltower when the tower is closed.

4. REMOTE AIRPORT ADVISORY AND REMOTE

VEHICLE CONTROL SERVICES: These servicesare similar to the Airport Advisory andVehicle Control services previously describefor staffed facilities but are provided via aRemote Communications Outlet . Theprimary difference is that the flight servicespecialist is not located at the aerodrome forwhich the services are provided. Therefore,the specialist cannot observe the localweather conditions but must rely on reportsfrom an Automatic Weather ObservingStation or reports from other agencies.Also, pilots should be aware that thespecialist cannot visually follow the

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movement of aircraft traffic in the vicinityof the remote aerodrome and cannotascertain visually that ground traffic hasactually vacated the active runway. Thesefactors should be considered by a pilotconducting a straight-in instrumentapproach in poor weather conditions at anaerodrome served by remote services.

5. EN ROUTE FLIGHT INFORMATION SERVICE:Flight Service Stations continuouslymonitor the frequency 126.7 to obtainPIREPs and VFR position reports and topass flight safety information such asSIGMETs, AIRMETs, MANOTs, PIREPs,weather reports, terminal forecasts,NOTAM, and other updated informationon unfavourable flight conditions orhazards along the route of flight aboutwhich the pilot may not be aware. Inaddition, FSS relay IFR position reports orATC clearances in areas where aircraft arebeyond the communications range of ATCfacilities. Other activities are the reportingof ELT signals and the conduct ofcommunications related to Security Controlof Air Traffic and Air Navigation Aids(SCATANA).

6. EMERGENCY SERVICES: Flight ServiceStations continuously monitor thefrequency 121.5 to assist flight crews in theevent of an emergency and report anyaircraft in a declared state of emergency.Also, FSS equipped with direction-findingequipment, usually in remote locations, areable to provide homing and positionassistance.

7. VFR FLIGHT PLAN PROCESSING AND

ALERTING SERVICE: Specialists provide thisservice to VFR pilots. By accepting flightplans, the specialist accepts responsibilityfor search and rescue alerting and co-ordination. The flight plans are distributedto destination stations, and through theoperation of a holding file, the specialistidentifies aircraft that have failed tocomplete their flight within the specifiedtime. If an aircraft is overdue, the specialistconducts a communications searchthroughout all probable areas along theroute of flight, and co-ordinates thefindings with Search and Rescue.

8. WEATHER OBSERVING SERVICE: At manyairports, specialists are responsible formaintaining a continuous watch on weatherconditions and conduct the observation,recording, and dissemination of surfaceweather data, including specials for aviationpurposes.

9. NAVIGATIONAL AIDS MONITORING SERVICE:Specialists monitor all NAVAIDs todetermine their operational status.Information about malfunctioningNAVAIDs is immediately reported to pilotsand ATC to allow them to adjust theiractions accordingly. Where appropriate, aNOTAM is issued to advertise themalfunction to other pilots at distantlocations.

10. BROADCAST SERVICE: Specialists broadcastupon receipt, SIGMETs, selected PIREPsand reports of microburst activity. Theyalso broadcast NOTAMs concerningequipment shutdown immediately prior toshutting down the equipment and againwhen service is restored. These broadcastsmay be conducted on the en routefrequency, an appropriate RemoteCommunications Outlet and the MFassociated with the airport where the FlightService Station is located. Specialists mayalso conduct Transcribed Weather Broadcast(TWB) and Pilots Automatic TelephoneWeather Answering Service (PATWAS) atselected metropolitan locations where thedemand for pre-flight weather informationis high.

3.1.2FLIGHT INFORMATION SERVICE

A. GENERAL

Air Traffic Control units assist pilots bysupplying information about hazardous flightconditions. This information includes data thatmay not have been available to the pilot prior totake-off or describes recent conditions that havedeveloped along the route of flight.

Pilots should remember that the ATC service isestablished primarily to prevent collisions andexpedite traffic. The provision of this servicemust take precedence over the provision offlight information service, but ATC makes every

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effort to provide flight information andassistance.

Whenever practicable, ATC makes flightinformation available to any aircraft incommunication with an Air Traffic Controlunit, prior to take-off or when in flight, exceptwhere such service is provided by the aircraftoperator. Many factors, such as volume oftraffic, controller workload, communicationsfrequency congestion, and limitations of radarequipment, may prevent a controller fromproviding this service. Air Traffic Controlprovides IFR flights with informationconcerning:

1/ severe weather conditions;2/ reported or forecast weather at the

destination or alternate aerodrome;3/ volcanic eruption or volcanic ash clouds;4/ icing conditions;5/ changes in the serviceability of NAVAIDS;6/ conditions of airports and associated

facilities;7/ other items considered pertinent to the

safety of flight.

Flight information messages are intended asinformation only. If ATC suggests a specificaction, the controller prefixes the message withATC SUGGESTS. The pilot must make thefinal decision concerning any suggestion.

Surveillance radar equipment is used frequentlyto provide information concerning severeweather conditions, chaff drops, bird activityand possible traffic conflicts. Due to limitationsinherent in all radar systems, aircraft andweather disturbances, etc., cannot be detected inall cases.

B. BIRD ACTIVITY INFORMATION

Air Traffic Control provides informationconcerning bird activity, obtained throughcontroller’s observations or pilot reports, toaircraft operating in the area concerned. Inaddition, ATC warns pilots of possible birdhazards if radar observations indicate thepossibility of bird activity. The informationincludes:

1/ size or species of bird, if known;

2/ location;3/ direction of flight;4/ altitude, if known.

C. CHAFF INFORMATION

Air Traffic Control provides pilots who intendto operate through the area concerned with allavailable information relating to proposed oractual chaff drops. Information includes:

1/ location of chaff drop area;2/ time of drop;3/ estimated speed and direction of drift;4/ altitudes likely to be affected;5/ relative intensity of chaff.

D. SEVERE WEATHER INFORMATION

When practicable, ATC provides flights withsevere weather information pertinent to the areaconcerned. Pilots may assist ATC by providingreports of severe weather conditions that theyencounter. Air Traffic Control attempts tosuggest alternate available routes to keep aircraftaway from areas of severe weather (refer toArticle 3.1.8F).

E. AUTOMATIC TERMINAL INFORMATION

SERVICE (ATIS)Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS)is a continuous broadcast of recordedinformation for arriving and departing aircrafton a VOT or discrete VHF/UHF frequency.Automatic Terminal Information Servicemessages are recorded in a standard format andcontain such information as:

1/ current weather at the airport, includingceiling and sky conditions, visibility,obstructions to visibility, temperature, dewpoint, surface wind including gusts,pertinent SIGMETS, AIRMETS andPIREPS, and altimeter setting;

2/ the type(s) of instrument approach andrunway(s) in use for arriving aircraft;

3/ the runway(s) in use for departing aircraft.;4/ NOTAMs or excerpts from NOTAM,

pertinent information regarding theserviceability of NAVAIDs and fieldconditions that affect arriving or departingaircraft. (e.g. JBI and runway condition

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reports will be included when applicable).

Each recording is identified by a phoneticalphabet code letter, beginning with ALFA.Succeeding letters are used for each subsequentmessage.

EXAMPLE: TORONTO INTERNATIONALINFORMATION BRAVO. WEATHER AT0300Z: TWO THOUSAND SCATTERED,MEASURED CEILING THREETHOUSAND OVERCAST, VISIBILITYFIVE, HAZE; TEMPERATURE ONEEIGHT; DEW POINT ONE FIVE; WINDONE THREE ZERO AT TEN; ALTIMETERTWO NINER NINER TWO. APPROACHILS RUNWAY ONE FIVE. LANDING ONEFIVE. DEPARTURES TWO FOUR LEFT.NOTAM GLIDE PATH ILS RUNWAY ZEROSIX RIGHT OUT OF SERVICE UNTILFURTHER NOTICE. INFORM ATC ONINITIAL CONTACT YOU HAVEINFORMATION BRAVO.

NOTE:Current time and RVR measurements are notincluded in the ATIS message, but rather areissued by the controller when required.Temperature and dewpoint information is derivedonly from the scheduled hourly weatherobservations.

Pilots hearing the broadcast should inform theATC unit on first contact (centre, terminal,ground, tower, etc.) that they have received theinformation, by repeating the code word thatidentified the message. This eliminates the needfor the controller to issue further information.

EXAMPLE: GABC 15 MILES EAST WITHINFORMATION BRAVO.

During periods of rapidly changing conditionsthat make it difficult to keep the ATIS messagecurrent, ATC records and broadcasts thefollowing message:

BECAUSE OF RAPIDLY CHANGINGWEATHER/AIRPORT CONDITIONSCONTACT ATC FOR CURRENTINFORMATION.

The success and effectiveness of ATIS dependslargely upon the co-operation and participation

of airspace users; therefore, pilots should takefull advantage of this service.

3.1.3IDENTIFICATION OF AIR TRAFFICCONTROL UNITS

Air Traffic Control units are identified by thename of the airport or location, followed by anappropriate indication of the unit or function.

EXAMPLES:

Because surveillance radar, where available, isused by all controllers in the provision ofcontrol service, normally it is not necessary touse the word “radar” in the identification of anATC unit to obtain radar service.

3.1.4UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

The following units of measurement are used inthe Canadian ATC system:

SPEED - Knots or Mach Number.

DISTANCE - Nautical miles (NM), except invisibility, which is reported in statute miles, andrunway visual range (RVR), which is expressedin feet.

ALTITUDE - Measured in feet, normally roundedoff to the nearest 100, and generally expressedin the following terms:

OTTAWA TOWER airport control tower

OTTAWA GROUND ground controlfunction of control tower

OTTAWA CLEARANCE DELIVERYIFR clearance delivery

CALGARY TERMINAL terminal control unit

CALGARY ARRIVAL arrival control functionof terminal control unit

CALGARY DEPARTURE departure controlfunction of terminal control unit

MONCTON CENTRE area control centre

KENORA RADAR en route radar facility

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a/ Below 18000 ft - thousands and hundredsof feet.

EXAMPLE:16000 ft - one six thousand feet8500 ft - eight thousand five hundred feet

b/ 18000 ft and above and in the standardpressure region below 18000 ft preceded bythe term “Flight Level” and expressed inindividual digits with the last two zerosomitted.

EXAMPLE:22000 ft - Flight Level Two Two Zero7000 ft - Flight Level Seven Zero (in theStandard Pressure Region)5500 ft - Flight Level Five Five (in theStandard Pressure Region)

TIME: Coordinated Universal Time (UTC or“Z”) and the 24 hour clock system are used forall operational purposes.

Time is normally expressed in four figures, thefirst two indication the hour past midnight, thelast two including the minutes. When nomisunderstanding is likely to occur, time may beexpressed in minutes only (two figures).

The time group 0000Z is used to indicate thestart of the new day, e.g., 152359Z, 160000Z.

Where daylight saving time is used, reduce theseconversion factors by one hour.

Flight crews are responsible for ensuring theaccuracy of their clocks or other time recordingdevices. Time checks are given to departingaircraft on initial contact with ground control ortower, and to other aircraft on request. Thesechecks are expressed in four figures to thenearest minute, e.g., two two three four.

ALTIMETER SETTING (QNH): An altimeter

setting (QNH) indicates the height above sealevel. In air-ground communications, thealtimeter setting is expressed by stating the word“altimeter” followed by the four separate digitsof the setting, indicating inches of mercury tothe nearest hundredth.

EXAMPLE:ALTIMETER, TWO NINER NINER SIX.

QFE (the setting that allows the altimeter toread height above the aerodrome) is notavailable in Canada.

3.1.5FLIGHT PRIORITY

Normally ATC provides Air Traffic Services on afirst come, first served basis; ATC, however, givespriority to:

a/ an aircraft that has declared an emergency;

b/ an aircraft that appears to be in a state ofemergency but is apparently unable toinform ATC;

c/ an aircraft that reports it may be compelledto land because of factors, other than fuelshortage, affecting its safe operation;

d/ an aircraft carrying, or proceeding to, apoint to pick up a sick or seriously injuredperson requiring urgent medical attention.Priority over altitudes to be flown is givento an aircraft carrying a sick or seriouslyinjured person if his or her conditionrequires it;

e/ military aircraft departing on operational airdefence flights or air defence exercises.

3.1.6CLEARANCES AND INSTRUCTIONS

Whenever an Air Traffic Control “clearance” isreceived and accepted by the pilot, he or sheshall comply with the clearance. If a clearance isnot acceptable, the pilot should immediatelyinform ATC of this fact, becauseacknowledgement of the clearance alone isunderstood by the controller to indicateacceptance. For example, on receiving a

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clearance for takeoff, the pilot shouldacknowledge it and take off without unduedelay or, if not ready to take off at thatparticular time, inform ATC of intentions, inwhich case the clearance may be changed orcancelled. Inclusion of the word “immediate” inthe clearance indicates that expeditiouscompliance is required.

A pilot shall comply with an Air Traffic Control“instruction”, provided the safety of the aircraftis not jeopardized.

A “clearance” is identified by some form of theword “clear”. An “instruction” is always wordedin such a manner as to be readily identified,although the word “instruct” seldom isincluded, e.g., ALPHA BRAVO CHARLIECALL ON FINAL RUNWAY 32.

Remember that control is predicated only onknown air traffic. When complying withclearances or instructions, pilots are not relievedof the responsibility for practising goodairmanship.

NOTE:A clearance or instruction is only valid while incontrolled airspace. Pilots transiting controlledand uncontrolled airspace should pay closeattention to the terrain and obstacle clearancerequirements.

3.1.7NOISE ABATEMENT RUNWAY ASSIGNMENT

On occasion the assigned runway is not closestinto the wind. This may be due to efforts tominimize flights over residential areas adjacentto the airport for noise abatement purposes. Inthis case, the choice is made according to thefollowing consideration:

a/ suitability of the runway surface condition;b/ effective crosswind component (max. 25 kts

for arrivals and departures);c/ effective tailwind component (max. 5kts).

It remains the pilot’s responsibility to decide ifthe runway is acceptable for his aircraft. Nopilot is required to use a runway that is notoperationally suitable.

3.1.8RADAR

A. GENERAL

Radar increases airspace use by allowing ATC toreduce the separation interval between aircraft.In addition, radar permits an expansion ofservices such as traffic information and radarnavigation assistance, and provides informationon chaff drops, bird activity and severe weatherinformation. Due to limitations inherent in allradar systems, it may not always be possible todetect aircraft, weather disturbances, etc. Whereradar service is provided by use of SSR withoutprimary radar, it is not possible to provide trafficinformation on aircraft that are not transponder-equipped or to provide some of the other flightinformation mentioned above. Fig. 3-11 showsthe extent of radar coverage in Canada.

B. SYSTEMS

Two types of radar are currently in use inCanada: Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR) andSecondary Surveillance Radar (SSR). PSR is aradar that detects and reports reflections ofaircraft, weather, flocks of birds, stationaryobjects, etc. that are within range of its sweep,approximately 80 NM. SSR is a radar thattransmits an “interrogation beam” as it sweeps,to which an airplane transponder responds withMode 3/A and or Mode 2 and (optionally)Mode C altitude data, with a 250 NM range.

The new radar system: RAMP (RadarModernization Program), will provide muchmore accurate, reliable and expanded radarcoverage. The system includes TerminalSurveillance Radar (TSR) and IndependentSecondary Surveillance Radar (ISSR). TSR aresystems with both PSR and SSR information,they are capable of digitizing primary radartargets including weather data for presentation.The ISSR systems will only provide SSRinformation.

Fig. 3-1 is a typical, though simplified, exampleof a controller’s radar display. Displayed is aterminal approach map and several targets.

The symbol used for each target is systemdetermined and indicates the type of radarinformation on which the target is based. Thesecan be PSR, SSR, either or both.

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If a flight plan is available to the system whichcorresponds to the received SSR code, then adata tag will be produced and the target will beassigned to a specific sector. The sectorallocation is indicated by the two letterdesignation directly above the target symbol.

In this case the data tag will have the IDENT ofthe aircraft, the weight category and languagepreference as line one of the tag. Line two willshow the altitude and ground speed.

If no flight plan exists then the data tag willshow only the SSR code, altitude and speed ofthe aircraft.

Other data represented in the diagram are sectorboundaries, airways, transition fixes andreporting points.

The maps used by the controller are designedfor each sector and have several overlays. Thesecan contain other data, such as airways, fueldump areas, military activity areas etc., whichcan be selected on or off as required.

C. PROCEDURES

Before providing radar service, ATC identifiesthe aircraft, either by using position reports,identifying turns, or transponders. ATC notifiespilots whenever radar identification isestablished or lost.

EXAMPLE:RADAR IDENTIFIED, or RADARIDENTIFICATION LOST.

Radar identification of flights does not relievepilots of the responsibility to avoid terrain oruncontrolled aircraft. Workload and equipmentcapability permitting, Air Traffic Controlprovides traffic information to radar identifiedaircraft if the target appears likely to merge withanother radar observed target.

Air Traffic Control assumes responsibility forterrain clearance when vectoring both en routeIFR and IFR aircraft vectored for arrival untilthe aircraft is within the final approach area.Accepting a vector does not relieve a VFRaircraft from its responsibility for maintainingadequate obstacle clearance.

When necessary, ATC uses radar vectoring for

separation purposes, asrequired by noise abatementprocedures or when the pilotrequests it, or whenevervectoring offers operationaladvantages to the pilot or thecontroller. When ATCcommences vectoring , thecontroller informs the pilot ofthe purpose for which theaircraft is being vectored andthe fix, airway or point towhich the aircraft is beingvectored.

EXAMPLES:TURN LEFT HEADING 050 FORVECTORS TO VICTOR 300.

MAINTAIN HEADING 200 FOR VECTORSTO THE VANCOUVER VOR 053 RADIAL

DEPART KLEINBURG BEACON ONHEADING 240 FOR VECTORS TO FINALAPPROACH COURSE.

ATC informs pilots when radar vectoring isterminated, except when an arriving IFR orCVFR aircraft has been cleared for an approachor an aircraft has been vectored to the trafficcircuit.

EXAMPLE:RADAR SERVICE TERMINATED.

D. OBSTACLE CLEARANCE DURING RADAR

VECTORS

Normally, the pilot of an IFR flight must ensurethat adequate clearance from obstacles andterrain, as specified in the Air Regulations, ismaintained. When the flight is being radar-vectored, however, air traffic control ensuresthat the appropriate obstacle clearance isprovided.

Minimum vectoring altitudes, which may belower than minimum altitudes shown onnavigation and approach charts, are establishedat a number of locations to facilitate transitionsto instrument approach aids. When clearing anIFR flight to descend to the lower altitude, ATCprovides terrain and obstacle clearance until theaircraft is in a position from which it cancommence an approved instrument approach ora visual approach.

FIG. 3-1 • TYPICAL ATC RADAR SCREEN

CPA456+F350 48

ACA123+E100 18

ACA878180 25

3443080 16

LE

AR

HE

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E. RADAR TRAFFIC INFORMATION

ATC provides IFR and VFR flights withinformation on observed radar targets wheneverthe traffic may be of concern to the pilot unlessthe service is precluded by higher priorityduties, radar limitation, volume of traffic,frequency congestion, or omission is requestedby the pilot. In Class C airspace, IFR and VFRtraffic are provided with radar separation.

ATC attempts to provide radar separationbetween identified IFR aircraft and unknownobserved aircraft in Class D airspace, workloadand equipment permitting.

When issuing radar information, ATC normallydefines the relative location of traffic, weatherareas, etc., by using the “clock” position system.Although ATC gives clock position relative tothe aircraft track, a pilot receiving thisinformation may determine the approximatelocation of traffic, weather, etc., in relation tothe aircraft heading which, regardless ofdirection, is always considered as 12 o’clock.

Traffic information, when passed to radar-identified aircraft, consists of:

1/ position of the traffic in relation to theaircraft;

2/ direction in which the traffic is proceeding;3/ type of aircraft or the relative speed of the

traffic;4/ the altitude if known.

EXAMPLE:TRAFFIC, 2 O’CLOCK 3 1/2 MILES,WESTBOUND at 6,000 FT, (type of aircraftand altitude, or relative speed).

An aircraft that is not radar-identified receivesthe following traffic information:

1/ position of the traffic in relation to aparticular fix;

2/ direction in which the traffic is proceeding;3/ type of aircraft or relative speed of the

aircraft if known;4/ the altitude if known.

EXAMPLE:TRAFFIC, 7 MILES SOUTH OF QUEBECNDB, NORTHBOUND SLOW MOVING,(type of aircraft and altitude, or relative speed).

F. SEVERE WEATHER

INFORMATION

Radar-equipped ATC unitsoften can provide informationon the location and movementof areas of heavy precipitationand on severe weatherconditions. During severeweather conditions, however,ATC can adjust the radar toeliminate or reduce radarreturns from heavyprecipitation areas to permitthe detection of aircraft.When requested by a pilot,and when traffic conditions permit, controllersprovide detailed information on the location ofheavy precipitation areas.

Pilots using on-board weather radar or stormscopes should request heading or track changesfor weather avoidance from ATC as soon aspossible prior to encountering the severeweather. This will result in less aircraftmanoeuvring and will allow ATC more time toensure separation. Specific headings ordistances off track should be requested wheneverpossible (e.g. REQUEST DEVIATION 10MILES SOUTH FOR WEATHERAVOIDANCE). When clear of the weather,advise ATC and state requested action.

3.1.9VISUAL GROUNDS AIDS

Visual ground aids are used for identification ofthe limits of runways, taxi ways and ramp areas.They also assist in landing and taxiing duringVFR and IFR conditions both during the dayand night. These aids can be classified intothree main groups:

a/ landing aids;b/ taxiing aids; andc/ aerodrome identification aids.

Landing aids must allow the aircraft to makesafe contact with the touchdown area. Theyconsist primarily of the approach lightingsystem and a type of glide path slope indicatorsystem. Runway markings both on and near therunway give valuable orientation and roll-outinformation.

FIG. 3-2 • APPROACH LIGHT LEGEND

AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 3-11

A. APPROACH LIGHTING SYSTEMS

These are visual aids used to supplement theguidance information of electronic aids such asVOR, TACAN, PAR and ILS. Lighting systemsare intended to improve operational safetyduring the final approach and landing phase offlight. The approach lights are designated low-intensity (the basic type of installation) andhigh-intensity, according to candle-poweroutput. (See Fig. 3-2).

Many runway and approach lighting systems’intensity can be adjusted by the tower or FSS tocompensate for climatic conditions or time ofday.

The approach lighting system currently in use atany given aerodrome can be found in theCanada Air Pilot approach plate, and theconfiguration appears on a legend sheet in theCAP .

1. CATEGORY I AND II LIGHTING: Category Ilighting consists primarily of 2,400 to 3,000feet of variable intensity lights with a whitebar 1,000 feet and a red bar 300 feet backfrom the threshold, which has a green bar.This system is the primary installation forTCA and will be modified by the additionof a white bar with red barrettes, 500 feetback for Category II instrument flying. AllCategory II lighting systems are 3,000 feetin length.

2. OTHER TYPES OF LIGHTING: Other types oflighting used at civil aerodromes in Canadaconsist of single-row low-intensity lighting,either left of, or on the centre line, ordouble-row high-intensity lighting. Atmilitary aerodromes, a high-intensityCalvert system is normally used.

3. STROBES: Strobes are short-durationcondenser discharge lights of 30 millioncandle-power or more, used to identify theactive runway direction and as runway endidentification lights.

The most important role of strobes is thatof centre line approach markers to aid inlocating the runway threshold during low-visibility conditions. The “lead-in” strobesare brilliant, fog-penetrating, high-intensitylights which flash sequentially toward therunway from a distance of 3,000 feet out.

Another use is that of runway identificationto assist inbound aircraft in locating the

active runway while still some distance fromthe airfield. Many civil and militaryairfields have omnidirectional flashingstrobes installed at each side of thethreshold of the active runway alignedtowards the approach zone. These lights actas threshold identification aids and arecalled Runway End Iden t i f i e r Li gh t s(REIL).

4. AIRCRAFT RADIO CONTROL AERODROMELIGHTING (ARCAL): Aircraft radio controlof aerodrome lighting systems are becomingmore prevalent as a means of conservingenergy especially at aerodromes which are

FIG. 3-3 • VASIS AND PAPI

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not manned on a continuous basis or whereit is not practicable to install a landline to anearby FSS. All, or only portions of theaerodrome lighting may be controlledexcept for the rotating beacon andobstruction lights. They are generallyactivated by clicking the microphone acertain number of times within a prescribedtime period.

B. VASIS - VISUAL APPROACH SLOPEINDICATOR SYSTEM

VASIS is a colour-coded visual approach aidwhich emits a lighted glide path within the finalapproach zone. It should have an angle andtouch-down point coincident with any precisionaid (ILS or PAR) serving the same runway.Under VFR conditions, VASIS is visible forapproximately 5 miles by day and for more than10 miles by night.

The standard VASIS is a two-bar system. A three-bar VASIS system is used to give a visualpresentation for long-bodied aircraft. The upwindand middle bars are used by these aircraft; allothers use the downwind and middle bars.Another type of VASIS is called PAPI - PrecisionApproach Path Indicator. It consists of four lightson the left side of the runway in the form of a bar.

INHERENT ERRORS:1/ during approaches in low visibility or

precipitation, erroneous glide pathindications may occur fromreflections/refraction of the light beams;

2/ visibility will be reduced in direct sunlightand with snow-covered backgrounds;

3/ system guidance may deteriorate close tothe threshold because of spreading of thelight sources;

4/ caution should be exercised where runwaythreshold lights are used in conjunctionwith VASIS. VASIS is an aid and should becross-checked with all other variable aids.

NOTE:Where VASIS is provided on a precision approachrunway, unless specifically requested by the pilot,VASIS will be turned off in weather conditions ofless than 500 ft ceiling and/or visibility less thanone mile. This is to avoid possible contradictionbetween the precision approach and VASIS glidepaths.

C. AERODROME MARKINGS

1. ALL-WEATHER RUNWAY MARKINGS: Themarkings to be found painted on the

runway surface in whitereflective paint are:

a/ runway directionnumber;

b/ centre line;c/ threshold;d/ landing zone hatching;

ande/ runway edge marking.

The markings in yellowreflective paint are:

a/ the under-run, blastpad or relocatedthreshold markings;

b/ obstructed or unsafe areas; andc/ stabilized shoulders or unstrengthened

areas of the runway.

The white markings are generallyinformative and on the safe areas of therunway. Yellow markings are usually in theform of chevrons or hatchings and aredanger areas which should not be used.

2. TAXI-WAY MARKINGS: Turning points fortaxi exits are normally shown as yellow linescurving off from the runway centre line,which then becomes a taxi-way centre line.Double blue lights mark each turning pointon the way to the ramp. On someaerodromes, amber lights or lighted arrowsindicate the taxi exits. Where taxi-waysystems are complex, lighted and reflectivemarkers with arrows and taxi designators areemployed.

Taxi-way edges are marked by yellow linesand blue lights as in the ramp area.

Green centre line taxi-way lighting isemployed in some areas to mark active taxi-ways to and from the ramp area.

3. RAMP MARKINGS: Ramp area markings areplaced in accordance with operationalrequirements and generally include safe taxiline, car and equipment safety lanes anddanger areas.

Danger areas are normally painted in yellowhatching. Taxiing over these areas must beavoided. Yellow hatched barriers withflashing red or amber lights normally closeoff larger danger areas; red flags with flarepots mark the smaller ones.

Further information on aerodromemarkings is available in AIP Canada.

TOO HIGH

ON THE CORRECT GLIDE PATH

TOO LOW

FIG. 3-4 • FINAL APPROACH VASIS PRESENTATION

AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 3-13

CANADIAN AIRSPACE

3.2.1GENERAL

Canadian airspace is divided into a number ofcategories which in turn are sub-divided into anumber of areas and zones. The various rulesare simplified by the classification of allCanadian airspace. For convenience, a generaldescription is provided here; however because ofconstant revision, AIP Canada, the DesignatedAirspace Handbook, Canada Flight Supplement orother appropriate publications should beconsulted for more detail and to ensureinformation is current.

3.2.2CANADIAN DOMESTIC AIRSPACE

Canadian Domestic Airspace (CDA) is dividedinto two geographic areas: - Northern DomesticAirspace and Southern Domestic Airspace (Fig.3-5). In addition, the CDA is divided verticallyinto the low level airspace which consists of allthe airspace below 18,000’ ASL; and the highlevel airspace which consists of all airspace from18,000’ ASL and above.

A. NORTHERN DOMESTIC AIRSPACE (NDA)The Magnetic North Pole is located near thecentre of the NDA, therefore magnetic compassindications may be erratic. Thus, in thisairspace, all track reference is in reference to truenorth and true track is used to determinecruising altitude for direction of flight in lieu ofmagnetic track. All of the NDA is within thestandard pressure region (Fig. 3-9).

B. SOUTHERN DOMESTIC AIRSPACE (SDA)In the SDA all track reference is in reference tomagnetic north and magnetic track is used todetermine cruising altitude for direction offlight. All high level airspace in the SDA iswithin the standard pressure region and all lowlevel airspace is within the altimeter settingregion (Fig. 3-9).

3.2.3CONTROLLED AIRSPACE

Controlled airspace is the airspace within whichair traffic control service is provided and withinwhich some or all aircraft may be subject to airtraffic control. Types of controlled airspaces are:

a/ IN THE HIGH LEVEL AIRSPACE: TheSouthern, Northern and Arctic ControlAreas;

NOTE:Encompassed within the above are High LevelAirways, Military Flying Areas, the upper portionsof some Military Terminal Control Areas andTerminal Control Areas.

b/ IN THE LOW LEVEL AIRSPACE:i/ Low Level Airways,ii/ Control Area Extensions,iii/ Terminal Control Areas,iv/ Control Zones,v/ Military Terminal Control Areas,vi/ Transition Areas.

3.2

120° 100° 80° 60°

50°

40°

60°

40°

50°

160°180°

160°

120°

140°100° 60°

80°40°

20°

0°20

°

ALAS

KACAN

ADA

YUKON

TERRITORY

ALBERTA

ONTARIO

MANITOBABRITISH

COLUMBIA

QUEBEC

GREENLAND

BAFFIN

ISLANDISLANDISLAND

NEWFOUNDLAND

NOVA SCOTIA

N.B.

P.E.I.

PACIFICOCEAN

ATLANTICOCEAN

HudsonBay

ARCTICOCEAN

EUROPE

UNITED STATES

CANADA

.Resolute

.

.

.. .

.

.

QuebecMontreal

Ottawa

Halifax

St. John's

..

..

..

Edmonton

Regina

Winnipeg Thunder Bay

.

.

NORTHERN DOMESTIC AIRSPACENORTHERN DOMESTIC AIRSPACE

SOUTHERN DOMESTIC AIRSPACESOUTHERN DOMESTIC AIRSPACE

NORTHERN DOMESTIC AIRSPACE

SOUTHERN DOMESTIC AIRSPACE

.

Ivujivik.

ICELANDICELANDICELAND

ELLESMEREISLAND

YellowknifeYellowknife

InuvikInuvik

Yellowknife

Inuvik

SASKATCHEWAN

TorontoTorontoTorontoFor actual boundary co-ordinates refer to the Designated Airspace Handbook TP 1820E

NOTE:

NORTHWEST TERRITORIESNORTHWEST TERRITORIESNORTHWEST TERRITORIES

70°

80° 80°

70°

Vancouver

Whitehorse

Churchill

IqaluitIqaluitIqaluit

60°

FIG. 3-5 • CANADIAN DOMESTIC AIRSPACE

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A. HIGH LEVEL CONTROLLED AIRSPACE

Controlled airspace within the High LevelAirspace is divided into three separate areas.They are the Southern Control Area (SCA), theNorthern Control Area (NCA), and the ArcticControl Area (ACA). Their lateral dimensionsare illustrated in Fig. 3-6. Fig. 3-7 illustratestheir vertical dimensions which are: SCA,18,000’ ASL and above; NCA, FL 230 andabove; ACA, FL 280 and above.

Pilots are reminded that both the NCA and theACA are within the Northern DomesticAirspace, therefore compass indications may beerratic and true tracks are used in determiningthe flight level at which to fly. In addition, theairspace from FL 330 to FL 390 within thelateral dimensions of the NCA, the ACA andthe Northern part of the SCA has beendesignated CMNPS airspace. Specialprocedures apply within this airspace. SeeArticle 3.2.8 or AIP RAC for details.

B. LOW LEVEL CONTROLLED AIRSPACE

1. LOW LEVEL AIRWAYS: Controlled Low LevelAirspace extending upwards from 2,200’AGL up to, but not including 18,000’ ASL,within the following specified boundaries:

i/ LF/MF (NDB) airways - the basicairway width is 4.34 NM on each sideof the centre line prescribed for such anairway. Where applicable, the airwaywidth shall be increased between thepoints where lines diverging 5° on eachside of the centre line from thedesignated facility, intersect the basicwidth boundary and where they meetsimilar lines projected from theadjacent facility (Fig. 3-8);

ii/ VHF/UHF (VOR) airways - the basicairway width is 4 NM on each side ofthe centre line prescribed for such anairway. Where applicable, the airwaywidth shall be increased between thepoints where lines, diverging 4.5° oneach side of the centre line from thedesignated facility, intersect the basicwidth boundary and where they meetsimilar lines projected from theadjacent facility (Fig. 3-8).

2. CONTROL AREA EXTENSIONS: A control areaextension is airspace that has been designatedfor one of the following purposes:

i/ to provide additional controlled airspacearound busy aerodromes for IFR control.(The controlled airspace containedwithin the associated control zone andairway(s) width is not always sufficient topermit the manoeuvring required toseparate IFR arrivals and departures);

120° 100° 80° 60°

50°

40°

60°

40°

50°

60°

160°180°

160°

120°

140°100° 60°

80°40°

20°

0°20

°

ALAS

KACAN

ADA

YUKON

TERRITORY

ALBERTA

ONTARIO

MANITOBABRITISH

COLUMBIA

QUEBEC

GREENLAND

BAFFIN

ISLANDISLANDISLAND

NEWFOUNDLAND

NOVA SCOTIA

N.B.

P.E.I.

PACIFICOCEAN

ATLANTICOCEAN

HudsonBay

ARCTICOCEAN

EUROP

UNITED STATES

CANADA

.Resolute

.

IqaluitIqaluitIqaluit

.

.. .

.

.

Quebec

MontrealOttawa

HalifaxHalifaxHalifax

St. John's

..

..

..

Edmonton

Regina

Thunder Bay

.

.Churchill

ARCTIC CONTROL AREAARCTIC CONTROL AREAFL280 and aboveFL280 and above

NORTHERN CONTROL AREANORTHERN CONTROL AREAFL230 and aboveFL230 and above

SOUTHERN CONTROL AREASOUTHERN CONTROL AREA18 000' ASL and above18 000' ASL and above

SOUTHERN CONTROL AREA18 000' ASL and above

NORTHERN CONTROL AREAFL230 and above

.

Ivujivik.

ARCTIC CONTROL AREAFL280 and above

ICELAND

ELLESMEREISLAND

YellowknifeYellowknife

InuvikInuvikInuvik

SASKATCHEWAN

TorontoTorontoToronto

Vancouver

NORTHWEST TERRITORIESNORTHWEST TERRITORIESNORTHWEST TERRITORIES

70°

80°

70°

80°

Winnipeg

WhitehorseWhitehorseWhitehorse

Yellowknife

For actual boundary co-ordinates refer to the Designated Airspace Handbook TP 1820E

NOTE:

FIG. 3-6 • CONTROL AREA

���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������

����LOW LEVEL AIRSPACE

CONTROLLEDHIGH LEVEL AIRSPACE

UNCONTROLLEDHIGH LEVEL AIRSPACE

CANADA/U.S.A. BORDER NORTH POLE

SOUTHERNSOUTHERNCONTROL AREACONTROL AREA

NORTHERNNORTHERNCONTROL AREACONTROL AREA

ARCTICARCTICCONTROL AREACONTROL AREA

UNCONTROLLED

NORTHERN DOMESTIC AIRSPACENORTHERN DOMESTIC AIRSPACESOUTHERN SOUTHERN

DOMESTIC AIRSPACEDOMESTIC AIRSPACE NORTHERN DOMESTIC AIRSPACESOUTHERN

DOMESTIC AIRSPACE

SURFACE

18 000' ASL18 000' ASL18 000' ASL

SOUTHERNCONTROL AREA

NORTHERNCONTROL AREA

ARCTICCONTROL AREA

FL280

FL230

FIG. 3-7 • CONTROL AREA VERTICAL DIMENSIONS

AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 3-15

ii/ to connect controlled airspace, such asthe control area extensions that connectthe domestic airways structure with theoceanic control areas.

Control area extensions are based at 2,200’AGL unless otherwise specified and extendup to, but not including, 18,000’ ASL.Some control area extensions such as thosewhich extend to the oceanic controlledairspace may be based at other altitudessuch as 2,000’, 5,500’ or 6,000’ ASL. Theouter portions of some other control areaextensions may be based at higher levels.

3. TERMINAL CONTROL AREAS: A terminalcontrol area (TCA) is controlled airspace ofdefined lateral and vertical dimensions.

A terminal control area is similar to acontrol area extension except that:

i/ a terminal control area may extend upinto the high level airspace, and

ii/ IFR traffic is normally controlled by aterminal control unit (TCU). (TheACC will control a TCA during periodswhen a TCU is shut down.)

A military terminal control area (MTCA) isthe same as a terminal control area exceptthat special provisions prevail for militaryaircraft while operating within the MTCA.

4. CONTROL ZONES: Control Zones have beendesignated around certain aerodromes tokeep IFR aircraft within controlled airspaceduring approaches and to facilitate thecontrol of VFR and IFR traffic. Controlzones within which a radar control service isprovided normally have a 7 mile radius.Others have a 5 mile radius with theexception of a few which have a 3 mileradius.

Control zones are capped at 3,000’ aboveairport elevation unless otherwise specified.Military control zones usually have a 10 mileradius and are capped at 6,000’ AGL. Allcontrol zones are depicted on the VFRaeronautical charts and the Low Altitudecharts.

5. TRANSITION AREAS: Controlled airspace ofdefined dimensions extending upwardsfrom 700’ AGL unless otherwise specified,

to the base of overlying controlled airspace.

3.2.4ALTIMETER SETTING REGION

The altimeter setting region is an airspace ofdefined dimensions below 18,000 feet ASL (Fig.3-9) within which the following altimetersetting procedures apply:

DEPARTURE: Prior to take-off, the pilot shall setthe aircraft altimeter to the current altimetersetting of that aerodrome or, if that altimetersetting is not available, to the elevation of theaerodrome.

EN ROUTE: During flight the altimeter shall beset to the current altimeter setting of the neareststation along the route of flight or, where suchstations are separated by more than 150 NM,the nearest station to the route of flight.

ARRIVAL: When approaching the aerodrome ofintended landing, the altimeter shall be set tothe current aerodrome altimeter setting, ifavailable.

3.2.5STANDARD PRESSURE REGION

The standard pressure region includes allairspace over Canada at or above 18,000 feetASL (the high level airspace), and all low levelairspace that is outside of the lateral limits of thealtimeter setting region (Fig. 3-9). Within thestandard pressure region the following flightprocedures apply:

5°

5°

49.66 NM

4.34 NM 5°

5°

4.5°

4.5°

50.8 NM

4 NM 4.5°

4.5°VOR

NDBNDB

VOR

LF/MF AIRWAY DIMENSIONS

MINIMUM WIDTH 4.34 NM EACH SIDE OF CENTRELINE

VHF/UHF AIRWAY DIMENSIONS

MINIMUM WIDTH 4 NM EACH SIDE OF CENTRELINE

FIG. 3-8 • LOW LEVEL AIRWAYS

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GENERAL: Except as otherwise indicated below,no person shall operate an aircraft within thestandard pressure region unless the aircraftaltimeter is set to standard pressure, which is29.92” HG or 1013.2 MBs. (See Note).

DEPARTURE: Prior to take-off, the pilot shall setthe aircraft altimeter to the current altimetersetting of that aerodrome or, if the altimetersetting is not available, to the elevation of thataerodrome. Immediately prior to reaching theflight level at which flight is to be maintained,or passing 18,000 feet if the cruising altitude isabove FL 180, the altimeter shall be set tostandard pressure (29.92” HG or 1013.2 MBS).

ARRIVAL: Prior to commencing descent with theintention to land, the altimeter shall be set tothe current altimeter setting of the aerodrome ofintended landing, if available. However, if aholding procedure is conducted, the altimetershall not be set to the current aerodromealtimeter setting until immediately prior todescending below the lowest flight level atwhich the holding procedure is conducted.

TRANSITION: Except as authorized by ATC,aircraft progressing from one region to anotherwould make the change in the altimeter settingwhile within the standard pressure region prior toentering, or after leaving, the altimeter settingregion. If the transition is to be made into thealtimeter setting region while in level cruisingflight, the pilot should obtain the currentaltimeter setting from the nearest station alongthe route of flight as far as practical beforereaching the point at which the transition is to bemade. When climbing from the altimeter settingregion into the standard pressure region, pilotsshould set their altimeters to standard pressure

(29.92” HG or 1013.2 MB) immediately afterentering the standard pressure region. Whendescending into the altimeter setting region,pilots shall set their altimeters to the approachstation altimeter setting immediately prior todescending into the altimeter setting region.Normally, the pilot will receive the appropriate

altimeter setting as part of the ATC clearanceprior to descent. If it is not incorporated in theclearance, it should be requested by the pilot.

7 NM 12 NM 35 NM 45 NM

1200' AGL

2,200' AGL

9,500' AGL

7 NM12 NM35 NM45 NM

TerminalControl Area

UncontrolledAirspace

CLASS G

Class E

Class B

Class E

ClassF

Class G

Class A

Class B

3,000' AAE

TRANSITIONAREA

2,200' AGL

25NM 15NM 5NM 5NM 15NM 25NM

700' AGL

FL600

Class E

Class A

Class E

Control AreaExtension

FL180

Class G

Class BLow Level

Airway

ClassF

UncontrolledAirspace

CLASS G

CONTROL ZONE

Class E

3,000' AAE

Class B, C, or D

Transition Area 700' AGL

ClassB, C, D, or E

CONTROLZONE

12,500' ASL

FIG. 3-10 • AIRSPACE CLASSIFICATION

50°

40°40°

50°

60°

160°180°

160°

120°

140°100° 60°

80°40°

20°

0°20

°

GREENLAND

NEWFOUNDLANDNEWFOUNDLANDNEWFOUNDLAND

NOVA SCOTIANOVA SCOTIA

N.B.

P.E.I.P.E.I.

PACIFICOCEAN

ATLANTIC OCEAN

HudsonBay

ARCTIC OCEAN

EUROP

ICELAND

UNITED STATES

CANADA

..

..

.... ..

..

..

QuebecMontreal

Ottawa

St. John'sSt. John's

NOVA SCOTIA

P.E.I.

St. John's

....

....

..

Edmonton

Regina

Thunder Bay

....

NOTE: For actual boundary co-ordinatesrefer to the Designated Airspace Handbook TP 1820E.

Sparsely Settled Areas

Winnipeg

ISLANDISLAND

ResoluteResolute

..

YellowknifeYellowknife

ALBERTAMANITOBAMANITOBAChurchillChurchill

ELLESMEREELLESMEREISLANDISLAND

ELLESMEREISLAND

BAFFIN BAFFIN

BAFFIN BAFFIN

InuvikInuvik

IqaluitIqaluit

ALAS

KA

ALAS

KACAN

ADA

CANAD

A

NORTHWEST TERRITORIESNORTHWEST TERRITORIESWhitehorseWhitehorse

BAFFIN BAFFIN

ALAS

KA

ALAS

KACAN

ADA

CANAD

A

WhitehorseWhitehorse

ONTARIOONTARIOONTARIO

BRITISH BRITISH COLUMBIACOLUMBIA

QUÉBECQUÉBEC

IvujivikIvujivikIvujivikIvujivik

ISLAND

Resolute

Yellowknife

MANITOBAChurchill

Inuvik

IqaluitNORTHWEST TERRITORIES

BAFFIN

ALAS

KACAN

ADA

Whitehorse

BRITISH COLUMBIA

QUÉBEC

Ivujivik

60°

120°

100°

80° 60°

70°

80° 80°

70°

..

.

.

.. .

.

.

..

..

. ..

.

.

STANDARD PRESSURE REGIONSTANDARD PRESSURE REGION

ALTIMETER SETTING REGION ALTIMETER SETTING REGION

STANDARD PRESSURE REGION

ALTIMETER SETTING REGION

Toronto

.

.

YUKONYUKONTERRITORYTERRITORY

YUKONTERRITORY

HalifaxHalifaxHalifax

VancouverSASKATCHEWAN

FIG. 3-9 • STANDARD PRESSURE AND ALTIMETER SETTING REGIONS

AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 3-17

NOTE:When an aircraft is operating in the standardpressure region with standard pressure set on thealtimeter sub scale, the term “flight level” is used inlieu of “altitude” to express its height. Flight levelis always expressed in hundreds of feet. Forexample, flight level 250 (FL250) represents analtimeter indication of 25,000 feet; flight level 50,an indication of 5,000 feet.

3.2.6CLASSIFICATION OF AIRSPACE

Canadian Domestic Airspace is divided into sevenclasses, each identified by a single letter - A, B, C,D, E, F or G (Fig. 3-10). Flight within eachclass is governed by specific rules applicable tothat class and are contained in the Air Regulations.

The rules for operating within a particularportion of airspace depends on the classificationof that airspace and not on the name by which itis commonly known. Thus, the rules for flightwithin a high level airway, a terminal control areaor a control zone depend on the class of airspacewithin all or part of those areas. Weather minimaare specified for controlled or uncontrolledairspace, not for each class of airspace.

The following is a brief description of the rulesfor each class of airspace:

CLASS A: All operations must be conductedunder instrument flight rules (IFR) and aresubject to ATC clearances and instructions.ATC separation is provided to all aircraft.

Class A airspace is designated from the base ofall high level controlled airspace up to andincluding FL600.

CLASS B: Operations may be conducted underIFR or VFR. All aircraft are subject to ATCclearances and instructions. ATC separation isprovided to all aircraft.

All low level controlled airspace above 12,500’ASL up to but not including 18,000’ ASL isClass B airspace. Control zones and associatedterminal control areas may also be classified asClass B airspace.

CLASS C: Operations may be conducted underIFR or VFR. ATC separation is provided to allaircraft operating under IFR and, as necessary,to VFR aircraft when an IFR aircraft is involved.

All VFR operations will be provided with trafficadvisories and upon request, conflict resolutioninstructions.

VFR traffic requires an ATC clearance to enter.

Terminal control areas and associated controlzones may be classified as Class C airspace.

CLASS D: Operations may be conducted IFR orVFR. ATC separation is provided only toaircraft operating under IFR. All traffic willreceive traffic advisories, and upon request,conflict resolution may be provided, equipmentand workload permitting.

VFR traffic must establish two-waycommunications prior to entry. ATC mayinstruct VFR traffic to remain clear of the ClassD airspace.

A terminal control area and associated controlzone could be classified as Class D airspace.

CLASS E: Operations may be conducted underIFR or VFR. ATC separation is provided onlyto aircraft operating under IFR. There are nospecial requirements; low level airways, controlarea extensions, transition areas, or controlzones established without an operating controltower may be classified as Class E airspace.

CLASS F: Airspace may be classified as:

a/ Advisory Airspace if it is airspace withinwhich an activity occurs of which non-participating pilots should be aware (e.g.,training areas, parachute areas, hang glidingareas, etc.);

b/ Restricted Airspace if:1/ it is airspace within which an activity

occurs which is dangerous to aircraftoperations (i.e., firing ranges, rocketranges, etc.); or

2/ it is airspace from which aircraft mustbe excluded for security reasons (e.g.,Royal, Heads of State or Papal visits,penitentiaries, etc.); or

3/ its use would promote the efficient flowof air traffic at selected airports.

NOTE:Although not designated as Class F airspace,operations within a given area may also berestricted under the Aeronautics Act to cover specific

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situations such as a forest fire or disaster area. Theseareas are published by NOTAM when required.

CLASS G: Operations may be conducted underIFR or VFR. ATC has neither the authority orthe responsibility for exercising control over airtraffic. ATS will, however, provide flightinformation and alerting services as required.

All airspace which has not been designated A, B.C, D, E or F will be classified as Class Guncontrolled airspace.

3.2.7SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE

A. GENERAL

Under certain conditions it is considerednecessary to limit flying in specified Canadianairspace. Special use airspace may be classifiedas advisory or restricted. Operations in Class Fadvisory airspace are allowed but pilots areencouraged to exercise caution.

Information concerning such airspace and thenature of the limitations may be found in thefollowing documents and directives:

1/ Regulations concerning flight restrictionsinto national, provincial and municipalparks;

2/ Designated Airspace Handbook, Part 9,“Class F Airspace”;

3/ NOTAM - temporary restrictions to flightare normally covered by NOTAM action,e.g. airspace reservations, etc.;

4/ Information circulars entitled “General” orthe AIP.

In general, flight may be permitted subject toprior approval within Class F restricted airspace.If approved, it is undertaken at the pilot’sdiscretion. This applies to both IFR and VFRaircraft.

B. MILITARY OPERATIONS AREAS (MOA)Pilots flying within the high-level structureshould take into account published militaryoperations areas when planning their route offlight. These are reserved for military trainingand testing exercises and normally other aircraftare not permitted to operate within these areas.

When operational requirements permit, themilitary may release specified portions of a MFAto ATC to accommodate transiting aircraft.However, this should be considered theexception rather than the rule and pilots shouldplan their route of flight to avoid these areas.MOAs are depicted on the High Altitude Enroute Charts, and are defined in the DesignatedAirspace Handbook.

C. MILITARY ACTIVITY AREAS (MAA)A military activity area is a defined block ofairspace approved for intensive military flyingduring a specified time. It normally includesboth controlled and uncontrolled airspace in astationary area or an area moving in relation tothe flight of the aircraft within.

The airspace and time period involved arepublished by NOTAM, normally at least 24hours in advance, except when there isinsufficient time for NOTAM action.

When in uncontrolled airspace, pilots shouldremain clear of these areas, particularly ifoperating in IFR weather conditions. Air TrafficControl treats any controlled airspace in amilitary activity area as an airspace reservation.

D. DANGER AREAS

A danger area is a defined block of airspacewithin which activities dangerous to flight, suchas artillery firing and aerial gunnery, may occurat specified times. Pilots may enter danger areasat their own discretion. Due to the obvioushazard in these areas, however, pilots arestrongly urged to avoid them during activeperiods. Pilots of aircraft operating under IFRare not cleared into active danger areas.

E. RESTRICTED AIRSPACE

Restricted airspace is a defined block of airspacewithin which flight is restricted according tocertain specified conditions.

IFR flights will not be cleared through activerestricted areas unless the pilot states thatpermission has been obtained.

F. ADVISORY AIRSPACE

Advisory airspace is a defined block of airspacein which a high volume of pilot training orunusual aerial activity, such as parachuting or

AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 3-19

soaring, is carried out. The aerial activity inadvisory airspace is conducted according to VFRflight rules. While pilots of non-participatingflights may enter at their own discretion, theyare urged to avoid these areas during designatedactive periods, or be exceptionally vigilant whilewithin them. Pilots of aircraft operating underIFR are not cleared into active advisory airspace.

G. ALTITUDE RESERVATIONS

This is a block of controlled airspace reservedfor the use of an agency during a specified time.Information on the airspace and time periodinvolved normally are published by NOTAM.

For ease of reference, certain military airrefuelling areas recurring at the same location incontrolled airspace are depicted on HighAltitude En route Charts and in the CanadaFlight Supplement. When active, these areasconstitute airspace reservations.

Pilots should plan to avoid known altitudereservations. Air Traffic Control does not clearan unauthorized flight into an activereservation. IFR flights operating withincontrolled airspace and certain VFR flights areprovided with standard separation from reservedairspace.

H. ROCKET RANGES

Rocket ranges are established near Churchill,Manitoba, and are depicted on VFRaeronautical charts and radio navigation chartsand have been designated restricted areas. Theparticular range to be active, and the timeperiod involved, is published in advance inNOTAM.

NOTE:Pilots may enter rocket ranges at their owndiscretion. Due to the obvious hazard, however,pilots are strongly urged to avoid them duringactive periods. Pilots of aircraft operating underIFR are not cleared into active rocket ranges.

3.2.8CANADIAN MINIMUM NAVIGATIONPERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS AIRSPACE(CMNPS)

To allow maximum utilization of airspace andto safely and efficiently accommodate the

volume and concentration of domestic andinternational air traffic transiting the ArcticControl Area, the Northern Control Area, andparts of the Southern Control Area, CanadianMinimum Navigation PerformanceSpecifications Airspace (Fig. 3-11) has beenestablished between FL 330 and FL 390.

Reduced lateral and longitudinal separationbetween aircraft operating in CMNPS Airspacecan be accommodated by specifying minimumaircraft navigation equipment for operatingwithin this airspace. Only aircraft certified asmeeting CMNPS are permitted to operate withinthe designated CMNPS Airspace unless ATCcan accommodate an aircraft without penalizingCMNPS certified aircraft.

To provide safe, efficient transition betweenCMNPS Airspace and the domestic airwaysstructure, a reduction in the Canadian domesticlateral separation minimum is authorized. Thetransition area in which this reduced separationmay be applied is FL280 to below FL330 withinthe horizontal boundaries of CMNPS Airspace.

More detailed information on CMNPS may befound in AIP Canada RAC.

120° 60°

50°

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60°

40°

5050°°

6060°°

50°

60°

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160°

120°

140°100° 60°

80°40°

20°

0°20

°

GREENLAND

ATLANTICOCEANHudson

Bay

ARCTICOCEAN

EUROP

.

NOTE:For actual boundary co-ordinatesrefer to the Designated AirspaceHandbook TP 1820E

Boundary of CMNPS/RNPC AirspaceBoundary of Radar Coverage at FL310Boundary of Canadian Domestic Airspace

80°

RNPC AIRSPACE

ICELAND

70°

80°

70°

80°

AIRSPACE

RNPC

CMNPS TRANSITION AREACMNPS TRANSITION AREAFL 280 TO BELOW FL 330 FL 280 TO BELOW FL 330

CMNPS AIRSPACECMNPS AIRSPACEFL 330 TO FL 390FL 330 TO FL 390

CMNPS AIRSPACEFL 330 TO FL 390

CMNPS TRANSITION AREAFL 280 TO BELOW FL 330

ALASKA

RADAR COVERAGE

UNITED STATES RADAR COVERAGE

PACIFICPACIFICOCEANOCEANPACIFICOCEAN

FIG. 3-11 • CMNPS AIRSPACE

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REQUIRED NAVIGATION PERFORMANCECAPABILITY (RNPC) AIRSPACE

The airspace that has been designated forRNAV operations is referred to as RNPCairspace which is controlled airspace within thelateral limits of the area of southern Canadadepicted in Fig. 3-11. To flight plan publishedhigh level fixed RNAV routes, or randomRNAV routes, (See Fig. 2-96) or to beaccommodated by ATC on other routes usingRNPC separation criteria, aircraft must becertified as being capable of navigating withinspecified tolerances.

The minimum navigation equipment likely tosatisfy the RNPC is one long range areanavigation system plus VOR/DME and ADF.

3.2.9NORTH ATLANTIC MNPS AIRSPACE

At the ninth Air Navigation Conference ofICAO, the concept of Minimum NavigationPerformance Specifications (MNPS) wasadopted on a world-wide basis. This has theobjective of ensuring safe separation of aircraftand at the same time enabling operators to derivemaximum accuracy of navigation equipmentdemonstrated in recent years.

By 1980, the minimum lateral separation betweenaircraft which meet the MNPS and which operatein the NAT MNPSA became 60 NM.

An implicit condition of the concept of MNPSis that all operators must maintain the specifiedoperating standards and be aware of theinherent obligations of the requirement.

NAT MNPS guidance material is contained inthe North Atlantic MNPS Airspace OperationsManual which is published on behalf of theNAT Systems Planning Group. Operatorsshould be familiar with the contents of theDocument which can be obtained from ICAOin Montreal. See AIP Canada for details.

Compliance with the MNPS is required by allaircraft operating on routes within the followingdefined airspace boundaries:

a/ between FL275 and FL400;b/ between latitudes 27” and the North Pole;c/ in the East, the Eastern boundaries of CTAs

Santa-Maria Oceanic, Shanwick Oceanicand Reykjavik; and

d/ in the West, the Western boundaries ofCTAs Reykjavik and Gander Oceanic andNew York Oceanic excluding the area westof 69”W and south of 38°30’N.

Aircraft used to conduct flights within thevolume of airspace specified in the precedingparagraph, shall have specified navigationperformance capability.

Such navigation performance capability shall beverified by the State of the Operator asappropriate. Transport Canada is responsiblefor authorizing all Canadian civilian registeredaircraft to fly within NAT MNPS.

Navigation equipment likely to meet NATMNPS are:

a/ dual Inertial Navigation System (INS/IRS);b/ dual OMEGA Navigation System (ONS);

orc/ single INS/IRS plus ONS.

GPS may be used to replace one of thenavigation systems listed above. Fig. 3-12shows the boundaries of NAT MNPS airspace.

40°

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5050°°7070°°9090°°

110110°°

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°°3030

°°

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30° 10°10

°30

°

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50°

GANDEROCA

SHANWICKOCA

NEW YORKOCA

SANTA MARIAOCA

ATLANTICOCEAN

UNITED STATES

MNPSA NAT Boundary

GREENLAND

REYKJAVIKOCA

EUROPE

CANADA

FIG. 3-12 • NAT-MNPS AIRSPACE

AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 3-21

IFR SEPARATION

3.3.1GENERAL

This section acquaints pilots with the basic non-radar methods of control used by ATC. Withthis understanding, pilots can draw up flightplans more effectively, and comply with ATCclearances more readily.

3.3.2VERTICAL SEPARATION

A. MINIMA AND PROCEDURES

Air Traffic Control provides vertical separationby requiring aircraft to operate at differentassigned altitudes. The separation is based onthe following minima: FL 290 and below -1,000 ft.; above FL 290 - 2,000 ft.

B. SEPARATION BETWEEN FLIGHT LEVELS AND

ALTITUDES ASLWhen the altimeter setting is less than 29.92”there is less than 1,000 ft vertical separationbetween an aircraft flying at 17,000 ft ASL onthe altimeter setting and an aircraft flying at FL180. Therefore, based on this example, thelowest usable flight level is assigned or approvedaccording to the following table:

3.3.3LONGITUDINAL SEPARATION

A. MINIMA AND PROCEDURES

Air traffic control applies longitudinal separationexpressed in units of time so that after one aircraftpasses over a position a following aircraft at thesame altitude does not, on the basis of a control

estimate, arrive over the same position within lessthe appropriate minimum number of minutes.They apply longitudinal separation expressed inmiles based on position reports, through DirectController-Pilot Communication (DCPC), fromconcerned aircraft in relation to a DME facility.

Air Traffic Control establishes longitudinalseparation by clearing aircraft:

1/ to depart at a specified time;2/ to arrive over a specified fix at a specified

time (phraseology - ARRANGE YOURFLIGHT TO ARRIVE OVER (reportingpoint) NOT BEFORE/LATER THAN(time));

3/ to hold at a fix until a specified time; or4/ to reverse heading.

Air Traffic Control may request two aircraft tomaintain a specified longitudinal separationbetween each other provided that the aircraft arein direct communication with each other, andare using NAVAIDs that permit determinationof position and speed at intervals not exceeding40 minutes flying time.

B. PHRASEOLOGY

MAINTAIN AT LEAST (numbermiles/minutes separation) FROM (aircraftidentification).

3.3.4LATERAL SEPARATION

A. GENERAL

Air Traffic Control provides lateral separation ofIFR flights in the form of “airspace to beprotected”, relating to a holding procedure,instrument approach procedure or the approvedtrack.

The dimensions of protected airspace selectedfor a particular track take into account theaccuracy of available ground-based NAVAIDs,which provide track guidance; accuracy ofairborne receiver and indicator equipment; apilotage tolerance each side of the indicatedtrack; and a small allowance for sudden windshift. Therefore, it is essential that the accuracycapability of navigation equipment bemaintained, and the pilots of IFR or controlled

3.3

IF THE ALTIMETERSETTING IS

29.92 OR HIGHER29.91 TO 28.9228.91 TO 27.9227.91 OR LOWER

THEN THE LOWERUSABLE FLIGHT LEVEL IS

FL 180FL 190FL 200FL 210

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VFR flights adhere as closely as practicable tothe centerline of approved tracks (Fig. 3-13).

Because of the quality of navigation signalcoverage and communications facilitiesavailable, pilots should plan their flights alongdesignated airways (unless using RNAV routes)whenever practicable. For track segmentswithin signal coverage of NDB or VORstations, protected airspace takes into accountthe accuracy of available track guidance,accuracy of airborne receiver and indicatorequipment and pilotage tolerance. Separationexists as long as the airspaces provided for eachaircraft do not overlap.

Normally the allocation of airspace for anapproved track assumes that the changeoverfrom one navigation reference to another occursapproximately midway between facilities.Where this is not possible due to a difference inthe signal coverage provided by two adjacentNAVAIDs, the equal-signal point on an airwaysegment is shown on the IFR en route chart.

To remain clear of Class F Advisory orRestricted airspace, pilots should prepare flightplans so that the airspace to be protected fortheir intended tracks does not overlap the areaof concern. Pilots realizing that they are outsidethe airspace protected for their approved tracksshould notify the appropriate ATC unitimmediately.

B. CONTROLLED AIRSPACE

ATC protects the following airspace alongapproved tracks:

1/ 4 miles each side of centerline to a distanceof 51 miles from a VOR and then withinlines that diverge at 4.5 degrees from aVOR until they meet similar lines from theadjacent VOR for:

i/ airway segments based on VOR; orii/ off airway tracks that are within signal

coverage of a VOR;

2/ 4.34 miles each side of centerline to adistance of 50 miles from an NDB and thenwithin lines that diverge at 5 degrees froman NDB until they meet similar lines drawnfrom the adjacent NDB for:

i/ airway segments thatare based on NDBs;or

ii/ off airway tracks thatare within signalcoverage of an NDB(Fig. 3-14); or

iii/ airspace to beprotected for airwaysegments which areserved by a VOR atone end and a NDBat the other isdetermined as if thewhole segment is based on NDBs;

3/ 45 miles each side of centerline for tracksthat are beyond signalcoverage or are not basedon NAVAIDs (Fig. 3-15).

C. CHANGE OF DIRECTION AT

AND ABOVE FL 180Air Traffic Control protectsadditional airspace at andabove FL 180 on themanoeuvring side of trackswhich change direction bymore than 15° at a NAVAIDor intersection (Fig. 3-17).

Pilots operating below FL 180should make turns so as to remain within thenormal width of airways or airspace protectedfor off-airway tracks.

Since the lateral separation minima applied byATC depend on the probable accuracy ofnavigation along each track, it is the pilot’sresponsibility to remain within the boundariesof protected airspace for an assigned track to beassured of lateral separation from other airtraffic.

D. LATERAL PROTECTED AIRSPACE FOR IFRINSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURES (LOW

ALTITUDE)Increased air traffic requires more definitivestandards to assure separation between IFRflights. For example, the need exists to define

4.5° or 5°

No overlapAirways

NAVAIDS

FIG. 3-13 •LATERAL SEPARATION OF AIRWAYS

NAVAID

50.8 NM

NAVAID

4.5°

FIG. 3-14 • OFF AIRWAY TRACKS (NON-RNAV)

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 3-23

further the minimum geographical spacingneeded to separate aircraft conductingapproaches simultaneously at adjacent airports.Also, there is a need to define precisely thegeographical spacing between an aircraftconducting an approved standard instrumentapproach procedure and adjacent aircraftholding or en route.

Accordingly, air traffic controllers are authorizedto use the basic horizontal “obstacle clearance”dimensions of intermediate approach areas, finalapproach areas and missed approach areas, asthe “airspace to be protected” for aircraftconducting standard instrument approachprocedures. (See Fig. 4-24). Adequatehorizontal separation exists when the “airspaceto be protected” for such aircraft does notoverlap "airspace being protected" for aircraft enroute, holding or conducting simultaneousadjacent instrument approaches.

3.3.5WAKE TURBULENCE SEPARATION

In Canada, aircraft groups are:

GROUP 1 (HEAVY): all aircraft certified formaximum take-off weight of 300,000 lbs ormore;

GROUP 2 (MEDIUM): aircraft certified for amaximum take-off weight of between 12,500and 300,000 lbs;

GROUP 3 (LIGHT) - aircraft certified for a take-off weight up to 12,500 lbs inclusive.

Controllers apply the following radar minimabetween a preceding IFR/VFR aircraft and anaircraft vectored directly behind it at altitudesless than 1,000 ft below:

For non-radar departures, the minima are two(2) minutes for any aircraft behind a heavy if

the aircraft concernedcommences the take off fromthe threshold of the samerunway or a parallel runwaythat is located less than 2,500feet away. This also applieswhere the aircraft use crossingrunways and where projectedflight paths will cross.

NOTES:1. A light aircraft following a

medium aircraft will beissued a wake turbulencecautionary in the situationdescribed above.

2. B757 are considered heavy aircraft owing totheir strong waketurbulence characteristics.

These minima are extended tothree (3) minutes for anyaircraft that departs in thewake of a known heavyaircraft, or a light aircraft thattakes off into the wake of aknown medium aircraft if:

a/ the following aircraft startsits take-off roll from anintersection or a pointsignificantly further alongthe runway, in thedirection of take-off, than the precedingaircraft; or

b/ the controller has reason to believe thatrotation may occurbeyond the rotation pointof the preceding aircraft.

In spite of these measures,ATC cannot guarantee thatwake turbulence will not beencountered.

NAVAID

45 NM

45 NM

Signal coverage limit

FIG. 3-15 • TRACKS ON HIGH-LEVEL VOR AIRWAYS

49.66 NM5°

NAVAID NAVAID

FIG. 3-16 • TRACKS ON NDB AIRWAYS

HEAVY BEHIND A HEAVY 4 NM

MEDIUM BEHIND A HEAVY 5 NM

LIGHT BEHIND A HEAVY 6 NM

LIGHT BEHIND A MEDIUM 4 NM

70°

FIG. 3-17 • HIGH LEVEL TRACKS - CHANGE OF DIRECTION

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RADIO PROCEDURES

3.4.1BASIC RADIO PROCEDURES

A. GENERAL

Pilots should:

1/ deliver radio messages clearly and concisely -use only acceptable phraseology andenunciate precisely;

2/ plan the content of the message to betransmitted before pressing the “transmit”button;

3/ precede every transmission with a brief butcareful listening-out period to avoidinterference with other transmissions.

B. RADIOTELEPHONY CONTACT

This generally consists of four parts: call-up,reply, the message, and the acknowledgement orending. In all examples, the words enclosedwithin parentheses may be omitted.

EXAMPLE:Call-up by aircraft:ROBERVAL RADIO (THIS IS) CESSNACITATION FOXTROT ALPHA BRAVOCHARLIE

Reply by ground station:CESSNA CITATION FOXTROT ALPHABRAVO CHARLIE (THIS IS) ROBERVALRADIO, GO AHEAD.

The message - Aircraft:FOXTROT ALPHA BRAVO CHARLIEFOUR MILES SOUTH THROUGH SIXTHOUSAND LANDING ROBERVAL -CLEARED FOR LOCALIZER/DMERUNWAY THREE FOUR ESTIMATING ATONE FIVE.

Flight Service Station:ALFA BRAVO CHARLIE ACTIVE RUNWAYTHREE FOUR WIND THREE SIX ZERO ATONE FIVE ALTIMETER TWO NINER NINERSEVEN TRAFFIC PIPER AZTEC DEPARTINGRUNWAY THREE FOUR SOUTHBOUNDREPORT BY THE INTERMEDIATE FIX.

Acknowledgement - Aircraft:TWO NINER NINER SEVEN ALFA BRAVOCHARLIE

The pilot should note that:On the initial call-up and reply, both the aircraftand the ground station use the four-letteraircraft call sign.

When contact is established, ATS may employan abbreviated call sign (three-letter).

The aircraft repeats the altimeter setting ,acknowledges receipt of information andterminates the contact by transmitting itsabbreviated call sign.

The pilot should always monitor a selectedfrequency before transmitting and should nottransmit until the frequency is clear.

C. MESSAGE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

A pilot shall acknowledge the receipt of all ATCmessages directed to and received by him or her.Such acknowledgement may take the form of atransmission of the aircraft call sign, a repeat ofthe clearance with the aircraft call sign or thecall sign followed by an appropriate word(s).

EXAMPLES:ATC: VICTOR LIMA CHARLIE

CLEARED TO LAND

Pilot: VICTOR LIMA CHARLIE

ATC: VICTOR LIMA CHARLIE ARE YOUAT FIVE THOUSAND?

Pilot: VICTOR LIMA CHARLIEAFFIRMATIVE

NOTE:Clicking of the microphone button as a form ofacknowledgement is not acceptable radioprocedure.

D. READABILITY SCALE AND COMMUNICATION

CHECKS

The readability scale uses the figures 1 to 5,meaning:

3.4

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 3-25

1/ unreadable;2/ readable now and then;3/ readable with difficulty;4/ readable;5/ perfectly readable.

The main types of communications checks are:

1/ signal check, made while the aircraft isairborne;

2/ pre-flight check, made prior to departure;

3/ maintenance check , made by groundmaintenance personnel.

EXAMPLE:NAME RADIO (this is) CESSNA FOXTROTALFA BRAVO CHARLIE - SIGNAL CHECKON FIVE SIX EIGHT ZERO. CESSNAFOXTROT ALFA BRAVO CHARLIE (This is)(name) RADIO - READ YOU FIVE.

3.4.2RADIOTELEPHONE COMMUNICATIONS

A. ICAO INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC

ALPHABET/MORSE CODE

Pilots should memorize this standardinformation or have a copy handy to assist inidentifying NAVAIDS.

Phonetic letter equivalents should be used forsingle letters or to spell out groups of letters orwords whenever considered necessary to ensureunderstanding. Pilots must use phonetics forregistration letters in aircraft call signs on initialcontact.

B. AIRCRAFT CALL SIGNS

On initial contact with ATS, pilots of Canadianprivate aircraft shall use the manufacturer’sname or type of aircraft followed by the last fourcharacters of the registration in phonetics.

EXAMPLE:CESSNA GOLF CHARLIE FOXTROTECHO

Pilots shall include the word HEAVY ifapplicable. (A heavy jet is one that can have atake-off weight of 300,000 lbs or more.)

When initiated by ATS, subsequent aircraftidentification (for aircraft using their civilregistration) may be abbreviated to the last threecharacters of the registration.

EXAMPLE:CHARLIE FOXTROT ECHO

The word HEAVY can be omitted when nolikelihood of confusion exists.

S . . . SIERRA (SEE-AIR-RAH)T - TANGO (TANG-GO)U . . - UNIFORM (YOU-NEE-FORM)

OR

(OO-NEE-FORM)V . . . - VICTOR (VIK-TAH)W . — WHISKEY (WISS-KEY)X - . . - X-RAY (ECKS-RAY)Y - . — YANKEE (YANG-KEY)Z — . . ZULU (ZOO-LOO)0 — — - ZERO1 . — — WUN2 . . — - TOO3 . . . — TREE4 . . . . - FOW-ER5 . . . . . FIFE6 - . . . . SIX7 — . . . SEVEN8 — - . . AIT9 — — . NIN-ER

A . - ALFA (AL-FAH)B - . . . BRAVO (BRA-VOH)C - . - . CHARLIE (CHAR-LEE)

(OR SHAR-LEE)D - . . DELTA (DELL-TAH)E . ECHO (ECK-OH)F . . - . FOXTROT (FOKS-TROT)G — . GOLF (GOLF)H . . . . HOTEL (HOH-TEL)I . . INDIA (IN-DEE-AH)J . — - JULIETT (JEW-LEE-ETT)K - . - KILO (KEY-LOH)L . - . . LIMA (LEE-MAH)M — MIKE (MIKE)N - . NOVEMBER (NO-VEM-BER)O — - OSCAR (OSS-CAH)P . — . PAPA (PAH-PAH)Q — . - QUEBEC (KEH-BECK)R . - . ROMEO (ROW-ME-OH)

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C. GROUND STATION CALL SIGNS

These comprise the name of the airpor tfollowed by the type of station.

EXAMPLES:CALGARY TOWER (airport control tower)

HALIFAX GROUND (ground control positionin tower)

KINGSTON RADIO (flight service station)

MIRABEL CLEARANCE DELIVERY (IFRclearance delivery position)

OTTAWA TERMINAL (Terminal ControlPosition)

VANCOUVER ARRIVAL (Arrival ControlPosition)

EDMONTON DEPARTURE (DepartureControl Position)

MONTREAL CENTRE (Area Control Centre)

D. NUMBERS

In general, numbers except whole thousandsshould be transmitted by pronouncing eachdigit separately.

EXAMPLES:75 SEVEN FIVE

100 ONE ZERO ZERO

576 FIVE SEVEN SIX

11000 ONE ONE THOUSAND

Exceptions are described as follows:Altitude above sea level may be expressed inthousands plus hundreds of feet. Separate digitsshould be used to express flight levels.

EXAMPLES:2800 TWO THOUSAND EIGHT

HUNDRED

14500 ONE FOUR THOUSAND FIVEHUNDRED

FL265 FLIGHT LEVEL TWO SIX FIVE

FL200 FLIGHT LEVEL TWO ZERO ZERO

Aircraft identification, flight number, aircrafttype numbers, wind speed and cloud heightmay be expressed in group form.

EXAMPLES:AC320 AIR CANADA THREE

TWENTY

DC10 DC TEN

WIND 270/10 WIND TWO SEVEN ZEROAT TEN

M 35 BKN MEASURED THIRTY FIVEHUNDRED BROKEN

Aircraft headings are given in groups of threedigits, expressed in degrees magnetic except inthe area of compass unreliability where headingis expressed in degrees true. The words degreesand magnetic are omitted with reference tomagnetic heading while the word true followsthe numbers when true heading is used.HEADING 360 is used to signify a northheading.

EXAMPLES:005 HEADING ZERO ZERO FIVE

350 HEADING THREE FIVE ZERO

E. DECIMAL POINTS

Decimal points are indicated by the wordDECIMAL. However, when VHF or UHFfrequencies are specified, the DECIMAL maybe omitted if no misunderstanding is likely tooccur.

3.4.3COMMUNICATIONS PROCEDURES ATUNCONTROLLED AERODROMES

A. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

An uncontrolled aerodrome is an aerodromewithout a control tower in operation. Manyaerodromes have towers that operate only part-time; these are uncontrolled aerodromes duringthe period when the tower is not operating.

Aircraft operations on, or in the vicinity of,

AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 3-27

uncontrolled aerodromes can present problems,some of which have the potential for conflict.Without air and ground traffic control,hazardous situations can develop if there isinadequate exchange of information about themovement of aircraft and aerodromemaintenance equipment. Safety can beincreased if pilots report their position andintentions in an orderly way, and monitor acommon radio frequency while operatingwithin a prescribed distance of uncontrolledaerodromes.

The operation of vehicles on runways is essentialto maintain aerodromes in a safe operationalstatus. Consequently, information concerning apilot’s landing or take-off intentions must beconveyed to aerodrome authorities so that thevehicles can leave the appropriate runways. Ataerodromes served by public air-groundcommunications stations, these facilitiescoordinate vehicle activity. However, they mustbe aware of aircraft activity to do an effectivejob. Flight Service Stations provide a vehiclecontrol service (VCS) in conjunction withairport advisory service (AAS).

Some uncontrolled aerodromes are servedindirectly by an FSS through remotecommunication outlets (RCO). These outletsprimarily are established for en routecommunications purposes, but a few alsoprovide remote AAS and remote VCS. Wherethis capability exists, the remote FSS willcoordinate removal of vehicles from the runway.Pilots must remember that the Flight ServiceSpecialist is some distance away and cannot seewhat is going on. The Flight Service Specialistcan only pass on information that has beengiven by radio.

A Flight Service Specialist can provideinformation on other aircraft only when advisedof their presence and intentions. The specialistmay not be aware of NORDO aircraft, or evenof some radio-equipped aircraft operating in thevicinity, unless the pilots have advised of theiractivities.

B. ESTABLISHMENT OF MANDATORY

FREQUENCIES

Transport Canada has designated a MandatoryFrequency (MF) for use at selected uncontrolledaerodromes or aerodromes that are controlled

between certain hours. Aircraft operatingwithin the area in which MF is applicable, onthe ground or in the air, shall be equipped witha functioning radio capable of maintaining two-way communication and specified proceduresshall be followed.

Normally MF will only be designated ataerodromes served by an FSS, a CARS or anRCO, and the MF will normally be thefrequency of the ground station which providesthe advisory service and the vehicle controlservice for the aerodrome. For thoseaerodromes that have a designated MF, thespecific frequency, distance and altitude withinwhich MF procedures are to be followed will bepublished in the CFS:

MF - Arpt rdo 122.1 5NM 3035 ASL

C. AERODROME TRAFFIC FREQUENCY (ATF)An ATF is normally designated for active,uncontrolled aerodromes listed in the CFS thatdo not meet the criteria for MF. The ATF isestablished to ensure that all radio-equippedaircraft operating on the ground or within thespecified area are listening on a commonfrequency and following common reportingprocedures. The ATF will normally be thefrequency of the ground station where one existsor 123.2 MHz where a ground station does notexist. The specific frequency, distance andaltitude within which use of the ATF is requiredwill be published in the CFS.

ATF - tfc advsry 118.2 06-14Z 3NM 6900 ASL

D. USE OF THE MF AND ATFThere is no substitute for keeping a goodlookout while flying in visual weatherconditions; this is particularly true in thevicinity of uncontrolled aerodromes. Theeffective use of radio, however, can greatlyincrease flight safety.

All pilots operating radio-equipped aircraft atuncontrolled aerodromes for which a MF orATF has been published must transmit positionreports on the MF or ATF according to theprocedures outlined in the followingsubsections.

Position reports have two formats; either a

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directed transmission, made to a ground stationor vehicle operator, or a broadcast (transmission)made to advise all concerned of the pilot’sintentions. Wherever the MF or ATF isoperated by a ground station, the initialtransmission should be directed to the station.

Should there be no acknowledgement of adirected transmission, then pilots should maketransmissions in the broadcast format unless theground station subsequently establishes two-waycontact, in which case pilots shall resumecommunicating by directed transmission.

Where no ground station exists, all reports shallbe broadcast blind.

EXAMPLES:Directed -MUSKOKA RADIO - FXYZ IS 5 MILESNORTH OF THE MUSKOKA BEACON AT3,000 FT. FOR LANDING RUNWAY 18 ATMUSKOKA. GO AHEAD YOUR ADVISORY.

OR

Broadcast -MUSKOKA TRAFFIC - FXYZ IS 5 MILESNORTH OF THE MUSKOKA BEACON AT3,000 FT. -PLANNING TO CROSSOVERHEAD TO JOIN THE CIRCUIT FORRUNWAY 18. ETA IN 3 MINUTES.

E. IFR ARRIVAL PROCEDURES AT

UNCONTROLLED AIRPORTS

The pilot-in-command of an IFR aircraftintending to conduct an approach at anuncontrolled aerodrome shall, unless otherwiseinstructed by ATC, transmit directed orbroadcast position reports:

1/ five minutes before the estimated time ofcommencing the approach procedure,including in this report approach intentionsand estimated time of landing;

2/ upon passing the fix with the intention ofconducting a procedure turn, or, if noprocedure turn is intended, upon firstinterception of the final approach track;

3/ upon passing the Final Approach Fix during

the final approach or three minutes beforethe estimated time of landing where noFinal Approach Fix exists ( approach facilityon the aerodrome);

4/ upon commencing a circling procedureadvising intentions;

5/ when turning onto the final approach legadvise position; and

6/ in the event of a missed approach, as soon aspractical after commencing the missedapproach, including in this report astatement of intentions.

In some cases, ATC will instruct the pilot toremain on a control frequency rather thantransferring the pilot to the MF. When there isan FSS or RCO, ATC will advise the FSS of thedelay and an estimated position of the aircraft.At other locations where there is nocommunications link between the ATS unit andthe operator of the MF, ATS will transfercommunications as soon as possible.

F. IFR DEPARTURE PROCEDURES AT

UNCONTROLLED AERODROMES

A pilot intending to take off from anuncontrolled aerodrome shall:

1/ obtain an ATC clearance if in controlledairspace;

2/ report on the appropriate frequency thedeparture procedure and intentions beforemoving on to the runway or before aligningthe aircraft on the take-off path; and

3/ ascertain by radio on the appropriatefrequency and by visual observation that noother aircraft or vehicle is likely to come intoconflict with the aircraft during take-off.

The pilot-in-command shall maintain a listeningwatch:

1/ during take-off from an uncontrolledaerodrome; and

2/ after take-off from an uncontrolledaerodrome for which a mandatoryfrequency has been designated, until the

AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 3-29

aircraft is beyond the distance or above thealtitude associated with that frequency.

As soon as possible after reaching the distance oraltitude associated with the MF, the pilot-in-command shall communicate with theappropriate air traffic control unit or a groundstation on the appropriate en route frequency.Where IFR departures are required to contactan IFR control unit or ground station after take-off, it is recommended that, if the aircraft isequipped with two radios, the pilot should alsomonitor the MF during the departure.

If the aerodrome is located in uncontrolledairspace, the above procedures shall be followedexcept that an ATC clearance is not required.In addition to maintaining a listening watch asoutlined above, it is recommended that thepilot-in-command communicate with theappropriate air traffic control unit, FSS or otherground station on the appropriate en routefrequency.

G. IFR PROCEDURES AT UNCONTROLLED

AERODROMES IN UNCONTROLLED AIRSPACE

Whenever practical, pilots operating IFR inuncontrolled airspace should monitor 126.7MHz and broadcast their intentions on thisfrequency immediately before changing altitudeor commencing an approach. When arriving ataerodromes where the MF or ATF is anotherfrequency, therefore, the pilot should broadcastdescent and approach intentions on 126.7 MHzbefore changing to the MF or ATF. Ifconflicting IFR traffic becomes evident, thischange should be delayed until the conflict isresolved.

Pilots departing IFR shall broadcast intentionson 126.7 MHz in addition to the MF or ATFbefore take-off. Pilots should monitor 126.7MHz along with the MF or ATF if the aircrafthas dual VHF radios.

3.4.4INTERNATIONAL AIR-GROUNDCOMMUNICATIONS

A. TYPES OF EMISSION

Both the HF single and double sideband modesof operation are available at Gander, Iqaluit,

Churchill and Cambridge Bay on the ICAOfamilies of frequencies. ICAO VHF frequenciesare also available at designated FSS. Ganderalso broadcasts weather for selected Canadianairports twice each hour. For details, pilotsshould refer to the appropriate station listingsfound in the Canada Flight Supplement.

B. SELECTIVE CALL SYSTEM (SELCAL)This system is installed for use on internationalfrequencies at Canadian stations. Pilots shouldcheck the remarks column in the station listings.SELCAL improves ground-to-aircommunication techniques by providing anautomatic and selective method of calling anaircraft. Voice calling is replaced by thetransmission of code tones to the aircraft overthe international radiotelephony channels. Asingle call is a combination of four pre-selectedaudio tones requiring approximately twoseconds transmission time. These tones aregenerated in the ground station coder andreceived by a decoder connected to the audiooutput of the airborne receiver. Receipt of theassigned tone code (SELCAL code) activates alight and/or chime signal in the cockpit.

The pilot is responsible for ensuring that theappropriate ground stations are advised of theSELCAL code available in the airborneequipment. The pilot may do this on the ICAOflight plan and when transferring in flight fromone agency to another.

IFR FLIGHT PROCEDURES

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4-1

IFR FLIGHT PROCEDURES

4.1 FLIGHT PLANNING4.2 DEPARTURE PROCEDURES4.3 EN ROUTE PROCEDURES4.4 HOLDING PROCEDURES4.5 ARRIVAL PROCEDURES4.6 INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURES4.7 EMERGENCIES4.8 TRANSPONDER OPERATION

NOTES:1/ The procedures and services described in Part 4 are

under constant revision. Material in AIP Canadashould be closely monitored since the AIP takesprecedence over this material should a conflict ofinformation occur.

2/ The reader should have access to the Canada FlightSupplement, CAP East or West, and en route andterminal charts while reading this part. All approachplates and charts found in this part are for trainingpurposes only and must not be used operationally.

PA

RT

FO

UR

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-2

Part 4 builds on the information presentedearlier on instruments, navigation systems, basicattitude instrument flying and Air TrafficServices and follows the sequence of a normalIFR flight. It begins with flight planning andincludes departure, en route, holding, arrivaland instrument approach procedures. Sectionson emergencies and transponder operation arefound at the end of this part. More detailedinformation on some areas of this part can befound in AIP Canada.

FLIGHT PLANNING

4.1.1REQUIREMENT TO FILE A FLIGHT PLAN

Prior to each flight pilots should file a flightplan or notification. IFR flight requires that aflight plan be filed.

Pilots must file a VFR or IFR flight plan priorto conducting any flight between Canada andthe United States. If the flight is to any countryother than the USA, the pilot must file anICAO flight plan. (Copies of a TransportCanada and an ICAO flight plan are includedin this section as Fig. 4-1 and 4-2).

The Air Regulations require that “prior totaking-off from any point within and prior toentering any controlled airspace during IFRflight, or during IFR weather conditions, aflight plan containing such information as maybe specified by the Minister shall be submittedto the appropriate air traffic control unit”.

When communications facilities are inadequateto permit contact with ATC or an FSS, IFRflight conducted wholly outside of controlledairspace may be undertaken after a flightitinerary is submitted to a responsible person.

Prompt filing of IFR flight plans with air trafficcontrol is essential. It allows control personneltime to extract and record the relevant content,correlate this new data with availableinformation on other controlled traffic, anddetermine how the flight may best be co-ordinated with other traffic. To assist ATC inimproving its service and to allow sufficienttime for input into the ATC data processing

system, pilots must file IFR flight plans as earlyas practicable, preferably 30 minutes before theproposed departure time. They must beprepared to depart as closely as possible to thisproposed departure time. Before transborderflights where the point of departure is close tothe boundary, pilots should file flight plans atleast one hour in advance to facilitate adequateco-ordination and data transfer. Compliancewith this procedure minimizes departure delays.

4.1.2PURPOSES OF FLIGHT PLANNING

The IFR flight plan primarily enables ATS to fitan aircraft into the traffic system with minimumdelay, and according to the pilot’s requestedroute and altitude. The flight plan contains allthe operational information necessary for ATSto satisfy the pilot’s requirements duringdeparture, while en-route and during theapproach. Air Traffic Services, however, is notalways able to meet every parameter in the flightplan; for example, the departure route may bealtered if it conflicts with the main traffic flow.

Other reasons for flight planning are:a/ to serve as a safeguard in case of

communication failure, allowing both thepilot and the controller to know exactlywhere the aircraft is going;

b/ to assist in case of forced landing;permitting the aircraft’s most probableposition to be assessed quickly;

c/ to aid in statistical purposes, where IFRflight strips are registered and used forTransport Canada long-range planning; and

d/ there is a legal requirement to file an IFRflight plan.

4.1.3GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN FLIGHTPLANNING

There are several items that the pilot shouldconsider for safety and convenience when flightplanning. (It is assumed that the aircraftequipment meets the requirements for IFRflight, and that fuel and oil are adequate for theproposed trip.)

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4.1

IFR FLIGHT PROCEDURES

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 4-3

First the pilot should study the weather ,including ceiling and visibility at the departureairport, destination airport, alternate airportsand airports to be overflown during the flight.Cloud type and amount, turbulence and icingare also important in selecting an altitude. Toplan effectively, the pilot should also know thewind velocity en route and the forecast at thedestination and alternate.

Next, the route should be selected. Theplanning section of the Canada FlightSupplement should first be consulted todetermine if there is a preferred IFR routeestablished for the planned flight. At mostmajor terminals in Canada, arriving anddeparting traffic is channelled into main arrivaland departure routes through radar vectoringand/or assignment of preferential routes. If thepilot plans a route that goes against the mainarrival flow, ATS may have to clear the aircraftvia some other airway.

A second consideration in selecting an airway isthe minimum en route altitude (MEA). Forexample, between Sudbury and Sault Ste.Marie, V-348 has an MEA of 7,000 ft while V-316 can be flown at 5,000 ft. The lower MEAalong V-316 offers greater flexibility in choosingappropriate altitudes when icing is forecast, andit is only 1 mile longer than the other route.

The wind velocity at the destination andalternate should be checked against the forecastceiling at the appropriate airports, particularlythose with only one straight-in approach or withonly one runway. It seems pointless to proceedto Wabush when the wind will exceed thecrosswind component specified for the aircraft.

With good flight planning the pilot seldomshould have to proceed to an alternatedestination. When a pilot needs an alternatebecause the destination weather hasdeteriorated, he or she needs it badly - thereforeit should be selected carefully. The firstconsideration is the availability of approachprocedures to more than one runway. If theseare precision approaches, so much the better.

Alternate “limits” are published in Canada AirPilot (CAP) for flight planning purposes only.Once airborne, the limits for the alternateairport are the limits shown in the minima boxof the approach chart. The pilot should check

the alternate if the weather at the destination isdeteriorating. As a guide, if the weather is goingdown to near circling limits, the pilots shouldfile another alternate right away, either as theprimary or secondary choice, and make surethat ATS is advised.

NOTE:Some airports in CAP have authorized alternatelimits based on area forecasts because of the lack ofterminal weather forecasting at those locations.

Once satisfied that the trip is on, the pilotshould check for applicable NOTAMS, then fillin the Flight Plan Form. Appropriatepublications must be carried on the aircraft -CFS, CAP and en route and terminal areacharts.

4.1.4IFR FLIGHT PLAN FORM

Flight plans, required for all IFR flights, should befiled at least 30 minutes before the estimated timeof departure to avoid traffic delays. It isrecommended that pilots inform ATC if a flightwill not be commenced within 60 minutes of theproposed departure time stipulated in an IFR flightplan. Failure to do so may result in activating theSearch and Rescue process or a delay caused byhaving to file another flight plan. At uncontrolledairports, pilots are responsible for closing the IFRflight plan unless advised otherwise by ATS. Theflight plan (Fig. 4-1) should contain:

a/ type of flight plan (IFR);

b/ aircraft identification, including the fullidentification number of the aircraft;

c/ aircraft type and equipment, i.e., theappropriate suffix for type of transponder,distance measuring equipment available onthe aircraft, inertial navigation system, etc.;

d/ true airspeed, given in knots and based onthe estimated true airspeed at the plannedflight altitude;

e/ point of departure, identifier or name of thedeparture airport - however, if the flightplan is filed in the air, the point ofdeparture is the position at which the flightplan is filed;

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-4

f/ departure time, i.e., Coordinated UniversalTime (Zulu);

g/ initial cruising altitude, which mustconform to appropriate cruising altitudesfor the direction of flight;

h/ route of flight;

NOTE:If any segment of the flight is off-airways, the word“direct” (DRCT) should be entered. Any ground-based navigational aids listed in conjunction withthe direct route automatically become reportingpoints. For other flights, the pilot should enter thenavigational aids or airways to be used.

i/ destination, i.e., the name of the airport oridentifier;

j/ remarks section (optional), which mayinclude passengers’ names, customsrequirements or other non-operationalinformation;

k/ estimated time en route - the total time inhours and minutes, estimated from take-offuntil the aircraft is over the terminal facility;

l/ fuel onboard - the time in hours andminutes which the fuel supply will last;

m/ alternate airport, which must be entered incase weather prevents a landing at thedestination;

n/ Nav and Approach aids are indicated byplacing digits in the appropriate boxes;

o/ ELT manufacturer and model numbershould be entered in the ELT block;

p/ pilot’s name and licence number;

q/ name and address of aircraft owner;

r/ the number of persons onboard, requiredonly if the flight is international, butadvisable if the correct number ofpassengers is known;

s/ aircraft colour (recommended), with themajor colour entered first, followed by thetrim colours.

Pilots should remember that, upon landing, theIFR flight plan is closed automatically if theairport has an operating control tower. If theairport does not have a control tower, the pilot isresponsible for closing the flight plan.

4.1.5ICAO FLIGHT PLAN FORM

Flight plans for international flights originatingin, or entering Canada shall be filed in theICAO format (Fig. 4-2). For the purpose offlight planning, flights between Canada and theContinental United States are not classed asinternational flights. Directions for completionof the ICAO flight plan form may be found inAIP RAC.

4.1.6IFR FUEL REQUIREMENTS

The pilot in command is responsible forensuring that there is enough fuel for the flightto be completed to the destination andthereafter to a suitable alternate destination.

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Point of departure - Point de départ Flight altitude/level and route (If DVFR include altitude) - Altitude ou niveau de vol et route (Si DVFR indiquer l'altitude)

Name and address of aircraft owner / (Person(s) or company to be notified if search and rescue action initiated)Nom et adresse du propriétaire de l'aéronef / (Personne(s) ou compagnie à aviser si des récherches sont entreprises)

Other information (such as colour of aircraft etc.) - Autres renseignements (tels que couleur de l'aéronef, etc.)WheelsRoues

SeaplaneHydravion

Skis AmphibianAmphibie

Communication equipmentÉquipement de communication

Navigational & Approach AidsAides à la navigation et à l'atterrissage

An arrival report will be filed (Note - place, date, time, method) with - Un avis d'arrivée sera notifié (Avis - lieu, date, heure et méthode) à:

ADCUS Other - AutresNumber of U.S. Citizens

Nombre de ressortissants américains

Aircraft identificationImmatriculation de l'aéronef

Est. elapsed timeDurée totale est.

Alt. airport(s)Aéroport(s) de dégagement

Fuel on boardCarburant embarqué

Pilot's Licence No. - N° de licence du pilote

SAR Time - Heure du SAR

Pilot's Signature - Signature du pilote

Received by - Reçu parFlight plan (Note) passed to - Plan de vol (Avis) communiqué à Flight plan (Note) received by - Plan de vol (Avis) reçu par

Type of emergency locator transmitterType de radiobalise de repérage d'urgence

Pilot's name - Nom du piloteTotal number ofpersons on boardNombre total des personnes à bord

Destination AerodromeAérodrome de destination

Time of Departure - Heure de départ (UTC)

Proposed - Prévue Actual - Réelle

Hrs Mins Hrs Mins

Type of flight - Régime de vol

IFR

VHF UHF ILS VOR ADF INS FMS GPS DMEOther - Autres Other - Autres

VFR DVFRNOTEAVIS

Air FilePlan déposéen vol

Type of aircraft & equipmentType de l'aéronef et équipement

True air speed (Knots)/MachVitesse vraie (noeuds)/Mach

28-0055 (93.02)

FLIGHT PLAN / NOTIFICATIONPLAN / AVIS DE VOL

Transport Canada

Transports Canada

PART - PARTIE 2

PART - PARTIE 1 - PILOTS - PILOTES

.

FIG. 4-1 • DOMESTIC IFR FLIGHT PLAN

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 4-5

The fuel supply should also accommodate anyanticipated delays by ATS. There should be anappropriate fuel reserve for flight at normalcruise power settings, normally 45 minutes.(Refer to Air Regulations for more details).

4.1.7CHANGES TO THE FLIGHT PLAN

Aircraft operating IFR must advise ATC andobtain a new or amended clearance beforechanging the following in the flight plan:

a/ cruising altitude;

b/ tracking;

c/ destination aerodrome;

d/ true airspeed at cruising altitude or flightlevel, where the change is more than 5% ofthe true airspeed specified in the flight plan;

e/ Mach number, where the change is largerthan .01 and the Mach number has beenincluded in the ATC clearance.

IFR aircraft operating outside of controlledairspace are required to explain by broadcastingon the appropriate frequencies any changes inthe items a - c above.

Consecutive IFR flight plans involvingintermediate stops en route may be filed at theinitial point of departure so long as thefollowing points are adhered to:

a/ the initial point of departure and en routestops must be in Canada;

b/ the sequence of stops will fall within oneconsecutive 24-hr period; and

c/ the flight planning unit must be provided atleast these items for each stage of the flight:

1/ point of departure;2/ altitude;3/ route;4/ destination;5/ proposed time of departure;6/ estimated elapsed time;7/ alternate;8/ fuel on board, and, if required:

i/ T.A.S.;ii/ number of persons on board;iii/ location where an arrival report

will be filed.

The pilot of a flight for which a flight plan hasbeen filed shall report the arrival time to anATC unit or communications base as soon aspossible after landing.

A pilot may cancel the IFR flight plan or changeto a VFR flight plan provided the aircraft isoperating in VFR weather conditions, and isoutside Class A or B airspace. Whereconditions permit the remainder of a flight tobe conducted in accordance with VFR, and the

PRIORITY / PRIORITÉPRIORITY / PRIORITÉ ADDRESSEE(S) / DESTINATAIRE(S)ADDRESSEE(S) / DESTINATAIRE(S)

FILING TIME / HEURE DE DÉPÔT FILING TIME / HEURE DE DÉPÔT ORIGINATOR / EXPÉDITEURORIGINATOR / EXPÉDITEUR

MESSAGE TYPEMESSAGE TYPETYPE DE MESSAGETYPE DE MESSAGE

AIRCRAFT IDENTIFICATIONAIRCRAFT IDENTIFICATIONIDENTIFICATION DE L'AÉRONEFIDENTIFICATION DE L'AÉRONEF

FLIGHT RULESFLIGHT RULESRÈGLES DE VOLRÈGLES DE VOL

TYPE OF FLIGHTTYPE OF FLIGHTTYPE DE VOLTYPE DE VOL

EQUIPMENT / ÉQUIPEMENT EQUIPMENT / ÉQUIPEMENT 1010WAKE TURBULENCE CAT.WAKE TURBULENCE CAT.

CAT. DE TURBULENCE DE SILLAGECAT. DE TURBULENCE DE SILLAGEWAKE TURBULENCE CAT.

CAT. DE TURBULENCE DE SILLAGE

TIME / HEURETIME / HEURE

TYPE OF AIRCRAFT / TYPE D'AÉRONEFTYPE OF AIRCRAFT / TYPE D'AÉRONEFTYPE OF AIRCRAFT / TYPE D'AÉRONEF

DEPARTURE AERODROME / AÉRODROME DE DÉPARTDEPARTURE AERODROME / AÉRODROME DE DÉPART

NUMBER / NOMBRENUMBER / NOMBRE99

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION (NOT TO BE TRANSMITTED IN FPL MESSAGES)SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION (NOT TO BE TRANSMITTED IN FPL MESSAGES)RENSEIGNEMENTS COMPLÉMENTAIRES (À NE PAS TRANSMETTRE DANS LES MESSAGES DE PLAN DRENSEIGNEMENTS COMPLÉMENTAIRES (À NE PAS TRANSMETTRE DANS LES MESSAGES DE PLAN DE VOL DÉPOSÉ)E VOL DÉPOSÉ)

SPACE RESERVED FOR ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS / ESPACE RÉSERVÉ À DES FINS SUPPLÉMENTAIRESFILED BY/ DÉPOSÉ PAR

PILOT-IN-COMMAND / PILOTE COMMANDANT DE BORD PILOT-IN-COMMAND / PILOTE COMMANDANT DE BORD

REMARKS / REMARQUESREMARKS / REMARQUES

AIRCRAFT COLOUR AND MARKINGS / COULEUR ET MARQUES DE L'AÉRONEFAIRCRAFT COLOUR AND MARKINGS / COULEUR ET MARQUES DE L'AÉRONEF

NUMBERNUMBERNOMBRENOMBRE

CAPACITYCAPACITYCAPACITÉCAPACITÉ

COVERCOVERCOUVERTURECOUVERTURE

COLOURCOLOURCOULEURCOULEUR

POLARPOLARPOLAIREPOLAIRE

DESERTDESERTDÉSERTDÉSERT

MARITIMEMARITIMEMARITIMEMARITIME

JUNGLEJUNGLEJUNGLEJUNGLE

LIGHTLIGHTLAMPESLAMPES

FLUORESFLUORESFLUORESFLUORES

JACKETS / GILETS DE SAUVETAGEJACKETS / GILETS DE SAUVETAGE

DINGHIES / CANOTSDINGHIES / CANOTS

SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT / ÉQUIPEMENT DE SURVIESURVIVAL EQUIPMENT / ÉQUIPEMENT DE SURVIE

ENDURANCE / AUTONOMIE ENDURANCE / AUTONOMIE

HR. MINHR. MIN PERSONS ON BORD / PERSONNES À BORDPERSONS ON BORD / PERSONNES À BORD

C

A

UHFUHF VHFVHF ELBAELBA

VHFVHF

PILOT-IN-COMMAND / PILOTE COMMANDANT DE BORD

REMARKS / REMARQUES

AIRCRAFT COLOUR AND MARKINGS / COULEUR ET MARQUES DE L'AÉRONEF

NUMBERNOMBRE

CAPACITYCAPACITÉ

COVERCOUVERTURE

COLOURCOULEUR

POLARPOLAIRE

DESERTDÉSERT

MARITIMEMARITIME

JUNGLEJUNGLE

LIGHTLAMPES

FLUORESFLUORES

JACKETS / GILETS DE SAUVETAGE

DINGHIES / CANOTS

SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT / ÉQUIPEMENT DE SURVIE

VHF

EMERGENCY RADIO / RADIO DE SECOURSEMERGENCY RADIO / RADIO DE SECOURS

)

RPE

SPECIFIC IDENTIFICATION OF ADDRESSEE(S) AND/OR ORIGINATOR / IDENTIFICATION PRÉCISPECIFIC IDENTIFICATION OF ADDRESSEE(S) AND/OR ORIGINATOR / IDENTIFICATION PRÉCISE DU(DES) DESTINATAIRE(S) ET/OU DE L'EXPÉDITEURSE DU(DES) DESTINATAIRE(S) ET/OU DE L'EXPÉDITEURSPECIFIC IDENTIFICATION OF ADDRESSEE(S) AND/OR ORIGINATOR / IDENTIFICATION PRÉCISE DU(DES) DESTINATAIRE(S) ET/OU DE L'EXPÉDITEUR

CRUISING SPEEDCRUISING SPEEDVITESSE CROISIÈREVITESSE CROISIÈRE LEVEL / NIVEAULEVEL / NIVEAU ROUTE / ROUTE ROUTE / ROUTE

DESTINATION AERODROMEDESTINATION AERODROMEAÉRODROME DE DESTINATION AÉRODROME DE DESTINATION HR. HR. . MIN. MIN

TOTAL EET / DURÉE TOTALE ESTIMÉETOTAL EET / DURÉE TOTALE ESTIMÉETOTAL EET / DURÉE TOTALE ESTIMÉE ALTN AERODROMEALTN AERODROMEAÉRODROME DE DÉGAGEMENTAÉRODROME DE DÉGAGEMENT

2ND. ALTN. AERODROME2ND. ALTN. AERODROME2ÈME AERODROME DE DÉGAGEMENT2ÈME AERODROME DE DÉGAGEMENT

FF

(FPL

33 77 88

PRIORITY / PRIORITÉ ADDRESSEE(S) / DESTINATAIRE(S)

FILING TIME / HEURE DE DÉPÔT ORIGINATOR / EXPÉDITEUR

MESSAGE TYPETYPE DE MESSAGE

AIRCRAFT IDENTIFICATIONIDENTIFICATION DE L'AÉRONEF

FLIGHT RULESRÈGLES DE VOL

TYPE OF FLIGHTTYPE DE VOL

3 7 8

1313

1515

1616

OTHER INFORMATION / RENSEIGNEMENTS DIVER OTHER INFORMATION / RENSEIGNEMENTS DIVER 1818

DESTINATION AERODROMEAÉRODROME DE DESTINATION HR. . MIN

ALTN AERODROMEAÉRODROME DE DÉGAGEMENT

2ND. ALTN. AERODROME2ÈME AERODROME DE DÉGAGEMENT

16

OTHER INFORMATION / RENSEIGNEMENTS DIVER 18

1919

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION (NOT TO BE TRANSMITTED IN FPL MESSAGES)RENSEIGNEMENTS COMPLÉMENTAIRES (À NE PAS TRANSMETTRE DANS LES MESSAGES DE PLAN DE VOL DÉPOSÉ)

ENDURANCE / AUTONOMIE

HR. MIN PERSONS ON BORD / PERSONNES À BORD UHF VHF ELBA

EMERGENCY RADIO / RADIO DE SECOURS19

))

EQUIPMENT / ÉQUIPEMENT 10

TIME / HEUREDEPARTURE AERODROME / AÉRODROME DE DÉPART

NUMBER / NOMBRE9

CRUISING SPEEDVITESSE CROISIÈRE LEVEL / NIVEAU ROUTE / ROUTE

13

15

)

S P D M J J L F U V

U V E

C

FLIGHT PLANPLAN DE VOL

UHFUHFUHF

D

N

FIG. 4-2 • ICAO FLIGHT PLAN

IFR FLIGHT PROCEDURES

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-6

pilot so chooses, the pilot may notify ATC by:

a/ cancelling the IFR flight plan - CANCELIFR FLIGHT PLAN; or

b/ converting the IFR flight plan - CHANGEFLIGHT PLAN TO VFR.

Only an acknowledgement should be expectedwhen either of the above messages istransmitted. To convert to a VFR Flight Plan,the pilot must contact the appropriate flightservice station to airfile a VFR Flight Plan ifany other flight plan changes are required.These procedures should not be used when IFRconditions are expected in a subsequent portionof a flight. If, however, following the use ofeither of these procedures, subsequent IFRoperation becomes necessary, a new IFR flightplan must be filed and an ATC clearancereceived before re-entering IFR conditions.

4.1.8EQUIPMENT FAILURES

The pilot should report any suspectedunreliability or failure of communication ornavigation equipment to an air traffic controlunit as soon as possible.

4.1.9ATC CLEARANCE

Pilots of IFR flights must receive ATC clearancebefore entering controlled airspace. Pilots flyingoutside of controlled airspace need not receivean ATC clearance; however, they shouldremember there may be other aircraft operatingat random within the immediate vicinity.

NOTE:When flying IFR in controlled airspace, ATS willassign an altitude. The pilot is not required toaccept an altitude which is not feasible because ofturbulence, icing, fuel economy or any otheroperational reasons. The pilot must simply statethat he or she is unable to accept, and requestalternate instructions or indicate what altitudeswould be acceptable.

After obtaining ATC clearance the pilot incommand may not deviate from that clearanceexcept in an emergency or for a TCAS

resolution advisory. If unable to comply with aclearance, the pilot should advise ATC that itcannot be accepted and request a new clearance.The IFR clearance may be cancelled anytime thepilot is operating in VFR weather (except whenin airspace which requires all aircraft tomaintain IFR). From that point on the flightmust be conducted strictly in VFR conditionsunless a new IFR clearance is obtained.

Readback of all ATC clearances is compulsory.

This procedure ensures that the pilotunderstands the clearance and is able to complywith it. When copying an en route clearance,the pilot should not be taxiing or performingany other distracting cockpit duty. If advisedthat clearance is ready while performing otherduties, the pilot should ask that the clearance beheld until he or she is ready to copy. The termSTAND-BY is sufficient.

If several clearances are obtained while en route,the last clearance supersedes all related items inthe preceding clearances. If deviation from aclearance is required by an emergency, and ATChas given priority to that aircraft, the pilot incommand may be requested to submit a writtenreport within 48 hours to the chief of the ATCfacility. When operating under IFR flight rulesin VFR weather conditions, the pilot incommand is responsible for avoiding otheraircraft. The VFR “see and be seen” conceptapplies in this situation.

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DEPARTURE PROCEDURES

4.2.1GENERAL

Departure control is an ATS control function toensure separation between departures.Sometimes departure control may suggest atake-off direction other than that normally usedin VFR operations. It is preferred to offer thepilot a runway requiring the fewest turns aftertake-off to place the aircraft on course or intothe selected departure route as quickly aspossible. There are preferential runways at manylocations used for local noise abatementprograms routing departures away fromcongested areas. Preferential runways maycontinue to be used with considerable cross-winds. It is a pilot’s responsibility to determinewhether or not the cross-wind can be accepted.

Departure control that uses radar normallyclears aircraft out of the terminal area by meansof standard instrument departures and radionavigation aids. When given a vector that takesthe aircraft off a previously assigned route, thepilot is advised briefly what the vector is toachieve. Thereafter, radar service is provideduntil the aircraft is re-established “on course”using an appropriate navigation aid, and thepilot is advised of the aircraft’s position, or ahandoff is made to another radar controller withfurther surveillance capabilities.

Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS)is available at many airports and the pilotshould monitor it prior to taxi. ATISfrequencies may be found in Canada Air Pilot,Canada Flight Supplement and Terminal Charts.

This chapter briefly describes procedures thatpilots should follow when communicating withATC and conducting the departure.

Pilots shall maintain a listening watch on theappropriate tower frequency while undercontrol of the tower. Whenever possible, theyshould make requests for radio checks and taxiinstructions on the appropriate ground controlfrequency. After pilots establish initial contactwith the control tower, ATC will advise pilots ofany frequency changes required.

After communication has been established withthe tower, the terms THIS IS, and other similarterms may be omitted, provided that theomission does not lead to misunderstanding.

4.2.2REQUEST FOR PUSH-BACK

Controllers may not be able to see allobstructions which an aircraft may encounterduring push-back; therefore, clearance for thismanoeuvre is not issued. Pilots requestingpush-back are advised to “Push-back at yourdiscretion” and are given traffic information tothe extent possible. Pilots should realize that itis their responsibility to ensure safe push-backbefore initiating aircraft movement.

4.2.3PRE-TAXI CLEARANCE PROCEDURES

Certain airports have VHF clearance deliveryfrequencies whereby pilots of departing IFRaircraft receive IFR clearances before they starttaxiing for take-off. Pilots should follow theseprocedures, where applicable:

a/ pilots call clearance delivery/ ground controlnot more than 10 minutes before proposedtaxi time or 5 minutes before engine start(unless otherwise advised on the ATIS);

b/ IFR clearance (or delay information, ifclearance cannot be obtained) is issued atthe time of this initial call-up;

c/ after the IFR clearance is received on theclearance delivery frequency, pilots will thencall ground control when ready to taxi;

d/ normally, pilots need not inform ground controlthat they have received the IFR clearance.Certain locations may, however, require that thepilot inform ground control of a portion of therouting or confirm the clearance;

e/ if a pilot cannot establish contact onclearance delivery frequency or has notreceived an IFR clearance before ready totaxi, the pilot contacts ground control andinforms the controller accordingly;

4.2

FIG. 4-3 • TORONTO DEPARTURE SEQUENCE

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-8

f/ clearance delivery frequencies, whereavailable, are shown on the aerodrome ortaxi chart in CAP, in the Canada FlightSupplement Aerodrome Directory and onthe terminal area charts. (See Fig. 4-3).

Where no clearance delivery frequency isestablished, the pilot should request ATCclearance from the first agency called after start-up: normally ground control or the FSS.

4.2.4TAXI CLEARANCE

A. GENERAL

On initial contact with ground control, the pilotof an IFR aircraft should state destination andplanned initial cruising altitude.

If cleared to taxi without restriction to therunway in use, the pilot requires no furtherclearance to cross any runway en route. Uponreceipt of a normal taxi clearance, a pilot shouldproceed to, but not onto, the runway that is tobe used for take-off. If, for any reason, theground or airport controller requires that a pilotrequest a further clearance before crossing orentering any of the runways en route to this taxiclearance limit, this requirement is included inthe taxi clearance (HOLD SHORT OF...), andmust be read back. At larger airports an aproncontrol service may be in operation to expediteaircraft and vehicle traffic on the apron.

EXAMPLE:Pilot:WINNIPEG GROUND DC3 FOXTROTOSCAR VICTOR HOTEL AT HANGAR 3,REQUEST TAXI, SEVEN THOUSAND, TOOTTAWA, WITH INFORMATION BRAVO,OVER.Ground Control:OSCAR VICTOR HOTEL, WINNIPEGGROUND, RUNWAY (number), WIND (indegrees magnetic and knots), TIME (in UTC),ALTIMETER (four-figure group indicatinginches of mercury), CLEARED TO TAXI(runway or other specific point, route).Pilot:OSCAR VICTOR HOTEL.

Time and altimeter information may be issued.Runway, wind and altimeter data normally arenot issued if included in the current ATISbroadcast and the pilot acknowledges receipt ofthat message.

ATS does not provide positive control service toaircraft on the apron of an aerodrome but willprovide information concerning known trafficand obstructions. Pilots are expected to contactground control for information on apron trafficprior to taxiing or moving outside their gatearea.

B. INSTRUMENT CHECK

The proper functioning of most instrumentscan be verified by use of the standardtaxi/turning check. The use of this check priorto flight is mandatory and may be rememberedas follows:

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FIG. 4-4 • EDMONTON AERODROME CHART

IFR FLIGHT PROCEDURES

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 4-9

IN A RIGHT TURN: needle right, ball left,compass increasing, attitude indicator steady,ASI/VSI zero, and all navigational aids tracking;and

IN A LEFT TURN: needle left, ball right,compass decreasing, attitude indicator steady,ASI/VSI zero, and navigational aids tracking.

C. TAXI HOLDING POSITION

The pilot must obtain clearance before leaving ataxi holding position, or where holdingpositions have not been established, beforeproceeding closer than 200 ft from the edge ofthe runway in use. At airports where it is notpossible to comply with this provision, taxiingaircraft must remain at a sufficient distancefrom the active runway to ensure that no hazardto arriving or departing aircraft is created. Atsome airports separate hold points areestablished for CAT I and CAT II operations.

Taxi holding position markings are shown inFig. 4-5.

D. COMMON ATC PHRASEOLOGIES

ADVISE WHEN READY. CONTINUE orCONTINUE TAXIING.

HOLD or HOLD ON (runway number, taxi-way) or HOLD (direction) OF (runwaynumber, taxi-way) or HOLD SHORT OF(runway number, taxi-way) or TAXI ON(runway number, taxi-way). TAXI TOPOSITION. TURN NOW or TURN LEFTor TURN RIGHT.

E. TRANSPONDER

To avoid causing “clutter” on controllers’ radardisplays, pilots should adjust transponders to“standby” while taxiing, and not switch them to‘on’ (or “normal”) until immediately beforetake-off. If ATC requires transponder replyimmediately after take-off, it includes theappropriate instruction in the IFR clearance.

EXAMPLE:SQUAWK CODE TWO ONE ZERO ZERO,WHEN AIRBORNE.

F. RUNWAY SELECTION

If the wind is less than 5 kts the controller mayassign the “calm wind runway”, provided thatthe wind direction and speed is clearlyindicated. A “calm wind runway” is designatedin light of operational advantages based on suchfactors as:

1/ length;2/ better approach;3/ shorter taxiing distance;4/ noise abatement procedures;5/ necessity to avoid flight over populated

areas.

4.2.5IFR CLEARANCE

A. BASIC PROCEDURES

At locations where a “clearance delivery”frequency is listed, pilots should call on this

NON-INSTRUMENT RUNWAY

TAXIWAY

INSTRUMENT RUNWAY

TAXIWAY

TAXIWAYHOLDING POSITION

MARKINGS(YELLOW LINES)

FIG. 4-5 • TAXI HOLDING POSITION

FIG. 4-6 • TRANSPONDER CONTROL UNIT

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-10

frequency before requesting taxi clearance or notmore than five minutes prior to engine start.

At locations where a “clearance delivery”frequency is not listed, ATC normally gives IFRclearance after a flight has received taxiclearance. Due to high fuel consumptionduring ground running time, some pilots maywish to obtain their IFR and taxi clearancesprior to starting engines. Pilots using thisprocedure should call the tower, using a phrasesuch as READY TO START NOW or READYTO START AT (time).

Clearances are issued in the following format:

1/ prefix (ATC CLEARS);2/ aircraft identification;3/ clearance limit;4/ SID;5/ route;6/ approved altitude (may be omitted if SID

clearance issued );7/ departure, en route, approach or holding

instructions;8/ special instructions or information;9/ traffic information.

In lieu of the specific route description, ATCmay use one of the following phrases whenspecific conditions are met:

VIA FLIGHT PLANNED ROUTE:

VIA CENTRE STORED FLIGHTPLANNED ROUTE;

VIA REQUESTED ROUTING.

The phrase WHILE IN CONTROLLEDAIRSPACE is used with the altitude when anaircraft will be entering or leaving controlledairspace.

EXAMPLE:MAINTAIN (altitude) WHILE INCONTROLLED AIRSPACE

Air Traffic Control makes every effort to permitan aircraft to proceed on course with as fewturns as possible and to climb to the assignedaltitude with as few restrictions as possible. Ifrequired for control, ATC specifies the followingitems in a departure clearance (items 7 and 8);

1/ direction of take-off and turn after take-off;2/ initial heading to be flown before

proceeding on course;3/ altitude to be maintained before continuing

climb at any assigned altitude;4/ time or point at which an altitude or

heading change is to be made;5/ any other necessary manoeuvre.

In areas where aircraft may be operatingbetween adjacent airports, ATC may clear anaircraft at the point of depar ture to thedestination airport for an approach. To permit

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FIG. 4-7 • SID PILOT NAVIGATION

IFR FLIGHT PROCEDURES

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 4-11

use of this procedure, the following conditionsmust apply:

1/ no other traffic is expected; and2/ the estimated time en route is 25 minutes

or less; or3/ the distance between the point of departure

and the destination airport is 75 NM orless.

When ATC issues clearances in this manner, thepilot may determine the altitude to bemaintained as long as the aircraft remains at orbelow the altitude specified in the clearance.

EXAMPLE:ATC CLEARS AIR NOVA ONE ZEROONE TO THE ST. JOHN’S AIRPORTFOR AN APPROACH. PROCEED VIAVICTOR THREE ONE FIVE. DO NOTCLIMB ABOVE ONE FIVETHOUSAND.

B. MACH NUMBER - CLEARANCES

Clearances to turbo-jet aircraft equipped with aMach meter may include an appropriate Machnumber. The pilot shall adhere to the Machnumber approved by ATC within a tolerance ofplus or minus decimal zero one (0.01). Thepilot must obtain ATC approval before makingany change. If an immediate temporary changein Mach numbers is necessary (e.g., due toturbulence), the pilot must notify ATC as soonas possible. When clearance includes a Machnumber, the flight should transmit its currentMach number with each position report.

C. STANDARD INSTRUMENT DEPARTURES (SID)

At certain airports an IFR departure clearancemay include a coded departure clearance knownas a standard instrument departure (SID).Standard instrument departures are published inthe Canada Air Pilot as PILOT NAVIGATIONSIDs, where the pilot is required to use the chartas reference for navigation to the en route phase;or as VECTOR SIDs, where ATC provides radarnavigational guidance to a filed/assigned routeor to a fix depicted on the chart. Fig. 4-7 andFig. 4-8 show an example of each.

Pilots of aircraft operating at airports for whichSIDs have been published receive a SID

clearance whenever appropriate. If any doubtexists as to the meaning of the clearance or thecommunications failure procedure associatedwith it, the pilot should request a detailedclearance.

In the event of communications failure, the SIDprocedures refer to the flight plan altitude.Therefore, ATC must know the flight planaltitude in case the pilot must follow thecommunications failure procedure. Pilotsfollowing a centre-stored flight plan must realizethat the only flight plan altitude which ATC isaware of is the one contained in the stored flight

FIG. 4-8 • SID-VECTOR

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-12

plan agreement. If the pilot proposes a flightplan altitude different from the centre-storedone, ATC should be advised, and confirmationobtained when requesting the ATC clearance.Thereafter, the pilot should initiate any changesin flight plan altitude when in contact with thedeparture or en route controller.

The SID normally contains a heading and analtitude to maintain after departure. The onlyreference to altitude in the initial ATC clearanceis that given in the SID. A SID is cancelledonly when ATC indicates “SID cancelled”.

When instructed to fly or maintain “runwayheading” or when flying a SID for which nospecific heading is published, pilots are expectedto fly or maintain the heading that correspondswith the extended centre line of the departurerunway until otherwise instructed by ATC.Drift correction must not be applied; e.g.Runway 04, if the actual magnetic heading ofthe runway centre line is 044°, then fly aheading of 044° M.

With the flight plan altitude incorporated in thecommunications failure procedure, there is nofurther requirement for an assigned altitude, noris it necessary to cancel the SID clearance.However, when the flight plan altitude is notavailable, ATC may cancel the SID, providedthe aircraft is assigned an operationally suitablealtitude in the event of communications failure.It is essential that the pilot fully understand eachSID and the associated communications failureprocedures before accepting a SID clearance.

Unless a lower altitude is requested by the pilot,the following are considered by ATC asoperationally suitable altitudes:

1/ piston aircraft - flight planned altitude orlower; and

2/ other aircraft - flight planned altitude oraltitude as near as possible to the flightplanned altitude taking into considerationthe aircraft’s route of flight. As a guidelinean altitude not more than 4,000 ft. belowthe flight planned flight level in the highlevel structure will be considered asoperationally suitable in most cases.

D. NOISE ABATEMENT PROCEDURES

Pilots must adhere to the associated noiseabatement procedures published in CAP.Normally, ATC issues radar vectors, but theycommence only after the pilot completes thenoise abatement procedure. A controller willnot issue a clearance or approve a request thatwould cause a deviation from established noiseabatement procedures, except for reasons ofsafety. Noise abatement procedures A and B forturbo-jet aircraft are depicted in Fig. 4-9A and4-9B. Further details are available in AIP RAC.

E. CLEARANCE READ-BACK

The IFR clearance received by a pilot must beread back to the controller. The traffic

information inserted at the end of the clearance,however, may be acknowledged by the phrase

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accelerate smoothly to en route climb

Climb at VZF + 20 KT

Accelerate to VZF

Takeoff powerV2 + 10 to 20 KT not to scale

PRODCEDURE B

3 000 feet

2 000 feet

1 000 feet

Runway

Reduce to climb power

Retract flap on schedule

FIG. 4-9B • NOISE ABATEMENT PROCEDURE B

Flap retraction and acceleratesmoothly to en route climb

Climb at V2 + 10 to 20 KT

Reduce to climb power

Takeoff powerV2 + 10 to 20 KT

not to scale

PRODCEDURE A

3 000 feet

2 000 feet

1 500 feet

1 000 feet

Runway

FIG. 4-9A • NOISE ABATEMENT PROCEDURE A

IFR FLIGHT PROCEDURES

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 4-13

TRAFFIC RECEIVED. Read-back of the SIDportion of a clearance should consist ofrepeating the name of the SID, rather thanrepeating the detailed SID as published. If theclearance read-back is incorrect, the pilot isadvised and the correct data transmitted againto the pilot. These corrections must also berepeated by the pilot to ensure that they havebeen correctly received. Where publishedNorth Atlantic Routes are used, only the NARnumber is required in the read-back.

Where radar is available, controllers provideappropriate vectors to allow climb to cruisingaltitude with the least possible delay. Whenvector headings have been assigned by ATC,pilots shall read back the headings to thecontroller.

F. VFR RELEASE OF AN IFR AIRCRAFT

Before departing under visual conditions on anIFR flight plan, the pilot must receive priorpermission from the ATC centre (through FSS,control tower or direct controller-pilotcommunications (DCPC)) and request an IFRclearance in the air. Air Traffic Control mayapprove an IFR aircraft’s request to depart andmaintain VFR until it receives an IFR clearance,with the restriction to maintain VFR until atime, altitude, or location at which time an IFRclearance can be expected. (I f the VFRrestriction specifies a time or a location, thepilot must not enter Class A or B airspace).

G. TAKE-OFF CLEARANCE

When ready for take-off the pilot should requesttake-off clearance, stating the runway. Uponreceipt of take-off clearance, the pilot shallacknowledge and take off without delay, orinform ATC if unable to do so.

EXAMPLE:PILOT: WINNIPEG TOWER YANKEEFOXTROT PAPA REQUEST TAKE-OFFRUNWAY THREE SIX

TOWER: YFP WINNIPEG TOWER (anyspecial information - hazards, obstructions,etc.) CLEARED FOR TAKE-OFF (controlinstructions - turn after take-off, windinformation if required, etc.)

PILOT: YANKEE FOXTROT PAPA

A pilot may request to use the full length of therunway for take-off at any time. However, if thepilot has not begun an intersection take-off andrequires back-tracking on the live runway, thepilot shall indicate intentions and obtain aclearance for the manoeuvre before entering therunway.

A pilot may request, or the controller maysuggest, take-off using only part of a runway. AirTraffic Control approves the pilot’s request aslong as noise abatement procedures, traffic andother conditions permit. If the controllersuggests the manoeuvre, he or she states theavailable length of the runway. The pilot mustensure that the portion of the runway to be usedwill be adequate for the take-off run.

To expedite movement of airport traffic andachieve spacing between arriving and departingaircraft, take-off clearance may include the word“immediate”. On acceptance of the clearance,the aircraft shall taxi onto the runway and takeoff in one continuous movement. If the pilotjudges that compliance would adversely affectthe operation, the clearance should not beaccepted. Pilots planning a static take-off (i.e., afull stop in “position” on the runway) or a delayin take-off should indicate this when requestingtake-off clearance.

To expedite an aircraft departure the controllermay suggest a take-off direction other than intowind. The pilot must decide whether to:

1/ make the take-off;2/ wait for take-off into wind; or3/ request take-off in another direction.

For an IFR flight, the initial call to DepartureControl should contain the following minimuminformation:

1/ call sign;2/ runway of departure;3/ passing altitude (nearest 100 ft); and4/ assigned (SID) altitude.

4.2.6TAKE-OFF CRITERIA AND MINIMA

A. TAKE OFF MINIMA

Take-off minima, as prescribed in the Air

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-14

Regulations, are based on specified visibility forthe departure runway and are published onindividual aerodrome charts in the CAP. Thestandard take-off minimum visibility is RVR 26or 1/2 SM. At airports where obstacles in thetake-off path do not allow standard take-offminima, specified minima and depar tureprocedures are published on the aerodromechart. The criteria for determining take-offminima follows.

B. TAKE OFF CRITERIA

The minimum climb gradient after take-off isbased on the aircraft crossing the departure endof the runway at 35 feet AGL, climbing at 200feet per nautical mile and climbing to 400 feetabove airport elevation (AAE) before turning (inany direction), unless otherwise specified in theprocedure. A slope of 152 feet per mile, startingno higher then 35 feet above the departure endof the runway, is assessed for obstacles. Aminimum of 48 feet of obstacle clearance isprovided for each mile of flight.

If no obstacles penetrate the 152 feet per mileslope, specific IFR departure procedures are notpublished and the take-off minimum is visibilityof 1/2 SM. If obstacles penetrate the slope,obstacle avoidance procedures are specified (seeFig. 4-7). These procedures may prescribe:

1/ a visual climb to allow the obstacles to beseen;

2/ a climb gradient greater than 200 feet perNM to overfly the obstacle;

3/ a detailed departure route to stay clear of theobstacles; or

4/ a combination of the above.

If aircraft performance allows the use ofprescribed routings and/or prescribed climbgradients, then a take-off visibility of 1/2 SM isauthorized. However, if visual manoeuvring isthe primary requirement for obstacle avoidance,then specified take-off minimum visibilities willbe used. These visibilities are determined by theaircraft speed in the climb which will place theaircraft in a certain category (see Article 4.6.2for categories and speeds). Essentially, the pilotis responsible for avoiding obstacles in thedeparture path until the aircraft reaches a safealtitude such as the minimum obstructionclearance altitude (MOCA) on an airway.

Therefore, each pilot prior to departing anairport on an IFR flight should consider theaircraft performance and the type of terrain andother obstacles on or in the vicinity of thedeparture airport and:

1/ determine whether a departure procedure orSID is available for obstacle avoidance;

2/ determine if obstacle avoidance can bemaintained visually or that the departureprocedure should be followed; and

3/ determine what action will be necessary andtake such action that will ensure a safedeparture.

Departures from runways which require the useof an instrument departure procedure orspecified take-off minima will be asterisked (*)in the take-off minima block on the aerodromechart in CAP. If a departure has not yet beenassessed by Transport Canada, the term“standard” (STD) or "unassessed" is used. Inthis case, the pilot must determine a safedeparture procedure using minimum IFRaltitudes, visual climb, missed approachprocedures, topographical maps and localknowledge.

C. OBSTACLE AND TERRAIN CLEARANCE

Civil and military ATC procedures do notrequire the air traffic controller to provideterrain and obstacle clearance in their departureinstructions. Terms such as “ON DEPARTURE,RIGHT TURN CLIMB ON COURSE” or “ON

DEPARTURE LEFT TURN ON COURSE” are not tobe considered specific departure instructions. Itremains the pilot’s responsibility to ensure thatterrain and obstacle clearance has been achieved.

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EN ROUTE PROCEDURES

4.3.1POSITION REPORTS

Pilots of IFR and controlled VFR flights whichare not radar identified must make positionreports over compulsory reporting pointsportrayed on the terminal and en route charts,and over any other reporting points specified byATC. Normally, aircraft operating in the high-level airspace are not requested to report over areporting point that is not depicted on a high-level en route chart.

Reporting points are indicated by a symbol onthe appropriate charts. The “designatedcompulsory” reporting point is a solid triangleand the “on request” reporting point symbol isan open triangle. Reports passing an “onrequest” reporting point are only necessary whenrequested by ATC. Therefore, no mention of an“on request” reporting point need be made inany position report unless it has been requestedby ATC. For wrong way altitudes, positionreports are required at all reporting points, evenwhen radar identified.

En route IFR flights should establish directcontroller-pilot communications (DCPC)wherever possible. Peripheral (PAL)transmitter-receiver sites have been establishedat a number of locations to extend thecommunication coverage. While DCPCprovides direct contact with the IFR unit, atlocations without a control tower but with an

FSS, pilots must also communicate with theFSS for local traffic information.

Whenever DCPC cannot be established, pilotsshould make position reports to ATC throughthe nearest communications agency along theroute of flight. When the pilot-in-command ofan IFR aircraft is informed that the aircraft hasbeen RADAR IDENTIFIED, position reportsover compulsory reporting points are no longerrequired. Pilots will be informed when toresume normal position reporting.

So that flight information and alerting servicecan be provided to all IFR flights outsidecontrolled airspace, pilots should make positionreports over all NAVAIDS along the route offlight to the nearest station having air/groundcommunications capability.

4.3.2ALTITUDE

A. GENERAL

Pilots must determine and maintain therequired obstacle clearance altitude as prescribedin the Air Regulations.

Within controlled airspace, ATC is notpermitted to approve or assign any IFR altitudebelow the “minimum IFR altitude”, the lowestIFR altitude established in a specific airspace.Depending on the airspace concerned, this maybe the:

1/ minimum en route altitude (MEA);2/ minimum obstruction clearance altitude

(MOCA);

IFR FLIGHT PROCEDURES

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 4-15

4.3

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MEA 6,000MEA 6,000

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MEA 4,000MEA 4,000

FIG. 4-10 • CHANGES TO EN ROUTE MINIMUM ALTITUDES

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-16

3/ geographic area safe altitude (GASA);4/ minimum sector altitude (MSA);5/ safe altitude 100 NM; or the6/ minimum vectoring altitude.

When operating at an altitude below the MEAfor a subsequent portion of the route, the pilotmust obtain clearance in sufficient time toenable the aircraft to cross the fix at or above theminimum altitude established beyond the fix(Fig. 4-10).

Descent below the minimum IFR altitude of aroute segment must not occur until “fix passage”into a segment with a lower minimum IFRaltitude (Fig. 4-10).

On an airway, ATC may approve altitudes belowthe MEA, but not below the MOCA, when thepilot of an IFR flight requests them in theinterest of flight safety (e.g. due to icingconditions). Pilots should realize that below theMEA, signal coverage required to navigate withinthe airspace protected for the route may not beadequate. This could result in conflict withadjacent air traffic or loss of terrain clearance.

B. MINIMUM IFR ALTITUDES

Minimum en route altitudes (MEAs) areestablished for all designated low-level airwaysand air routes in Canada, and are shown on theLow Altitude En route charts. Minimum enroute altitudes are also established for certainhigh-level airways and are shown on the HighAltitude En route charts.

Under conditions of standard temperature andpressure, the minimum obstruction clearancealtitude (MOCA), in non-mountainous regions,provides 1,000 ft clearance above all obstacleslying within the lateral limits of an airway or airroute segment.

Where the MOCA is lower than the MEA, theMOCA is also published on the en route charts.Where the MEA and MOCA are the same, onlythe MEA is published.

The MOCA (or the MEA when the MOCA isnot published) is the lowest altitude for theairway or air route segment at which an IFRflight may be conducted under anycircumstance. This altitude is provided so that

pilots are readily aware of the lowest safealtitude that could be used in an emergencysuch as a malfunctioning engine or icingconditions.

The minimum reception altitude (MRA) may bepublished at intersections on the en route chartswhen the MRA for a VHF/UHF intersection ishigher than the MEA for the segment of theairway on which the intersection is located.

The Geographic Area Safe Altitude (GASA) hasthe purpose of indicating on en route charts asafe altitude at which an aircraft can operate andmaintain a 2,000 ft. clearance over knownobstacles and terrain within the delineatedgeographic area. On southern charts, thegeographic area is 2° of latitude by 4° oflongitude and on northern charts is 2° oflatitude and 8° of longitude.

The 100 NM safe altitude is published onapproach plates to indicate the altitude which is1,000 ft above the highest obstacles within 100NM of the aerodrome.

The minimum sector altitude (MSA) is depictedon the approach plate and is based on a 25 NMcircle from the indicated navaid. It provides1,000 ft above the highest obstacle within thevarious sectors.

The transition altitude is published oninstrument approach plates to provide a 1,000feet obstacle clearance on a transition to anapproach facility.

The minimum vectoring altitude is used by ATCto determine minimum vectoring altitudeswithin various sectors on the radar screen.These altitudes are adjusted for colder thannormal temperatures in the winter months.

C. ALTITUDES IN DESIGNATED MOUNTAINOUS

REGIONS

Pilots shall conduct IFR flights withindesignated mountainous regions (Fig. 4-11),when outside of designated airways and airroutes, at an altitude at least 2,000 ft above thehighest obstacle within 5 NM of the aircraftover the Western Cordillera and Arctic Islandsmountainous regions. Over the mountainousregions of Quebec and the Maritime Provinces,it is 1,500 ft above the highest obstacle.

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 4-17

On designated airways and air routes, pilotsmay operate IFR flights at the publishedMEA/MOCA; however, in winter, when airtemperatures may be much lower than those ofthe ICAO Standard Atmosphere (ISA), theyshould operate at altitudes at least 1,000 fthigher than the published MEA/MOCA.

CAUTION:The combination of extremely lowtemperatures and the effect of mountainwaves may cause an altimeter over-reading byas much as 3,000 ft. For further details, referto “Major Errors of the Pressure Altimeter”,published in AIP Canada.

D. ALTITUDE REPORTS

Pilots shall report reaching the altitude to whichthe flight has been initially cleared. Whenclimbing or descending en route, pilots shallreport when leaving a previously assignedaltitude and when reaching the assigned altitude.

On initial contact with ATC or when changingfrom one ATC frequency to another, pilotsshould state the assigned cruising altitude and,when applicable, the altitude through which theaircraft is climbing or descending to the nearest100 feet to verify the Mode C readout.

EXAMPLE:MONTREAL DEPARTURE, CANADIAN775 OFF RUNWAY 28, THROUGH1,500 CLIMBING TO 5,000.

EDMONTON CENTRE, AIR CANADA801 HEAVY, 8,000 CLIMBING TOFLIGHT LEVEL 350.

Air Traffic Control may request verification ofaltitude if the pilot does not report it on initialcontact. On departure, stating passing altitudeallows the controller to verify Mode C operationand thus provide more efficient service.

4.3.3CLIMB OR DESCENT

A. GENERAL

When an aircraft reports vacating an altitude,ATC may assign the altitude to another aircraft.

In all cases, ATC expects that a climb or descentshall be at the optimum rate and proceedwithout interruption. If a pilot must level off oradjust to a slow climb or descent, the pilot mustadvise ATC. The minimum descent rate isconsidered to be at least 500 feet per minute(fpm) for piston aircraft and 1,000 fpm forturbine aircraft.

If a descending aircraft must level off at 10,000ft to comply with aircraft speed limits whilecleared to a lower altitude, the pilot must receiveclearance from ATC for this interruption of thenormal descent rate.

B. VFR CLIMB AND DESCENT

Air Traffic Control clears IFR aircraft for a VFRclimb or descent only if a pilot requests it.During a VFR altitude change, pilots mustprovide their own separation from all otheraircraft.

VFR altitude changes for IFR aircraft withinClass A or B airspace are not permitted.

120° 100° 80° 60°

160°180°

160°

120°

140°100° 60°

80°40°

20°

0°20

°

GREENLAND

PACIFICOCEAN

ATLANTIC OCEANHudson

Bay

ARCTICOCEAN

EUROPE

UNITED STATESUNITED STATESUNITED STATES

CANADA

Resolute Bay

.. .

.Ottawa

St. John'sSt. John'sSt. John's

..

.

Regina

Thunder Bay

.Ivujivik.

QuebecQuebecMontrealMontreal

QuebecQuebecMontrealMontreal .

...

NitchequonNitchequon

RobervalRoberval

Granby

CampbelltonCampbellton

QuébecMontréal

Nitchequon

RobervalChathamChathamChathamChatham

.Kuujjuaq

.Winnipeg

Designated Mountainous Regions

Churchill

Medicine Hat

ICELAND

UpperHay River

2

3

4

5

5

WhitehorseWhitehorse

CalgaryCalgary

1

.AklavikAklavikAklavikAklavik

Whitehorse

EdmontonCalgary

AklavikPondPondInletInletPondInlet

AlertAlertAlert

TorontoTorontoToronto

...

...

... ......

...

...

...

...

......

... ...

......

......

...

5

5

5

80°80°

BYLOT ISLAND BYLOT ISLAND

DEVON ISLANDDEVON ISLAND

AXELAXELHEIBERGHEIBERGISLANDISLAND

BAFFINBAFFIN

ISLANDISLANDISLAND

ELLESMERE ISLAND ELLESMERE ISLAND ELLESMERE ISLAND

BYLOT ISLAND

DEVON ISLAND

AXELHEIBERGISLAND

BAFFIN

IqaluitIqaluitIqaluit

HalifaxHalifax

WrigleyWrigley

YellowknifeYellowknife

Wrigley

Yellowknife

InuvikInuvikInuvik

40°

50°

60°

70°

40°

50°

60°

Areas and 2 000 feet

Areas , and 1 500 feet

Elsewhere in Canada 1 000 feet

70°

1 5

2 3 4

BRITISHBRITISHCOLUMBIACOLUMBIA

ALBERTAALBERTAALBERTA

YUKONYUKONTERRITORYTERRITORY

NORTHWEST TERRITORIESNORTHWEST TERRITORIESNORTHWEST TERRITORIES

SASKATCHEWANSASKATCHEWANMANITOBAMANITOBA

ONTARIOONTARIO QUEBECQUEBEC

NEWFOUNDLAND

NEWFOUNDLAND

NOVA SCOTIANOVA SCOTIA

N.B.N.B.N.B.P.E.I.P.E.I.

Campbellton

ChathamHalifax

P.E.I.

BRITISHCOLUMBIA

YUKONTERRITORY

SASKATCHEWANMANITOBA

ONTARIO QUEBEC

NEWFOUNDLAND

NOVA SCOTIA

For actual boundary co-ordinates refer For actual boundary co-ordinates refer to the Designated Airspace Handbook to the Designated Airspace Handbook TP 1820E.TP 1820E.

NOTE:NOTE:For actual boundary co-ordinates refer to the Designated Airspace Handbook TP 1820E.

NOTE:

FrederictonFrederictonFredericton

ALAS

KA

ALAS

KACAN

ADA

CANAD

A

ALAS

KACAN

ADA

VancouverVancouverVancouver

FIG. 4-11 • DESIGNATED MOUNTAINOUS REGIONS

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-18

4.3.4IFR FORMATION FLIGHTS

When civil aircraft are involved with IFRformation flight, ATC will provide for increasedlateral separation. The formation leader mustliaise closely with the appropriate ATC unit.

4.3.5ONE-THOUSAND-ON-TOP

On the pilot’s request, ATC may authorize “atleast 1,000 on top” IFR flight provided that:

1/ the altitude being maintained is a least1,000 ft above all cloud, haze, smoke orother formations;

2/ the flight visibility above the cloudformation is at least three miles;

3/ the top of the cloud formation is welldefined;

4/ the altitude appropriate to the direction offlight is maintained when cruising in levelflight;

5/ the aircraft will operate within Class C or Dairspace.

“At least 1,000 on top” is not permitted in ClassA or B airspace, nor below the applicableminimum IFR altitude. The pilot mustmaintain adequate separation from all otheraircraft.

4.3.6CLEARANCE LIMIT

The clearance limit, as specified in an ATCclearance, is the point to which an aircraft iscleared. Normally, ATC delivers furtherclearance to a flight before it arrives at theclearance limit. Occasions may arise, however,when this may not be possible.

If further clearance is not received, the pilot shallhold at the clearance limit on the inboundtrack, maintaining the last assigned altitude, andrequest further clearance. For example, if aflight approaches a fix on a track of 090°,holding should be accomplished at the fix on aninbound track of 090°. If the pilot cannotestablish communication with ATC, they thenshould proceed according to communications

failure procedures found in the CFS.

Pilots must determine whether or not they cancomply with a clearance in case of acommunication failure. If they are any doubts,the clearance may be refused but acceptablealternatives should be specified.

The procedures for clearance limits also apply toaltitude restrictions. For instance, if the pilot iscleared to cross a fix at 10,000 ft. and owing tounforeseen circumstances (wind or OATchanges) is unable to make the restriction, he orshe should advise ATC and request furtherinstructions. If unable to contact ATC, a holdshould be initiated in the climb or descent,using the standard holding speeds, until therestriction is made. At that time the flight cancontinue en route.

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 4-19

HOLDING PROCEDURES

4.4.1GENERAL

Pilots must adhere to the aircraft entry andholding manoeuvres, as described, because ATCprovides lateral separation in the form of"airspace to be protected" in relation to theholding procedure.

4.4.2HOLDING CLEARANCE

A holding clearance issued by ATC includes atleast the:

1/ clearance to the holding fix (holding fixmay be described by a facility such as anNDB, VOR or a radial/DME);

2/ direction to hold from the holding fix, i.e.north, south, etc. (not included in DMEhold clearance);

3/ a specified radial, course, or inbound trackunless the holding pattern is published;

4/ the DME distance (if DME is used) atwhich the "fix end" and "outbound end"turns are to be commenced, e.g. HOLDBETWEEN (number of miles) AND(number of miles);

5/ time to expect further clearance, time toexpect approach clearance, or time to leavethe fix in the event of communicationsfailure.

A standard right hand pattern is implied in theholding clearance and shall be flown unless"LEFT TURNS" are specified.

NOTES:1. An "expect further clearance time" usually is

followed by further clearance, or an "expectapproach clearance time" when trafficconditions permit.

2. If the "outbound end" DME is omitted, thepilot is expected to hold at the "fix end" DMEusing the appropriate timing.

Air Traffic Control does not use any of thefollowing as a holding fix:

1/ an unmonitored NAVAID;2/ a DME fix located within the cone of

ambiguity (when holding away from theNAVAID, the entire holding cone ofambiguity);

3/ an intersection formed by radials or coursesthat cross at an angle of less than 45°; or

4/ an intersection formed by one or more ADFbearings from LF/MF NAVAIDs.

During entry and holding, pilots shall make allturns to achieve an average bank angle of at least25° or a rate one turn of 3°/sec, whicheverrequires the lesser bank, adjusted for wind.Unless the ATC clearances contain instructionsto the contrary, pilots shall make all turns to theright, after initial entry into the holding pattern.

Occasionally, a pilot may reach a clearance limitbefore obtaining further clearance from ATC. Inthis event, the pilot should slow to below themaximum holding speed (if required) and enter astandard holding pattern on the inbound track tothe clearance limit and request further assistance.

EXAMPLE 1:A westbound flight on Golf 1, cleared toMoncton (QM) NDB reaches QM beforeobtaining further clearance. The pilot is to holdat QM on an inbound track of 287° and requestfurther clearance.

EXAMPLE 2:The published missed approach procedure foran ILS RWY 24 approach at Halifax is:

CLIMB TO 2200 FEET ON TRACK OF 236°

4.4

OUTBOUND

INBOUND

FIX END

HOLDING SIDE

FIX NON-HOLDING SIDE

OUTBOUND END

ABEAM

FIG. 4-12 • STANDARD HOLDING PATTERN

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-20

TO GOLF NDB. A pilot missing an ILSapproach to RWY 24, and not in receipt offurther clearance is to proceed directly to theGOLF NDB, execute a direct entry procedure(right turn), and hold at the GOLF beacon onan inbound track of 236°, one minute pattern at2200 ft and request further clearance.

If for any reason a pilot is unable to conform tothese procedures, the pilot should advise ATC asearly as possible.

4.4.3STANDARD HOLDING PATTERN

A standard holding pattern is depicted in Fig.4-12 and described below for still airconditions.

a/ Having entered the holding pattern, onthe second and subsequent arrivals overthe fix, the pilot executes a right turn tofly an outbound track that positions theaircraft most appropriately for the turnonto the inbound track.

b/ Continue outbound for one minute if ator below 14,000 ft ASL or 1 1/2 minutesif above 14,000 ft ASL. (ATC specifiesdistance, not time, on a DME hold).

c/ Turn right so as to realign the aircraft onthe inbound track. When holding at aVOR, pilots should begin the turn to theoutbound leg at the time of stationpassage as indicated on the TO-FROMindicator.

A controller may approve a pilot’s request todeviate from a standard holding procedureprovided that the additional airspace isprotected. If the pilot has to hold for asubstantial length of time (usually in a non-radar environment) because of other aircraft onapproach, ATC may be able to extend the pilot’sleg lengths substantially to give the pilot moretime to calculate fuel conditions, check alternateairport weather, etc.

4.4.4ENTRY PROCEDURES

The pilot shall enter a holding pattern accordingto the aircraft’s heading in relation to the threesectors shown in Fig. 4-13, recognizing a zone

of flexibility of 5° on either side of the sectorboundaries. For holding on VOR Intersectionsor VOR/DME fixes, entries are limited to theradials or DME arcs forming the fix asappropriate.

Sector 1 procedures (PARALLEL ENTRY) are:

a/ Upon reaching the fix, turn onto theoutbound heading of the holding patternfor the appropriate period of time.

b/ Turn left to intercept the inbound track orto return directly to the fix.

c/ On the second arrival over the fix, turnright and follow the holding pattern.

Sector 2 procedures (OFFSET ENTRY) are:

a/ Upon reaching the fix, turn to a headingthat results in a track having an angle of 30°or less from the inbound track reciprocal onthe holding side.

b/ Continue for the appropriate period oftime, then turn right to intercept theinbound track and follow the holdingpattern.

Sector 3 procedure (DIRECT ENTRY) is:

Upon reaching the fix, turn right and follow theholding pattern.

When crossing the fix to enter a holdingpattern, the appropriate ATC unit shall beadvised "ENTERING THE HOLD." ATCMAY ALSO REQUEST that the pilot report"ESTABLISHED IN THE HOLD". The pilotis to report "established" (if requested) onlywhen crossing the fix after having completed theentry procedure.

4.4.5NON-STANDARD HOLDING PATTERN

A non-standard pattern is one in which:

a/ the fix end and outbound end turns are tothe left; and/or

b/ the planned time along the inbound track,is other than the standard 1 minute or 1 1/2minute leg appropriate for the altitudeflown.

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 4-21

Entry procedures to a non-standard patternrequiring left turns are oriented in relation tothe 70° line on the holding side (Fig. 4-14),just as in the standard pattern.

4.4.6TIMING

The still air time for flying the initial outboundleg of a holding pattern should normally be oneminute if at or below 14,000 ft, or 1 1/2 minutesif above 14,000 ft ASL. However, the pilotshould make due allowance in both heading andtiming to compensate for known wind effect.

After initial circuit of the pattern, timing shouldbegin abeam the fix or on attaining theoutbound heading, whichever occurs later. Thepilot should increase or decrease outboundtimes, in recognition of winds, to effect 1 or 11/2 minutes (appropriate to altitude) inbound tothe fix.

When the pilot receives ATC clearancespecifying the time of departure from theholding point, the flight pattern should beadjusted within the limits of the establishedholding pattern to leave the fix as near aspossible to the time specified (keeping in mindthat a rate 1 turn takes 2 minutes to complete a360° turn).

4.4.7SPEED LIMITATIONS

Pilots must enter and fly holding patterns at orbelow the following airspeeds:

a/ Propeller-driven aircraft 175 kts IAS b/ Turbo-jet aircraft

1/ up to 14,000 ft, inclusive 230 kts IAS2/ above 14,000 ft 265 kts IAS

c/ Turbo-prop aircraft may operate at normalclimb IAS while climbing in a holdingpattern. Turbo-jet aircraft may operate at310 kts IAS or less while climbing in aholding pattern.

Pilots must advise ATC immediately if airspeedsgreater than those specified above becomenecessary for any reason, including turbulence,or if the pilots are unable to accomplish any part

of the holding procedure.When this higher speed is nolonger necessary, pilots shouldagain operate their aircraft atthe specified airspeeds, andnotify ATC.

NOTES:1. Airspace protection for

turbulent air holding isbased on a maximum of280 kts IAS or Mach .8,whichever is lower. Adverseimpact on the flow of airtraffic may result whenaircraft hold at speeds higher than these.

2. Consult NOTAM or AIP for any changes inmaximum holding speeds.At the time of going toprint, a temporary changeto maximum holding speedswas in effect via NOTAMas follows: i/ up to 6,000 ft.

inclusive - 200 kts;ii/ above 6,000 ft. to

14,000 ft. inclusive -210 kts.

After departing a holding fix,pilots should resume normalspeed , subject to otherrequirements such as speedlimitations in the vicinity of controlled airportsand specific ATS requests.

30°

70°

70°

1

23

3

INBOUNDTRACK

Parallel entryOffset entryDirect entry

2

1

3

FIG. 4-13 • HOLD ENTRY SECTORS

30°

70°

70°

FIG. 4-14 • LEFT HAND PATTERN ENTRY

DME FIX

270°

15 NM

END OF OUTBOUND LEG

10 NM

NAVIGATION AID

FIG. 4-15 • DME HOLDING PROCEDURE

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4.4.8DME HOLDING PROCEDURES

Distance Measuring Equipment holding issubject to the same entry and holdingprocedures previously described except thatdistances, in nautical miles, are used instead oftime values.

In describing the direction from the fix onwhich to hold and the limits of a DME holdingpattern, the ATC clearance specifies the DMEdistance from the NAVAID at which theinbound and outbound legs are to bedetermined. The end of each leg is determinedby the DME indications.

EXAMPLE:An aircraft cleared to the 270 RADIAL 10MILE DME FIX, to HOLD BETWEEN 10AND 15 MILES, shall hold inbound on the270° radial (Fig. 4-15), commence the turn tothe outbound leg when the DME Indicates 10NM and commence the turn to inbound legwhen the DME indicates 15 NM.

4.4.9SHUTTLE PROCEDURE

A shuttle procedure is defined as a manoeuvreinvolving a descent or climb in a holdingpattern. In the approach phase, it is normallyprescribed where a descent of more than 2,000ft. is required during the initial or intermediateapproach segments. It can also be requiredwhen performing a missed approach ordeparture procedure from certain airports. Ashuttle procedure shall be executed in theholding pattern as published unless instructionscontained in an ATC clearance direct otherwise.

4.4.10HOLDING PATTERNS DEPICTED ON EN ROUTEAND TERMINAL CHARTS

At some high traffic density areas holdingpatterns are depicted on IFR terminal area anden route charts. (Fig. 4-16). When pilots arecleared to hold at a fix where a holding patternis published, or if clearance beyond the fix hasnot yet been received, pilots are to hold inaccordance with the depicted pattern using

normal entry procedures andtiming. ATC will use thefollowing phraseology whenclearing an aircraft to hold at afix which has a depictedholding pattern:

CLEARED to the (fix),HOLD AS PUBLISHED.EXPECT FURTHERCLEARANCE AT (time)

If a pilot is instructed to departa fix which has a publishedhold, at a specified time, the pilot has theoption to:

a/ proceed to the fix, then hold until the"depart fix" time specified; or

b/ reduce speed to make good the "depart fix"time; or

c/ a combination of (a) and (b).

NOTE:The holding direction means the area in which thehold is to be completed in relation to the holdingfix, e.g., North East, North West etc. If therequired pattern is different than that depicted, adetailed holding instruction will be issued by ATC.

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-22

FIG. 4-16 • PUBLISHED HOLDING PATTERNS

ARRIVAL PROCEDURES

4.5.1DESCENT PLANNING

A. INTRODUCTION

Except where standard terminal arrival routes(STARs) or profile descents are published, pilotsmust plan their own descent profiles, even whenunder radar control. As a rule pilots are clearedfor descent in plenty of time to reach theappropriate minimum IFR altitude for thesegment, or the altitude assigned by ATC.Pilots should obtain ATIS or operationalinformation from FSS or Ground Control asearly as possible in order to plan the descent.

Occasionally, in busy terminal areas, the aircraftmay have to be kept at an intermediate altitudedue to traffic below. When this happens, thepilot may be faced with a considerable descent(e.g., 3,000 ft) over a fairly short distance. Thepilot should keep a clear mental picture ofwhere the aircraft is in the approach sequence,so as to begin descent as soon as cleared to alower altitude. It is far better to reduce verticalspeed towards the end of the descent than toincrease it as the aircraft intercepts the finalapproach track.

Standard terminal arrival routes are published inthe Canada Air Pilot for some major airports. ASTAR, as used in Canada, is roughly similar to aSID in that it is an ATC clearance to proceedunder certain conditions, and is referred to byname. (See Fig. 4-18). It provides a transitionfrom en route to the terminal radar vectorenvironment, and includes routing and speedand altitude restrictions that otherwise would bespelled out word for word. Profile Descentcharts depicting procedures with altitude andspeed restrictions may be published at somebusy terminals. Fig. 4-19 is an example.

B. ARRIVAL FIXES

1. TERMINAL AREA FIXES - GENERAL: Terminalarea fixes and points include, but are notlimited to, the Initial Approach Fix (IAF),Intermediate Fix (IF) the Final ApproachCourse Fix (FACF), the Final Approach Fix

(FAF), glide path interception point, andthe holding fix.

2. FIXES FORMED BY INTERSECTION: Because allnavigational facilities have accuracylimitations, the identified geographic pointmay be anywhere within an area (the fixtolerance area) that surrounds its plottedpoint of intersection. Fig. 4-17 illustratesthe intersection of two radials or tracksfrom different navigation facilities.

3. FIX TOLERANCE FACTORS: The dimensions ofthe fix tolerance area are determined by theaccuracy of the navigational system thatsupplies the information. The factors thatdetermine the accuracy of a system are:ground station tolerance; airborne receivingsystem tolerance; pilot tolerance; anddistance from the facility. There is adifference between the over-all tolerance ofthe intersecting facility and along-trackfacility. This is because pilot tolerance isnot applied to the former. The followingvalues are used in the development ofinstrument approach procedures.

FIX TOLERANCES:

DME: +0.25 NM plus 1.25% of the distance tothe antenna, whichever is greater (Slant rangecorrection is taken into account beforeapplication of fix tolerance).

VHF MARKER BEACONS ILS MARKERS

±1.0 NM ±0.5 NM

The point of printing all these values is to showthat all navigational aids have plus or minustolerances. If the pilot wants to remain withinthe confines of an airway, for example, he or shemust attempt to fly along the centre of theairway.

IFR FLIGHT PROCEDURES

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 4-23

VOR RADIALALONG TRACK ± 4.5°INTERSECTING ± 3.6°

ILS FRONT COURSELOCALIZERALONG TRACK ± 1.0°INTERSECTING ± 0.5°

ADF BEARINGALONG TRACK ± 5.0°INTERSECTING ± 5.0°

ILS BACK COURSELOCALIZERALONG TRACK ± 5.0°INTERSECTING ± 5.0°

4.5

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-24

4.5.2STANDARD TERMINAL ARRIVAL ROUTE (STAR)

To simplify clearance procedures, coded STARshave been designated at some airports andpublished in the CAP. STARs provide for asmooth transition between the en route andapproach phase. Fig. 4-18 shows a STAR forCalgary. If any doubt exists as to the meaningof the STAR, a detailed clearance should berequested.

4.5.3PROFILE DESCENTS

A. GENERAL

Profile descent procedures permit arrivingaircraft to conduct an uninterrupted descentfrom cruising altitude or flight level toward theairport. Such procedures improve ATC systemefficiency, reduce frequency congestion in theterminal area, and provide fuel economies forusers through adherence to standardized crossingaltitudes and airspeeds. Fig. 4-19 shows aprofile descent for Toronto.

Profile descent procedures contain verticalnavigation instruction. However, to provideATC with the routing flexibility required fortraffic spacing and sequencing in high densityterminal areas, profile descents may notnecessarily have a depicted route. In such cases,the required routing will be provided by ATC atthe time the profile descent clearance is issued(usually the STAR). ATC will be providingradar vectors to the final approach course from alocation depicted on the chart.

Once issued, a profile descent constitutes anATC clearance. Acceptance of the clearance bythe pilot (e.g. CLEARED PROFILE DESCENTRWY 24 VIA DIRECT TORONTO VOR)requires the pilot to adhere to all instructionsdepicted on the profile descent chart. However,no pilot is required to accept a profile descentclearance. A detailed clearance should berequested if any doubt exists as to the meaning.

Prior to transitioning from the en route portionof the flight to the arrival phase, ATC will clearthe aircraft for the procedure:

"ALPHA BRAVO CHARLIE CLEAREDPROFILE DESCENT RWY 24."

Profile descent clearances are subject to trafficconditions and may be cancelled or revised asnecessary by ATC.

B. ATC REVISIONS

Any ATC revisions to depicted altitudes cancels allof the remaining portion of the chartedprocedure. ATC will then issue necessaryaltitude and speed restrictions. For example, adepicted restriction specifies to "cross 25 DMEat and maintain 9,000 ft. at 250 KT". ATCrevises the altitude to 7,000 ft. at a point priorto 25 DME:

"ALPHA BRAVO CHARLIE MAINTAIN7,000 FT. CROSS 25 DME AT OR BELOW9,000 FT. AT 250 KT".

A controller revision of depicted speed instructionvoids all charted speed instructions. However,charted altitude instructions are not affected by aspeed revision. ATC shall be advised if a pilotcannot comply with the charted altitudeinstructions due to a revised speed.

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ROC

ROC

MDA when step-downfix not received

Step-downfix

MDA

Obstacle clearance plane

FAF

Area considered for obstacle clearance

Earliest point fix received

FIG. 4-17 • FIXED FORMED BY INTERSECTION OF TWO RADIALS

IFR FLIGHT PROCEDURES

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 4-25

A profile descent clearance does not constituteauthorization to fly an instrument approachprocedure. The last "maintain (altitude)"specified in the profile descent procedureconstitutes the last ATC assigned altitude, andthe pilot must maintain such altitude untilcleared for an approach unless another altitudeis assigned by ATC.

4.5.4ADVANCE NOTICE OF INTENT IN MINIMUMWEATHER CONDITIONS

ATC can handle missed approaches moreefficiently if the controller knows the pilot’sintentions in advance. They can use the extratime to plan for the possibility of a climb-outand thus provide better service in the event ofan actual missed approach. When the ceiling orvisibility is close to the published minima forthe type of approach to be used, pilots shouldprovide controllers with advance information asto their plans in the event of a missed approach.

IN THE EVENT OF MISSED APPROACHREQUEST (altitude or flight level) VIA (route)TO (airport).

Implementation of this procedure increases theamount of communications, but the increasecan be minimized if pilots employ it only whenthere is a reasonable probability that a missedapproach may occur.

4.5.5CONTROL TRANSFER

A. IFR UNITS - TOWERS

At some point after ATC clears an aircraft for aninstrument approach, ATC transfers control ofthe aircraft from the IFR unit to the controltower. Transfer of control to the tower does notcancel the IFR flight plan, but rather indicatesthat the aircraft is now receiving VFR air trafficcontrol service.

Occasionally, the tower may issue instructionsthat supersede previous instructions orclearances received from the IFR unit.Acknowledgement of these instructionsindicates to the tower that the pilot will complywith them. A pilot must not assume that the

control tower has radar equipment or that radarcontrol is still being used.

B. INITIAL CONTACT WITH TOWERS

Pilots shall establish communications with thecontrol tower as follows:

1/ if in direct communication with an areacontrol centre or a terminal control unit,the IFR controller shall advise the pilotwhen to contact the tower; or

FIG. 4-18 • STAR FOR CALGARY

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-26

2/ if the conditions above do not apply, pilotsshall establish communication with thetower when approximately 25 NM from theairport and shall remain on towerfrequency.

4.5.6APPROACH CLEARANCE PROCEDURES

A. GENERAL

When using direct controller-pilotcommunications (DCPC), ATC normallyadvises pilots of the ceiling, visibility, wind,runway, altimeter setting and approach aidbeing used, immediately prior to or shortly afterdescent clearance. When the pilotacknowledges receipt of the current ATISbroadcast, however, ATC advises the pilot of thecurrent altimeter setting and RVR (if applicable)only.

Controllers issue approach clearances (includingcontact or visual approaches) only if there is apublished instrument approach procedure forthat airport. If there is no published approachfor an airport located on an airway, ATC clearsthe aircraft out of controlled airspace and advisesthe "Minimum IFR Altitude". Upon reachingthis altitude the pilot has the option ofcancelling IFR and proceeding VFR to theairport or, if VFR conditions do not exist,proceeding on an IFR clearance to an alternatedestination. Within controlled airspace, ATC isnot permitted to approve or assign any IFRaltitude below the "Minimum IFR Altitude".To ATC, the "Minumum IFR Altitude" is thelowest IFR altitude established for use in aspecific airspace and depending on the airspaceconcerned this may be:

a/ minimum en route altitude (MEA);b/ minimum obstruction clearance altitude

(MOCA);c/ minimum sector altitude (see note);d/ geographic area safe altitude (GASA)e/ 100 NM safe altitude (see note); orf/ minimum vectoring altitude.

On an airway, altitudes below the MEA, but notbelow the MOCA, may be approved by acontroller when specifically requested by the pilotof an IFR flight in the interest of flight safety(e.g., due to icing conditions). Pilots should note

that the required signal coverage to navigatewithin the airspace protected for their route maynot be adequate. This could result in conflictwith adjacent air traffic or collision with terrain.

NOTE:Unless these areas are centred on a VOR/DME,TACAN, or other aid which provides distanceinformation, pilots should be certain they arewithin the confines of the airway before acceptingthe assigned altitude.

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FIG. 4-19 • PROFILE DESCENT FOR TORONTO

IFR FLIGHT PROCEDURES

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 4-27

Normally, when an approach clearance is issued,the published name of the approach is used todesignate the type of approach if adherence to aparticular procedure is required. If visualreference to the ground is established beforecompletion of a specified approach, the aircraftshould continue with the entire procedureunless further clearance is obtained.

EXAMPLE:CLEARED TO THE OTTAWA AIRPORT,STRAIGHT-IN ILS RUNWAY 07APPROACH.

EXAMPLE:CLEARED TO THE TORONTO AIRPORT,ILS RUNWAY 06 LEFT APPROACH.

The number of the runway on which theaircraft will land is included in the approachclearance when a landing will be made on arunway other than that aligned with theinstrument approach aid being used.

EXAMPLE:CLEARED TO THE PRINCE GEORGEAIRPORT, STRAIGHT-IN ILS RUNWAY 15APPROACH CIRCLING PROCEDUREWEST FOR RUNWAY 06.

NOTE:If the pilot begins a missed approach during acircling procedure, the published missed approachprocedure as shown for the instrument approachjust completed must be flown. The pilot does notuse the procedure for the runway on which thelanding was planned.

At some locations during periods of light traffic,controllers may issue clearances that do notspecify the type of approach.

EXAMPLE:CLEARED TO THE LETHBRIDGEAIRPORT FOR AN APPROACH.

As soon as practicable after receipt of this typeof clearance, the pilot should advise ATC of thetype of approach procedure to be flown, as wellas the route of flight. The route may be eitherthe previously cleared route, a transition, orfrom any position along the previously clearedroute of flight directly to a fix from which a

published instrument approach can be carriedout. Pilots may not deviate from the statedinstrument procedures or declared routewithout the concurrence of ATC.

Since contact approaches and visual approachesare not instrument approaches, the pilot doesnot have an option of carrying out either ofthese approaches based solely on the clearance"CLEARED FOR AN APPROACH." Shouldthe pilot wish to conduct a contact or visualapproach, a request must be made to thecontroller.

On occasion a clearance for an approach maynot include altitude instructions. The pilot mayreceive this clearance while the aircraft is still aconsiderable distance from the facility, in eithera radar or non-radar environment, and withinor outside controlled airspace. In these cases thepilot can descend to an appropriate minimumIFR altitude (refer to Article 3.3.2A).

Having determined the minimum altitude thatprovides the required obstacle clearance, thepilot may descend to this altitude when desired.Pilots are cautioned that descending early to a100 NM safe or minimum sector altitude maytake the aircraft out of controlled airspace.

NOTE:In designated mountainous regions outside areashaving a published minimum altitude, the pilotmust use 1,500 ft or 2,000 ft above the highestobstacle within a horizontal radius of 10 NMfrom the established position of the aircraft.Article 4.3.2C refers.

Where a published minimum IFR altitude isabove the base of controlled airspace and adestination aerodrome is outside controlledairspace ATC may clear an aircraft to descendout of controlled airspace via a publishedinstrument approach procedure.

EXAMPLE:ATC CLEARS GABC OUT OFCONTROLLED AIRSPACE VIA THE NDB"A" APPROACH AT KINCARDINE.

B. STRAIGHT-IN APPROACHES

ATC uses the term "straight-in-approach" toindicate an instrument approach wherein the

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-28

pilot begins a final approach without firstexecuting a procedure turn. Straight-inapproaches are approved when published on theinstrument approach chart (No PT or a noteauthorizing straight-in approaches) or whenaircraft are radar-vectored by ATC to a pointwhere a straight-in approach may be commencedand where ATC clearance for a straight-inapproach has been given. If none of theseconditions are met, an aircraft flying IFR mustconduct a procedure turn or a visual or contactapproach. Minimum IFR altitudes or highermust be maintained during straight-inapproaches until it is appropriate to followaltitudes published on the instrument approachchart. It is vital that pilot intentions betransmitted to ATS or to other pilots on theappropriate frequencies so that conflicts do notarise.

C. VISUAL—CONTACT APPROACHES

1. VISUAL APPROACH: A visual approach is anapproach wherein a pilot on an IFR flightplan, operating in VFR weather conditionsunder the control of an air traffic controlfacility and having an air traffic controlauthorization, may proceed to the airport ofdestination in VFR weather conditions.

In a radar environment, to gain operationaladvantages, the controller may request aradar-vectored flight to accept a visualapproach clearance, provided that:

a/ the reported ceiling is at least 500 ft.above the established minimumvectoring altitude and the groundvisibility is at least five statute miles;and

b/ the pilot reports sighting the airport orany traffic from which he or she will bemaintaining visual separation.

The controller considers acceptance of avisual approach clearance asacknowledgement that the pilot shallprovide his or her own wake turbulenceseparation. Adherence to published noiseabatement procedures and compliance withany restrictions that may apply to Class Fairspace are the pilot’s responsibility.

ATC will not issue specific missed approach

instructions. Aircraft on a missed visualapproach are considered as operating underVFR.

2. CONTACT APPROACH: A contact approach isan approach wherein a pilot on an IFRflight plan, having an air traffic controlauthorization, operating clear of cloudswith at least 1 mile flight visibility and areasonable expectation of continuing to thedestination airport in those conditions, maydeviate from the instrument approachprocedure and proceed to the destinationairport by visual reference to the surface ofthe earth.

This type of approach will only beauthorized by ATC when:

a/ the pilot requests it;b/ reported ground visibility is at least 1

mile; andc/ traffic conditions permit.

When executing a contact approach,obstruction clearance, adherence topublished noise abatement procedures andcompliance with any restrictions that mayapply to Class F airspace are the pilot’sresponsibility. ATC will ensure IFRseparation from other IFR flights and willissue specific missed approach instructions.

NOTE:ATC will not issue an IFR approach clearancewhich includes clearance for a contact approach,unless there is a published instrument approachprocedure or a company instrument approachprocedure authorized by Transport Canada for theairport.

D. POSITION REPORTS

Position reports required for IFR aircraft duringapproaches to uncontrolled airports are outlinedin Article 3.4.3(E). At controlled airports, pilotsare to make position reports by stating theaircraft call-sign and position only whenrequested by ATC. Pilots can expect a requestfrom ATC for a report either at the FAF or aspecified distance on final.

To apply the prescribed separation minimabetween aircraft intending to make a completeinstrument approach and other aircraft at non-

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radar airports, ATC must often establish theposition and direction of arriving aircraft withrespect to the approach facility. Whenrequested to report "outbound" at controlledairports, pilots should make these reports onlyafter they are over or abeam the approachfacility, and proceeding in a direction away fromthe airport.

E. MISSED APPROACH INSTRUCTIONS

In the event of a missed approach when nomissed approach clearance has been received,the pilot will follow the published missedapproach instructions. Should the pilot arriveat the missed approach holding fix prior toreceiving further clearance, the pilot will:

1/ hold in a standard holding pattern on theinbound track used to arrive at the fix; or

2/ if there is a published missed approach trackto the fix, hold in a standard holdingpattern inbound to the fix on this track; or

3/ if there is a published shuttle or holdingpattern at the fix, hold in this patternregardless of the missed approach track tothe fix; or

4/ if there are published missed approachholding instructions, hold in accordancewith these.

If a clearance to another destination has beenreceived, the pilot shall, in the absence of otherinstructions, carry out the published missedapproach instructions until at an altitude whichwill ensure adequate obstacle clearance beforeproceeding on course.

If specific missed approach instructions havebeen received and acknowledged, the pilot isrequired to comply with the new missedapproach instructions before proceeding oncourse, e.g., ON MISSED APPROACH, CLIMB

RUNWAY HEADING TO 3,000 FT.; RIGHT TURN,CLIMB ON COURSE" OR "ON MISSED APPROACH,CLIMB STRAIGHT AHEAD TO THE BRAVO NDBBEFORE PROCEEDING ON COURSE.

Air traffic control procedures do not require theair traffic controller to provide terrain andobstacle clearance in their missed approachinstructions. It remains the pilot’s responsibilityto ensure that terrain and obstacle clearance hasbeen achieved.

F. SPEED ADJUSTMENTS - RADAR CONTROLLED

AIRCRAFT

This section describes directives to controllersand in no way alters the following maximumspeeds:

1/ below 10,000 ft. ASL and within controlledairspace, 250 knots for all aircraft; and

2/ below 3,000 ft. AGL and within 10 NM ofcontrolled airports, 200 knots for allaircraft.

To supplement or minimize radar vectoringATC may have to request speed adjustments.While ATC takes every precaution not torequest speeds beyond the capability of theaircraft, the pilot still must ensure that theaircraft is not operated at a speed below the safemanoeuvring speed. If an ATC unit shouldrequest a speed reduction below the aircraft’ssafe manoeuvring speed, the pilot should informATC that he or she is unable to comply. Speedadjustment requests are expressed in multiplesof 10 kts based on indicated airspeed. Pilotscomplying with speed adjustment requests areexpected to maintain a speed within plus orminus 10 kts of the specified speed.

PHRASEOLOGY:MAINTAIN PRESENT SPEEDMAINTAIN (specified speed) KNOTSINCREASE SPEED TO (specified speed)KNOTSREDUCE SPEED TO (specified speed)KNOTSINCREASE SPEED BY (number) KNOTSREDUCE SPEED BY (number) KNOTS

Pilots may be requested to do one of thefollowing:

1/ maintain present speed; or2/ increase/reduce speed to a specified speed or

by a specified amount.

Unless prior concurrence in the use of a lowerspeed is obtained from the pilot, the followingminimum speeds will be applied for aircraftduring radar vectoring:

1/ for aircraft operating 20 miles or more fromdestination airport, andi/ at or above 10,000 ft. ASL: - 250 KTS IAS.

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-30

ii/ below 10,000 ft. ASL: - 210 KTS IAS.

2/ for turbojet aircraft operating less than 20miles from destination airport: - 160 KTSIAS.

3/ for propeller-driven aircraft operating lessthan 20 miles from destination airport: -120 KTS IAS.

Issuance of an approach clearance normallycancels a speed adjustment; however, if thecontroller requires that a pilot maintain a speedadjustment after issuance of the approachclearance, the controller will restate it. In othercases the air traffic controller should instruct thepilot to resume normal speed.

G. TAXIING

After landing on a dead-end runway, an aircraftnormally receives clearance to taxi back alongthe runway in use (back-track). When a taxistrip or turn-off point is available ahead, theaircraft should promptly clear the runway at thispoint. Unless otherwise instructed by the tower,and after clearing the runway, the aircraft shallcontinue to taxi forward to a point at least 200ft from the runway, (or beyond the "hold" line),before stopping if post landing checks arerequired. When required, instructions forclearing the runway are:

EXAMPLE:Tower: CF-ABC (instructions for clearingrunway) CONTACT GROUND CONTROL(specific frequency) NOW or AT (specificlocation).

Towers normally provide the aircraft with downtime only when the pilot requests it.

Normally aircraft are not changed to groundcontrol until clear of the active runway.

When clear of the runway in use, taxi clearanceis given as follows:

EXAMPLE:Tower: ABC CLEARED TO (Apron or parkingarea) (any special instructions such as routing,cautionary or warning regarding construction orrepair on the manoeuvring areas).

4.5.7APPROACH AND ALTERNATE MINIMA

A. APPROACH BAN

With certain exceptions, pilots of all aircraft areprohibited from completing any instrumentapproach past the outer marker or FinalApproach Fix to a runway served by an RVRwhen the RVR values as measured for thatrunway are below the following minima:

The following exceptions to the aboveprohibitions apply to all aircraft:

a/ when the RVR is received, the aircraft isinbound on final approach and has passedthe Final Approach Fix;

b/ the pilot-in-command has informed ATSthat the aircraft is on training flight and willinitiate a missed approach at or above theDH/MDA;

c/ the RVR is fluctuating rapidly above andbelow the minimum RVR; or

d/ the RVR is below the minimum RVRbecause of a localized phenomenon and theground visibility of the aerodrome asreported by ATS is at least 1/4 SM.

With respect to approach prohibitions,exceptions are allowed due to RVR"fluctuations" or "local phenomenon" effects.

In summary, an approach is authorizedwhenever:

a/ the lowest reported RVR for the runway isat or above minima regardless of reportedground visibility;

b/ RVR for the runway is reported fluctuatingabove and below minima, regardless ofreported ground visibility;

c/ a reported ATC/FSS ground visibility is atleast 1/4 SM, regardless of reported RVR

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MEASURED RVR*

RVR "A" ONLYRVR "A" & "B"RVR "B" ONLY

* RVR "A" located adjacent to the runwaythreshold

* RVR "B" located adjacent to the runwaymid-point

FIXED WING

12001200 / 7001200

ROTORCRAFT

12001200 / 01200

IFR FLIGHT PROCEDURES

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 4-31

for the runway;d/ RVR for the runway is unavailable or not

reported; ore/ ATS is informed an aircraft is on a training

flight and will conduct a planned missedapproach.

NOTE:The General section of CAP or AIP RAC should beconsulted for current information on minima.The above information is current only to the timeof printing of this manual.

B. LANDING MINIMA

Air Regulations specify that landings aregoverned by published DH/MDAs. Pilots ofaircraft on instrument approaches are prohibitedfrom continuing the descent below DH, ordescending below MDA, as applicable, unlessthe required visual reference is established andmaintained, in order to complete a safe landing.When the required visual reference is notestablished or maintained, a missed approachmust be initiated. Missed approaches initiatedbefore or beyond the MAP may not be assuredobstacle clearance.

1. VISUAL REFERENCES: The visual referencesrequired by the pilot in order to continuethe approach to a safe landing shall includeat least one of the following references forthe intended runway and should bedistinctly visible and identifiable to the pilot:

a/ the runway or runway markings;b/ the runway threshold or threshold

markings;c/ the touchdown zone or touchdown

zone markings;d/ the approach lights;e/ the approach slope indicator system;f/ the runway identification lights (RILS);g/ the threshold and runway end lights;h/ the touchdown zone lights;i/ the parallel runway edge lights; orj/ the runway centreline lights.

Published landing visibilities associated withall instrument approach procedures areadvisory only. Their values are indicative ofvisibilities which, if prevailing at the time ofapproach, should result in the required visual

reference being established and maintainedto landing. They are not limiting and areintended to be used by pilots only to judgethe probability of a successful landing whencompared against available visibility reportsat the aerodrome to which an instrumentapproach is being carried out.

2. ALTIMETER SETTING REQUIREMENTS: Beforecommencing an instrument approachprocedure, the pilot shall have set on theaircraft altimeter a current altimeter settingusable for the location where the approachis to be flown. The altimeter setting may bea local setting or a remote setting when soauthorized on the instrument procedurechart. A current altimeter setting is oneprovided by approved direct reading orremote equipment, or by the latest routinehourly weather report. These readings areconsidered current up to 90 minutes fromthe time of observation.

CAUTION:Care should be exercised when using altimetersettings older than 60 minutes or whenpressure has been reported as falling rapidly.In these instances a value may be added to thepublished DH/MDA in order to compensatefor falling pressure tendency (0.01 inchesmercury = 10 feet correction).

3. USE OF STRAIGHT-IN MINIMA: The use of astraight-in minima is predicated upon theweather and runway condition reportsrequired to conduct a safe landing. Wherethe pilot lacks any necessary information,the pilot is expected to make an aerial visualinspection of the runway prior to landing.In some cases, this can only beaccomplished by conducting a circlingapproach utilizing the appropriate circlingMDA.

Runway conditions, including any temporaryobstructions such as vehicles, may bedetermined by the pilot by:

a/ contacting the UNICOM at thedestination;

b/ a pre-flight telephone call to thedestination to arrange for making thenecessary information available whenrequired for landing;

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-32

c/ an aerial visual inspection;d/ NOTAM issued by the airport

operator; ore/ any other means available to the pilot,

such as message relay from precedingaircraft at destination.

Pilots must always ensure that the runway isnot obstructed and verify the winddirection before landing.

Regardless of wind direction or runway inuse, pilots of rotorcraft may use theappropriate published straight-in landingminima for the runway they have selectedfor their approach.

C. ALTERNATE MINIMA

All IFR flights - except those operators approvedfor "no-alternate IFR" in their OperationsSpecifications - require a filed alternate airport.See AIP RAC for the current alternate minimarequirements.

Authorized weather minima for alternateaerodromes are specified on Aerodrome Chartsand are predicated on an Aerodrome Forecast(FT) or an Area Forecast (FA). The minima usedfor an alternate aerodrome shall be consistentwith aircraft performance, navigation equipmentlimitations, type of weather forecast, and runwayto be used. Pilots of rotorcraft are permitted touse the CAP alternate ceiling and one-half theCAP alternate visibility (but no less than 1 SM)when selecting an alternate aerodrome.

Alternate minima lower than those in the tablebelow may be approved in the Operations

Specifications of some operators.

Due to inconsistencies in the relationship ofaviation forecast visibility values and thepublished or calculated alternate visibilityvalues, the following correlation is to be used todetermine acceptable alternate visibility minimafor civil operations:

When selecting an alternate aerodrome, wherean Aerodrome Forecast or Terminal Advisory isnot available, the Area Forecast covering thespecified alternate aerodrome may be used. TheArea Forecast for the time of arrival mustindicate meteorological conditions of:

a/ no cloud below the minimum alternateceiling specified in the CAP;

b/ no cumulonimbus; andc/ a visibility of 3 statute miles or more.

In Aerodrome Forecasts (FTs), the terms OCNLand RISK may be used to determine theweather suitability of an aerodrome as analternate provided the forecast OCNL or RISKcondition is not below the appropriate landingminima for that aerodrome.

NOTE:All heights specified in Area Forecasts are ASLunless otherwise indicated.

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* 600-2 & 800-2, AS APPROPRIATE, ARE CONSIDERED TO BE STANDARD ALTERNATE MINIMA. SHOULD THE SELECTED

ALTERNATE WEATHER REQUIREMENTS MEET THE STANDARD MINIMA, THEN THE FOLLOWING MINIMA ARE ALSO AUTHORIZED:

NOTE 1: THE ABOVE REQUIREMENTS ARE PREDICATED UPON THE

AERODROME HAVING AN AERODROME FORECAST OR TRENDFORECAST AVAILABLE.NOTE 2: AERODROMES SERVED WITH A TERMINAL ADVISORYFORECAST MAY QUALIFY AS AN ALTERNATE PROVIDED THE FORECAST

WEATHER IS NO LOWER THAN 500 FEET ABOVE THE LOWEST USEABLE

HAT/HAA AND THE VISIBILITY IS NOT LESS THAN 3 MILES.

STANDARD ALTERNATEMINIMA

CEILING VISIBILITY

600 2

800 2

IF STANDARD ISAPPLICABLE, THEFOLLOWING MINIMAALSO AUTHORIZED

CEILING VISIBILITY

700 11/2800 1

900 11/21000 1

PUBLISHED ORCALCULATED VALUE

13/421/423/4

USE FORECAST VALUE

2 SM2 SM3 SM

FACILITIES AVAILABLEAT SUITABLE ALTERNATE2 or more useablepercision approacheseach providing straight-inminima to separate suitablerunways

one useable precisionapproachnon-precision onlyavailableno IFR approachavailable

WEATHER REQUIREMENTS

400-1 or 200-1/2 above the lowest useable minima,whichever is greater

600-2* or 300-1 above the lowest useable minima, whicheveris greater600-2* or 300-1 above the lowest useable minima, whicheveris greaterForecast weather must be no lower than 500 feet above aminimum IFR altitude that will permit a VFR approach andlanding

ALTERNATE WEATHER MINIMA REQUIREMENTS TABLE

IFR FLIGHT PROCEDURES

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 4-33

Where an Aerodrome Forecast is available part-time only, two values will be published.

EXAMPLE:Sumspot, N.W.T.Note on the Aerodrome Chart to read:

+Predicated on an Area Forecast.See Alternate minima,General Information section.

4.5.8AIRCRAFT CATEGORIES

Transport Canada’s obstacle clearance, take-offrequirements, descent gradient and visibilityrequirements, particularly as they relate to non-precision procedures and circling, are designedto accommodate various types of aircraft.Aircraft that are manoeuvred within thesecategory speed ranges are to use the appropriateinstrument approach minima for that category.For instance, an aircraft that is normally flownat 110 kts on approach but is flown at 125 ktsdue to gusty winds would use the minimapublished for Category C.

The categories are referred to by letter:

All manoeuvring procedures relate to aircraftoperational characteristics. Pilots shouldcomply with the information shown oninstrument approach charts to keep aircraftwithin the areas provided for obstacle clearance.Minima vary according to the aircraft category.

4.5.9CORRECTIONS FOR TEMPERATURE

Cold temperature corrections are extremelyimportant for safe IFR flight in Canadian

winters. Fig. 4-20 is extracted from the CAPand shows that corrections should be made toall altitudes published on the instrumentapproach chart.

4.5.10REMOTE ALTIMETER SETTING

Normally, approaches shall be flown using thecurrent altimeter setting only for the destinationaerodrome. However, at certain aerodromeswhere a local pressure setting is not available,approaches may be flown using a current

MINIMA

C E I L I N G ( A G L )

VISIBILITY

(SM)ALTERNATE 1800 - 3

800 - 2

FIG. 4-20 • ALTITUDE CORRECTION CHART

CATEGORY A - UP TO 90 KT. (INCLUDESROTORCRAFT);

CATEGORY B - 91 TO 120 KT.;CATEGORY C - 121 TO 140 KT.;CATEGORY D - 141 TO 165 KT..

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-34

altimeter setting for a nearby aerodrome. Suchan altimeter setting is considered a "remotealtimeter setting", and authorization for its use ispublished on the approach chart plan view.(Fig. 4-21).

If the use of a remote altimeter setting isrequired for limited hours only, an altitudecorrection will be included with theauthorization. When the remote altimetersetting is used, the altitude correction shall beapplied as indicated. If the use of a remotealtimeter setting is required at all times, then thecorrection is incorporated into the procedure atthe time it is developed.

EXAMPLES:When using Mont Joli altimeter setting add200' to FAF crossing altitude and all MDAs.

London altimeter setting must be obtainedbefore commencing IFR procedure.

4.5.11TRANSITIONS TO THE APPROACH

A. RADAR VECTORS

Radar separation is applied to arriving aircraft inorder to establish and maintain the mostdesirable arrival sequence to avoid unnecessary"stacking" or delays. In the approach phase,radar vectoring is carried out to establish theaircraft on an approach aid. The initialinstruction is normally a turn to a heading forradar vectors to a final approach to the runwayin use. Should a communications failure occurafter this point, the pilot should continue andcarry out a straight-in approach if able, or carryout a procedure turn and land as soon aspossible. Aircraft are vectored so as to interceptthe final approach course approximately 2NMfrom the point at which final descent will begin.

EXAMPLE:JULIETT WHISKEY CHARLIE, ARRIVAL.TURN LEFT HEADING 180 TOINTERCEPT FINAL APPROACH COURSE.CLEARED TO THE TORONTO AIRPORTFOR STRAIGHT-IN ILS RUNWAY 15APPROACH.

B. ON AIRWAYS

The airway may be based on the approach facility.In this case the aircraft can descend to the airwayminimum en route altitude (MEA) or the procedureturn altitude, whichever is higher, and cross theprocedure turn facility outbound at that altitude.

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FIG. 4-22 • PUBLISHED TRANSITION TO APPROACH

FIG. 4-21 • REMOTE ALTIMETER SETTING

IFR FLIGHT PROCEDURES

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 4-35

The airway may lead to a terminal area facilityor fix from which a published transition isshown on the approach chart, leading to theapproach facility (e.g., 2900 from OttawaVORTAC to OSCAR NDB for ILS 07 -Ottawa Fig. 4-22).

C. OFF AIRWAYS

Until established on a low-altitude airway orpublished transition, the pilot is responsible forobstacle clearance.

D. ARC TRANSITIONS

Normally the arc transition leads the aircraft toa point on the approach track for a straight-inapproach. Often a lead radial is used to allowfor a smooth transition to the final approachcourse. Only that portion of the arc shown onthe chart can be flown at the minimumtransition altitude designated for the arc. Thisaltitude must be maintained until established ata point on the final approach track where theprofile view authorizes further descent in thefinal approach phase. (See Fig. 4-23).

4.5.12APPROACH PLANNING

Careful pre-approach planning and goodinstrument flying are essential for safe, effectiveapproaches in IFR weather. Occasionally, anunexpected event may cause a momentarydistraction, or may develop into an emergencysituation demanding prompt attention. Thereare many different situations that can ariseduring an approach; nevertheless, anyunexpected event becomes easier to deal withwhen the pilot has planned the approachthoroughly.

Approaches should be planned well in advance.Planning starts before take-off and is continuedduring the flight while the pilot is examiningthe approach charts and updating destinationand alternate weather conditions. The followinginformation is essential to planning:

1/ the arrival clearance and destinationweather;

2/ the position of the aircraft relative to thefacility;

3/ the wind strength anddirection, particularly atthe surface;

4/ the runway-in-use which,when combined with thew i n d i n f o r m a t i o n ,d e t e r m i n e s w h e t h e rstraight-in or circlingminima apply;

5/ the published minimumaltitude for the requiredprocedures;

6/ the airspeed targets andlimitations during theprocedure turn and on final;

7/ the type of procedure turn to be used sothat the aircraft will remain within thedesignated airspace;

8/ the distance from the facility to the MAP;9/ the rates of descent required during various

stages of the approach (particularly from thefacility to the field during non-precisionapproaches);

10/ the time from the facility to the "MissedApproach Point" - remember that thespeeds on the approach chart aregroundspeeds, so the pilot must apply thewind to the TAS or IAS before computingthe time to the MAP;

11/ the type of circling procedure to be used (ifapplicable);

12/ the missed approach procedure;13/ the NAVAIDS to be used during the

approach and missed approach procedure;and

14/ the aural monitoring of the NDB by thepilot or one of the flight crew members, ifflying an NDB approach (non-FMSequipped aircraft only).

A thorough approach briefing to all crewmembers (if a multi-crew cockpit) will serve twopurposes. One, it will advise everyoneconcerned what you as pilot intend to do andwill make it easier for them to detect any errors.Two, it gives you a chance to verbalize theimportant points of the approach, clarifyingthem in your mind.

There may be some advantage in doing part ofthe pre-landing check before initial stationpassage outbound, thus reducing distractionsand allowing full concentration on flying. All

LEAD POINTS

10.5 NM

9.5 NM

055°

325°

YWG VORTAC

FIG. 4-23 • DME ARC INTERCEPTION

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-36

checks must be done in accordance with theappropriate Aircraft Operating Manual;therefore, when checks are split for convenience,the pilot must ensure that they are completedcorrectly.

There is only limited time available for receivingfurther clearance after a missed approachprocedure. If the weather seems to be increasingthe possibility of a missed approach, the pilotshould notify the controlling agency ofintentions which could include the route andaltitude to the alternate. This notification is ofparticular value if communications are lost ordelayed during the approach.

INSTRUMENT APPROACHPROCEDURES

4.6.1INTRODUCTION

In the departure and en route phases of IFRflight, the pilot steadily climbs to a safe altitudeand thereafter maintains a margin of safety at thecruising altitude, which is at or above the MEAfor the route segment.

The IFR pilot draws on a complete range of skillsand experience when descending to thedestination. The aircraft height above obstaclesduring IFR flight reduces in stages to zero at thepoint of touchdown. Most of this descent may bein cloud, with only the last few hundred feet invisual conditions - often with visibility of 1/2 mileor less.

The descent from en route to touchdown cannotyet be made in one continuous profile, althoughthe abilities of area navigation, radar vectoringand straight-in procedures are close to permittingsuch a profile. Pilots must still contend withlevel-offs, speed reductions and aircraftconfiguration changes even in the best organizedterminal areas.

Transport Canada develops instrument approachprocedures according to TP 308, Criteria for theDevelopment of Instrument Procedures. Approachesare designed to satisfy the minimum performanceand equipment requirements. Each procedureconsists of segments that are intended to indicateto the pilot when to descend, when to reducespeed, when to configure the aircraft for landing,and when to carry out a missed approach if thepilot is not in visual contact at minimum altitude.

Each segment of the approach has a purpose andentails certain cockpit duties. The proceduredesigner attempts to construct the approach usingthe four basic segments to give the pilot time tocontrol the aircraft, bleed off speed, and at thesame time lose altitude, so as to arrive at therunway with the gear and flaps down and thespeed on target.

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The four segments of an approach areexplained, mainly from the operating point ofview, in Article 4.6.2.

Instrument approach procedures are developedby Transport Canada and published in TheCanada Air Pilot, and by third party vendorssuch as Jeppesen. The procedures, developed forspecific airports after careful analysis ofobstructions, terrain features and navigationalfacilities, outline the appropriate manoeuvres,including altitudes, tracks and other limitations.They are established for a safe letdown duringinstrument flight conditions based on acceptedobstacle clearance requirements and many yearsof experience.

WARNING:No attempt is made in this manual to explainthe symbols and legends used on approachplates, aerodrome charts, departure, arrivaland en route charts. It is the pilot’sresponsibility to thoroughly understand thesesymbols and legends and their use.

A. NON-PRECISION APPROACHES (NPA) A descent in an approved procedure in whichfinal approach course alignment is provided.NPAs include NDB, VOR, LOC, LOC(BC)and certain RNAV approaches. No verticalguidance is provided on an NPA.

B. PRECISION APPROACHES

A descent in an approved procedure where thenavigation facility alignment is normally on therunway centreline and vertical guidance isprovided. ILS, MLS and Precision ApproachRadar (PAR) are precision approaches.

Simultaneous approaches is a procedure whichprovides for approaches to parallel or convergingrunways. This procedure typically uses two ILS-equipped parallel runways (24L and R atToronto). Simultaneous approaches, whenauthorized, are radar monitored.

4.6.2THE INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURE

A. PROCEDURE CONSTRUCTION

An instrument approach procedure may havefour separate segments: initial, intermediate,

final and missed approach. In addition, an areafor circling the aerodrome under visualconditions is provided. Fig. 4-24 gives a viewof typical approach segments. "R" denotes theprimary area which has the following obstacleclearance:

INITIAL

SEGMENT

INTERMEDIATE

SEGMENT

FINAL

SEGMENT

4 NM

2 NM

IF FAF

INIT

IAL

SE

GM

EN

T

INT

ER

ME

DIA

TE

SE

GM

EN

T

FIN

AL

SE

GM

EN

T

4 NM

IFF

AF

2 NM

4N

MIN

ITIALSEGMENT

INTERMEDIATE SEGMENTFINAL SEGMENT

2 NM

5.15 NMIF FAF

ARC RADIUS

INTERMEDIATESEGMENT

INTERMEDIATESEGMENT

MAP

ARC

INITIAL SEGMENT

R = PRIMARY BOUNDARY

R1 = SECONDARY BOUNDARY

R1 R

IF

IF

FAF

INTERMEDIATE

SEGM

ENT

FIN

AL

SE

GM

EN

T

INITIAL

SEGMENT

4NM2

NM

FIG. 4-24 • TYPICAL NON-PRECISION APPROACH SEGMENTS

• initial • 1,000 ft.• intermediate • 500 ft.• final • varies with facility• circling • 300 ft.• missed approach • increasing to en

route or holding

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-38

"R1" denotes the secondary area where theobstacle clearance is less.

Each of the approach segments normally beginand end at designated fixes. Under somecircumstances, however, certain segments maybegin at specified points where no facility isavailable, e.g., the final approach segment of aprecision approach may originate at theintersection of the designated intermediateflight altitude with the normal glide path. AVOR final approach may commence at anintersection or DME distance.

The procedure design depends on the type andsiting of navigational aids, their location inrelation to the runway or aerodrome, theterrain, and the categories of aircraft to beaccommodated. Airspace restrictions may alsohave to be considered in relation to thenavigational aids. Wherever possible, theapproach procedure specifies minima forstraight-in and circling. Where this is notpracticable, the procedure specifies circlinglimits only.

Normally the navigation aids align the straight-in approach with the runway centreline. Non-precision straight-in approaches also may bespecified if the final approach track and therunway centreline do not diverge by more than30° (Fig. 4-25). A straight-in approach alsomay be specified in certain situations where thefinal approach track does not intersect theextended runway centreline (or does notintersect at a suitable point), as long as the finalapproach track is within 500 ft. laterally of theextended runway centreline at a distance of3,000 ft. from the threshold.

Straight-in minima are not published when thedescent gradient between the publishedminimum crossing altitude at the FinalApproach Fix and the runway threshold exceeds400 ft./NM or 3.76°.

B. INITIAL SEGMENT

The instrument approach commences at theInitial Approach Fix (IAF, Fig. 4-26). In theinitial segment, the aircraft has departed the enroute structure and manoeuvres to enter theintermediate segment. Aircraft speed andconfiguration depend on the distance from theaerodrome, and rate of descent required. The

initial approach segment ends at theIntermediate Fix.

Terminal radar is a suitable alternative topublished transitions or initial approachsegments. The aircraft is vectored to a fix, oronto the intermediate approach track, at a pointwhere the approach may be continued by thepilot through reference to the instrumentapproach chart.

Occasionally a pilot may receive clearance for anapproach without altitude restrictions. Thisclearance may be issued while the aircraft is stilla considerable distance from the approachfacility. Several transition procedures mayapply, depending on the aircraft’s location andthe chart information. These transitions,outlined in Article 4.5.11, are designed toposition the aircraft over an approach facility oron the final approach course.

MINIMUM SECTOR ALTITUDES (MSA)Minimum sector altitudes are normally basedon the procedure turn facility and should not beused unless the aircraft position is known byreference to a fix or facility. The DME sourcemay be some distance from the centre of theminimum sector circle, therefore, the DMEdistance may not always correlate with theminimum sector altitudes.

C. INTERMEDIATE SEGMENT

This segment connects the initial and finalapproach segments. Both the lateral dimensionsof the airspace and the obstacle clearance beginto reduce. The pilot should adjust aircraft speed

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final approach track

extended runway centreline

facility

end of finalapproach area

start of missedapproach area

0.5NM

VO

R 2

.0 N

MN

DB

2.5

NM

splayVOR 5°NDB 10°

30°

FIG. 4-25 • STRAIGHT IN APPROACH CRITERIA

IFR FLIGHT PROCEDURES

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 4-39

and configuration to prepare for descent in thefinal approach. For this reason the descentgradient in the intermediate approach segmentis established at 300 ft/NM maximum.

The availability of VOR and DME at mostmajor airports permits a variety of intermediatefixes to be designated. Improvements in basicavionics packages mean that most aircraft cannow make the straight-in approach. Pilots willfind more and more procedures with designatedIFs (Intermediate Fix) that require more thanone navigation radio in the aircraft. Theprocedure turn barbed arrow, however, will stillbe depicted for pilots without sufficientnavigational equipment for the straight-intransition, or for pilots who wish to conductprocedure turns.

In some cases the transitions are arcingtransitions to the Intermediate Fix, based on theuse of distance measuring equipment (DME).(Refer to Article 2.2.4D). The minimumaltitude to be maintained while flying the DMEarc is shown on the plan view of the instrumentapproach procedure chart (Fig. 4-36). Thisaltitude provides a minimum of 1,000 ft ofobstacle clearance within 4 NM of the arc.Lead radials approximately 10° of arc (2 NM)from the final approach course are shown toassist pilots in intercepting the final approachcourse.

Pilots should not fly arc transitions unless theaircraft has DME. Pilots may refuse a clearancefor an arc approach.

1. STRAIGHT-IN APPROACHES (NO PROCEDURE

TURN): The term "straight-in-approach"means an instrument approach procedureconducted without a procedure turn. It isthe term used by ATC in clearing aircraft toconduct such approaches.

Transport Canada is designing additionaltransitions on instrument approach chartsto accommodate aircraft with more modernavionics equipment and to improve fueleconomy. These transitions direct the pilotto a point on the intermediate approachcourse from which a straight-in approachmay be carried out, subject to Air TrafficControl (ATC) requirements and localtraffic conditions.

Where navigational aids and obstacleclearance requirements permit theconstruction of a transition to a straight-inapproach, the plan view of the proceduredepicts an "Intermediate Fix" on thecentreline of the procedure. This fix willhave a proper name (Fig. 4-26). The fixmust lie on the centreline to be designated asan intermediate fix. The Intermediate Fixnormally is between 5 NM and 10 NMfrom the Final Approach Fix. The exactdistance depends on the location ofnavigation aids, the angle between thetransition track and the final approach track,and the amount of altitude to be lostbetween that fix and the Final Approach Fix.

The maximum angle of intercept canrequire a turn of 120° to intercept the finalapproach track. Normally, the maximumangle is 90°, as occurs when turning ontothe final approach from a DME arc. For allturns of more than 70°, a lead radial orbearing appears on the plan view of theprocedure. This position line shows thepilot that the aircraft is 2.0 NM from thefinal approach track. The actual initiationof the turn-in depends on aircraft speed andwind velocity.

Many straight-in approach procedures arepublished in the CAP . Examples arestraight-in ILS or NDB procedure toRunway 07 at Ottawa (Fig. 4-22) and thestraight-in VOR procedure to Runway 27from Frenn Intersection at Fredericton (Fig.4-35). The Frenn Intersection, althoughnot designated, is used as an Intermediate

Missed approach area Outermarker(NDB)

Intermediate approach

Finalapproach

GPIntercept point

IF

IAF

DMEARC

MAPDH

FACFFAF

FIG. 4-26 • TYPICAL ILS APPORACH SEGMENTS

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-40

Fix. The authority for a straight-in approachis carried in the top left hand corner of theplan view as a note or by the "NoPT"symbol at the IF.

Pilots should remember that the IF ispositioned approximately at the point wherethe inbound track would be regained afterconducting a procedure turn. As in theprocedure turn, after passing the fix andmanoeuvring the aircraft to the properinbound track, the pilot may descend to theFAF crossing altitude. Where more thanone transition intersects the approach trackat different points, only the fur thestintersection is designated as the IF. Thepilot may begin a straight-in approach fromany transition that intersects the finalapproach track inside the designated IFprovided that ATC is aware of the pilot’sintentions and subsequent manoeuvring iswithin the capabilities of the aircraft.

A pilot may find the aircraft badlypositioned, laterally or vertically, from thefinal approach track after being cleared byATC for the straight-in approach. If so, thepilot must obtain a revised clearance beforestarting an unexpected procedure turn orcommence a missed approach and requestfurther clearance.

FINAL APPROACH COURSE FIXES (FACFS):With the introduction of computer basedtechnology in modern aircraft, databasesuppliers and avionics manufacturers havedeveloped standards to which instrumentprocedures are encoded within the aircraftcomputers.

In order to provide a continuous flight path forthe computer, certain fixes created by thedatabase suppliers were not part of theinstrument procedure. The Final ApproachCourse Fix (FACF), previously known as the"centreline fix" was one of these fixes.Although the FACF was known to the aircraftcomputer through the database, it was notalways a fix known to either the air trafficcontroller or the pilot.

To facilitate the use of the current andfuture technology that are part of modernavionics, Transport Canada has adopted the

concept of the FACF for instrumentapproach procedures. It is anticipated thatthe introduction of the FACF may helpreduce the problem of false localizer coursecapture problems experienced by moderntechnology aircraft.

The FACF is defined as a fix located on thefinal approach course of an instrumentapproach procedure, approximately 8 NMfrom the threshold. It does not take theplace of an Intermediate Fix (IF), nor theFinal Approach Fix (FAF). The FACF isestablished prior to intercepting the glidepath on a precision approach or prior to theFinal Approach Fix (FAF) on a non-precision approach associated with thatprecision approach. The FACF has aunique ICAO five-letter pronounceablename and is portrayed on the instrumentprocedure chart as well as listed with theappropriate latitude/longitude co-ordinatesin the Canada Flight Supplement (CFS).

NOTE:Implementation of FACFs began in 1994 and willeventually be added to Canadian instrumentapproaches, beginning with ILS and LOCapproaches.

2. PROCEDURE TURNS: The pilot must make aprocedure turn where no suitable fix isavailable to construct a straight-in approachprocedure or where ATC clearance cannot beobtained for a straight-in approach. In thiscase the Initial Approach Fix and the FinalApproach Fix are the same. The aircraftshould cross the fix and fly outbound on thespecified heading(s), descending as necessaryto the minimum altitude at which theprocedure turn should be completed.

The procedure turn is used to reduce theminimum vertical clearance from 1,000 ftin the initial segment to 500 ft in theintermediate segment. This procedure willcontinue at many remote locations wherethere is only one facility in the vicinity.

A full instrument approach clearance mayinclude the words REPORT BEACONOUTBOUND AND INBOUND. Areason for a procedure turn where astraight-in approach is authorized is anapproach clearance that includes a

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 4-41

restriction to cross the approach facility atan altitude far too high to allow a straight-in transition to final approach. If anydoubt exists, the pilot shall requestclarification.

If the approach clearance does not includethese requirements, the procedure turn isoptional, and ATS should be advised ofintentions.

If a minimum entry zone altitude is notspecified at the fix, the pilot may descend toprocedure turn altitude immediately aftercrossing the fix from any direction, whileturning to the outbound heading. If ahigher minimum altitude is specified on theprofile depicted for the approach, thisaltitude or higher shall be maintained untilabeam the fix outbound. The pilot mustcomplete the manoeuvre on the sideindicated by the barb and within thespecified distance onto the inbound track,then follow the inbound track to the FinalApproach Fix or glide path interception, atwhich point the final approach commences.It is important to remain within thespecified distance on the approach chart, asthis ensures obstacle clearance. Typicalprocedure turns are described below and inFig. 4-27.

There are five basic variations of theprocedure turn:

a/ The standard procedure turn (depictedin Fig. 4-27a): The aircraft proceedsoutbound for one minute, then turns45° away from the reciprocal of thefinal approach track. The pilot flies astraight segment of (normally) 45seconds, and turns 180° in the specifieddirection to intercept the inboundtrack. This is sometimes called thehockey stick.

b/ The racetrack pattern (Fig. 4-27 e &f). The aircraft turns over the facility orFAF and flies, for usually one to twominutes, outbound parallel to thereciprocal of the final approach track.Thereafter, it makes a turn of about180° to intercept the final approachtrack.

c/ The 80°/260° reversal (Fig. 4-27b):The aircraft proceeds outbound for oneminute, then makes a turn of 80° awayfrom the reciprocal of the finalapproach track. The pilot immediatelymakes a turn of about 260° in theopposite direction to intercept the finalapproach track.

d/ The tear-drop or base turn (Fig. 4-27 c& d): The outbound leg diverges fromthe reciprocal of the inbound track by30° for one minute, or 15° for twominutes. The aircraft then turns tointercept the inbound track.

e/ When approaching from the procedure-turn side, the pilot may fly an S-turn,which essentially is a modification ofthe 45° turn (hockey stick). Pilots mustensure that the aircraft regains themanoeuvring side of the procedure turnas soon as possible.

NOTE:The flying times mentioned above are nominalvalues. Pilots should adjust timing for knownwind speeds. It is essential, however, that theaircraft be kept within the distance specified forcompletion of the procedure turn, normally 10NM. This distance is printed in the profile viewbox on approach plates (see Fig. 4-22).

1 min.

1 min.

1 min.

2 min.

1 minute PROCEDURE TURNS

A) 45° PROCEDURE TURNS B) 80°/260° PROCEDURE TURNS

1 and 2 minute BASE TURNS

E) RACE TRACK PATTERN F) MODIFIED RACE TRACK

C) D)

FIG. 4-27 • VARIATIONS OF THE PROCEDURE TURN

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-42

A shuttle is a descent or climb conducted ina holding pattern. Shuttle entry and timingare the same as a holding pattern, i.e., oneminute outbound if at or below 14,000 ftASL, or 1 1/2 minutes outbound if above14,000 ft ASL. The shuttle is normallyprescribed in a standard holding pattern sothat all turns after initial entry are made tothe right, except where a "non-standard"left-turn pattern will provide a significantoperational advantage. A shuttle isnormally prescribed only when excessivealtitude must be lost during the procedureturn.

TRANSITION FROM EN ROUTE TO APPROACH

PHASE WITH PROCEDURE TURN: As an enroute aircraft approaches the facility uponwhich an instrument approach is to beflown, the pilot must consider thecharacteristics of the required transitionfrom en route flight to instrumentapproach. Unless a straight-in approach orsome other abbreviated manoeuvre isanticipated, the pilot must compare thebasic tracks of the instrument approach anddecide whether they align with the en routetrack.

In the provision of IFR separation betweenaircraft conducting full instrumentapproaches and other aircraft, ATC expectspilots to use one of the five approvedintermediate approach (procedure turn)manoeuvres (Fig. 4-27) or to advise if adifferent manoeuvre will be flown.

There is some overlap between the fiveprocedure turn entry sectors. This is notexpressed in any specific number of degreesand is designed to allow the choice of eitherof two procedures from each overlap area.

There is only a certain sector of en routetracks that feeds smoothly and directly intothe standard procedure turn manoeuvre. Ifthe en route aircraft is flying toward theapproach facility within this sector, astandard procedure turn can be flown.Other directions (or sectors) of en routetrack lead more directly into other approachprocedures. These are described below andshown in Fig. 4-28.

It can be seen, by comparing the diagrams,

that each sector (broken lines) overlaps twoothers. The important objective is to fly asmooth transition from en route to finalapproach. Although there is no specified,hard-and-fast way to enter a procedure turn,the entry patterns described below willestablish the aircraft in a turn withminimum delay and manoeuvring. A goodrule of thumb is to turn the shortest wayonto the heading that will establish theaircraft in the procedure turn.

If a pilot operating in controlled airspaceanticipates being unable to conduct anapproved procedure turn, he or she shouldinform ATC so that separation from otheraircraft can be increased as necessary.

D. FINAL SEGMENT

This is the segment in which alignment anddescent for landing are made. Final approachmay be made to a runway for a straight-inlanding or to an aerodrome for a visual circlingmanoeuvre to land. There are several basicvariations that depend on the navigation aidsavailable.

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Initial approach

facility Approachfacility

A) STANDARD PROCEDURE TURN

B) MODIFIED RACETRACK

Initialapproach sector

45 se

c.

45°

Initialapproach

sector

C) S-TURN

E) RACETRACKD) DIRECT ENTRY

Initialapproach

sector

Initialapproach

sector

45°

FIG. 4-28 • PROCEDURE TURN ENTRY SECTORS

IFR FLIGHT PROCEDURES

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 4-43

1. NON-PRECISION APPROACHES:

WITH FINAL APPROACH FIX: The segmentbegins at a facility or fix called the FinalApproach Fix (FAF) and ends at the missedApproach Point (MAP). The FAF is sitedon the final approach track at a distancethat permits selection of the final approachconfiguration, and descent from FinalApproach Fix altitude to the runway in thecase of a straight-in approach or toMinimum Descent Altitude (MDA) in thecase of a circling approach. The optimumlocation is approximately 4 NM from themissed approach point, and the maximumdistance is 10 NM.

The aircraft should cross the FAF at orabove the specified altitude and then beginthe descent. There are two generallyaccepted procedures used at this stage,depending on aircraft type and pilotpreference. The pilot may begin a rate ofdescent that ensures that the aircraft reachesthe Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA)well before the MAP. From there, theaircraft flies at the MDA until in a positionto make the final descent to the runway.Alternatively, the pilot may initiate a rate ofdescent that permits him or her tocontinue, as closely as possible, the visualportion below MDA with a minimum ofpower changes.

WITHOUT FINAL APPROACH FIX: When aprocedure is based on a single facility andno facility is situated to permit a FAF, aprocedure may be designed where thefacility is both the IAF and the MAP.(There is no IF in this case).

These procedures indicate a minimumaltitude for a procedure turn and an MDA.In the absence of a FAF, descent to MDA ismade once the aircraft is establishedinbound on the final approach track.

NOTE:In procedures of this type, the final approach tracknormally cannot be aligned on the runwaycentreline. Whether straight-in limits arepublished or not depends on the angular differencebetween the track and the runway.

DESCENT PROFILES FOR NON-PRECISION

APPROACHES: Coincident with theintroduction of the IF concept is the use ofa stabilized descent profile for the non-precision approach. For example, in theILS or NDB 07 approach at Ottawa (Fig.4-22), an aircraft on a 3° glide path crossesOscar at 1,680 ft while a pilot using theNDB may cross Oscar at 1,500 ft. This1,500 ft. altitude (the dotted line on Fig. 4-22) is the minimum altitude allowed beforecrossing Oscar inbound, but there is norequirement that the aircraft must cross at1,500 ft.

Some pilots prefer a stabilized descent, asshown by the solid line in Fig. 4-22. Inthis case, the pilot considers the procedureturn altitude, runway elevation, distancefrom FAF to threshold, and groundspeed.This procedure should only be used when theweather is above minima as no level-off atMDA is provided for in the calculations.Assuming the pilot prefers a stabilizeddescent, the pilot need only divide theheight to be lost to the threshold by theminutes to the threshold and then has thedescent rate in feet per minute as follows:

Time at 120 kts 2.0 minHeight Loss(1500’ - 373’) 1127 ft.Vertical Speed 1127 / 2= 564 fpm.

Procedure turn may be extended to 15 NM by selecting radius point along this line

SECONDARY AREA

NORMAL DISTANCE 10 NM

15 NM

MANOEUVRING ZONE

ENTRY ZONE

7 NM

7 NM

SECONDARY AREA

PRIMARY AREA

2 NM

The 15 NM Procedure Turn Areashall be used for Category E aircraft

1 NM1 NM

5 NM5 NM

7 NM

1 NM

5 NM

8 NM

6 NM

INBOUND COURSE

FIG. 4-29 • PROCEDURE TURN AREAS

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-44

CAUTION:This section provides a guideline on what rateof descent to initially establish for a stabilizeddescent in good weather.

Similarly if the pilot desires a 3.0° descentgradient, the answer at Ottawa is easy -cross Oscar at 1,680 ft. Make sure that theaircraft descends to the MDA in time tocontinue visually without excessive descentfor landing — usually by being at MDA bythe visibility minima prior to the MAP.

Most FAFs in Canada are about 4 NMfrom touchdown. If the pilot adds 1,000 ftto the threshold elevation for FAF crossingaltitude, the result is a comfortable descentof 250 ft/NM or 2.36° descent angle.

250 / 6.076.1 x =.041 = 2.36°

Adding 1,200 ft to the threshold elevationresults in a 300 ft/NM descent or just about3°.

The preferred method to fly NPAs is tosubtract the time it would take to fly thedistance associated with the visibilityminima (e.g. 1NM) from the time to theMAP. If the aircraft is established at theMDA this distance prior to the MAP, thepilot should be able to make a safe landingwithout exaggerated and potentially unsafepower and attitude changes.

The base of terminal airspace is 1200 ft.AAE at major airports. The FAF crossingheight may be set to ensure IFR aircraft donot descend below that base prior toentering the control zone.

Further information on the final approachsegment is available in Article 4.6.7 - ILSapproaches.

2. TURNS OVER THE FAF: At some locations asignificant operational advantage can begained by prescribing a turn over the FAFon final approach. This permits theintermediate approach and the initial partof the final approach to be aligned awayfrom areas of higher terrain or obstacles. Inaddition to following the alignment anddescent gradient requirements, the pilotmust re-establish the aircraft on the final

approach track at a sufficient distancebefore the aerodrome to permit an orderlyapproach and landing. Therefore, theprocedures limit turns over the FAF to 30degrees.

3. PRECISION APPROACHES: There are four typesof precision approaches - ILS, MLS, GPSand PAR; although GPS precisionapproaches are not yet approved. The finalapproach segment begins when the aircraftis established on the final approach courseand intercepts the glide path. This point isnot fixed because operationally, glide pathintercept points vary causing the point tomove forward or backward from thenominal position.

Generally, glide path interception occurs atlevels from 1,200 ft to 3,000 ft abovetouchdown zone elevation (TDZ). On a 3°glide path, for example, interception occursfrom 4 NM to 10 NM before touchdown.

E. MISSED APPROACH SEGMENT

The missed approach is perhaps the mostcritical phase of the instrument approachprocedure. The pilot must change the aircraftconfiguration and attitude, elect a subsequentcourse of action and obtain further clearance.For these reasons, the missed approach is kept assimple as possible. The pilot should understandclearly the missed approach point (MAP) andthe missed approach procedure beforebeginning the approach.

The MAP can be one of the following:a/ decision height; orb/ a navigational facility; orc/ an intersection fix (DME, bearing, radial);

ord/ a distance from the FAF, normally expressed

as time in minutes and seconds at variousground speeds.

Upon reaching the MAP the pilot is committedto a missed approach if the required visualreference is not established or if a landing cannotsafely be made by manoeuvring visually. Amissed approach is established for eachinstrument approach procedure. It specifies apoint where the missed approach procedurebegins and a point where it ends. When the

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 4-45

required visual references are not obtained,pilots should initiate the missed approachimmediately upon reaching the DH in precisionapproach procedures, or at a specified point innon-precision approach procedures not lowerthan the MDA.

NOTE:Where the missed approach is initiated only bytiming, the timing is based on the distancebetween the FAF and the airport.

Only one missed approach procedure ispublished. Alternative missed approachprocedures may be issued by ATC.

The pilot must be especially careful inestablishing the climb and the changes inconfiguration. Therefore, turns are generallynot specified in the initial phase of the missedapproach segment.

The missed approach may eventually require aturn and the pilot should begin to establish thespecified track or heading from this point on.The missed approach segment ends at the pointwhere a new approach, a holding, or a return toen route flight commences. Turns maycommence at the MAP, at a fix, or mostcommonly at an altitude. When a turn isspecified at the MAP, the pilot should begin theturn as soon as possible after a positive rate ofclimb is obtained.

NOTE:Where a missed approach procedure specifies arouting and altitudes, the pilot must follow thatrouting.

For example, CLIMB 020° TO CROSS "X"NDB AT OR ABOVE 1300 FT. RIGHTTURN AT "X" NDB TO 090° CLIMBINGTO 2100 FT.

The pilot must proceed via X-Ray NDBregardless of where 1300 ft is reached. If noturning point is specified, the pilot may beginthe turn as soon as the aircraft reaches thespecified turning altitude.

Pilots should note that the missed approachobstacle clearance surfaces originate at theMissed Approach Point. After descent belowMDA or DH the aircraft may be below these

surfaces. In the event of a rejected landing, theaircraft could be several hundred feet below theobstacle clearance surface.

A pilot initiating a missed approach prior to theMAP must, if in IMC conditions, initiate theclimb and continue on the final approach courseto the MAP prior to commencing the publishedprocedure.

4.6.3VISUAL MANOEUVRING DURING APPROACHES

A. GENERAL

Visual manoeuvring (or landing frominstrument approaches) is the term used todescribe the visual phase of flight, after the pilotcompletes the instrument approach, to bring theaircraft into position for landing on a runway.Information on Visual and Contact Approachesis contained in Article 4.5.6C.

There are two major types of visual manoeuvresassociated with instrument approaches:1/ transition to visual flight from a straight-in

approach; and2/ circling.

B. TRANSITION TO VISUAL FLIGHT

1. GENERAL: The latest point at which a shiftfrom instrument references to visualreferences may be accomplished safely isdescribed by the MAP. For a precisionapproach, minima are stated in terms ofdecision height (DH). This is the height ofwhich a missed approach must be initiatedif the required visual reference to continuethe approach to landing has not beenestablished. Published landing visibilitiesassociated with all instrument approachesare advisory only. Their values areindicative of visibilities which, if prevailingat the time of the approach, should result inthe required visual reference beingestablished. For this reason pilots shouldalso consider forecast visibility when flightplanning, and reported visibility whenapproach planning.

The transition from instrument to visualflight varies with each approach. Therequired visual references used to recognizethe position of the aircraft in relation to the

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-46

runway have been described in Article3.1.9. It is essential that these references beused properly and with discretion duringthe final stages of a low-visibility instrumentapproach. It must be remembered that inminimum visibility conditions the visualcues used for runway alignment and aircraftflare are extremely limited when comparedto the references normally used on a visualapproach.

When planning, the pilot should be familiarwith the types of lighting installed on thelanding runway, and note the distance tothe airfield from available NAVAIDs. Thereis no substitute for proper and thoroughplanning as this will help in the transitionfrom instrument to visual conditions.

Obscured conditions present a number ofproblems not encountered during anapproach that has a definite cloud baseceiling. At the point where the aircraftbreaks out below the ceiling, the visual cuesused to control the aircraft are usually clearand distinct, and there is instantaneousrecognition of the position of the aircraft inrelation to the runway. With obscuredceilings or partially obscured conditions, thereverse is usually true; visual cues areindistinct and easily lost, and it is difficultto discern aircraft position laterally andvertically in relation to the runway.

When flying a straight-in approach inVMC, the pilot has almost unlimitedperipheral visual cues available for depthperception, vertical positioning, and motionsensing. Even so, varying length and widthof unfamiliar runways can lead to erroneousperception of aircraft height above therunway surface. A relatively wide runwaymay give the illusion that the aircraft isbelow a normal glide path; conversely, arelatively narrow runway may give theillusion of being high. With an awarenessof these illusions under unlimited visibilityconditions, it becomes easy to appreciate apilot’s problems in a landing situation inwhich the approach lights and runwaylights are the only visual cues available.

Approach lights do not provide adequatevertical guidance to the pilot during lowvisibility approaches. In poor visibility,

especially when the runway surface is notvisible, or in good visibility at night, theresimply are not enough visual cues availableto adequately determine vertical position orvertical motion. Studies have shown thatthe sudden appearance of runway lightswhen the aircraft is at or near minima inconditions of limited visibility often givesthe pilot the illusion of being high. Theyhave also shown that when the approachlights become visible, pilots tend toabandon the established glide path, ignorethe flight instruments and instead rely onvisual cues. Erroneous visual cues thatconvince the pilot that the aircraft is abovethe normal glide path, generally result in apushover reaction, an increase in the rate ofdescent, and a short or hard landing.

To avoid excessive rates of descent duringthe visual portion of the approach, it isimportant that a stabilized, on-speedinstrument approach be flown so that thetransition to visual flight only requires smalllateral and/or vertical corrections. Knowingthat visual cues can be erroneous, the pilotmust continue to cross-check instruments (orhave another crew member cross-checkthem) even after runway and/or approachlights have come into view. Most pilotsfind it extremely difficult to cross-checktheir flight instruments once the transitionto the visual segment has been made, astheir natural tendency is to believe theaccuracy of what they are seeing; or theycontinue to look outside in an effort to gainmore visual cues. A scan for outsidereferences should be incorporated into thecross-check as minima are approached, eventhough restrictions to visibility maypreclude the pilot from seeing any visualcues.

2. RESTRICTIONS TO VISIBILITY: There are manyphenomena, such as rain, smoke, snow, andhaze, which may restrict visibility. Whensurface visibility restrictions do exist and thesky or clouds are totally hidden from theobserver, the sky is considered totallyobscured and the ceiling is the verticalvisibility from the ground. If you areexecuting an approach in an obscuredcondition, you may not see the approachlights or runway as you pass the level of theobscured ceiling. You should be able to see

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 4-47

the ground directly below; however, thetransition from instrument to visual flightmay occur at an altitude lower than thereported vertical visibility. Also of concernis the visual range at which you will be ableto discern visual cues for runway alignmentand flare. The runway visibility or runwayvisual range (RVR) may not berepresentative of the range at which therunway environment is actually visible. Infact, slant range visibility may beconsiderably less than the reported RVR.

Landing lights may cause a blinding effect atnight. The transition from approach in atotal obscuration involves the integration ofvisual cues within the cross-check duringthe latter portion of the approach. Again,familiarity with the approach lightingsystem is required to develop the properperspective between these cues and therunway environment.

Approaches in rain and the ensuingtransition to visual flight can be hazardoussince moderate to heavy rain conditions canseriously affect the use of visual cues. Nightapproaches in these conditions can be evenmore critical as you may be distracted byflashing strobes or runway end identifierlights. Transition to visual flight can behampered by the inability to adequatelymaintain aircraft control and interpret theinstruments as a result of gusty or turbulentconditions . Moderate or heavy rainconditions can also render the rain removalequipment ineffective, causing obscurationof visual cues at a critical time during thetransition. In these conditions, an alternatecourse of action may be required to preventthe development of an unsafe situation.

Blowing snow is accompanied by many ofthe same hazards as rain, such as turbulence,obscured visual cues, and aircraft controlproblems. Of special interest will be a lackof visual cues for runway identification forthe visual portion of the approach. Theapproach and runway lights will providesome identification; however, runwaymarkings and the contrast in relation to itssurroundings may be lost in the whiteness.Therefore, depth perception may bedifficult, requiring more emphasis oninstruments for attitude control. It is

extremely important to avoid large attitudechanges during approaches in snow.

3. VISUAL CUES: Approach lights, runwaymarkings, lights, and contrast are theprimary sources of visual cues. At somefacilities, touchdown zone and centrelinelights may also be available. Becomefamiliar with the lighting and markingpatterns at your destination and correlatethem with the weather so you will beprepared to transition to visual flight. Inminimum visibility conditions, the visualcues and references for flare and runwayalignment are extremely limited comparedto the normal references used during avisual approach. Therefore, the aircraft’sprojected runway contact point may not bewithin your visual segment untilconsiderably below published minimums.

WARNING:Any abrupt attitude changes to attempt tobring the projected touchdown point into yourvisual segment may produce high sink rates ata critical time. Those so-called duck-undermanoeuvres must be avoided during the lowvisibility approach.

4. PILOT REACTION TIME: At 200-foot elevationand on a 3° glide slope, an aircraft isapproximately 3,800 feet from the RunwayPoint of Intercept (RPI). If the aircraft’sfinal approach speed is 130 knots (215 feetper second), you have less than 18 seconds tobring visual cues into the cross-check,ascertain lateral and vertical position,determine a visual flight path, and establishappropriate corrections. For a Cat IIapproach at DH, there are less than 9seconds until touchdown. More then likely, 3to 4 seconds will be spent integrating visualcues before making a necessary controlinput. By this time, the aircraft will be 600to 800 feet closer to the RPI, and 40 to 60feet lower. Therefore, it is absolutelyessential to be prepared to use visual cuesproperly and with discretion during thefinal stages of a low visibility approach.Prior to total reliance on visual information,confirm that the instrument indicationssupport the visual perspective.

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-48

C. CIRCLING

A circling approach is an instrument manoeuvredone visually. Because each circling manoeuvreis different owing to variables like runwaylayout, final approach track, wind velocity andweather conditions, there can be no singleprocedure for conducting a circling approach(Fig. 4-31). The basic requirements are to keepthe airport in sight after initial visual contact andremain at the appropriate circling MDA until alanding is assured. The pilot must select theprocedure to remain within the protected areaand to accomplish a safe landing.

The Visual Manoeuvring Area for a circlingapproach is determined by drawing arcs centredon each runway threshold and joining these arcswith tangent lines (Fig. 4-30). Pilots should beaware that the 300 ft obstacle clearance isprovided only within the Visual ManoeuvringArea. Flight outside this area is not obstacleprotected. The radius of the arcs relating to theaircraft category is shown at the right.

Choose a pattern that best suits the situation.Manoeuvre the aircraft to a safe position whichallows you to keep as much of the airportenvironment in sight as possible. Considermaking your turn to final into the wind if thismanoeuvring allows you to also keep the airportenvironment in sight. You may make either leftor right turns to final unless you are:

a/ directed by the controlling agencyto do otherwise; or

b/ required to do otherwise byrestrictions on the approach chartsuch as "...all circling north ofrunway 09-27".

If there is any doubt whether the aircraft can besafely manoeuvred to touchdown, execute themissed approach.

CAUTION:Be aware of the common tendency tomanoeuvre too close to the runway ataltitudes lower than the normal VFR patternaltitude. This tendency is caused by using thesame visual cues that are used for normalVFR pattern altitudes. Select a pattern thatdisplaces the aircraft far enough from therunway to allow you to turn to final withoutoverbanking or overshooting final, whilestaying within the protected airspace.

NOTES:1. CIRCLING MINIMA (MDA

and visibility) are specifiedfor each category of aircraft.If it is necessary tomanoeuvre at a speedgreater than the upper limitof the speed range for thecategory, the pilot must usethe minima for a highercategory.

2. Although the "STRAIGHT-IN" MINIMA may not bepublished on an instrumentapproach chart, the aircraft may land straight-

in if the runway is in sight in sufficient timeto make a normal descent to the runway. Atcontrolled airports this should be confirmedwith the tower controller. At uncontrolledairports the pilot must be aler t to thepossibility of aircraft or vehicles on therunway, and broadcast the fact that a straight-in landing is going to be accomplished.

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R

R

R

R

FIG. 4-30 - • VISUAL MANOEUVRING AREA - CIRCLING APPROACH

AIRCRAFTCATEGORY

CATEGORY ACATEGORY BCATEGORY CCATEGORY D

SPEED

UP TO 90 KTS91 TO 120 KTS121 TO 140 KTS141 TO 165 KTS

ARC RADIUS(R)

1.3 NM1.5 NM1.7 NM2.3 NM

Runway sighted here

A B

DC

Runway sighted here

Runway sighted here

Runway sighted here

FIG. 4-31 • CIRCLING APPROACH OPTIONS

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 4-49

3. Circling restrictions (Fig. 4-32) arepublished at some locations to prevent circlingin certain sectors or directions where higherterrain or prominent obstacles exist. Thispractice allows the publication of lowerminima than would otherwise be possible. Insuch cases, the circling MDA does not provideobstacle clearance within the restricted sector.For another example, see Fig. 4-33.

D. MISSED APPROACH PROCEDURE

It may become necessary to conduct a missedapproach after starting visual manoeuvres.There are no standard procedures in thissituation. Unless the pilot is familiar with theterrain, it is recommended that:

1/ a climb be initiated;2/ the aircraft be turned towards the centre of

the airport; and3/ the aircraft be established, as closely as

possible, on the missed approach proceduretrack published for the instrument approachprocedure just completed.

Even with the airport in sight at circling MDA,the pilot should execute the missed approach ifthere is any doubt that the ceiling and visibilityare adequate for manoeuvring safely to the pointof touchdown.

4.6.4NDB APPROACHES

For an example of an NDB approach, see Fig.4-33.

A. STATION PASSAGE

At all altitudes, initial station passage isconsidered to be that point at which the ADFbearing pointer moves through the "wing tip"position. At high altitude, the bearing pointermay take from 1 to 3 minutes to stabilize at the180-degree position. At low altitude, because ofthe narrow width of the cone of confusion,oscillation of the bearing pointer may be slight.Close to the beacon there is a rapid movementof the bearing pointer. Chasing the bearingpointer should be avoided as the track errorsclose to the beacon are minimal. Fly theheading that has been used tracking inbound tothe beacon; then, upon station passage, turn the

shortest way to intercept the outbound trackusing the same drift correction. Complete thefirst 5-T check.

A handy reference for flying NDB approaches isas follows:

1/ inbound to the beacon - "desired to the head(of the needle) plus correction";

2/ outbound from the beacon - "tail (of theneedle) to desired plus correction".

35

17

15

3304

22

This sector eliminated

Eliminated sector

.

.

. .

Circling not authorized east of Rwy 17-35 centreline

Circling not authorized north of airport between centrelines of Rwys 15 & 22

A)

B)

FIG. 4-32• CIRCLING RESTRICTIONS

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B. 5-T CHECK

The following "5T" check is completedimmediately after station passage outbound:

C. NDB APPROACH (BEACON OFF THE FIELD)Normally, the pre-landing check is completed duringthe outbound portion of the procedure turn, but theAircraft Operating Manual should be consulted forthe particular type of aircraft being flown. Theaircraft should not descend below the publishedprocedure turn altitude during any portion of theprocedure turn. Fig. 4-33, for example, authorizes3,200 ft as the procedure turn altitude.

Once the aircraft is flying inbound, good tracking isessential. Eliminate drift as soon as possiblebecause, normally, you will be able to apply thesame drift correction from the station inbound tothe aerodrome. Avoid large heading changes whenapproaching station passage. Descent fromprocedure turn altitude to final approach fix altitudecan only be made when the aircraft is on courseinbound to the beacon (tolerance is ± 5°).

The final approach from the beacon to theaerodrome is the most critical part of theapproach: success depends to a large extent on

thorough pre-approach planning. At stationpassage inbound, complete a second "5T" checkas follows:

CHECK ACTION

T - Time Note the time at which theaircraft started to flyoutbound.

T - Turn If required, turn onto aheading which willintercept the outboundtrack.

T - Track Fly required track forselected procedure turn,compensating for drift.

T - Throttle Reduce the throttle settingas required, and start orcontinue a descent to thepublished procedure turnaltitude. Adjust theairspeed as required.

T - Talk Pass a position report to thecontrolling agency if at anuncontrolled aerodrome.At controlled aerodromes,pass only those positionreports requested by ATC.(WINNIPEG ARRIVAL, GOLFALPHA LIMA MIKE, BY THEBEACON OUTBOUND).

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-50

FIG. 4-33 • NDB APPROACH

CHECK ACTION

T - Time Note the time at "stationpassage" and start timing.

T - Turn If required, turn onto theplanned inbound heading.

T - Track Fly inbound track adjustingfor drift. Use smallcorrections to avoidovercontrolling.

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When the ADF bearing pointer stabilizes,ascertain the amount of track error and make anappropriate correction to the track. Avoid largeheading changes at this stage, because theaircraft is close to the station. Maintain thepublished MDA and approach airspeed andlook for visual references. Refer to Article 4.6.2D.1 for more information on the two methodsof conducting descents to MDA.

If a missed approach is required, the pilot shouldfollow the published missed approachprocedure, inform the controlling agency ofintentions, and request further clearance.

A MISSED APPROACH IS MANDATORY WHEN:1/ the time to the MAP has elapsed without

the required visual reference being sighted;or

2/ a safe landing is not possible; or3/ the controlling agency instructs the pilot to

go around; or4/ track guidance to MAP is not available

(NDB goes off the air).

D. BEACON-ON-THE-FIELD NDB APPROACH

Some NDB approaches are based on a facilitythat is positioned on the field (ie., within 1NM). This gives rise to some unique problems:

1/ unless a final approach fix is established atsome point on the final approach track (ie.,DME or cross-bearing), the pilot will not

have any indication of the distance from therunway from the time the aircraft proceedsoutbound until the runway environment issighted or the aircraft crosses the NDB asecond time when flying inbound;

2/ the outbound portion must be extended toensure sufficient straight away on final toaccomplish the required descent to MDA(not to exceed the maximum procedureturn distance published); and

3/ check list items normally carried out atbeacon-crossing inbound should becompleted at the completion of theprocedure turn.

FIG. 4-34 • BEACON ON THE FIELD APPROACH

CHECK ACTION

T - Throttle Reduce the throttle settingas required, and start adescent to the publishedminimum descent altitude.The aircraft should be levelat MDA prior to the pointthat permits a normal flightpath to the runway (SeeArticle 4.6.2D). Adjust theairspeed and aircraftconfiguration as required.

T - Talk Pass position to thecontrolling agency, (ifrequired). (WINNIPEG TOWER,GOLF ALPHA LIMA MIKE, BY THEBEACON INBOUND).

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-52

4.6.5VOR APPROACHES

The procedures for NDB approaches (includingthe 5-T checks and descent considerations)apply to VOR approaches (see Fig. 4-35) withtwo exceptions. First, the track bar indicatorwill provide visual reference for the relativeposition of the aircraft to the track selected onthe HSI or omni bearing selector (OBS).Second, station passage is indicated by the TO-FROM flags on the instrument face. Oneadvantage of VOR approaches is that the VORis not susceptible to bank error.

Some VOR approaches use DME or NDB fixesto establish a Final Approach Fix (Fig. 4-36).Usually such a fix is established approximately 4NM from the threshold of the runway. This useof DME on VOR approaches allows for lowerlanding minima. An instrument approach chartentitled "VOR/DME" for a specific runwayrequires both VOR and DME equipment to flythat approach.

During the procedure turn for a VOR approach,the inbound track should be set in the OBS ortrack selector window. Close to the VOR, theradials converge; therefore, small headingcorrections should be used to avoid over-controlling. With the final approach inboundcourse set in the track window, fly toward theneedle to maintain course.

4.6.6LOC AND LOC (BC) APPROACHES

A. LOC APPROACHES

A front course ILS approach without glide slopeinformation is called a LOC or localizerapproach. The procedure is similar to a normalILS approach until the aircraft intercepts thelocalizer inbound. Complete the appropriate 5Tchecks inbound (and outbound if required).

After the localizer has been intercepted, theaircraft may descend to the published FAF-crossing altitude if different than the procedureturn altitude. Fig. 4-22 indicates the FAFcrossing altitude for the LOC or NDB approachis 1500 ft. This altitude will provide obstacleclearance on the final approach prior to passageof the FAF. When station passage at the FAF

has occurred, begin a descent at apredetermined rate in order to bring the aircraftdown to the published "LOC" MDA at theappropriate distance from the MAP. (see Article4.6.2D).

Some ILS approach charts depict glide pathinoperative FAF-crossing altitudes using adotted line. (see Fig. 4-39)

B. LOC (BC)The localizer back course (LOC (BC)) is thetrack line along the extended centreline of the

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FIG. 4-35 • VOR APPROACH TO FREDERICTON

IFR FLIGHT PROCEDURES

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 4-53

runway in the direction opposite the front courselocalizer. Back course approaches use the samelocalizer equipment as the front course ILSapproach for the reciprocal runway. The backcourse incorporates only azimuth guidance andbecause of the absence of glide slope information,is a non-precision approach (see Fig. 4-37). It isimportant that the pilot ignore all glide pathindications when carrying out a LOC (BC)approach.

Many aerodromes in Canada have a published backcourse procedure. Study the LOC (BC) approachchart thoroughly while planning the approach andnote the headings and altitudes to fly. Pay attentionto the distance from the FAF to the runway and thealtitude to be lost within this distance. Care mustbe taken to ensure that the localizer front course isselected in the track selector window.

In general, the procedures used are similar tothose of a front course ILS approach. Thedifferences usually lie in the final approach,where difficulties may be experienced inorientation.

During a LOC (BC) approach, the trackdeviation bar (TB) must be read in reverse unlessthe equipment has reverse sensing capability(such as an HSI). In other words, to remain onthe localizer course, the pilot must make anynecessary corrections away from the needleinstead of toward the needle. The samesituation occurs when using the front course asthe departure navigation aid. Therefore, whenflying outbound on the front course or inboundon the back course, the pilot must interpret theTB in reverse (unless the aircraft equipment hasreverse sensing capability).

Use caution when making corrections to regainor maintain the back course. Also, make onlysmall corrections as the aircraft approaches thetransmitter. This is because of the very narrowbeam width close to the facility. Remember thatthe localizer is located approximately 1,000 ftshort of the runway on the back course end.

In HSI equipped aircraft, no apparentinstrument reversal exists. Therefore, theapproach is flown much like a front courselocalizer. Some Flight Directors alsocompensate for perceived instrument reversal.Check aircraft manuals and operatinghandbooks for complete details.

Calculate the time to the missed approach pointwhile planning the approach. Remember thatthe speed used is groundspeed (in knots). Sincethe point for missed approach is usually over therunway threshold, it is necessary to be at MDAprior to expiry of the timing in order to land fromthe approach.

Every localizer has a back course; however,because of equipment location, obstructions orother factors, there may not be a back courseapproach procedure published in the CanadaAir Pilot.

FIG. 4-36 • VOR/DME APPROACH TO NORTH BAY

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-54

4.6.7ILS APPROACHES

ILS approaches in Canada are divided into twocategories: CAT I and CAT II.

A. CATEGORY I (CAT I)The basic ILS approach is called Category I. Aninstrument rating qualifies the pilot forCategory I ILS approaches. The basic minimafor Category I approaches is a decision height(DH) of no less than of 200 ft above thetouchdown zone. The advisory visibility limitsare normally 1/2 SM or RVR26. The actualminima may be higher than 200 ft for a numberof reasons including terrain or if one or more ofthe system components or visual aids are eithernot installed or temporarily inoperative.

B. CATEGORY II (CAT II)"CAT II" approaches require special runway,aircraft and pilot certification. Basic CAT IIminima are RVR 12 and no lower than 100 ftdecision height. For an example, see Fig. 4-38.CAT II decision height is based on radaraltimeter indications, while CAT I DH ispredicated on barometric altimeter indications.

There are four basic types of requirements forlanding with Category II minima: (1) air carrieror operator approval by Transport Canada; (2)special pilot qualifications; (3) special aircraftqualifications with regard to certification andequipment; and (4) runway and facilityqualifications, including the installation andcertification of rather sophisticated equipmentand conformance with stringent clearway(obstruction clearance) regulations. Moreinformation on CAT II ILS approaches isavailable in TP 1490, Manual of All WeatherOperations (Category II).

C. FLYING THE ILSAn example of an ILS approach chart is shownat Fig. 4-39.

Difficulties have been encountered inpositioning aircraft inbound on ILS localizers.These difficulties arise during transition to astraight-in procedure while the aircraft is stilloutside the area of localizer reliability. This canoccur outside 35° of the nominal approachcourse (Fig. 2-82) within 10 NM, or 10° of the

approach course past 18 NM.. Pilots operatingon transitions, including arcs to theintermediate fix may encounter signal anomalies(false localizers) while outside the area of reliablenavigation signal.

Pilots must confirm their position whenconducting an ILS as follows:

1/ on an arc transition, the interception of thelead radial occurs at approximately 2 NMfrom the localizer intercept;

2/ on a bearing, radial or dead reckoning track,an ADF bearing can confirm localizer

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FIG. 4-37• LOC (BC) APPROACH WINNIPEG

IFR FLIGHT PROCEDURES

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 4-55

intercept. If cleared for ILS approachwithout radar vectors or a publishedtransition to follow, the pilot shall proceeddirectly to the NDB or IF ensuring that,while in transit, the aircraft is not flown atan altitude lower than the appropriateminimum IFR altitude;

3/ on radar vectors, a clearance for the ILSapproach is not normally issued until theaircraft is approaching the final approachcourse.

In all cases, the final confirmation will be thatthe aircraft track is identical to the localizerbearing with the track bar centred.

Thereafter, the aircraft should adhere strictly tothe on-course, on-glide path indications. Ahalf-course azimuth deflection or a half-coursefly-up deflection places the aircraft near the edgeor bottom of the protected airspace, where loss ofobstacle clearance can occur.

For safety reasons, intermediate approach tracksor radar vectors place the aircraft on the localizerat an altitude below the nominal glide pathprior to glide path interception. If the aircraft isinbound on the localizer above the glide path thepilot must use extreme caution, because he orshe must follow a non-standard procedure andmight require an excessive rate of descent toregain the glide path.

During the latter stages of the procedure turn,fly a heading to intercept the localizer courseinbound (it is recommended to use a maximum45-degree interception angle). Interpretation ofthe rate of movement of the track bar allowsstart of the turn inbound with the correctamount of lead. The aircraft must not beallowed to descend below the publishedprocedure turn altitude.

Initially, the Glide Slope Indicator (GSI) shouldbe at the top of the instrument, which meansthe glide path is above. Unlike the track bar,the GSI is always directional: flying towards theGSI will bring the aircraft back to the glidepath. The GSI will start moving down towardsthe centre of the instrument, and normallyinterception of the glide path will occur beforethe aircraft arrives over the FAF. The publishedFAF altitude on the approach chart is only analtimeter and glide path check - it is not a safetyheight. It should be used to confirm correct

altimeter reading and that the aircraft is notflying a false glidepath. Variations due totemperature are to be expected with ±100 ftquite normal. Include the GSI in theinstrument cross-check in preparation for theinterception, and be ready to begin a descentwhen the indicator approaches the centre. Theamount of lead is governed by the rate ofmovement of the GSI so that, by the time theindicator is in the centre of the instrument, adefinite rate of descent should have beenestablished. Adjust power and configuration,when necessary, to maintain the desired airspeedand rate of descent.

FIG. 4-38 • ILS CAT II APPROACH TO VANCOUVER

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-56

A constant rate of descent and heading should bemaintained until one or both of the indicatorsmove away from the centre. When a deviation ofthe GSI is detected, adjust the rate of descent byflying towards the indicator. The narrow depthof the glide path causes rapid movements of theindicator, so usually only small adjustments tothe rate of descent are necessary to return theindicator to the centre. Should the aircraft driftoff the localizer, causing the track bar to moveaway from the centre, make a correction towardsthe track bar using the aircraft compass to regainthe localizer, and then select a new heading whichincludes an allowance for drift. The track bar isnot a flight instrument; therefore all correctionsto track must be made on the compass.

The final approach segment starts at a fix or facilitythat permits verification of the glidepath/altimeter relationship. The outer marker(OM), DME or an NDB are normally used forthis purpose.

If there is an NDB located at the outer marker,there will be a normal indication of stationpassage. Like other types of approaches, a "5-T"check should be completed crossing the IAFoutbound and the FAF inbound.

When the aircraft is established on the localizercourse and the glide path, and near the approachend of the runway, corrections should beconfined to small changes of heading and rates ofdescent. This is necessary because of the rapidlydecreasing width of both beams, which becomesevident by the increasing sensitivity of both thetrack bar and GSI.

If at any time on final approach prior to DH full-scale deflection of the localizer occurs, initiate amissed approach. When full-scale down deflectionoccurs on the GSI, descent to a non-precisionMDA may be continued without using excessiverates of descent. If full-scale up deflection occurson the GSI, the aircraft should overshoot sinceobstacle clearance is not assured.

If glide path guidance is lost (i.e. flagged off )during the approach, the procedure becomes anon-precision approach. The pilot may descendto the LOC MDA at the appropriate time,providing that an MDA is published for the glidepath inoperative case, as in Fig. 4-39.

As with all approaches, descent below the MDA

or DH MUST be made only when the requiredvisual references are available.

If the required visual reference to land cannot beattained at the published minimum altitude(DH), start a missed approach procedure. Whilesome descent below DH may occur during thetransition from descent to climb, it is imperativethat this be minimized by prompt and positiveaircraft control. Once the decision to overshootis made and the aircraft is climbing awayaccording to the published missed approachprocedure, inform the controlling agency of youraction and intentions. Request further clearance.

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FIG. 4-39 • ILS APPROACH TO TORONTO

IFR FLIGHT PROCEDURES

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 4-57

4.6.8RADAR APPROACHES

A. GENERAL

Air Traffic Control applies radar separation toarriving aircraft to establish and maintain themost desirable arrival sequence and avoidunnecessary "stacking" or delays. In theapproach phase, radar vectoring establishes theaircraft on an approach aid. Aircraft arevectored to intercept the final approach courseapproximately two miles from the point wherefinal descent begins. In a precision radarapproach, ATC vectors the aircraft bysurveillance radar to a predetermined position,where it transfers control to the precision radarcontroller for the "talk down".

EXAMPLES:SDC, ARRIVAL, 3 MILES FROM THEOUTER MARKER, TURN RIGHTHEADING 180 TO INTERCEPT FINALAPPROACH COURSE. CLEARED TO THETORONTO AIRPORT FOR STRAIGHT-INILS RUNWAY 15 APPROACH.

or for radar approach

SDC, ARRIVAL, TURN LEFT HEADING230 FOR FINAL APPROACH. 8 MILESFROM THE AIRPORT. CLEARED TO THEGREENWOOD AIRPORT FOR APRECISION RADAR APPROACH,RUNWAY 26.

B. PRECISION APPROACH RADAR (PAR)Precision Approach Radar (PAR) is provided atsome military airports. The PAR approachprovides azimuth, range and glide-pathinformation. The normal weather limits forPAR are a 200 foot ceiling and 1/2 milevisibility. Minima for PAR approaches, and thelocations where they are available, are publishedin the GEN section of CAP.

The approach may be conducted without aserviceable compass by following the radarcontroller’s directions. Total radio failure mayalso be overcome by tuning in an NDB withvoice capability and the PAR controller willbroadcast instructions to the aircraft using theNDB frequency. Failure to acknowledge

instructions prior to finalapproach will initiate areceiver-only PAR. TheCanada Flight Supplement alsodetails those military airfieldswhere PAR is available andthose which have thecapability to broadcast on anNDB (by listing a "T" afterthe frequency).

From the pilot’s point of view,the radar approach is dividedinto the traffic pattern and thefinal approach. The trafficpattern includes manoeuvring up to a pointwhich is 7 to 8 miles from touch-down on thefinal approach track. All turns during the trafficpattern are made at a standard rate (RATE 1).The final approach portion begins immediatelyafter the traffic pattern and ends when thelanding is completed or when the aircraft startsa missed approach procedure. All turns duringthe final approach should not exceed a rate 1/2turn.

While the aircraft is flying the traffic pattenportion of the radar approach, the controller,after establishing radar identification, will askthe pilot to read back the altimeter and altitude.Alternate instructions will then be issued ifrequired, followed by landing information. Theglide path angle and decision height will begiven on a downwind leg. On the base leg, thefinal controller will confirm altitude andaltimeter. Lost communication and missedapproach instructions will then be given.Fig. 4-41 refers.

Before reaching the glide path, speed should bereduced to the final approach speedrecommended for the particular type of aircraft.When the radar controller sees the aircraftintercepting the glide path, the pilot will beinstructed to commence descent for theappropriate glidepath angle. Glide pathinformation is passed regularly to provide anaccurate indication of the aircraft’s position inrelation to the glide path.

Accurate heading control is most importantduring the final approach to assist the controllerin aligning the aircraft on the final approachtrack. Correction to new headings should bemade immediately. The radar controller always

FIG. 4-40 • ON COURSE, ON GLIDEPATH

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-58

bases new instructions on the assumption thatprevious instructions have been carried out.PAR controllers can also be utilized to provideradar monitor during ILS approaches.

C. AERODROME SURVEILLANCE RADAR (ASR)The Aerodrome Surveillance Radar (ASR)approach uses the surveillance capability of theradar system to provide azimuth and rangeinformation to the pilot. The controller has noindication of the aircraft’s altitude or positionrelative to the ideal glide path. The weatherlimits for ASR approaches are normally a 400foot ceiling and 1 mile visibility.

The traffic pattern stage of the surveillanceapproach is identical to that of the precisionapproach. During the final approach, up to thepoint of glide path interception, the sameinstructions as for a precision approach arereceived. Establish a rate of descent wheninstructed to do so, but, since no glidepathinformation is available during a surveillanceapproach, instructions cannot be issued forcorrecting the rate of descent. The controller,however, can give the optimum altitude for eachmile of the approach. If this information isdesired, it should be requested by the pilotduring the traffic pattern. After level off atMDA, continue until runway environment issighted or until advised by the radar controllerthat the MAP has been reached.

At Canadian civil airports, where surveillanceradar coverage permits it, an air traffic controllermay provide a surveillance radar approach if noalternative method of approach is available. Thepilot must declare an emergency and request asurveillance radar approach.

NOTE:Transport Canada radars are not flight-checked orcommissioned for surveillance approaches, nor areTransport Canada controllers specifically trained toprovide them.

4.6.9 RNAV APPROACHES

At the time of publication, there were two typesof approved non-precision RNAV approaches:Multi-sensor and Global Positioning System

(GPS). Article 2.2.9 D and G provides detailson the required equipment and method ofoperation. Once differential GPS facilities areinstalled in Canada, it should be possible to flyprecision approaches using GPS. See AIPCanada for current information.

A. GPS APPROACHES

There are two categories of GPS non-precisionapproaches (NPAs) - overlay and stand-alone.Traditional NAVAIDS (VOR, NDB) need notbe monitored when flying a GPS stand aloneNPA as long as certain conditions are met.

The GPS overlay approach uses an existing NPA- VOR, VOR/DME, NDB, NDB/DME - butthe GPS is used to fly the approach. The GPSstand-alone approach is a totally new approachdesigned for use with GPS.

1. GENERAL PROVISIONS

a/ The GPS avionics must meet TSO C-129requirements or equivalent criteria, andmust be installed and approved inaccordance with the appropriateregulations;

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RADAR IDENTIFICATION

LOST COM INSTRUCTIONS

LANDING AND WEATHER INFORMATION

TYPE OF APPROACH

GLIDE PATH ANGLE

DECISION HEIGHT

PILOT'S INTENTIONS

CONTROL LIMITS

FINAL GEAR CHECK

LANDING CLEARANCE

COMMENCE DESCENT

GEAR CHECK

GLIDE PATH WARNING

CONFIRM ALTITUDE & ALT SETTING

HANDOFF TO FINAL CONTROLLER

LOST COM INSTRUCTIONS

FIG. 4-41 • PAR TRAFFIC PATTERN

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b/ An approach using GPS shall not be flownunless that instrument approach is retrievedfrom the avionics data base. The GPSavionics must store the location of allwaypoints, intersections, and/or navigationaids required to define the approach andpresent them in the order depicted on thepublished non-precision instrumentapproach procedure chart;

c/ The general approval to use GPS to flyinstrument approaches is presently limitedto VOR, VOR/DME, NDB andNDB/DME as listed in CAP. The use ofGPS for any other instrument approachprocedure must be authorized.

NOTE:Approaches which may be flown using GPS arelisted in the Canada Air Pilot or may be providedas special approvals to individual companies.

2. GPS OVERLAY APPROACHES

a/ The ground-based NAVAID(s) required forthe published approach must be operatingand the avionics for the approach must beinstalled and operational and monitored bythe flight crew during the approach;

b/ The approach must be requested andapproved by its published name (e.g. "NDBRWY 24", "VOR RWY 24"). Modificationof the published instrument approachidentification is not required.

NOTE:If there is a discrepancy between GPS and thetraditional NAVAID(s), the pilot must revert tothe traditional NAVAID(s) for navigation.

3. GPS STAND-ALONE APPROACHES

a/ RAIM (Receiver Autonomous IntegrityMonitoring) must be available to provideintegrity for the navigation guidance usedduring the approach;

b/ The ground-based NAVAID(s) thattraditionally defined the published approachat the destination airport may be inoperative;

c/ Any required alternate aerodrome musthave an approved instrument approachprocedure, other than GPS, which isanticipated to be operational at theestimated arrival time. The avionics to flythat approach must be installed andoperational. The avionics required to

receive the traditional NAVAID(s) thatdefine the route to be flown from thedeparture to the destination and the routeto any required alternate aerodrome mustalso be installed and operational; and

d/ The published approach must be identifiedand requested as a GPS approach (e.g."GPS RWY 13").

FIG. 4-42 • MULTI-SENSOR RNAV APPROACH

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-60

4. FLYING THE GPS APPROACH: GPSapproaches should be flown like other non-precision approaches in terms of aircraftcontrol, tracking and descents. Trackguidance can be expected to be moreaccurate than traditional NAVAIDS, and abonus is time, distance and groundspeedinformation. Trials have shown that NPAsusing GPS can normally bring the aircraftwithin 100 ft. of centreline 1 NM backfrom the runway threshold.

At the time of publication of this manual,criteria for constructing and depictingRNAV procedures were still beingdeveloped by Canada and other countries.Therefore, no detailed information can beprovided in this edition of the INSTRUMENT

PROCEDURES MANUAL.

B. MULTI-SENSOR APPROACHES

An example of a Multi-Sensor RNAVapproach is found in Fig. 4-42. It requiresan FMS with INS/IRS updated byDME/DME. Notice that the minimums forthis approach are a HAT (height abovetouchdown zone elevation) of 549 feet and avisibility of 2 NM. Also, there are a total of 5fixes (LAKKE, JANTY, FEDGE, FAWP,MAWP) required which are arranged in a"U" pattern.

EMERGENCIES

4.7.1DECLARATION OF EMERGENCY

Whenever pilots encounter an emergency, theymust take whatever action is necessary. AirTraffic Control assists pilots in any way possiblewhen they declare an emergency. Remember, ifyou want ATC priority, you must declare anemergency. If you advise ATC that you have" low fuel", your status does not change.However, a "low fuel emergency" gives youpriority handling and service. Pilots shouldadvise ATC, as soon as practicable, of anydeviations from IFR altitudes or route requiredby an emergency, so that every effort can bemade to minimize conflict with other aircraft.Air Traffic Control may ask pilots for a writtenreport concerning the nature of a declaredemergency.

The two categories of emergency aresummarized:

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TYPE

1. DISTRESS

A distress messagehas priority overall other messages

2. URGENCY

An urgencymessage haspriority over allother messagesexcept distress

R/T

MAYDAY

PAN PAN

C/W

SOS

XXX

USAGE

1/ When threatened byserious and/or immediatedanger and requiringimmediate assistance(ditching, crash landing,etc.)

2/ When transmittingdistress traffic for othersunable to transmit

1/ When situation requiresurgent action but is notactual distress (lost, fuelshortage, etc.)

2/ When transmitting toreport the safety to anaircraft, ship or othervehicle, or of some personor persons on board orwithin sight

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THE PILOT SHOULD:a/ switch on all automatic emergency

equipment;b/ precede the distress or urgency message by

the appropriate signal, preferably spokenthree times;

c/ transmit on the air-ground frequency in useat that time including flight level, andheading; and

d/ include in the distress or urgency message asmany as possible of these elements:

1/ MAYDAY MAYDAY MAYDAY this isa/c call sign (3 times),

2/ type of aircraft,3/ position or estimated position,4/ heading and airspeed,5/ altitude,6/ nature of emergency,7/ pilot’s intentions (ditching, landing,

etc.).

THESE PROCEDURES DO NOT PRECLUDE:a/ the aircraft using any available frequency for

broadcasting the emergency message;b/ the aircraft using any means at its disposal

to attract attention and make known itscondition;

c/ any station taking any means to assist thestricken aircraft.

Generally, the pilot addresses the station thatnormally communicates with the aircraft.

When an aircraft does not reply when called,and is assumed to have transmitter trouble,messages to the aircraft may be transmittedblind. Under these conditions the message shallbe repeated three times at three-minuteintervals. Messages to ATC shall not betransmitted blind unless specific instructions todo so are received from the controller, or youhave reason to believe that your transmitter isstill functioning but your receiver is not.

Pilots of transponder-equipped aircraft, whenexperiencing an emergency and unable toestablish communications immediately with anair traffic control unit, may indicate "emergency"to ATC by adjusting the transponder to reply onCode 7700. Thereafter, the pilot shouldestablish radio communications with ATC assoon as possible and operate the transponder as

directed by ATC. When pilots use Code 7700,the signal will not be detected when the aircraftis outside SSR range.

4.7.2COMMUNICATION FAILURE IN IFR FLIGHT

All pilots and operators should study thecommunications failure procedures in theCanada Flight Supplement.

a/ If a communication failure occurs when thepilot is operating in VFR weather conditions,or if the aircraft subsequently encountersVFR weather conditions, the pilot shallmaintain VFR and land as soon aspracticable;

b/ If the failure occurs in IFR weatherconditions , or if the flight cannot becontinued under VFR weather conditions,the pilot-in-command shall continue theflight according to the following:

1/ ROUTE

i/ by the route assigned in the lastATC clearance received andacknowledged; or

ii/ if being radar vectored, by thedirect route from the point ofcommunications failure to the fix,route, or airway specified in thevector clearance; or

iii/ in the absence of an assignedroute, by the route that ATC hasadvised may be expected in afurther clearance; or

iv/ in the absence of an assigned routeor a route that ATC has advisedmay be expected in a furtherclearance, by the route filed in theflight plan.

2/ ALTITUDE: At the HIGHEST of thefollowing altitudes or flight levels forthe ROUTE SEGMENT BEINGFLOWN:

i/ the altitude(s) or flight level(s)assigned in the last ATC clearancereceived and acknowledged; or

ii/ the minimum IFR altitude (seeAIP RAC for definition); or

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-62

iii/ the altitude or flight level ATC hasadvised may be expected in afurther clearance. (The pilot shallcommence climb to thisaltitude/FL at the time or pointspecified by ATC to expect furtherclearance/altitude change).

NOTE 1:The intent of the above is that an aircraft whichhas experienced communications failure will,during any segment of a flight, be flown at analtitude that provides the required obstacleclearance.

NOTE 2:If the failure occurs while being vectored at a radarvectoring altitude which is lower than theappropriate minimum IFR altitude, the pilot shallimmediately climb to and maintain theappropriate minimum IFR altitude until arrivalat the fix, route or airway specified in theclearance.

3/ DESCENT FOR APPROACH: Maintain enroute altitude to the navigation facilityor the Initial Approach Fix to be usedfor the instrument approach procedureselected (published transitions areincluded as IAFs in this case) andcommence an appropriate descentprocedure at whichever of the followingtimes is the latest:

i/ the expected time of arrival (ETAas calculated from take-off timeplus the filed or amended (withATC) estimated time en route);

ii/ the estimated time of arrival lastnotified to and acknowledged byATC; or

iii/ the expected approach time (EAT)last received and acknowledged.

If failure occurs after receiving andacknowledging a holding instruction, hold asdirected and commence an instrumentapproach at the expected approach time orexpected further clearance time, whicheverhas been issued.

NOTE 1:If the holding fix is not a fix from which anapproach begins, leave the fix at the expectedfurther clearance time if one has been received, or,if none has been received, upon arrival over theclearance limit and proceed to a fix from which anapproach begins and commence descent or descentand approach as close as possible to the estimatedtime of arrival as calculated from the filed oramended (with ATC) estimated time en route.

NOTE 2:If cleared for a STAR or profile descent procedure,maintain the appropriate altitude described inparagraph 2 (Altitude) and proceed to the finalapproach fix via:

i/ the published routing (and altitudes inthe case of a profile descent); or

ii/ the published route to the segment whereradar vectors are depicted to commence,then direct to the facility serving therunway advised by ATIS or specified inthe ATC clearance, for a straight-inapproach, if able, or to conduct the fullprocedure as published.

c/ Pilots of transponder-equipped aircraft, whenexperiencing a two-way communicationsfailure, shall indicate the situation to ATCby selecting Code 7600. This onlyindicates the situation, and does not relievethe pilot of the requirement to comply withthe published communications failureprocedures.

NOTE:When a pilot uses Code 7600, ATC may notdetect the signal because the aircraft is not withinSSR coverage or because the ATC unit is using SSRequipment that does not automatically detect Code7600.

Should a situation develop for which there is noset procedure or where other circumstanceswarrant it, the pilot shall act according to his orher own best judgement. In any event, ATCprotects the airspace required to conduct anyinstrument approach at the aerodrome of firstintended landing for a period of 30 minutesfrom the time at which the aircraft is expectedto commence an approach.

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4.7.3REPORTING MALFUNCTIONS OF NAVIGATIONAND COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT

The pilot of an IFR aircraft within controlledairspace shall report immediately to theappropriate Air Traffic Control unit anymalfunction of navigation or air/groundcommunications equipment, e.g.:

a/ loss of VOR, ADF or other navigationcapability;

b/ complete or partial loss of ILS capability;c/ complete or partial loss of INS/ONS/GPS

capability;d/ impairment of air/ground communications

capability; ore/ impairment of transponder operation.

After receiving this information, ATC takes intoaccount any limitations in navigation orair/ground communications equipment andissues control instructions accordingly.

4.7.4FUEL DUMPING

Whenever it is necessary to jettison fuel, thepilot should immediately notify ATC andprovide information on the track to be flown,period of time involved, and weatherconditions. ATC may suggest an alternate areawhere fuel should be dumped; aircraft shoulddump fuel on a constant heading overunpopulated areas and clear of heavy traffic. Toallow for adequate vaporization, fuel dumpingshould be carried out at least 2000 ft. above thehighest obstacle within 5 NM of the track to beflown. After obtaining the necessar yinformation, ATC broadcasts a "fuel dumping"advisory on appropriate frequencies at three-minute intervals, until 15 minutes after theaircraft completes the fuel dumping. Pilotsshould advise ATC immediately after thedumping has been completed.

TRANSPONDER OPERATION

4.8.1GENERAL

When pilots receive ATC instructionsconcerning transponder operation, they shalloperate transponders as directed until receivingfurther instructions or until the aircraft haslanded, except in an emergency, communicationfailure or hijack.

Air Traffic Control radar units have an alarmsystem that responds when the aircraft is withinradar coverage and when the pilot selects theemergency, communication failure or hijacktransponder code. Pilots may unintentionallyselect these codes momentarily when changingthe transponder from one code to another. Toavoid unnecessary activation of the alarm, pilotsshould avoid inadvertent selection of 7500,7600 or 7700. This can be accomplished bysimply avoiding selection of the left-hand "7"on the transponder head. If a "7" must be used,such as in Code 7215, additional care must betaken. Do not select "standby" while changingcodes, as this will cause the radar target to belost.

Pilots should adjust transponders to "standby"while taxiing for take-off, to "on" (or "normal")as late as practicable before take-off, and to"standby" or "off" as soon as practicable aftercompleting the landing. Pilots shall operate theidentification (IDENT) feature only whendirected by ATC. Mode Caltitude reporting shouldalways be used when available.On initial contact withdeparture control, advisealtitude to the nearest 100 ft.increment so that ATC mayvalidate their altitude readout.

4.8

FIG. 4-43 • DIGITAL TRANSPONDER

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL4-64

4.8.2HIGH-LEVEL AIRSPACE - IFR FLIGHT

Transponders shall be operated as directed byATC, or if no direction is given by ATC,adjusted to reply on Code 2000 and on Mode C.

A transponder is required for operations withincontrolled high-level airspace. A controller,however, may authorize an aircraft without aserviceable transponder to operate in controlledhigh level airspace provided that the pilot files awritten request with an ATC unit or other flightplan office. The pilot may include this requestin a flight plan. An aircraft normally maycontinue to operate in controlled HLA to thenext point of intended landing if its transponderfails in flight.

Air Traffic Control may refuse a request orcancel a previously issued authorization if trafficconditions or other operational requirementsdictate.

4.8.3LOW-LEVEL AIRSPACE - IFR FLIGHT

Pilots shall operate transponders as directed byATC, or if no direction is given by ATC, adjustto reply on Code 1000 and on Mode C. If thepilot cancels the IFR flight plan, thetransponder should be adjusted to reply on theappropriate VFR code specified below, unlessotherwise directed by ATC.

4.8.4PHRASEOLOGY

SQUAWK (number):Operate transponder on specified code in Mode A.

SQUAWK IDENT:Activate the identification ("IDENT") featureof the transponder.

SQUAWK (number) AND IDENT:Operate transponder on specified code andactivate the "IDENT" feature.

SQUAWK STANDBY:Switch transponder to "standby" position,retaining present mode and code.

SQUAWK LOW/NORMAL:Operate transponder on low or normalsensitivity as specified. (Transponder isoperated on normal sensitivity unless ATCspecifies "low". "ON" is used instead of"NORMAL" as a label on some transpondercontrol panels. Some transponders do not havea "LOW" setting).

SQUAWK MAYDAY, CODE SEVEN SEVENZERO ZERO:Operate transponder on, Code 7700.

STOP SQUAWK:Switch off transponder.

STOP ALTITUDE SQUAWK:Turn off altitude reporting equipment.

4.8.5MODE C

Flight crews of aircraft with transponderscapable of Mode "C" (automatic altitudereporting) shall adjust their transponders totransmit Mode "C" when operating inCanadian airspace unless de-activation isdirected by ATC. Certain classes of airspacenormally require Mode "C" operation for bothIFR and VFR aircraft. See the AIP, CFS orDesignated Airspace Handbook for details. ModeS transponders are discussed in Article 2.1.6D.

4.8.6VFR FLIGHT (INCLUDING CONTROLLEDVFR FLIGHT)

Unless otherwise directed by ATC, pilots shouldoperate transponders on one of the followingcodes, as appropriate:

a/ Code 1200, for operation below 12,500 ftASL;

b/ Code 1400 , for operation at or above12,500 ft ASL.

NOTE:When climbing above 12,500 ft, pilots should useCode 1200 until they leave 12,500 ft, then selectCode 1400. When descending from 12,500 ft orabove, pilots should select code 1200 uponreaching 12,500 ft.

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4.8.7EMERGENCIES

In the event of emergency, and if unable toestablish communication immediately with anATC unit, a pilot wishing to alert ATC to theemergency situation should adjust thetransponder to reply on Code 7700. Thereafter,the pilot should establish communication withATC as soon as possible, and operate thetransponder as directed by ATC.

4.8.8COMMUNICATION FAILURE

In the event of a communication failure, thepilot should follow the procedures set forth inthe Canada Flight Supplement including settingthe transponder to Code 7600. Article 4.7.2 andAIP Canada provide further details.

4.8.9UNLAWFUL INTERFERENCE (HIJACK)

Canada, along with other nations, has adopted aspecial SSR transponder code for use by pilotswhose aircraft are hijacked. Air Traffic Controldoes not assign this code (7500) unless the pilotinforms ATC of a hijack in progress.

Selection of the code activates an alarm andpoints out the aircraft on radar displays. If thecontroller doubts that an aircraft is beinghijacked (as could occur when a code changewas requested and the hijack code appeared,rather than the assigned code), the controllershould say YOU ARE SQUAWKING SEVENFIVE ZERO ZERO, IS THISINTENTIONAL? If the pilot says no, thecontroller re-assigns the proper code.

HELICOPTER ATTITUDE INSTRUMENT FLYING

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 5-1

HELICOPTER ATTITUDE INSTRUMENT FLYING

5.1 DEFINITIONS5.2 THEORY5.3 ATTITUDE AND POWER CONTROL5.4 STABILIZATION SYSTEMS5.5 INSTRUMENT FLIGHT5.6 HELICOPTER APPROACHES5.7 EMERGENCIESP

AR

TF

IV

E

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HELICOPTER ATTITUDE INSTRUMENTFLYING

The contents of this part describe theperformance of basic instrument manoeuvresfor helicopters in instrument meteorologicalconditions (IMC).

DEFINITIONS

1. APPROACH PHASE: That part of the flightfrom 300 m. (1000 ft) above the landingsurface or above if the flight is planned toexceed this height, or from thecommencement of the descent in the othercases, to landing or to the missed approachpoint.

2. CATEGORY A: With respect to transportcategory rotorcraft, means multienginerotorcraft designed with engine and systemisolation features specified in theAirworthiness Manual Chapter 529 andutilizing scheduled takeoff and landingoperations under a critical engine failureconcept which assures adequate designatedsurface area and adequate performancecapability for continued safe flight in theevent of engine failure.

3. CATEGORY B: With respect to transportcategory rotorcraft, means single-engine ormultiengine rotorcraft which do not fullymeet all Category A standards. Category Brotorcraft have no guaranteed stay-upability in the event of engine failure andunscheduled landing is assumed.

4. DEFINED POINT BEFORE LANDING: Thepoint, within the approach phase, afterwhich the helicopter’s ability to continuethe flight safely, with one engineinoperative, is not assured and a forcedlanding may be required.

5. DEFINED POINT AFTER TAKE-OFF: The point,within the take-off or initial climb phase,before which the helicopter’s ability tocontinue the flight safely, with one engineinoperative, is not assured and a forcedlanding may be required.

6. ELEVATED HELIPORT: A heliport located on araised structure on land.

7. EN ROUTE PHASE. That part of the flightfrom the end of the initial climb phase tothe commencement of the approach phase.

NOTE:Where adequate obstacle clearance cannot beguaranteed visually, flights must be planned toensure that obstacles can be cleared by anappropriate margin. In the event of failure of apower-unit, operators may need to adoptalternative procedures.

8. FINAL APPROACH AND TAKE-OFF AREA (FATO)FOR HELICOPTERS: A defined area overwhich the final phase of the approachmanoeuvre to hover or landing is completedand from which the take-off manoeuvre iscommenced and, where the FATO is to beused, includes the rejected take-off areaavailable.

9. HELICOPTER: A heavier-than-air aircraftsupported in flight by the reactions of theair on one or more power-driven rotors onsubstantially vertical axes.

10. HELIDECK: A heliport located on anoffshore structure, either floating or fixed.

11. HELIPORT: An aerodrome or a defined areaintended to be used wholly or in part forthe arrival, departure and surface movementof helicopters.

12. INITIAL CLIMB PHASE: That part of the flightfrom the end of the take-off phase up to300 m (1000 ft) above the take-off surfaceif the flight is planned to exceed this height,or to the end of the climb in the other cases.

13. INSTRUMENT METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS

(IMC): Meteorological conditionsexpressed in terms of visibility, distancefrom cloud and ceiling, less than theminima prescribed in the Air Regulations forflight in VFR weather.

14. LANDING DECISION POINT (LDP): Thelanding decision point is the point used indetermining landing performance fromwhich, any emergency condition occurringat this point, the landing may be safelycontinued or a missed approach initiated.

15. LANDING DISTANCE REQUIRED: The

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HELICOPTER ATTITUDE INSTRUMENT FLYING

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 5-3

horizontal distance required to land andcome to a full stop from a point 10.7 m (35ft) above the landing surface.

16. MISSED APPROACH PHASE: That part of theflight from the point where the missedapproach procedure is initiated up to 300 m(1000 ft) above the intended landingsurface, or to the level-off height if this isbelow 300 m (1000 ft).

17. REQUIRED VISUAL REFERENCE: In respect ofan aircraft on an approach to a runway,means that section of the approach area ofthe runway or those visual aids that, whenviewed by the pilot of the aircraft, enablesthe pilot to make an assessment of theaircraft position and the rate of change ofposition relative to the nominal flight path.

18. REJECTED TAKE-OFF DISTANCE REQUIRED:The horizontal distance required from thestart of the take-off to the point where thehelicopter comes to a full stop followingany emergency condition that requiresrejection of the take-off at the take-offdecision point.

19. SAFE FORCED LANDING: Unavoidablelanding or ditching with a reasonableexpectancy of no injuries to persons in theaircraft or on the surface.

20. TAKE-OFF PHASE: That part of the flightfrom the start of take-off up to the pointwhere the helicopter achieves VTOSS, apositive rate of climb and height of not lessthan 10.7 m (35 ft).

21. TAKE-OFF DECISION POINT (TDP): Take-offdecision point is the point used indetermining take-off performance fromwhich any emergency condition occurringat this point, either a rejected take-off maybe made or a take-off safely continued.

22. TAKE-OFF DISTANCE REQUIRED: Thehorizontal distance required from the startof the take-off to the point at whichVTOSS, a height of 10.7 m (35 ft) abovethe take-off surface, and a positive climbgradient are achieved, following anyemergency condition at TDP, with theremaining power-unit(s) operating withinapproved operating limits.

23. VISUAL METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS

VMC): Meteorological conditionsexpressed in terms of visibility, and distancefrom cloud, equal to or greater than theminima prescribed in the Air Regulations forflight in VFR weather.

24. VTOSS: The minimum speed specified inthe flight manual at which climb can beachieved, in the take-off configuration, withone or more power-unit(s) inoperative, andthe remaining power-unit(s) operatingwithin approved operating limits. Itguarantees, under ambient conditions, apositive rate of climb.

25. VYI: Instrument climb speed, utilizedinstead of VY for compliance with theclimb requirements for instrument flight.

26. VNEI: Instrument flight never exceedspeed, utilized instead of VNE forcompliance with maximum limit speedrequirements for instrument flight.

27. VMINI: Instrument flight minimum speed,utilized in complying with minimum limitspeed requirements for instrument flight.

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL5-4

THEORY

Attitude instrument flying is essentially visualflying with the flight instruments substituted forthe various reference points around thehelicopter and the natural horizon. In flight theinstruments provide information concerning: 1)helicopter attitude; 2) power required; and 3)whether the combination of attitude and poweris providing the desired performance.

Instrument flying in either category of aircraft(fixed wing and rotary wing) have similarities,but generally only while in level cruising flight.Distinctive performance characteristics and theintrinsic instability of most helicopters (exceptthose with stability augmentation systems) limitthe amount of time that is spent in a stableflight condition. Unlike fixed wing, inhelicopters both lift and thrust originate from asingle source, the main rotor.

As airspeed is reduced in a transition (below 60kts) from forward flight to the hover, the pitot-static instruments become less reliable. As wellas the low airspeeds, reduced stability overall isthe consequence. Manufacturers of IFRcertified twin-engine helicopters specifyminimum IMC control speeds (Vmini) for thepurpose of stability and certification. Minimumairspeeds at which the helicopter can sustainflight with one-engine inoperative (OEI) arealso prescribed. Prolonged flight below theseminimum airspeeds is not recommended, exceptas required for special purpose operations.These unique traits demand an alternatemethod of interpretation and use of theinstruments common to both categories ofaircraft.

The use of attitude (relative to the horizon) pluspower equals performance theory is taught as thefundamentals of visual attitude flying.Instrument attitude flying builds on this basicvisual principle. Throughout this section thereare discussions of the relationship between flightcontrols and control and performanceinstruments. Control inputs required toproduce a given attitude by reference toinstruments are identical to those used in visualmeteorological conditions (VMC).

The manoeuvres discussed in this section aredesigned to develop proficiency in the attitudecontrol of helicopters and are the first steptowards safe all weather operation.

ATTITUDE AND POWERCONTROL

ATTITUDE CONTROLThe attitude of the helicopter is controlled bymovement around its pitch (lateral), roll(longitudinal), and yaw (vertical) axes. Thethree helicopter flight controls are:

CYCLIC :i/ Pitch Attitude Control. The movement of

the helicopter about the lateral axis involveschanging the longitudinal tilt of the mainrotor disc (cyclically - each blade changesonce per revolution).

ii/ Bank Attitude Control. The movement ofthe helicopter about the longitudinal axisinvolves controlling the angle made bylateral tilt of the rotor disc and the naturalhorizon.

COLLECTIVE:Power/Thrust Control. Altering collective pitch(thrust/lift) results in a collective change of

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FIG. 5-1 • LANDING ON A RIG

5.2

5.3

HELICOPTER ATTITUDE INSTRUMENT FLYING

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 5-5

angle of attack of the rotor blades i.e. all rotorblades change pitch together - or collectively.

PEDALS.Co-ordinated Flight and Trim. Pedal co-ordination to compensate for all power changes.

POWER CONTROLAs previously mentioned both lift and thrustoriginate from a single source, the main rotor. Toproperly change or maintain any desired attitude apilot should know the appropriate steady stateflight power settings required for that particularhelicopter, i.e. standard day sea level, a mediumtwin-engine helicopter with two crew and full fuelrequired approximately 62% torque (Q) forstraight and level flight at 100 kt. Power settingsfor standard (500 fpm) climbs and descentsshould also be determined.

Power settings are controlled via the collective leverand displayed by the torquemeter. The primaryand secondary effects of a collective controlmovement are the same as for VFR. When poweris added, the nose will pitch up and yaw right(North American rotation). The converse is truewhen the collective is lowered. In most IFRhelicopters the stabilization system if used, willcompensate for the secondary effect of powerchanges (Dutch roll). Failure of the autopilot inIMC can result in loss of control.

At a given airspeed, specific power settingsdetermine whether the helicopter is climbing,descending, or in level flight. Increasing thepower while maintaining a constant airspeedresults in a climb, while decreasing the power hasthe opposite effect.

At a constant altitude, the power will determinethe airspeed. When power is increased, the nosewill have to be pitched down to maintain altitude,then the airspeed increases. The converse applieswhen the power is decreased.

Constant altitude and airspeed in level flight arepredicated on co-ordination of pitch attitude andpower.

When power is adjusted for airspeed or altitudethe helicopter attitude will be affected; the amountand direction depends on the change made orrequired. Pitch and bank must be adjusted andyaw eliminated to maintain co-ordinated flight.

A. CONTROL AND PERFORMANCE

INSTRUMENTS. The control and performance instruments aregrouped as follows:

Control instrument interpretations are made byreference to the:

a/ attitude indicator; andb/ torque meter.

Performance instruments display the effects of thecontrol instrument changes on the helicopterflight path on the following instruments:

a/ airspeed indicator (ASI),b/ altimeter,c/ vertical speed indicator (VSI),d/ heading indicator or compass (HSI/DG),

ande/ turn and bank indicator.

Corrections made with reference to the controlinstruments are made on the basis ofinformation received from the performanceinstruments.

Employment of the control and performancetheory apply for all instrument manoeuvres;cyclic (attitude) controls airspeed and collective(power) controls altitude or rate of altitudechange. Variation of the pitch attitude (cyclic)in flight has an immediate effect on airspeedand as a by-product a change in altitude. A

FIG. 5-2• ARCTIC OPERATIONS

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL5-6

change in power (collective) will have animmediate effect on lift (altitude) and a lessereffect on thrust (airspeed).

The interpretation of the attitude indicator inhelicopter instrument flying must also bediscussed. The attitude indicator in a helicopterdisplays fuselage attitude and not disc attitude. Ahelicopter can climb or descend with a nose up,down or level attitude. In level cruising flighteach different attitude yields a differentairspeed, assuming constant power. Theattitude indicator is the only instrument thatprovides a direct indication of attitude.However, it does not always represent discattitude and therefore does not accuratelydisplay what the helicopter is doing. Forexample the attitude indicator may show a noseup attitude while in reality the helicopter isdescending at 90 kts. The attitude indicatorshould always be cross checked with theperformance instruments, especially the VSI andaltimeter, to ensure valid information.

At a given airspeed the power setting determineswhether the helicopter is climbing, descendingor in level flight. Conversely, if the altitude isheld constant, the power and attitude settingswill determine whether airspeed is increasing,decreasing or constant.

The relationship between varying power andattitude is so homogeneous that the true culpritof a deviation in airspeed, altitude or heading isnot always apparent. The heading or altitudecan change without a corresponding change inattitude. Correct interpretation of informationprovided by the attitude indicator alone is oftena difficult process. This demands correctinterpretation of all control and performanceinstruments for stable, co-ordinated instrumentflight.

B. PITCH ATTITUDE CONTROL

PITCH CONTROL: The performance instrumentsfor pitch control reference are:

a/ attitude indicator (control);b/ altimeter;c/ vertical speed indicator; andd/ airspeed indicator.

ATTITUDE INDICATOR: The attitude indicatorprovides general pitch information and is used

in conjunction with the other pitchinstruments. In level flight at normal cruiseairspeed, the miniature aircraft should besuperimposed on the horizon bar. If theminiature aircraft rises above the horizon, theVSI and altimeter should confirm a climb andthe airspeed should decay. Small gains or lossesof altitude are made by pitching the nose up ordown slightly. Small pitch attitude changesshould not exceed 1 1/2 bar widths, and theperformance should be cross-checked againstthe other pitch instruments. If larger pitchchanges are required power will likely have toadjusted.

ALTIMETER: The altimeter provides indirectpitch information in level cruising flight. Sincethe helicopter can ascend or descend in levelcruising flight without a pitch change, thealtimeter should be used in conjunction withthe other pitch instruments. The altimeter wasnot designed as a rate instrument and thereforeis of limited value in this capacity. Fixating onthis instrument can lead to "chasing" andovercontrolling if it is used as the sole referencefor pitch.

VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR (VSI): The VSI is aessentially a trend instrument and should alwaysbe used in conjunction with the other pitchinstruments. In level cruising flight the needleindicates zero. Use the VSI together with thealtimeter to correct deviations from level flight.Since there is a time element (lag) associatedwith the VSI (except IVSI), fixating on thisinstrument can end in "chasing" the indications,jeopardizing pitch control.

Over-correction using the VSI leads toovercontrolling. As a rule pitch attitude changeshould produce a rate of change on the VSIabout twice the altitude deviation (max 500fpm) ie: if the helicopter is 200 feet off altitudedesired, a correction of not greater than 400fpm should be used.

When changing altitudes at specific rates andthe VSI shows an excess of 200 fpm from thatdesired, over-controlling is indicated.

To eliminate over-controlling, neutralize thecontrols, allow the pitch attitude to stabilize andreadjust pitch attitude with the other pitchinstruments.

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INSTANTANEOUS VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

(IVSI): Most IFR certificated helicopters intoday’s IFR environment are equipped with anIVSI. The design of the IVSI can assist the pilotflying IFR as it is an effective pitch instrument.Compared to the conventional VSI, thisinstrument has no apparent lag. Althoughsimilar in construction, the IVSI incorporatesaccelerometers which generate pressuredifferences when the normal acceleration of thehelicopter is changed. A word of cautionhowever as fixation on any one instrument inIFR flying can lead to disastrous consequences.Correct interpretation of the helicopter pitchattitude requires use of all pitch instrumentsthrough a comprehensive cross-check.

AIRSPEED INDICATOR (ASI): Airspeed is afunction of power setting and attitude (refer toArticle 5.3). Experience on type teaches thepilot approximate power settings for desiredairspeeds. In level cruising flight if airspeedincreases, the nose is low, and should be raised.If airspeed decreases the nose is too high andshould be lowered. Rapid changes in airspeedimply large changes in pitch attitude.Conversely, small changes represent smallchanges in pitch attitude. When makingattitude changes, an apparent lag may beobserved, this will be a function of the timerequired to accelerate/ decelerate. Somehelicopter types will be subject to furtheraggravation by cyclic control lag. Departure froma constant airspeed due to an inadvertent pitchchange results in an altitude change, i.e. anincrease in airspeed due to low pitch attitudewill result in a decrease in altitude. Correctingthe pitch attitude regains both airspeed andaltitude.

C. BANK ATTITUDE CONTROL

BANK CONTROL: Assuming co-ordinated levelflight, any departure from a laterally levelattitude produces a turn. The performanceinstruments used for bank control are:

a/ attitude indicator (control);b/ heading indicator; andc/ turn and bank indicator.

ATTITUDE INDICATOR: Changes in bank attitudeare indicated by the miniature aircraft on the

attitude indicator. Banking is shown by theminiature aircraft wings assuming an angle inrelation to the horizon bar and by the bank -index pointer moving from the zero position tothe angle-of-bank reference marks. For properinterpretation imagine being in the miniatureaircraft on the attitude indicator. Cyclic is usedto tilt the rotor disk to the required angle ofbank; the cyclic position has then to bemaintained to hold the desired bank angle. Theball should remain centred in the turn. Toreturn to level flight the above procedure isreversed. Small bank angles may not be readilydetected on the attitude indicator but can bedetermined by reference to the headingindicator and turn and bank indicator.

HEADING INDICATOR: Although the headingindicator gives an immediate indication ofturning, its primary purpose is to indicateheading, not bank angle. In co-ordinated flightwhen the helicopter is banked, it turns. Whenthe heading indicator shows a constant heading(laterally level) you are flying straight. Smallbank angles show up as slow changes ofheading; large bank angles indicate rapidheading changes. To correct a turn apply cyclicin the desired direction until the desiredheading is reached, maintain co-ordinated flightwith pedals. Use a bank angle not greater thanthe number of degrees off heading up to amaximum of a standard rate-one turn to initiateor correct a turn.

FIG. 5-3 • TYPICAL HELICOPTER INSTRUMENT PANEL

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL5-8

TURN AND BANK INDICATOR

TURN NEEDLE: The turn needle indicatesboth direction and rate of turn. When theneedle is left of centre and the ball iscentred, the helicopter is turning left.Correcting the needle back to the centreposition with opposite cyclic restoresstraight flight. In turbulent conditionsneedle oscillations must be averaged todetect a turn. If the needle deflection isgreater to the right, the helicopter is turningright.

TURN AND BANK BALL: The ball functions asresult of gravity and centrifugal force.Although the needle and ball are interpretedtogether, the ball indicates whether thehelicopter is yawing (slipping or skidding).In a slip the ball is off-centre toward theinside of the turn (primarily gravity). In askid the ball is off-centre toward the outsideof the turn (centrifugal force). The ballshows quality of control co-ordinationwhether turning or in straight flight. In ahelicopter the displacement of the ball toone side of centre necessitates pedaladjustment. To keep the helicopter fromturning, cyclic must be moved in theopposite direction. This cross-controlling(cyclic countering yaw) is uncomfortable,adds airframe stress and may contribute tovertigo.

The ball instrument aids in achievingcorrect co-ordination. In helicopters properco-ordination is realized by proper use ofthe anti-torque pedals and the cyclic inrelation to each other.

TURN CO-ORDINATOR: This instrumentdisplays movement of the helicopter on theroll axis that is proportional to the roll rate.When the roll rate is reduced to zero, theinstrument provides an indication of therate of turn. It should be clearlyunderstood that the miniature aircraft ofthe turn co-ordinator displays only rate ofroll and rate of turn. It does not directlydisplay the bank angle of the aircraft.

D. TRIM TECHNIQUES

The intrinsic instability of helicopters requirethe pilot to employ trim as accurately as possible

to minimize fatigue and reduce pilot workload.The perfection of instrument flying skillsdepends to a great extent upon how well a pilotlearns to keep the helicopter in trim.

Maintaining trim is achieved by continual cross-checking using cyclic force trim (if soequipped), with reference to the instruments, tocancel undesired cyclic pressures. Releasing theforce trim simultaneously disengages all axesand the pilot must ensure that those axes notrequiring a change are maintained whilecorrections to the desired axes is achieved. "Stepon the ball" with pedals and trim out controlpressures while ensuring that attitude andheading are maintained for the desired state offlight. Pilots flying helicopters equipped withthe "Chinese Hat" trim button on the cyclic usesmall trim changes in the desired direction untilcontrol pressures are neutralized; i.e. trimmingnose up/down (pitch) and left/right (roll).

The YAW axis is the most unstable axis in asingle-rotor helicopter. This axis demandsspecial attention from the pilot when flyingIMC. The instability is compounded as anypower change requires a pedal trim correction tocentre the ball of the turn indicator.Undesirable yaw under IMC is the contributingfactor leading to spatial disorientation and theassociated hazardous illusions.

E. INSTRUMENT CROSS-CHECK

Monitoring and interpreting the various flightand navigation instruments to determineattitude and performance of a helicopter iscalled a cross-check or scan.

There are as many variations in cross-checktechnique as there are helicopter types.Therefore, the instruments which provide thebest information for controlling the helicopterin any given manoeuvre should be used. Theimportant instruments are the ones that providethe most pertinent information for anyparticular phase of the manoeuvre. These arethe instruments that should be held at aconstant indication. The remaininginstruments should help maintain the importantinstrument(s) at the desired indications.

A meaningful cross-check should include theflight and navigation instruments once eachscan cycle. Due to the helicopters’ ability to

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climb, descend and change heading without acorresponding change in attitude, the cross-check is hampered if prolonged "eye rest" on theattitude indicator is employed. An equalamount of time is required checking headingindicator and altimeter. These two instrumentswill show deviations that may not be readilyapparent when using the attitude indicator as aplace of eye rest.

The relative position of the heading indicator,altimeter and/or VSI to the attitude indicatorwill determine the specific cross-check in use.The eyes may be required to move constantlyfrom ADI to HSI/DG and return to the ADI.Other configurations allow "eye rest" on the ADIbriefly but continue to monitor the remaininginstruments via peripheral vision.

A cross-check that requires continuous eyemovement to be effective, rapidly contributes topilot fatigue in a brief time (30 minutes or less).A cross-check that incorporates "eye rest", butstill fulfils the primary function of detectingdeviations is the most desirable.

STABILIZATION SYSTEMS

Stability Control Augmentation System (SCAS) isshort term stability.

The primary purpose of SCAS is to improveoverall helicopter stability thus reducing pilotworkload and fatigue. This is achieved by asystem of rate gyros that generate electricalimpulses to control hydraulic or electricalactuators. These actuators compensate foroutside influences i.e. turbulence, and resistdeviation from the desired reference attitudes.The system may be further enhanced by usingcomparative electrical signals referenced as afunction of stick position (via beep trim) ormotion which cancel electrical signals comingfrom the rate gyros. Certain manufacturersutilize a motorized "jack screw" or a compositeelectric/hydraulic valve in series with pilot valveson the hydraulic power actuator. SCASinstallations generally incorporate a limit ofauthority of the SCAS actuator. If a gyrosuddenly sends a hardover signal, the controlmotion is limited and the pilot can regain

control i.e. SCAS authority 10% pitch and roll,5% yaw.

Automatic Flight Control System (AFCS) is longterm stability.

With AFCS, the SCAS system progressed onestep further to "hands off" helicopter flying.With SCAS, the pilot has to keep checking andmaking correction inputs via the "beep trim" or"force trim" button to maintain the desiredattitude. In advanced applications the AFCSuses a computer to combine electrical impulsesfrom various sensing locations and memorizestheir relative positions. It is then a simple taskfor the computer to reference selected controlpositions and cancel outside inputs, i.e. gusts,turbulence etc. The pilot now becomes amanager of the computer and auto-pilot,reducing workload and fatigue even further.

INSTRUMENT FLIGHT

INSTRUMENT CHECK

The ability to complete a full instrument checkas indicated below will depend on the suitabilityof the ground and weather conditions:

a/ check the helicopter heading by outsidereference and the magnetic or gyrocompass;

b/ set the attitude indicator to the zeroedposition;

c/ apply collective smoothly until helicopterbecomes light on the skids but still is inground contact;

d/ lift into hover. If hampered by surface-obscuring phenomena, carry out as much ofcheck as conditions permit;

e/ check torque indications and all engine anddrive train indications for responsesappropriate to power applied;

f/ perform hover turn 30 degrees to left and30 degrees to right and check the following:

1/ direction indicators including standbycompass for correct turn indication,

2/ navigation aids tracking while turning,3/ turn needle indicates correct turn

5.45.5

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL5-10

direction and slip indicator (ball) is freemoving, and

4/ VSI zero; and

g/ from a stable hover increase collective toinitiate a height gain. Check VSI andaltimeter indications;

h/ initiate a slight roll to the left or right andcheck the main attitude indicator forcorrect bank indications;

j/ at the increased height gained, induce aslight pitch up or down and check the mainattitude indicator for correct pitchindications; and

k/ return helicopter to the ground andcomplete pre-departure check and pre-take-off check.

INSTRUMENT TAKE-OFF (LAND BASED)a/ An instrument take-off (ITO) may be

accomplished from a hover or from theground as visibility restrictions permit (sand,snow). The ITO is a compositevisual/instrument procedure, assuming atwo pilot crew cockpit. The take-off mustbe completed with one pilot on instrumentsand the other on the outside visualreferences.

b/ The ITO is accomplished as follows (asappropriate to type):

1/ set the attitude indicator horizon barfor the normal take-off position of yourtype of helicopter. The helicoptershould be aligned with the runway orapproved departure route (helipad orrestricted area). To prevent forwardmovement on wheel equippedhelicopters, use brakes as necessary.Apply sufficient collective friction tominimize the overcontrolling tendencyand prevent collective pitch creeping.Application of excessive friction shouldbe avoided so as not to inhibit pitchcontrol movement;

2/ re-check all instruments to determinereadiness for departure. Initiate thetake-off by raising the collective/thrustlever to bring the aircraft light on thewheels/skids. In a stable position checkthe power requirement and C of G ifairborne. Apply a predetermined power

setting for that type of helicopter(consider weight, altitude andtemperature), of more than thatrequired to hover to gain altitude overairspeed (not to exceed maximumallowable power). Forward cyclic startsthe acceleration to climbing airspeed;and pedals are used initially to maintainthe desired heading. Ensure that thereis a positive rate-of-climb beforetransitioning into forward flight(altitude over airspeed). Early rotationof the helicopter, before a positive rateof climb is established, can and hasresulted in helicopter accidents. Thevertical speed indicator initially andthen the altimeter should be monitoredfor a positive rate-of-climb schedule.While the helicopter is below theminimum airspeed required foraccurate and reliable airspeeddeterminations, the predeterminedpower setting and pitch attitudes willprovide the most reliable source ofclimb path information. The attitudeof the helicopter as referenced from theADI should be one to two bar widthsbelow the horizon. Do not enter IMCprior to Vmini;

3/ at a safe minimum altitude, accelerateto the minimum safety take-off speed.As the recommended climb airspeed isreached, adjust power and attitude toachieve a 500 ft/min rate of climb andtransition to fully coordinated flight;

4/ a rapid cross-check must be started asthe helicopter leaves the ground andshould include all availableinstruments.

NOTE:Departure criteria use 400 ft AGL as theminimum recommended obstruction clearancealtitude before commencing a turn under IMCday. Circling MDA provides a minimum of 300feet above all obstacles within the visualmanoeuvring area for each category.

STRAIGHT CLIMB

a/ The phase of flight between the ITO andlevel off at cruise altitude generally consistsof adherence to a missed approach

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procedure, a SID, radar vectors or ATCclearances. Straight climbs are also enteredfrom straight and level cruising flight. Theclimb under instrument conditions isperformed using the attitude-power-trim(APT) technique.

b/ Power is set in a climb to produce aminimum of 500 ft/min rate-of-climb,which is produced and maintained bycollective pitch. As power is increased, acorrection for trim is made with pedals.

c/ During the climb, heading, attitude andairspeed are maintained with cyclic. Rate-of-climb is controlled by collective (power)and trim with pedals. Although theamount of lead varies with the aircraft, rate-of-climb and pilot technique, a lead of 10%of the rate-of-climb is generally accepted asthe point to initiate levelling off at thedesired altitude.

d/ To resume level flight at normal cruise usethe attitude, power and trim (APT)technique. The cyclic is adjusted toestablish the desired attitude and normalcruise airspeed then the collective (power)pitch is set for cruising flight, then re-trimmed as necessary.

STRAIGHT AND LEVEL FLIGHT: This consists ofconstant altitude (power setting/torque),airspeed, heading (adjusted with cyclic), andattitude is level providing the attitude indicatoris adjusted correctly. Precise straight and levelflight is possible in most weather conditions(IMC) if suitably configured with a means ofstabilization.

When an instrument indicates an adjustment isrequired to maintain desired performance, thepilot will determine the required amount fromother instruments. Airspeed, torque and/oraltimeter indicate the adjustment to be made inpower or altitude.

Corrections to changes in attitude should bemade as soon as noticed. Then instead offixating on that particular instrument to notethe effect, the cross-check is continued, finallyreturning to the original instrument. This waythe entire panel reflects the effect of theadjustment.

Any deviation from the desired heading will beevident on the heading indicator. Immediateand smooth application of cyclic control isinitiated to return to the desired heading. Smallheading excursions when promptly correctedmaintain good attitude control.

When the correction is made, cross-check withthe other performance instruments to verify thecorrection.

During straight and level flight power is used toadjust minor variations of altitude if the desiredaltitude cannot be maintained by varying pitchattitude without exceeding + 10 knots ofairspeed.

DESCENTS

a/ Descents can be entered from essentiallymost normal flight configurations. Thepower-attitude-trim (PAT) technique isemployed. Power/torque is reduced to asetting which results in the desired rate-of-descent. Attitude is initiated by cyclic andco-ordinated flight maintained by pedaltrim adjustments.

Once established at a constant rate-of-descent, fine adjustments are made bycollective pitch (power) changes. Prior tolevelling off at the desired altitude, power isapplied to check the downward movementthrough the desired altitude. A lead of

FIG. 5-4 • GOING BACK TO SHORE

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL5-12

approximately 10% of the vertical rate-of-descent is normally required, i.e. 50’ for500 fpm.

b/ At the appropriate level-off altitude thepower requirement for level cruise is usedand a cross-check is started to re-establishlevel flight.

TURNS: To find the angle of bank required toachieve a standard rate turn, figure about 15percent of TAS. The number of degrees to beturned governs the amount of bank to be used.A change in heading of 20 degrees or morerequires a standard rate turn (3 degrees persecond) and is shown as a 2-needle deflection onthe 4-minute turn-and-slip indicator. Forchanges of less than 20 degrees, one-halfstandard rate is sufficient and is shown as a 1-needle deflection.

LEVEL TURNS: To enter a turn, a movement ofthe cyclic control is applied in the direction ofthe desired turn. The initial bank is started withreference to the attitude indicator. When thedesired angle of bank and rate of turn have beenattained, control pressure should be relaxed toprevent overbank. To resume straight-and-levelflight, co-ordinated movement of the cycliccontrol is applied in a direction opposite to theestablished turn. The rate of roll-out should bethe same as the rate of roll-in.

TURNS TO HEADINGS: A turn to a headingconsists of a level turn to a specific heading asread from the heading indicator. Turns tospecified headings should be made in theshortest direction. The turn is entered andmaintained as described in the level turnmanoeuvre. Since the helicopter will continueto turn as long as the bank is held, the roll-outmust be started before reaching the desiredheading. The amount of lead used to roll-outon a desired heading should be equal to one-halfthe angle of bank. The roll-out on a heading isperformed in the same manner as the roll-out ofthe level turn.

STEEP TURNS: Any turn greater than standardrate is considered a steep turn. A steep turn isseldom necessary or advisable in IMC, but it is agood test of the individual’s ability to reactquickly and smoothly to changes in aircraft

attitude. The techniques ofentry and recovery are thesame as for any turnmanoeuvre. Rate of turn andattitude are maintained withcyclic control; airspeed andaltitude are maintained withpower.

TIMED TURNS: The techniquesof entry and control of thetimed turn are the same as forthe level turn. The position ofthe second hand of the clockmust be noted when the turnis started. For ease in timing, start the timewhen the second hand passes the 3-, 6-, 9-, or12-o’clock position. The standard rate of turnmust be maintained until the predeterminedtime has elapsed, then the roll-out is started.The rate of roll-out is the same as the rate ofroll-in.

HELICOPTER APPROACHES(ONSHORE/OFFSHORE)

The manual for designing instrumentapproaches (TP 308) now defines specificcriteria used for helicopter instrumentapproaches.

Helicopter only approaches are identified by theterm "Copter", the type of facility producing thefinal approach course guidance and a numericalidentification of the final approach course.

The criteria for Copter approaches are based onthe premise that helicopters have specialmanoeuvring characteristics and fit intoapproach Category A (90 kts or less) regardless ofhelicopter weight or speed . These approachesare generally shorter in length and the descentgradient on approach can be steeper thanconventional approaches. Transport Canadaapproves company instrument approaches forhelicopters operating to and from offshoreplatforms and ships.

Helicopters can also fly the instrumentapproaches published in Canada Air Pilot(CAP).

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5.6

FIG. 5-5 • FAILED ATTITUDE INDICATOR

HELICOPTER ATTITUDE INSTRUMENT FLYING

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 5-13

EMERGENCIES

A. PARTIAL PANEL

1/ FAILED ATTITUDE INDICATOR: When theattitude indicator fails, primary pitch androll references are lost. The vertical speedindicator is too sensitive for indicating pitchchanges and should be used as a trendinstrument only. The primary controlinstruments for indicating pitch are theairspeed indicator and the altimeter. Theturn needle becomes the heading indicator(performance instrument) as required.When correcting the pitch attitude thehelicopter is approximately level when VSIand/or airspeed indicator reverse directionof movement.

2/ FAILED HEADING INDICATOR: If the gyrocompasses (free or slaved) fail in flight allreference to heading must be accomplishedusing the standby compass. Use of standardrate turns and timed turns partial panel areused to achieve heading changes. Aninstrument approach under these conditionsrequires advance planning and a straight-inapproach employing minimum turns isrecommended. Any combination of failuresof auto-pilots, attitude or heading indicatorsis a serious emergency and requires constant

5.7

Reduce Speed To 70 Kts

Turn into wind - maintain heading and airspeed

Night Lights on at 500'If Free of Cloud

Flare to +10° on A.D.I.Deploy Floatation at Flare

FIG. 5-6 • IFR/NIGHT AUTOROTATION PROCEDURE

AUTOROTATION PROCEDURE

REDUCE SPEED TO 70 KTSTURN INTO WIND - MAINTAIN HEADING &AIRSPEED

NIGHTNIGHT-LIGHTS ON AT 500' IF FREE OF CLOUD

OVER WATERDEPLOY FLOATATION AT FLARE

IFRFLARE TO + 10° ON A.D.I.

FLARE HEIGHTS

S332/SK61 - 200’ RAD. ALT.BH12/S76 - 150’ RAD. ALT

NOTE:These altitudes, airspeeds and flare pitchaltitudes are examples only. For specificinformation, consult the applicablemanufacturers Aircraft Flight Manual

* DESCENT CHECK

S332/SK61 - 100’ RAD. ALT.BH12/S76 - 75’ RAD. ALT.

* At this point the slight collective upmotion is a reminder to check descentas Rad. Alt. descends through 40’.

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL5-14

monitoring by the second pilot.Maintaining co-ordinated instrument flightwith malfunctioning flight instruments andwithout an auto-pilot is a criticalemergency.

B. AUTOROTATION

If an autorotation is required the pilot shoulduse the appropriate airspeeds dependent uponthe manufacturer’s recommended procedures. Itis imperative that to conserve rotor rpm, thecollective be lowered immediately and smoothlyand the control and performance instruments beclosely monitored. Particular attention shouldbe given to keeping the helicopter in co-ordinated flight.

Generally use an airspeed that results in aminimum rate of descent commensurate withsafety for the particular type. Turns areaccomplished using the same basic techniques asin powered flight. Rotor rpm tends to increaseduring turns in autorotation and limiting theoverspeed tendency of the rotor should beincluded in the cross-check. Knowing theapproximate ceiling will assist in determiningwhen to include outside references. Crew co-operation and adherence to standard operatingprocedures are prerequisites to a successfulautorotation under IMC. Final descent totouchdown profiles should be developed andcommitted to memory. The procedure shownin Fig. 5-6 is an example only.

C. UNUSUAL ATTITUDES

Recoveries from unusual attitudes are uniquedue to helicopter aerodynamics in conjunctionwith application of the control and performanceconcept to helicopter flight. Improper recoverytechniques can result in loss of control andstructural damage.

1/ TO RECOVER from an unusual attitude, thepilot corrects the pitch and bank attitude,adjusts power, and trims the aircraft asnecessary. All components are changedalmost simultaneously with little lead of oneover the other. In other words, if theaircraft is in a steep climbing turn ordescending turn, bank, pitch, and power arecorrected simultaneously. The bankattitude is corrected with reference to the

turn-and-bank indicator, or attitudeindicator if available. Pitch attitude iscorrected with reference to the altimeter,airspeed indicator, vertical speed indicator,and the attitude indicator, if available.Power is adjusted with reference to thepower control instruments and the airspeedindicator.

2/ IF DIVING, consider altitude, accelerationlimitations and the possibility of blade stall;as altitude permits, avoid rolling pullouts.Recovery action should be initiated byrolling the helicopter level referencing theturn needle, cross-checking the attitudeindicator and heading indicator. Adjustpower as necessary to prevent exceedingVNE and resume normal cruising flight atthe appropriate power setting.

3/ IF CLIMBING, consider pitch attitude andairspeed. When the pitch attitude is notextreme (10° or less from level flight),smoothly lower the pitch attitude back to thelevel flight reference on the attitudeindicator. Level the aircraft with reference tothe turn needle and heading indicator, thenresume a normal cross-check adjusting poweras required. For extreme nose high attitudes(above 10°), bank the helicopter in theshorter direction toward the nearest 30° bankindex. The amount of bank used should becommensurate with the pitch attitude, butdo not exceed 30° of bank when making therecovery. Pitch the nose toward the horizonline on the attitude indicator and when thenose is on the horizon, ensure that thehelicopter is level and adjust the power asnecessary throughout the recovery process.Arresting movement and noting reversal ofairspeed indicator and VSI will assist indetermining the level attitude.

4/ THE DISPLACEMENT OF CONTROLS used inrecoveries from unusual attitudes should notbe greater than those for normal flight. Thuscare must be taken in making adjustments asstraight-and-level flight is approached. Theinstruments must be observed closely toavoid overcontrolling.

NOTES: 1. High nose-up attitudes and high power

requirements are particularly dangerous.

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HELICOPTER ATTITUDE INSTRUMENT FLYING

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 5-15

Setting power (collective) to a mid-range valuewill assist in the recovery process. Rapidreduction of the collective in a nose highattitude poses critical control problems as therotor is now unloaded and a delay isexperienced from a control input. Thetendency is to provide an additional inputand the result could be that the flapping angleis exceeded allowing the rotor head to contactthe mast (mast-bumping) or the main rotorblades to contact the fuselage with catastrophicconsequences. A low airspeed and/or pitchcombination is a potentially dangerousmanoeuvre and should be avoided.

2. In helicopters when encountering an unusualattitude as a result of blade stall, collective(power) must be reduced before applyingattitude corrections if the helicopter is in anose high unusual attitude. This will aid ineliminating the possibility of aggravating theblade stall condition. To avoid blade stall in adiving unusual attitude, reduce the collective(power) and bank attitude before initiating apitch change. Most importantly, in allcases avoid abnormal positive or negativeG loading which could lead to otherunusual attitudes, structural damage orfailure.

D. INADVERTENT IMC (HELICOPTER NOT

SUITABLY EQUIPPED)Accidental entry into IMC for helicopters notcertified for IFR flight must be avoided at allcosts. Flight into IMC for these helicoptersrequires immediate controlled action.Inadvertent IMC for a pilot not IFR qualifiedflying a helicopter without the appropriateinstruments is a recipe for disaster.

Control of the helicopter and transition ontoinstruments is vital to the safety of the flight.Confirm the attitude of the helicopter andensure that it is not in an unusual attitude.Reference to the control and performanceinstruments for pitch, roll and yaw informationis essential.

As soon as able after the aircraft is in a stableflight condition action must be commenced totransition to VMC. This may include a 180°

turn, a climb (if the cloud tops and obstructionsare known for the area) performance and

altitude permitting, or a descent to below thecloud base can be accomplished providing thepilot knows exactly the weather conditions andwhether a safety margin exists between thecloud base and the ground, water orobstructions. Alternatively the pilot mayattempt to contact ATC for a clearance and beradar vectored to VMC.

For the VFR pilot the time honoured 180° turnmay be the safest and most expedient procedureand should be accomplished prior to enteringthe cloud or whiteout condition. If a steadyflight condition exists prior to entry into IMC,the time and heading are noted. On a cardinalpoint, 12, 3, 6 or 9 o’clock a standard rate-oneturn is commenced. At 3°/sec it takes oneminute to complete a 180° turn. The pilot thenflies the reciprocal heading that was flown intoIMC, and at the end of the required timeshould have exited into VMC. This procedureshould not be commenced if the helicopter hasbeen forced into a low altitude/low airspeedscenario in IMC , as a 180° turn made byreference to the instruments in this scenarioalmost guarantees an accident. It cannot be over-emphasized that VFR helicopter pilots must avoidcloud penetration at all times.

The above procedures are designed to assist thepilot who is flying a helicopter without IFRinstrumentation. Situations that place theVFR helicopter pilot in IMC must always beavoided.

IFR TRAINING PROGRAMME

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 6-1

IFR TRAINING PROGRAMME

6.1 INTRODUCTION6.2 GROUND TRAINING6.3 SYNTHETIC FLIGHT TRAINING6.4 FLIGHT TRAININGP

AR

TS

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL6-2

INTRODUCTION

6.1.1GENERAL

The following outline of ground school,simulator and flight training is presented as asample syllabus for training in preparation forthe instrument rating . Prepared with theassistance of flight training organizations inCanada, it represents the recommended trainingfor a candidate starting training with limitedaviation experience. The resources available tothe flight training unit, qualifications ofinstructional staff as well as the capability of thestudent should determine the nature of thetraining program. For example, if an approvedground procedures trainer is not available, theflight training air time may have to be extendedto provide for complete training in a particularsubject area.

6.1.2ADVICE TO PERSONS CONDUCTING TRAINING

Persons conducting instrument ratinginstruction or planning a course syllabus shouldconsider and include all the necessar yknowledge and skills for the student to use theinstrument rating, not just to pass the writtenexamination and flight test. The broad area ofhuman factors should not be neglected. Aviationphysiology related to instrument flight, decisionmaking and judgement training should beintegrated into both the ground school andflight training. The Aeroplane Flight InstructorGuide (TP975) and Federal AviationAdministration Instrument Flying Handbook(AC61-27C) are both good references for theinstrument rating instructor.

Any instrument training program should allowsufficient calendar time for the student toassimilate the material involved in preparing forthe instrument rating. A short intensive courseof ground or flight training may be successful ingaining a pass in the written exam or flight test,but may leave the student inadequately preparedto handle an IFR flight in demanding weatherconditions. A well integrated flight and groundschool curriculum which allows for informal

study and an opportunity for the student tomonitor other IFR pilots in flight will aid thelearning process.

Even though the minimum experiencerequirements for the instrument rating may bemet without actual cloud time or without anyflights on an IFR flight plan, this is notrecommended. Flight training involving actualIFR flights with the student handlingprogressively more decision making and ATCcommunications is strongly recommended.Opportunities for actual instrument flight time(in cloud) should be used by the instructor tobuild student confidence and to provide forlearning reinforcement.

For the purposes of scheduling during the initialflight training, it is recommended that lessonsbe limited to 1.5 hours as student receptivitydrops sharply beyond this time frame. Mutualflying with instrument rating students can beused to good advantage by the flight trainingunit when each student has reached asatisfactory level of knowledge for the exercisesto be practised. This is particularly beneficialfor the student acting as safety pilot.

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6.1

Holding SpeedsPropeller Aircraft

175 KTS

Climbing in the holdturbo propnormal climb speed

14,000 feet and below

310 KTS or less

above 14,000 feet

230 KTS

265 KTS

Jet

FIG. 6-1 • IFR GROUND TRAINING

IFR TRAINING PROGRAMME

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 6-3

6.1.3COMPLETION OF TRAINING

On completion of training, the completion andsignature of Part C of the Application forEndorsement of a Rating (Form 26-0083, seeFig. 6-2) by a person who is qualified inaccordance with the Personnel LicensingHandbook, Vol 1, Part II, Chapter 1, certifiesthat the candidate has been adequately trainedand has reached a sufficient level of competenceto undertake a flight test. Transport Canadamonitors the flight test record of qualifiedpersons making such recommendations.

GROUND TRAINING

6.2.1COURSE OUTLINE

6.2.2INTRODUCTION 1.5 HOURS

a. Objective of Courseb. Air Traffic Control Services in Canada -

History, Services Provided, Description ofGround, Tower, Terminal, Departure,Arrival, ACCs

c. ICAO - History, Organization, Method ofDisseminating Information, Compliance

d. Definitionse. Characteristics of Canadian Airspace,

Airways and Routes

FIG. 6-2 • RECOMMENDATION FOR INITIAL INSTRUMENT FLIGHT TEST

6.2

PART C - RECOMMENDATION

I hereby certify that the applicant has completed the training and experience prescribed in the personnel licensing handbook relativeto this application and is competent to hold _______________________ rating(s).

The applicant is recommended for a flight test. (Check here if a flight test is required)

Print NameD M YDate

Signature Licence No. Organization

LESSON PLAN TIME SUBJECT

General 1 1.5 hours IntroductionGeneral 2 1.5 hours VFR ReviewIFR 1 1.5 hours Flight Planning

GeneralIFR 2 1.5 hours DeparturesIFR 3 1.5 hours En routeIFR 4 1.5 hours ArrivalsIFR 5 1.5 hours ApproachesIFR 6 1.5 hours EmergenciesInstruments 1 3.0 hours Flight

InstrumentsInstruments 2 3.0 hours Navigation

Instruments &Equipment

Instruments 3 1.5 hours CompassesInstruments 4 1.5 hours Other

NavigationEquipment inUse

Meteorology 2 1.5 hours Air MassesMeteorology 3 1.5 hours Cold FrontsMeteorology 4 1.5 hours Warm FrontsMeteorology 5 1.5 hours ThunderstormsMeteorology 6 1.5 hours Icing,

Turbulence,Fog

Meteorology 7 1.5 hours WeatherCharts

Meteorology 8 1.5 hours WeatherReports

Meteorology 9 1.5 hours WeatherPlanning

Meteorology 10 1.5 hours Review &Discussion

Navigation 1 1.5 hours Flight PlanningIFR

Navigation 2 1.5 hours ComputerProblems

Navigation 3 1.5 hours GeneralNavigationExercise

Navigation 4 3.0 hours Cross CountryExercise (FlightPlanning Only)

PracticeExamination 3.0 hours

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL6-4

6.2.3VFR REVIEW 1.5 HOURS

a. VFR - Weather Minima, Flight Planning,Pilot, Aircraft & Fuel Requirements,Communications

b. SVFR - Weather Minima, Authorityc. DVFR - General, ADIZ, Scatana

Requirements & Complianced. Cruising Altitudese. Standard Pressure Regionf. Sparsely Settled and Mountainous Regions

6.2.4FLIGHT PLANNING GENERAL 1.5 HOURS

a. Pilot, Aircraft and Weather Requirementsfor Operating under IFR conditions

b. C.A.P., LE, LO and HE Charts, CanadaFlight Supplement, Terminal Charts

c. Route Planning - IFR Preferred Routesd. Flight Logse. Flight Plansf. NOTAMSg. To United Statesh. AIRMETs/SIGMETsi. Use of ICAO Flight Plan

6.2.5DEPARTURES 1.5 HOURS

a. ATISb. Checks and Briefingsc. Clearances - Clearance Limitd. Departures - SIDe. Departures - NON SIDf. Departures - Uncontrolled Airportsg. Departure Procedure - Mountainous

Regionsh. Obstacle and Terrain Clearance

6.2.6EN ROUTE 1.5 HOURS

a. Radar & Non Radarb. MEA, MOCA, MRA, GASA, MSAc. Clearance Limits - Holdingd. Altitude Changes - Canada and United States

e. Position Reportingf. Intersectionsg. Turning Pointsh. Class F Advisory/Restricted Airspace

6.2.7ARRIVAL 1.5 HOURS

a. Clearancesb. Profile Descents, Standard Terminal Arrivals (STAR)c. Terminald. Controlled Airports, Uncontrolled

Aerodromese. Radar & Non Radarf. Airports with no Towerg. Holdingh. Information Required by Pilot

6.2.8APPROACHES 1.5 HOURS

a. Clearancesb. Approach Chartsc. Approach and Runway Lightingd. Transitionse. Radar and Non Radarf. ILS and ILS/DME Approachesg. LOC (BC) Approachesh. NDB Approachesi. VOR Approachesj. DME ARCsk. RNAV Approaches (optional)l. Missed Approachesm. CAT II ILS (optional)

6.2.9EMERGENCIES 1.5 HOURS

a. Departure, En route, Arrivalb. Communications Failurec. Navigation Equipment Failured. Flight Instruments Failuree. System Failuref. Engine Failureg. 121.5h. Hijackingi. ELT

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IFR TRAINING PROGRAMME

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 6-5

6.2.10FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS 3.0 HOURS

a. Attitude Indicator - Principles ofOperation, Limitations, Failures

b. Heading Indicator - Principles ofOperation, Limitations, Precession, Failure

c. Turn and Slip - Principles of Operation,Rates of Turn, Failures

d. Turn Co-ordinator - Principles ofOperation, Rates of Turn, Failures

e. Vertical Speed Indicator - Principles ofOperation, Limitations, Failure, IVSI

f. Airspeed Indicator - Principles ofOperation, Limitations, Failure, Pitot Heat,Mach

g. Altimeter - Principles of Operations,Limitations, Failure, Types

h. Flight Director Indicator - Principles ofOperation, Limitations, Failures

i. Horizontal Situation Indicator - Principlesof Operation, Limitations, Failures

6.2.11NAVIGATION INSTRUMENTS & EQUIPMENT

3.0 HOURS

a. VOR & VOT - Principles of Operation,Limitations, Failure, Identification,Frequencies, Equipment Checks on VOT,Inherent Errors

b. ADF - Principles of Operation, Limitations,Identification, Radio Stations, Power,Frequency Range, Fixed Card & RMI,Inherent Errors

c. ILS - Principles of Operation, Limitations,Identification, Frequency Band,Components of System, Localizer Only,Track Guidance Localizer, Inherent Errors

e. DME - Principles of Operation,Limitations, Identification, Use of TACANDME

e. TRANSPONDER - Principles ofOperation, Limitations, Use, AltitudeReporting

6.2.12COMPASSES 1.5 HOURS

a. Magnetic - Principles of OperationCompass Compass Errors - Variation,Deviation, Dip Tolerances andUnserviceabilities Swinging - Frequency & Procedures

b. Gyro Compass - Principles of OperationsErrorsTolerances & UnserviceabilitiesSwingingSlaving

6.2.13OTHER NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT IN USE

1.5 HOURSa. INSb. OMEGA, OMEGA/VLFc. LORAN Cd. GPS - Use for En Route and Approachese. RNAVf. TACANg. MLS

6.2.14METEOROLOGY 1.5 HOURS

INTRODUCTION

a. History of Canadian Weather Servicesb. Temperaturec. Pressured. Moisturee. Cloudsf. Precipitationg. Visibilityh. Wind

6.2.15AIR MASSES 1.5 HOURS

a. Descriptionb. Types of Air Masses Normal to Canadac. Characteristicsd. Stability & Moisturee. Modificationf. Frontsg. Trowals/Troughs

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL6-6

6.2.16COLD FRONTS 1.5 HOURS

a. Descriptionb. Factors Governing Frontal Weatherc. Surface Windsd. Temperaturee. Moisturef. Cloud & Precipitationg. Visibilityh. Pressurei. Upper Cold Fronts

6.2.17WARM FRONTS 1.5 HOURS

a. Descriptionb. Factors Governing Frontal Weatherc. Surface Windsd. Temperaturee. Moisturef. Cloud & Precipitationg. Visibilityh. Pressurei. Upper Warm Fronts

6.2.18THUNDERSTORMS 1.5 HOURS

a. Descriptionb. Stages & Typesc. Surface Weatherd. Flight Weathere. Staticf. Precautions in Vicinityg. Lightning Detection Systems and Weather

Radar

6.2.19ICING, TURBULENCE, FOG 1.5 HOURS

a. Turbulence - Mechanical- Thermal- Frontal- Wind Shear- Flight Precautions

b. Icing - Formation- Types- Airframe- Engine- Precautions- Flight Precautions/Regulations

c. Fog - Types- Formation- Dissipation

d. Clear Air Turbulence (CAT)e. Mountain Waves

6.2.20CHARTS 1.5 HOURS

a. Upper Levelb. Surface chartsc. Symbolsd. Frequencye. Specialty Charts

6.2.21WEATHER REPORTS/FORECASTS 1.5 HOURS

a. Aviation Weather - FrequencyForecasts - Description

- Information Availableb. Aviation Weather - Frequency

Reports - Description- Information Available

c. Symbols

6.2.22WEATHER PLANNING 1.5 HOURS

a. Information to Give FSS Weather Brieferb. Information to be Obtained from FSS or

Computer Briefingc. Route Forecastsd. Altitude Planninge. Destination and Alternate Planningf. Cloudg. Turbulenceh. Icingi. Winds/Jet Stream

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IFR TRAINING PROGRAMME

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 6-7

6.2.23REVIEW AND DISCUSSION 1.5 HOURS

a. General Review and Discussionb. Workshop Problems

6.2.24FLIGHT PLANNING IFR 1.5 HOURS

a. Weather & NOTAMsb. Flight Log - Routing to Destination &

Alternate- Altitudes, (MEA, MRA,

MOCA, CRUISEALTITUDE)

- Track- Heading- Airspeed (IAS, CAS, EAS,

TAS, MACH)- Reporting Points, Altitude

Changes, Changeover Pointsc. Flight Plan - Completing

- Filingd. Equipment - Pilot

- Aircraft- Departure, En route, Arrival,

Approache. Block Times at Busy Airportsf. IFR Preferred Routesg. Filing Into Prior Permission Airportsh. Filing to United States

6.2.25FLIGHT PLANNING COMPUTER PROBLEMS

1.5 HOURS

a. Descriptionb. Time, Speed, Distancec. Fueld. Statute, Nautical Miles & Kilometrese. Airspeed & Altimeter Correctionsf. Heading & Ground Speedg. Wind Direction & Speedh. Point of No Return (optional)i. Critical Point (optional)

NOTE:Further time may be required in the use of theflight computer depending on the student’s previousknowledge.

6.2.26GENERAL NAVIGATION PROBLEMS 1.5 HOURS

a. Short X-Country with given winds, etc. fornav. purposes only

6.2.27FLIGHT PLANNING EXERCISE 3.0 HOURS

a. Full X-Country using prepared weatherforecasts, sequences and routings prevalentduring the period of time laid down in theexercise

NOTE:Common LE charts will have to be obtained whenpreparing this exercise. Outdated charts may beused for practice as long as they were all issued onthe same date.

6.2.28PRACTICE EXAM 3.0 HOURS

This examination should be prepared by theschool (preferably more than one beingavailable) in the same format as the DOTInstrument Examination in order to providestudents with a measure of their level ofknowledge. Should a multiple choice type exambe prepared, care should be taken to provide anexam which will allow an in-depth probe of thestudents knowledge. Combination multiplechoice and direct answer papers might provide agood yardstick.

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL6-8

SYNTHETIC FLIGHTTRAINING

Figures 6-3 and 6-5 show two synthetic flighttrainers and advanced Level II trainersapproved by Transport Canada.

TRAINING SYLLABUS TIMERecommended Minimum

6.3.1BASIC INSTRUMENT REVIEW 2.0

a. Use of Flight Instrumentsb. Recognition of Attitudesc. Straight and Level Flightd. Climbinge. Descendingf. Turns (rate 1/2, rate 1, 30° and 45° of

bank)g. Climbing Turnsh. Descending Turnsi. Co-ordinated Patternsj. Approach to Stallk. Recovery from Stalll. Recovery from Unusual Attitudes

NOTES:1. Sequences to be completed using both partial

(limited) and full instrument panel.2. Allocated time should be used as basic

instrument review and trainingfamiliarization. Actual time is dependentupon student exercise and progress.

6.3.2AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER (ADF/NDB)

4.0

a. Orientationb. Tracking: To-From;c. Intercepting Pre-determined Track: To-

From;d. Determining Positione. Determining Time and Distancef. Procedure Turn

NOTE:Sequences should be conducted using both theRadio Magnetic Indicator (RMI) (RotatingCompass Card) and the Fixed Card Indicator(Relative Bearing), subject to the trainerinstrumentation.

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6.3

FIG. 6-4 • "PILOT TRAINER EFIS DISPLAY"

FIG. 6-3 • "LEVEL II PILOT TRAINER"

IFR TRAINING PROGRAMME

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 6-9

6.3.3VERY HIGH FREQUENCYOMNIDIRECTIONAL RANGE (VOR) 4.0

a. VOR Test Signal (VOT)b. Orientationc. Tracking: To; From;d. Intercepting Pre-determined Track: To;

From;e. Determining Positionf. Determine Time and Distanceg. Procedure Turn

NOTE:Sequences should be conducted using theHorizontal Situation Indicator (HSI), RadioMagnetic Indicator (RMI) and Track Indicatoronly, subject to the trainer instrumentation.

6.3.4DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME) 1.5

a. Intercepting DME ARCb. Tracking DME ARCc. Intercepting Radial from DME ARC

NOTE:Sequences should be conducted using the RadioMagnetic Indicator (RMI) and Track Indicatoronly, subject to the trainer instrumentation.

6.3.5HOLDING 3.0

a. Principles of Entry to and Flying theStandard and Non-standard HoldingPattern.

b. Entry to and Holding Pattern at:1. NDB2. VOR3. Intersection4. DME FIX

NOTES:1. Sequences should be conducted using the

Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI), RadioMagnetic Indicator (RMI) and TrackIndicator only, subject to the trainerinstrumentation.

2. Candidates should have prior knowledge ofwind velocity gained from forecast W/Vand/or tracking to holding fix.

6.3.6APPROACHES AND MISSED APPROACHES 6.0

a. Full Published Approach:1. NDB2. VOR3. ILS Front Course4. LOC Only5. LOC Back Course6. PAR (if available)7. RNAV (if available and approved)

b. Approach After Holding on an ApproachFix:1. NDB2. VOR3. ILS4. LOC Back course

c. Transition to Straight in Approach:1. Off Radar Vector2. Off Published Transition

d. Circling Approach

NOTES:1. Sequences should be conducted using different

available trainer equipment (eg) HorizontalSituation Indicator (HSI), Radio MagneticIndicator (RMI), Fixed Card BearingIndicator, etc.

2. Circling may not be possible due to the lack oftrainer visual presentation.

3. Candidates should be exposed to both thelanding and the missed approach followingapproaches to the missed approach point

FIG. 6-5 • "LEVEL II FLIGHT TRAINING DEVICE"

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(MAP) at DH or MDA, subject to trainercapabilities.

6.3.7AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES (ATS)CLEARANCES/PROCEDURES 1.0

a. Departure:1. Without Radar Services2. With Radar Services3. Standard Instrument Departure (SID)

b. Arrival:1. Without Radar Services2. With Radar Services3. Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR)

NOTE:Departure and arrival sequences should becompleted in conjunction with other relatedsequences.

6.3.8IFR CROSS COUNTRY 3.0

a. Preparation of Flight Logb. Preparation of Flight Planc. Departured. En routee. Holdingf. Transitiong. Approachh. Missed Approachi. Diversion to Alternatej. Approachk. Emergencies

FLIGHT TRAININGINSTRUMENT RATINGTRAINING SYLLABUS

GENERAL NOTES

1. This flight training IFR syllabus is based uponthe student successfully completing the relatedtraining sequence in a synthetic flight trainerprior to undertaking the applicable flighttraining sequence.

2. When the synthetic flight trainer is notequipped to provide training in recommendedsequences, or a trainer is not available, therecommended minimum flight times can beincreased accordingly to meet the student’straining requirements.

3. The recommended minimum times refer to"Instrument Flight Time" as defined in thePersonnel Licensing Handbook Volume 1Flight Crew Part I Section 8, that is: "Flighttime during which a pilot is controlling anaircraft by sole reference to the flightinstruments and without external referencepoints".

4. It is recognized that not all training aircraftwill be equipped to carr y out allrecommended training sequences. For

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL6-10

FIG. 6-6 • CONVENTIONAL INSTRUMENTS AT NIGHT

6.4

IFR TRAINING PROGRAMME

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL 6-11

example, the aircraft may not be equippedwith an RMI to provide ADF and VORtraining using that equipment, or DME topermit training in intercepting and flyingDME ARCS.

RECOMMENDED MINIMUM TIME

6.4.1INSTRUMENT FLYING 6.0

a. Use of Flight Instrumentsb. Recognition of Attitudesc. Straight and Level Flightd. Climbinge. Descendingf. Turnsg. Climbing Turnsh. Descending Turnsi. Co-ordinated Patternsj. Approach to Stallk. Recovery from Unusual Attitudes

NOTES:1. Sequences to be carried out both partial

(limited) and full instrument panel.2. Recommended minimum time of 6.0 hours

should be regarded as time for review purposesand to familiarize student with instrumentflying on the aircraft type. Actual time will bedependent upon individual student’s pastinstrument flying training, experience andprogress.

6.4.2AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER (ADF/NDB)

4.0

a. Orientationb. Tracking: To-From;c. Intercepting Pre-determined Track: To-

From;d. Determining Positione. Determining Time and Distancef. Procedure Turn

NOTE:Subject to aircraft equipment, sequences to becarried out using the Fixed Card BearingIndicator (Relative Bearing) and the Radio

Magnetic Indicator (RMI) (Rotating CompassCard).

6.4.3VERY HIGH FREQUENCYOMNIDIRECTIONAL RANGE (VOR) 4.0

a. VOR Test Facility (VOT)b. Orientationc. Tracking: To-From;d. Intercepting Pre-determined Radials: To-

From;e. Determining Positionf. Determining Time and Distanceg. Procedure Turn

NOTE:Subject to aircraft instrumentation sequences to becarried out with the Horizontal SituationIndicator (HSI), Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI)and Track Indicator only.

6.4.4DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME) 1.5

a. Intercepting DME ARCb. Tracking DME ARCc. Intercepting Radial from DME ARC

NOTE:Sequences should be conducted using the RMI andTrack Indicator only, subject to aircraftinstrumentation.

6.4.5HOLDING 2.0

a. Principles of Entry to and Flying a Standardand Non-standard Holding Pattern

b. Entry to and Holding Pattern at:1. NDB2. VOR3. Intersection4. DME FIX

NOTES:1. Sequences should be conducted using the

Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI), RadioMagnetic Indicator (RMI) and Track Indicatoronly, subject to aircraft instrumentation.

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL6-12

2. Students should always have prior knowledgeof wind velocity from forecast weather and/orprior tracking to holding fix.

6.4.6APPROACHES AND MISSED APPROACHES 7.0

a. Full Published Approach:1. NDB2. VOR3. ILS4. LOC5. LOC Back Course6. PAR (if available)7. RNAV (if applicable and approved)

b. Approach After Holding on an ApproachFacility:1. NDB2. VOR3. ILS4. LOC Back Course

c. Transition to Straight-in Approach:1. From Radar Vector2. From Published Transition

d. Circling Approach

NOTES:1. Sequences should be conducted using different

available aircraft equipment (eg) HorizontalSituation Indicator (HSI), Radio MagneticIndicator (RMI), Fixed Card BearingIndicator etc.

2. Students should be exposed to landings andmissed approaches from the missed approachpoint (MAP) at DH or MDA.

6.4.7AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES (ATS)CLEARANCES/PROCEDURES 1.0

a. Departure:1. Without Radar Services2. With Radar Services3. Standard Instrument Departure (SID)

b. Arrival:1. Without Radar Services2. With Radar Services3. Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR)

NOTE:It is recommended that departure and arrival

sequences be carried out in conjunction with otherrelated sequences.

6.4.8IFR CROSS COUNTRY 1.5

a. Meteorological Briefingb. Preparation of Flight Logc. Preparation of Flight Pland. Computation of Fuel Requirementse. Departuref. En routeg. Holdingh. Transition and Approachi. Missed Approachj. Diversion to Alternatek. Approachl. Emergencies

GENERAL NOTES

NOTES:1. The IFR cross country flight should be

conducted with the student handling radiocontact with ATC.

2. Student should be given the opportunity to flyas much actual cloud time as possible duringtraining.

3. Emergency procedures such as failures of radionavigation and approach aids;communication facilities; and, other aircraftequipment including engine out proceduresare to be interjected into the trainingsequences at appropriate times.

4. The minimum experience requirement toattain an instrument rating is stated in thePersonnel Licensing Handbook, Volume 1.

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APPENDICES

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL app-1

APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1 DEFINITIONSAPPENDIX 2 ABBREVIATIONSAPPENDIX 3 RULES OF THUMBAPPENDIX 4 REFERENCES FOR INSTRUMENT FLYING

AP

PE

ND

IC

ES

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUALapp-2

APPENDIX 1: DEFINITIONS

The following definitions relate to IFRflight. Additional definitions areavailable in AIP Canada GEN.

ACCELERATE/STOP DISTANCE The length of the take-off run available plus length of the AVAILABLE (ASDA) stopway, if provided.

AIRBORNE COLLISION An aircraft system based on secondary surveillance radar AVOIDANCE SYSTEMS (ACAS) (SSR) transponder signals which operates independently

of ground-based equipment to provide advice to the piloton potential conflicting aircraft that are equipped withSSR transponders.

AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV) A method of navigation which permits aircraft operationon any desired flight path within the coverage of station-referenced navigation aids or within the limits of thecapability of self-contained aids, or a combination ofthese.

AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION A publication issued by or with the authority of a State PUBLICATION (AIP) and containing aeronautical information of a lasting

character essential to air navigation.

AIRPORT AND AIRWAYS A medium range radar designed for both airway and SURVEILLANCE RADAR (AASR) airport surveillance applications.

AIRPORT SURVEILLANCE Relatively short range radar intended primarily for RADAR (ASR) surveillance of airport and terminal areas.

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL CLEARANCE Means authorization by an air traffic control unit for anaircraft to proceed within controlled airspace underspecified conditions.

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL Means a directive issued by an air traffic control unit for INSTRUCTION air traffic control purposes.

ALTERNATE AIRPORT Means an aerodrome specified in a flight plan to which aflight may proceed when a landing at the intendeddestination becomes inadvisable.

BEARING The horizontal angle at a given point, measuredclockwise from a specific reference datum, to a secondpoint. Bearings are expressed at True, Magnetic, Relative,Grid, etc., according to the reference datum used.

CATEGORY I MINIMA The minima for a Category I precision approach as set outin the Canada Air Pilot, the operations manual of anoperator or as approved by a direction of the Minister inwriting for a specific operator.

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CIRCLING PROCEDURE The visual manoeuvring required, after completing aninstrument approach, to bring an aircraft into position fora landing on a runway which is not suitably located for astraight-in approach.

CLEARANCE LIMIT The point to which an aircraft is granted an ATCclearance.

CLEARWAY A defined rectangular area on the ground or water underthe control of the appropriate authority, selected orprepared as a suitable area over which an aeroplane maymake a portion of its initial climb to a specified height.

CODE (SSR code) The number assigned to a particular multiple pulse replysignal transmitted by a transponder.

COMPULSORY REPORTING POINT A reporting point designated by the Minister or specifiedas such by an ATC unit.

CONTACT APPROACH An approach wherein an aircraft on an IFR flight plan,having an air traffic control authorization, operating clearof clouds with at least 1 mile flight visibility and areasonable expectation of continuing to the destinationairport in those conditions, may deviate from theinstrument approach and proceed to the destinationairport by visual reference to the surface of the earth.

CONTROL AREA Means a controlled airspace extending upwards verticallyfrom a specified height above the surface of the earth anddesignated as such in the Designated Airspace Handbook.

CONTROL AREA EXTENSION Controlled airspace of defined dimensions within the LowLevel Airspace extending upwards from 2200 ft. abovethe surface of the earth unless otherwise specified.

CONTROLLED AIRSPACE Means an airspace of defined dimensions within whichair traffic control service is provided.

DECISION HEIGHT (DH) A specified height at which a missed approach must beinitiated during a precision approach if the required visualreference to continue the approach to land has not beenestablished.

DESIGNATED INTERSECTION A point on the surface of the earth over which two ormore designated position lines intersect. The positionlines may be magnetic bearings from NDBs, radials fromVHF/UHF aids, centre lines of designated airways, airroutes, localizers and DME distances.

DISTANCE MEASURING Equipment, airborne and ground, used to measure, in EQUIPMENT (DME) nautical miles, the slant range distance from a DME NAVAID.

DME ARC A track, indicated as a constant DME distance, around anavigation facility which provides distance information.

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUALapp-4

EXPECTED APPROACH TIME (EAT) The time at which ATC expects that an arriving aircraft,following a delay, will leave the holding point tocomplete its approach for a landing.

EXPECTED FURTHER CLEARANCE The time at which it is expected that further clearance will TIME (EFC) be issued to an aircraft.

FAN MARKER BEACON A type of radio beacon, the emissions of which radiate ina vertical fan-shaped pattern.

FINAL APPROACH That segment of an instrument approach between the finalapproach fix or point and the runway, airport or missedapproach point, whichever is encountered last, whereinalignment and descent for landing are accomplished.

FINAL APPROACH FIX (FAF) A fix which indicates the commencement of the finalapproach segment of an instrument approach.

FINAL APPROACH COURSE A fix which lies on the fix approach course prior to FIX (FACF) glidepath interception approximately 8 miles from the

threshold of the runway and is used by FlightManagement Systems of modern aircraft.

FLIGHT INFORMATION Means an airspace of defined dimensions extending REGION (FIR) upwards from the earth within which flight information

service and alerting service is provided.

FLIGHT LEVEL An altitude expressed in hundreds of feet indicated on analtimeter set at 29.92 inches of mercury or 1013.2millibars.

FLIGHT SERVICE STATION (FSS) An aeronautical facility providing mobile and fixedcommunications, flight information, search and rescuealerting, and weather services to pilots and other users.

GLIDE PATH A descent profile which is electronically determined forvertical guidance during a final approach.

GLIDE PATH ANGLE The angle of the glide path measured in degrees abovethe horizontal plane.

HEIGHT ABOVE AERODROME (HAA) The height in feet of the MDA above the aerodromeelevation.

HEIGHT ABOVE TOUCHDOWN The height in feet of the DH or MDA above thetouchdown zone elevation.

HIGH LEVEL AIR ROUTE In the High Level Airspace, a prescribed track betweenspecified radio aids to navigation, along which air trafficcontrol service is not provided.

HIGH LEVEL AIRSPACE All airspace that is within the Canadian domestic airspaceat or above 18,000 feet ASL.

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HIGH LEVEL AIRWAY In controlled High Level Airspace, a prescribed trackbetween specified radio aids to navigation, along whichair traffic control service is provided.

HOLDING PROCEDURE A predetermined manoeuvre which keeps an aircraftwithin a specified airspace while awaiting furtherclearance.

INITIAL APPROACH That segment of an instrument approach between theinitial approach fix or point and the intermediate fix orpoint wherein the aircraft departs the en route phase ofthe flight and manoeuvres to enter the intermediatesegment.

INSTRUMENT APPROACH A series of predetermined manoeuvres for the orderly PROCEDURE transfer of an aircraft under instrument flight conditions

from the beginning of the initial approach to a landing orto a point from which a landing may be made visually.

INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS) An electronic system designed to provide an approachpath for precise alignment and descent of aircraftconsisting of a localizer, a glide path transmitter and mayinclude marker beacons, DME or an NDB.

INSTRUMENT METEOROLOGICAL Meteorological conditions, expressed in terms of visibility, CONDITIONS (IMC) distance from cloud, and ceiling, less than the minima

prescribed in the Air Regulations for flight in VFR weather.

INTERMEDIATE APPROACH That segment of an instrument approach between theintermediate fix or point and the final approach fix orpoint wherein the aircraft configuration, speed andpositioning adjustments are made in preparation for thefinal approach.

LANDING DISTANCE The length of runway which is declared available and AVAILABLE (LDA) suitable for the ground run of an aeroplane landing.

LOCALIZER A VHF transmitter which provides a lateral alignmentprofile for front and back course ILS approaches to arunway.

LOW LEVEL AIR ROUTE In the Low Level airspace, Class G Airspace extendingupwards from the surface of the earth, within certainspecified boundaries and within which air traffic controlservice is not provided.

LOW LEVEL AIRSPACE All airspace within the Canadian Domestic Airspacebelow 18,000 feet ASL.

LOW LEVEL AIRWAY Controlled Low Level Airspace, within certain specifiedboundaries extending upwards from 2,200 feet above thesurface of the earth up to, but not including 18,000 ASL.

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUALapp-6

MANDATORY FREQUENCY (MF) A regulated procedure that requires all pilots operating inthe immediate vicinity of specified uncontrolledaerodromes to monitor, and transmit intentions, landingestimates and the appropriate approach, circuit, taxi andtake-off reports as applicable.

MICROWAVE LANDING An instrument system operating in the microwave SYSTEM (MLS) spectrum designed to provide precise lateral, longitude

and vertical guidance to aircraft.

MINIMUM DESCENT A specified altitude referenced to sea level for a non-ALTITUDE (MDA) precision approach below which descent must not be

made until the required visual reference to continue theapproach to land has been established.

MINIMUM EN ROUTE The published altitude above sea level between specified ALTITUDE (MEA) fixes on airways or air routes which assures acceptable

navigational signal coverage, and which meets the IFRobstruction clearance requirements.

MINIMUM NAVIGATION Specified aircraft equipment requirements to ensure PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS aircraft used to conduct flights within airspace that has (MNPS) been designated MNPS Airspace have a minimum

navigation capability.

MINIMUM OBSTRUCTION That altitude above sea level in effect between radio fixes CLEARANCE ALTITUDE (MOCA) on low level airways or air routes which meets the IFR

obstruction clearance requirements for the route segment.

MINIMUM RECEPTION Minimum reception altitude when applied to a specific ALTITUDE (MRA) VHF/UHF intersection, is the lowest altitude above sea

level at which acceptable navigation signal coverage isreceived to determine the intersection.

MINIMUM SECTOR The lowest altitude which will provide a minimum ALTITUDE (MSA) clearance of 1000 feet, under conditions of standard

temperature and pressure, above all obstacles located inan area contained within a sector of a circle of 25nautical miles radius centred on the specified facility.

MISSED APPROACH POINT (MAP) That point on the final approach track which signifies thetermination of the final approach and commencement ofthe missed approach segment.

MISSED APPROACH PROCEDURE The procedure to be followed, if for any reason, after aninstrument approach, a landing is not effected.

NORTH ATLANTIC (NAT) A system of tracks established and published, in ORGANIZED TRACK SYSTEM accordance with ICAO Regional Supplementary

Procedures, for use of aircraft operating over the NorthAtlantic during peak traffic periods.

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NOTAM A notice, containing information concerning theestablishment, condition or change in any aeronauticalfacility, service, procedure or hazard, the timelyknowledge of which is essential to personnel concernedwith flight operations.

PRECISION APPROACH RADAR (PAR) A high definition, short range radar used as an approachaid. This system provides the controller with altitude,azimuth and range information of high accuracy for thepurpose of assisting the pilot in executing an approachand landing. This form of navigational assistance istermed "Precision Radar Approach".

PREFERRED RUNWAY Where there is no active runway, the preferred runway isconsidered to be the most suitable operational runwaytaking into account such factors as: the runway mostnearly aligned with the wind; noise abatement or otherrestrictions which prohibit the use of certain runway(s);ground traffic and runway conditions.

PROCEDURE TURN A manoeuvre in which a turn is made away from adesignated track followed by a turn in the oppositedirection, both turns being executed so as to permit theaircraft to intercept and proceed along the reciprocal ofthe designated track.

RADIAL A magnetic bearing from a VOR, TACAN, or VORTACfacility except for facilities in the Northern DomesticAirspace which may be oriented on True or Grid North.

REQUIRED VISUAL REFERENCE In respect of an aircraft on an approach to a runway,means that section of the approach area of the runway orthose visual aids that, when viewed by the pilot of theaircraft, enables the pilot to make an assessment of theaircraft position and the rate of change of position,relative to the nominal flight path.

RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE (RVR) In respect of a runway, means the maximum horizontaldistance, as measured by an automated visual landingdistance system and reported by an air traffic control unitor a flight service station for the direction of takeoff orlanding, at which the runway, or the lights or markersdelineating it, can be seen from a point above its centreline at a height corresponding to the average eye level ofpilots at touchdown.

SAFE ALTITUDE 100 NM The lowest altitude which will provide a minimumclearance of 1000 feet in non-mountainous or 2,000 ft. inmountainous areas, under conditions of standardtemperature and pressure, above all obstacles located inan area contained within a circle of 100 NM radiuscentred on a NAVAID or the geographic centre of theaerodrome.

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUALapp-8

SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE A radar system that requires complementary aircraft RADAR (SSR) equipment (transponder). The transponder generates a

coded reply signal in response to transmissions from theground station (interrogator). Since this system relies on atransponder-generated signal rather than a signal reflectedfrom the aircraft, as in primary radar, it offers significantoperational advantages such as increased range andpositive indication.

SIMULATED APPROACH An instrument approach procedure conducted in VFRweather conditions by an aircraft not on an IFR clearance.

STOPWAY A defined rectangular area on the ground at the end ofthe runway in the direction of take-off prepared as asuitable area in which an aeroplane can be stopped in thecase of an abandoned take-off.

SURVEILLANCE APPROACH An instrument approach in which the final approach isconducted in accordance with directions issued by acontroller referring to a surveillance radar display.

TAKE-OFF DISTANCE The length of the take-off run available plus the length of AVAILABLE (TODA) the clearway, if provided.

TAKE-OFF RUN AVAILABLE (TORA) The length of runway declared available and suitable forthe ground run of an aeroplane taking off.

TERMINAL CONTROL AREA Controlled airspace of defined dimensions designated toserve arriving, departing and en route aircraft.

THRESHOLD The beginning of that portion of the runway usable forlanding.

THRESHOLD CROSSING The height of the glide path above the runway threshold.HEIGHT (TCH)

TOUCHDOWN ZONE (TDZ) The first 3000 feet of runway or the first third of the runway, whichever is less, measured from the threshold inthe direction of landing.

TOUCHDOWN ZONE The highest elevation in the touchdown zone.ELEVATION (TDZE) The projection on the earth’s surface of the path of an

TRACK Aircraft, the direction of which path at any point is usuallyexpressed in degrees from North (true, magnetic or grid).

TRANSITION AREA Controlled airspace of defined dimensions extendingupwards from 700 feet AGL, unless otherwise specified,to the base of overlying airspace.

TRANSPONDER A receiver/transmitter which will generate a reply signalupon proper interrogation; interrogation and reply beingon different frequencies.

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VISUAL APPROACH An approach wherein an aircraft on an IFR flight plan,operating in VFR weather conditions under the control ofan air traffic control facility and having an air trafficcontrol authorization, may proceed to the airport ofdestination in VFR weather conditions.

VISUAL METEOROLOGICAL Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of visibility, CONDITIONS (VMC) and distance from cloud, equal to or greater than the

minima prescribed in the Air Regulations for flight in VFRweather.

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUALapp-10

APPENDIX 2: ABBREVIATIONS

The following abbreviations are commonlyused in IFR flying. Other abbreviations may befound in AIP Canada GEN and in the CanadaFlight Supplement.

AAE Above Aerodrome Elevation

AAS Airport Advisory Service

AASR Area and Airport SurveillanceRadar (Area Control)

abm abeam

acft aircraft

A/D Aerodrome

ADCUS Advise Customs

ADF Automatic Direction Finding

ADIZ Air Defence Identification Zone

A/G Air Ground

AGL Above Ground Level

AIP Aeronautical InformationPublication

alt altitude

altn alternate

ANO Air Navigation Order

apch approach

aprx approximately

arr arrival

ARTCC Air Route Traffic Control Centre

ASDA Accelerate Stop Distance Available

ASL Above Mean Sea Level

ASR Airport Surveillance Radar

ATC Air Traffic Control

ATF Aerodrome Traffic Frequency

ATIS Automatic Terminal InformationService

ATZ Aerodrome Traffic Zone

auth authorized

avbl available

AWBS Aviation Weather Briefing Service

AWIS Aviation Weather InformationService

awy airway

BC Back Course

bcst broadcast

bldg building

bpoc Before Proceeding on Course

brg bearing

CAP The Canada Air Pilot

CAT I Category I

CAT II Category II

ceil ceiling

CFB Canadian Forces Base

CFS Canada Flight Supplement

ch channel

civ civil

clnc clearance

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL app-11

clsd closed

CMNPS Canadian Minimum NavigationPerformance Specifications

comm communications

cont continuous

crs course

ctl control

CZ Control Zone

del delivery

dep departure

DAH Designated Airspace Handbook

DCPC Direct Controller - PilotCommunications

DF Direction Finding

DH Decision Height

direc direct or directional

dist distance

dly daily

DME Distance Measuring Equipment

DND Department of National Defence

DOT Department of Transport

DRCO Dial-up RCO

DT Daylight Saving Time

dur during

EAT Expected Approach Time

EET Estimated Elapsed Time

EFC Expected Further Clearance Time

eff effective

EFIS Electronic Flight Instrument System

elev elevation

emerg emergency

Eng English

ETA Estimated Time of Arrival

ETD Estimated Time of Departure

ETE Estimated Time En route

exc except

FACF Final Approach Course Fix

FAF Final Approach Fix

FAS Flight Advisory Service

FIR Flight Information Region

FL Flight Level

fld field

FM Fan Marker

FMS Flight Management System

Fr French

freq frequency

FSS Flight Service Station

GASA Geographic Area Safe Altitude

GEOREF Geographical Reference

gnd ground

GP glide path

GPI Ground Point of Interception

GPS Global Positioning System

GPWS Ground Proximity Warning System

GS Glide Slope

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUALapp-12

H24 continuous operation

HAA Height Above Aerodrome

HAT Height Above Touchdown

hdg heading

H High Frequency

Hg Inches of mercury

HIAL High Intensity Approach Lighting

HIRL High Intensity Runway Lights

hol(s) holiday(s)

HR hour

HUD Head Up Display

IAF Initial Approach Fix

ICAO International Civil AviationOrganization

ident identification

IF Intermediate Fix

IFR Instrument Flight Rules

ILS Instrument Landing System

IMC Instrument MeteorologicalConditions

inbd inbound

inop inoperative

INS Inertial Navigation System

inst instrument

intl international

intrim interim

intxn intersection

IRS Inertial Reference System

ISA International Standard Atmosphere

JBI James Brake Index

KHz Kilohertz

kt knots

lat latitude

LDA Landing Distance Available

LF Low Frequency

lgt light or lighting

lgtd lighted

LOC Localizer (For non-precisionapproach procedures predicatedon a localizer facility)

long longitude

LR Lead Radial

ltd limited

M or Mag Magnetic

maint maintenance

max maximum

MB Millibars

MDA Minimum Descent Altitude

MEA Minimum En route Altitude

MF Mandatory Frequency

M or mil military

min minimum

min minute of time

MHz Megahertz

MLS Microwave Landing System

MNPS Minimum Navigation PerformanceSpecifications

MOCA Minimum Obstruction ClearanceAltitude

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MSA Minimum Sector Altitude

muni municipal

NAT North Atlantic

navaid navigation aid

NDB Non-Directional Beacon

NM Nautical Miles

No PT No Procedure Turn (Procedure turnnot required from point indicated)

NOTAM Notices to Airmen

ntc notice

NWS North Warning System

OBS Omni Bearing Setting

obst obstruction

OCL Obstacle Clearance Limit

ocnl occasional

OM Outer Marker of ILS

Opr operator or operates

O/R On Request

O/T Other Times

PAL Peripheral A/G Station

PAPI Precision Approach Path Indicator

PAR Precision Approach Radar

pos’n position

PPR Prior Permission Required

pro procedure

PT Procedure Turn

quad quadrant

R radial

RA Radar Altimeter

RCR Runway Condition Report

rdo radio

RIL Runway Identification Lights

RNAV Area Navigation

RNPC Required Navigation PerformanceCapability

ROC Required Obtacle Clearance

req required

req’d required

RVR Runway Visual Range

rwy runway

sec second of time

SELCAL Selective Calling System

SID Standard Instrument Departure

sked schedule

sr sunrise

ss sunset

STAR Standard Terminal Arrival Route

T True

TA (3000) Transition Altitude

TAS True Airspeed

TACAN Tactical Air Navigation Equipment(UHF Omni Range)

TC Transport Canada

TCA Terminal Control Area

TCA Transport Canada Aviation

TCAS Traffic Alert and CollisionAvoidance System

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUALapp-14

TCH Threshold Crossing Height

TDZ Touchdown Zone

TDZE Touchdown Zone Elevation

TDZL Touchdown Zone Lighting

tel telephone

tkof Take Off

tml terminal

TODA Take-off Distance Available

TORA Take-off Run Available

TWR control tower

twy taxiway

UFN Until Further Notice

UHF Ultra High Frequency

UNICOM Private Advisory Station

unrel unreliable

U/S unserviceable

UTC Coordinated Universal Time

var variation

VASIS Visual Approach Slope IndicatorSystem

VDG VHF Direction Finder

VFR Visual Flight Rules

VHF Very High Frequency

vis visibility

VMC Visual Meteorological Conditions

Vmc Minimum Control Speed

VOLMET Meteorological Information forAircraft in Flight

VOR VHF Omni-directional Range

VORTAC Combination of VOR and TACAN

VOT VOR Receiver Test Facility

Vso Stall speed in landingconfiguration

WP Way Point

wx weather

Z Coordinated Universal Time

NOTE:Additional abbreviations and an aerodrome/facilitydirectory legend are listed in the GENERAL sections ofthe Canada Flight Supplement and AIP Canada.

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL app-15

APPENDIX 3: RULES OF THUMB

GROUNDSPEED CHECK

Groundspeed can be determined through theuse of the slant range provided by DME; it isthen applied to the formula:

Checks should be performed only:

a/ while tracking directly to or from a DMEsite; and

b/ when aircraft slant range exceeds the aircraftaltitude in thousands of feet.

Conduct an elapsed timing of the distancedisplay from a range indicator:

a/ for at least one minute (longer timingsproduce more accurate results); and

b/ starting from any change-over to a whole-number display on the range indicator.

The data derived may be converted togroundspeed by either of the followingmethods:

a/ Flight Computer - set the elapsed time inminutes (inner minute scale) opposite thedistance travelled (outer miles scale) andread groundspeed on the outer scaleopposite the black arrowhead speed index;and

b/ Mental DR - conduct the elapsed timing fora convenient fraction of an hour and carryout the appropriate multiplication, eg,groundspeed:= distance travelled in 1 minute x 60= distance travelled in 2 minutes x 30= distance travelled in 3 minutes x 20= distance travelled in 6 minutes x 10

Using a Mach indicator, obtain distance usingthis formula:

[Mach = MPM (miles per minute)]; thenmultiply by 6 to determine groundspeed.With the Mach indicator, to obtain TAS,multiply Mach x 6 = TAS.

APPROXIMATE BANK ANGLE FORRATED TURNS (KNOTS)

The approximate bank angle required to achievea standard rate turn (3 degrees per second) isequal to 1/10 of the TAS plus 7. Therefore, ifcruising at 200 knots, the formula would be:

RATE OF DESCENT TO

FLY A GLIDE PATH

When performing either a PAR or an ILSapproach, the pilot must achieve a rate ofdescent to maintain the glide path. Rather thanguess, use the following formula — bearing inmind that it requires groundspeed.

The rate of descent for a 3-degree glide path equals5 times the groundspeed. A 21/2 degree glide pathequals the same basic formula minus 100. Forexample, with a groundspeed of 110 knots:

3.1

DISTANCE FLOWN X 60ELAPSED TIME IN

MINUTES

GROUNDSPEED

=

3.2

RATE 1 = 20010

+ 7 = 27 DEGREES BANK

RATE 1/2 = 20020

+ 7 = 17 DEGREES BANK

ANGLE 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 1802° 212 248 283 314 353 424 495 565 6362.5° 264 310 353 397 442 530 617 705 7943° 318 370 424 476 530 636 740 847 9533.5° 370 433 494 558 617 740 866 987 11114° 423 495 565 636 706 848 990 1130 12704.5° 478 557 636 716 794 955 1112 1270 1430

G/P AVERAGE GROUNDSPEED / (KNOTS)

RATE OF DESCENT TABLE / (FEET PER MINUTE)

GP ANGLE 1/4NM 1/2NM 3/4NM 1NM 2NM 3NM 4NM 5NM

2° 53 106 159 212 425 637 850 10602.5° 67 133 200 266 532 800 1065 13303° 80 159 238 318 635 955 1270 15903.5° 93 186 279 372 745 1120 1490 18604° 106 212 318 425 850 1275 1700 21204.5° 120 239 358 478 955 1435 1915 2390

HEIGHT ABOVE TOUCHDOWN IN FEETVS

DISTANCE FROM G/P INTERCEPTION POINT

3.3

3 DEGREES GP = 110 X 5 = 550 FPM

21/2 DEGREES GP = (110 X 5) - 100 = 450 FPM

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUALapp-16

PITCH (ATTITUDE) CHANGES

For high performance aircraft equipped with amach indicator, the basic rule is:

1 degree of pitch change will produce a changeof vertical speed equal to 1,000 times the machnumber. For example, if cruising along at mach0.8:

For aircraft not equipped with a mach indicator,the rule is:

1 degree of pitch change will produce a changeof vertical speed equal to miles per minute times100. For example, at 180 knots, which equals 3miles a minute, this gives:

Another formula which can be used is:

TO INTERCEPT AN ARC FROM ARADIAL

Ground speed should really be used here, butTAS can also be used. First decide on the rateof turn to use and proceed:

a/ start a rate 1/2 turn at a distance equal to1 per cent of the speed prior tointercepting the arc, or a rate 1 turn at1/2 per cent of the speed; and

b/ assume a TAS of 200 knots, flying towardthe facility, to fly along the 15-mile arc:

TO INTERCEPT A RADIALFROM AN ARC

The one-in-sixty rule is the basis of this concept.The number of radials of lead for the turnequals 60 over the DME of the arc, times theappropriate percentage of the TAS. Forexample, with a 200-knot TAS, flying aroundthe 15-mile arc, we get:

LEADPOINTS FOR TURNS TOHEADINGS

- 1/2 standard rate use 1/3 of the bank angle;- standard rate use 1/2 bank angle.

TIME AND DISTANCE CALCULATIONUSING NDB

See Article 2.2.5D for an explanation of how touse an NDB to calculate the time and distancefrom a facility.

ALTITUDE CORRECTION

- 2 x altitude deviation = v/v (verticalvelocity);

- leadpoint for level off = 10% x v/v

DRIFT CORRECTION

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3.4 3.6

3.7

3.8

3.9

3.10

3.5

1 DEGREE X 0.8 X 1,000 = 800 FPM CLIMBOR DESCENT

1 DEGREE X 3 X 100 = 300 FPM CLIMB ORDESCENT

TAS / 0.6 = V/V FOR 1° PITCH CHANGE

300/TAS = DEGREES FOR EACH 5KTS OFCROSSWIND

RATE 1/2 = 1% OF 200 = 2; START TURN AT17 NM

RATE 1 = 0.5% OF 200 = 1; START TURNAT 16 NM

RATE 1/2 TURN = 60/15 X 2 = 8 RADIALS

RATE 1 TURN = 60/15 = 4 RADIALS

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INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL app-17

INTERCEPTING NDB TRACKS

Outbound: tail (of needle) to desired track pluscorrection;

Inbound: desired track to the head (of needle) pluscorrection.

TURN RADIUS FOR 30° BANKANGLE

TAS Turn Radius (NM)

150 .57180 .82210 1.11240 1.45270 1.84300 2.27330 2.74360 3.27

3.11

3.12

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUALapp-18

APPENDIX 4:REFERENCES FOR INSTRUMENTFLYING

The following reference material on instrumentflying is mainly limited to governmentpublications from Canada or the US, and ICAOpublications relating to international standardsand procedures. There is a wealth ofinformation on instrument flying from othersources which is not referenced here.

SYMBOLS AND LEGENDS ONCHARTS

A description and explanation of legends andsymbols used on approach plates and charts, aswell as other important information oninstrument flying, is contained in the CFS(Canada Flight Supplement) and CAP (CanadaAir Pilot).

In the CFS, this information is contained inSection A - General. In the CAP , thisinformation is contained in the GeneralInformation (GEN) Section at the beginning ofthe publication.

GENERAL REFERENCE MATERIAL

Other valuable general information oninstrument flying is contained in the COM,MET and RAC sections of the AIP.

Additional information and reference material isavailable in the FAA publication InstrumentFlying Handbook (AC 61-27C). Other generalinformation on instrument flying is available inTP 975, Flight Instructor Guide; in the aviationpublication From the Ground Up; and in theFlight Training Manual, Exercise 24.

INSTRUMENT CRITERIA

Information on instrument procedural criteria iscontained in TP 308, Criteria For theDevelopment of Instrument Procedures.

AIRSPACE INFORMATION

Airspace information is available in TP 1820,the Designated Airspace Handbook and in AIPCanada.

METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION

Meteorological information can be obtained inthe Air Command Weather Manual andSupplement, as well as the publication Aware(English) or Metavi (French).

REQUIREMENTS FOR ANINSTRUMENT RATING

Transport Canada knowledge, experience andskill requirements for the instrument rating arelaid out in TP 691, Study and Reference Guide -Instrument Rating; TP 9939, Flight Test Guide -Instrument Rating, and TP 193, PersonnelLicensing Handbook - Vol. I.

SIMULATORS AND GROUNDTRAINING DEVICES

Information on ground training devices andsimulators approved for IFR training can beobtained from TP 2943, Personnel LicensingProcedures Manual; and TP 9685, Aeroplane andRotorcraft Simulator Manual.

NORTH ATLANTIC OPERATIONS

Guidance for operating in the NAT MNPS(North Atlantic Minimum NavigationPerformance Specifications) airspace iscontained in the North Atlantic MNPS AirspaceOperations Manual which is available throughICAO. For pilots wishing to fly the NorthAtlantic below FL 275, the North AtlanticInternational General Aviation OperationsManual is available through ICAO.

Transport CanadaSafety and Security

Civil Aviation

Transports CanadaSécurité et sûreté

Aviation civile

4.4

4.5

4.6

4.7

4.8

4.1

4.2

4.3

APPENDIX 4

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL app-19

AEROMEDICAL INFORMATION

Aeromedical and human factors informationcan be obtained in The Pilot’s Guide to MedicalHuman Factors published by Health and WelfareCanada and available through CanadaCommunications Group.

CAT II ILS APPROACHREQUIREMENTS

Data on CAT II ILS approach requirements iscontained in TP 1490, Manual of All WeatherOperations (Category II).

4.9

4.10