Introduction: Developing the Next Generation of Responsible

Developing the Next Generation of Responsible Leaders: Empirical Insights and Recommendations for Organizations

D I S S E R T A T I O N of the University of St. Gallen,

School of Management, Economics, Law, Social Sciences

and International Affairs to obtain the title of

Doctor of Philosophy in Management

submitted by

Markéta Borecká

from

Czech Republic

Approved on the application of

Prof. Dr. Thomas Maak

and

Prof. Dr. Martin Hilb

Dissertation no. 4261

ZSUZ Zurich 2014

The University of St. Gallen, School of Management, Economics, Law, Social Sciences and International Affairs hereby consents to the printing of the present dissertation, without hereby expressing any opinion on the views herein expressed. St. Gallen, May 19, 2014

The President: Prof. Dr. Thomas Bieger

Acknowledgements

This dissertation would not have come into existence without the support and understanding of my supervisor, Prof. Dr. Thomas Maak, who encouraged me to come to the University of St. Gallen and who kindly agreed to lead me on the path of the thrilling topic of responsible leadership development. Equally, my thanks belong to his research partner, Dr. Nicola Pless, who was always there to provide valuable feedback, to show me the right direction, and to systematically push my work forward. I am also grateful to my co-supervisor Prof. Dr. Martin Hilb who supported my coming to St. Gallen and was always available with constructive advice. My thanks go also to my friends and colleagues in St. Gallen and Prague who have been good friends throughout the time of my doctoral studies: Miro Tabernaus, Georgi Burlakov, Chris Paret, Zsuzsa Pogats, Anna Mirza Tauchmanová, Markus Stohler, Felix Meissner, Fredrik Palm, Gulnaz and Alsu Garaeva, Yves Partschefeld, Mehtap Aldogan, and Júlia González de Canales Carcereny. Last but not least, I want to express my gratitude to the members of my family, who have all supported with patience and understanding my decision to undertake doctoral studies.

Prague, July 2014 Markéta Borecká

Table of Contents

I

Table of Contents

Table of Contents ....................................................................................................... I Summary ................................................................................................................. IV

Zusammenfassung .................................................................................................... V

1. Introduction: Developing the Next Generation of Responsible Leaders:Empirical Insights and Recommendations for Organizations ...................... 3

1.1. Introduction to the Topic of Responsible Leadership .................................. 4 1.2. Theoretical and Practical Relevance and Contributions .............................. 5 1.3. Overview and Framing of the Dissertation .................................................. 7 1.4. Overall Conclusion .................................................................................... 10 1.5. References .................................................................................................. 12

2. What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’sChallenges in a Stakeholder Society ............................................................... 18

2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 19 2.2. Defining Responsible Leadership .............................................................. 21 2.3. Responsible Leadership vs. Related Theories ........................................... 23

2.3.1. Stakeholder Leadership .................................................................................23 2.3.2. Ethical Leadership ........................................................................................25 2.3.3. Servant Leadership .......................................................................................25 2.3.4. Authentic Leadership ....................................................................................26 2.3.5. Transformational Leadership ........................................................................28 2.3.6. Charismatic Leadership ................................................................................29 2.3.7. Spiritual Leadership ......................................................................................30 2.3.8. Virtuous Leadership ......................................................................................32 2.3.9. Steward Leadership .......................................................................................32 2.3.10. Relational Leadership ...................................................................................34 2.3.11. Shared Leadership ........................................................................................35

2.4. Methodology .............................................................................................. 36 Table 2.1.: Table Comparing Responsible Leadership and Other Leadership Theories ........................................................................................................37 Table 2.2.: The 57 Articles which Were Subject to the Literature Survey on Responsible Leadership ................................................................................41

2.5. Results ........................................................................................................ 43 2.5.1. Type of Contribution: Conceptual or Empirical ...........................................43 2.5.2. Research Questions .......................................................................................44 2.5.3. Nature of the Phenomenon and Level of Analysis .......................................45 2.5.4. Theoretical Basis ..........................................................................................46 2.5.5. Definition of Responsible Leadership ..........................................................46

Table 2.3.: The Articles which Used or Referred to a Specific Definition of Responsible Leadership ................................................................................49

2.5.6. Understanding of Followers .........................................................................48 2.5.7. Antecedent Variables of Responsible Leadership .........................................52

Table 2.4.: Antecedent Variables (Contextual Influences) of Responsible Leadership ....................................................................................................53

2.5.8. Outcomes of Responsible Leadership ..........................................................56 Table 2.5.: Outcome Variables (Consequences) of Responsible Leadership 57

2.6. Discussion and Suggestions for Further Research ..................................... 60 2.6.1. Type of Contribution: Conceptual or Empirical ...........................................60

Table of Contents

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2.6.2. Research Questions .......................................................................................60 2.6.3. Nature of the Phenomenon and Level of Analysis .......................................61 2.6.4. Theoretical Basis ..........................................................................................63 2.6.5. Definition of Responsible Leadership ..........................................................64 2.6.6. Understanding of Followers .........................................................................64 2.6.7. Antecedent Variables of Responsible Leadership .........................................65 2.6.8. Outcomes of Responsible Leadership ..........................................................66

2.7. Conceptual Working Model of Responsible Leadership ........................... 66 Figure 2.1.: Conceptual Working Model of Responsible Leadership ...........67

2.8. Conclusions ................................................................................................ 68 2.9. References .................................................................................................. 70

3. Developing Responsible Global Leaders ....................................................... 86 3.1. The Responsible Global Leadership Challenge ......................................... 87 3.2. Responsible Global Leadership ................................................................. 88 3.3. Developing Responsible Global Leaders ................................................... 89 3.4. The Rise of International Service Learning Programs .............................. 91 3.5. International Service Learning at PricewaterhouseCoopers, Pfizer and

IBM – A Cross-Company Comparison ...................................................... 92 3.5.1. General Program Features ............................................................................93

Table 3.1.: Characteristics of International Service Learning Programs (ISLP) ............................................................................................................94

3.5.2. Program Design ............................................................................................95 3.5.3. Program Methodology ..................................................................................96

3.6. Outcomes and Benefits of International Service Learning Programs ....... 97 Figure 3.1.: Features and Outcomes of International Service Learning Programs (ISLP) .........................................................................................100

3.7. Discussion and Conclusion ...................................................................... 101 3.8. References ................................................................................................ 105

4. Developing Global Leaders Who Make a Difference ................................. 117 4.1. In Search of Leaders Who Make a Difference ......................................... 118 4.2. International Service Learning Programs (ISLP) .................................... 121 4.3. Outcomes and Benefits of ISLP............................................................... 124 4.4. Developing Leaders Who Make a Difference: International Service

Learning at PwC, HSBC, IBM, and Novartis .......................................... 126 Table 4.1.: General Information about the International Service Learning Programs (ISLP) .........................................................................................127

4.5. ISLP Outcomes ........................................................................................ 129 Table 4.2.: ISLP Participant Outcomes ......................................................131 Table 4.3.: ISLP Organizational-level Outcomes .......................................132 Table 4.4.: ISLP Outcomes for Communities and Broader Society ............133

4.6. Developing Leaders Who Make a Difference ......................................... 134 4.7. References ................................................................................................ 137

5. Comparative Analysis of International Service Learning Programs ....... 148 5.1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 150 5.2. Service Learning ...................................................................................... 151 5.3. Methodology ............................................................................................ 153 5.4. Results ...................................................................................................... 155

Table 5.1.: General Information on the International Service Learning Programs (ISLP) Studied ............................................................................156

III

Table of Contents

Table 5.2.: Information about the Target Group and Assignments (Placements) .............................................................................................. 158 Table 5.3.: Design Elements and Learning Methods of the International Service Learning Programs (ISLP) Studied ................................................159 Table 5.4.: Benefits of the International Service Learning Programs (ISLP) Studied ........................................................................................................160 Table 5.5.: Typology for Classifying International Service Learning Programs as Leadership Development Program, Organization Development Program or Community Development Program .........................................163 Figure 5.1.: Classification of International Service Learning Programs (ISLP) ..........................................................................................................164

5.5. Discussion and Suggestions for Further Research ................................... 165 5.6. Conclusions .............................................................................................. 169 5.7. References ................................................................................................ 171 6. Closing Chapter: Overview of the Findings and Areas for Future

Research ...................................................................................................... 180 6.1. Reasons for Writing this Dissertation ...................................................... 181 6.2. Major Findings and their Contribution to Theory and Practice ............... 181 6.3. Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research ................................... 184 6.4. Closing Words .......................................................................................... 186 6.5. References ................................................................................................ 188

Curriculum Vitae of Markéta Borecká ............................................................... 191

Summary

IV

Summary

Two major trends have shaped the international business field over the past decade: globalization and the quest for responsible leadership. Yet, what are the qualities and competencies that predispose business leaders to act responsibly in an increasingly complex, interlinked world, and thus meet new social, environmental and political responsibilities? How can organizations develop these qualities in their current and future leaders? This cumulative thesis addresses these gaps in research and practice and provides tentative answers to both questions. Responsible leadership as defined by Maak and Pless is a social-relational and ethical phenomenon that occurs in the social processes of interaction, and its aim is to build and sustain trustful and lasting relationships with all stakeholders within an organization and outside its borders. In addition to the introductory and closing chapter, this cumulative thesis contains four manuscripts dealing with the topic of responsible leadership. The first manuscript provides a review of the area of research on responsible leadership, shapes this concept against other dominant and related leadership streams (such as stakeholder leadership, relational leadership, ethical leadership, authentic leadership, servant leadership, etc.), and offers a Conceptual Working Model of Responsible Leadership. The second and third manuscript examine the qualities global leaders need to succeed in a connected world and study the composition and outcomes of several innovative executive development programs that use International Service Learning Assignments as a way to instill responsible leadership qualities in their executives. The programs studied are PricewaterhouseCoopers’ Ulysses Program, Pfizer’s Global Health Fellows Program, IBM’s Corporate Service Corps, HSBC’s Next Generation Development Program, and Novartis’ Entrepreneurial Leadership Program. The fourth manuscript is the first contribution that systematically compares International Service Learning Programs run by multinational corporations from three industries (health, technology, and accounting and professional services). It identifies a number of category areas in which they differ (e.g., in placement length, nature of the assignment, learning methods used), provides a typology for program classification (leadership development, organization development, or community development), and is a relevant starting point for empirical studies. The findings of this cumulative thesis show that responsible leadership has the potential to provide vital solutions to the challenges of today’s stakeholder society and that International Service Learning Programs show beneficial outcomes for individual participants, for their organizations, and for broader communities.

Zusammenfassung

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Zusammenfassung

Zwei große Trends haben die internationale Geschäftswelt in der letzten Dekade geprägt: Globalisierung und die Suche nach verantwortlicher Führung. Doch was sind die Qualitäten und Kompetenzen, die Wirtschaftsführer benötigen, um verantwortlich in einer zunehmend komplexen, vernetzten Welt zu handeln und so neue soziale, ökologische und politische Verantwortung zu übernehmen? Wie können Organisationen helfen, diese Qualitäten ihrer aktuellen und künftigen Führer zu entwickeln? Diese kumulative Dissertation befasst sich mit den Lücken in Forschung und Praxis und bietet vorläufige Antworten auf beide Fragen. Verantwortliche Führung, wie von Maak und Pless definiert, ist ein sozial-relationales und ethisches Phänomen, das in sozialen Interaktionsprozessen entsteht und dessen Ziel es ist, vertrauensvolle und dauerhafte Beziehungen mit allen Beteiligten innerhalb und außerhalb einer Organisation aufzubauen und aufrecht zu erhalten. Neben dem Einführungs- und Schlusskapitel enthält diese kumulative Dissertation vier Manuskripte, die sich mit dem Thema verantwortungsvoller Unternehmensführung beschäftigen. Das erste Manuskript enthält eine Übersicht des Forschungsbereiches verantwortungsvolle Führung, vergleicht dieses Konzept mit anderen vorherrschenden Strömungen (wie Stakeholder-Führung, relationale Führung, ethische Führung, authentische Führung, Servant Leadership, etc.) und bietet ein konzeptionelles Arbeitsmodell für Verantwortliche Führung. Die zweite und dritte Manuskript untersuchen die Qualitäten, die weltweit führende Unternehmen brauchen, um in einer vernetzten Welt erfolgreich zu sein, und befassen sich mit der Gestaltung und den Ergebnissen von mehreren innovativen Führungskräfte-entwicklungsprogrammen, die International Service Learning Einsätze unterstützen, als eine Möglichkeit, ihren Führungskräften verantwortungsvolle Führungsqualitäten zu vermitteln. Die untersuchten Programme sind PricewaterhouseCoopers Ulysses Programm, Pfizers Global Health Fellows Programm, IBMs Corporate Service Corps, HSBCs Next Generation-Development Programm, und Novartis Entrepreneurial Leadership Programm. Das vierte Manuskript ist ein Beitrag, der systematisch International Service Learning Programme vergleicht, die von multinationalen Unternehmen aus drei Branchen betrieben werden (Gesundheit, Technologie, Rechnungswesen und professionelle Dienstleistungen). Es werden eine Reihe von Bereichen gekennzeichnet, in denen sie sich unterscheiden (z.B. Länge des Aufenthaltes, Art der Aufgabe, angewandte Lernmethoden). Es bietet eine Typologie für die Programmklasse (Führungskräfteentwicklung, Organisationsentwicklung, oder Gemeindeentwicklung) und stellt einen relevanten Ausgangspunkt für weitere empirische Studien dar. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit zeigen, dass die verantwortliche Führung das Potenzial hat, wichtige Lösungansätze für die Herausforderungen der heutigen Stakeholder-Gesellschaft zu bieten und das International Service Learning Programme positive Ergebnisse für die einzelnen Teilnehmer, für ihre Organisationen und für eine breitere Öffentlichkeit erbringen.

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Chapter 1

Introduction: Developing the Next Generation of Responsible Leaders: Empirical Insights and Recommendations for Organizations

Markéta Borecká

Current status (July 2014): Unsubmitted


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1. Introduction: Developing the Next Generation of ResponsibleLeaders: Empirical Insights and Recommendations forOrganizations

Abstract

This chapter provides the introduction to the cumulative dissertation, gives an overview of the entire thesis and shows how the individual parts are interconnected. It introduces the social and relational phenomenon of responsible leadership and the context in which this leadership approach came to existence. It also describes the International Service Learning Programs that corporations are using to develop the next generation of responsible leaders – these programs are the subject of study and comparison in the following three chapters of this dissertation. This chapter identifies crucial research gaps and shows the relevance of the chosen topic in addressing them; it also outlines the contributions relating to this topic in academic research and leadership practice. After summarizing each of the subsequent manuscripts, the chapter draws an overall conclusion from the thesis as a whole. The reasoning of this chapter shows why it is crucial to focus on the study of the phenomenon of responsible leadership and the development of responsible leaders, due to the potential this topic encompasses in connecting individual, organizational, and institutional factors and providing vital solutions to the challenges of today’s stakeholder society as benefitting individuals, organizations, and societies.

Keywords

Responsible leadership, stakeholder society, corporate social responsibility, leadership development


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“...desirable social change requires responsible global leaders – leaders who lead with head, hand, and heart; who have a responsible mindset, care for the needs of others, and act as global and responsible citizens”(Pless & Maak, 2008, p. 61). 1.1. Introduction to the Topic of Responsible Leadership

There are some significant challenges and contrasts that 21st century businesses and business leaders are facing. These include the big contrasts typical of today’s globalized and turbulent environment that leaders have to navigate: some people on this planet live well while others face the pressing problems of pollution, famine, diseases, and the degradation of human rights. Not only due to various corporate scandals in recent years (such as Enron), have there been growing public demands for social responsibility, accountability, sustainability, and contribution to solving some of the world’s pressing problems (Pless, Maak & Stahl, 2011) to which leaders and businesses are expected to respond (Maak & Pless, 2006b). The various stakeholder groups inside and outside the organization, including those neglected and socially excluded (Mària & Lozano, 2010), have become more demanding and want to be involved in dialogue. Also, managers and leaders need to cope with the new managerial logic of the post-industrial age, which is characterized by fluid organizational structures and the loss of traditional managerial authority, which in turn is compensated by new leadership roles and positive emotions in order to compel stakeholders to join the leaders (Schneider, 2002). Other challenges include the tendency of businesses to stick to national or country-based advantages while, at the same time, crossing political boundaries and growing globally (Sakakibara & Porter, 2001), which then emphasizes the need for global leadership competencies.

Today’s leaders are supposed to have, and provide to their followers, a sense of purpose and guiding vision and to be able to “navigate the firm through uneven and sometimes murky waters” (Maak & Pless, 2006b, p. 99). In our global stakeholder society, companies are supposed to be accountable both to the owners and shareholders and to all stakeholders who are influenced by the firm’s economic, environmental and societal impacts (Wade, 2006). It becomes obvious that a leader’s competencies, roles, mindsets and relational abilities need to be extended from the previously narrow shareholder orientation to a much broader stakeholder focus (Maak & Pless, 2006b).

Our world needs more responsible leaders who, as Pless and Maak (2008, p. 61) put it, “lead with head, hand, and heart; who have a responsible mindset, care


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for the needs of others, and act as global and responsible citizens.” Yet, what are the qualities and competencies that predispose business leaders to act responsibly in an increasingly complex, interlinked world, and thus to meet new social, environmental, and political responsibilities? How can organizations develop these qualities in their current and future leaders? This dissertation offers tentative answers to these questions and aims to show that the newly emerging theory of responsible leadership has the potential to offer solutions to the aforementioned burning issues, demands, and contradictions typical of our time. The specific theoretical and practical relevance of this cumulative dissertation will be presented in the following passages.

1.2. Theoretical and Practical Relevance and Contributions The introductory section has described the context of today’s globalized

stakeholder society, which has been calling for a leadership theory to encompass our world’s challenges in a complex way. Also Bass and Steidelmeier suggested discussing “leadership in the context of contemporary stakeholder theory” (1999, p. 200). Responsible leadership is “a social-relational and ethical phenomenon,which occurs in social processes of interaction” (Maak & Pless, 2006b, p. 99) and its aim is to build and sustain trustful and lasting relationships with all stakeholders both within an organization and outside its borders. Responsible leadership seems to be a theory responding to the challenges of our times and the theoretical and practical relevance of studying it in this dissertation is described below.

From the viewpoint of theory, the presented dissertation aims at justifying the new theory of responsible leadership, at deepening the knowledge already available on the topic of responsible leadership and responsible leadership development, mapping the state of the field of the discipline, synthesizing that knowledge, and comparing and contrasting responsible leadership theory with other related leadership theories (e.g., stakeholder leadership, relational leadership, ethical leadership, etc.). A review and synthesis article on the topic of responsible leadership has been missing among academic contributions even though responsible leadership, as this dissertation will show, is a theory offering viable solutions to the challenges of our world.

Research conducted by Maak and Pless (e.g., Maak & Pless, 2006a,b, 2009; Maak, 2007; Pless, 2007; and Pless & Maak, 2008), as well as that of other authors writing about the topic of responsible leadership (e.g., Waldman, 2011; Waldman & Galvin, 2008; Voegtlin, Patzer & Scherer, 2012; Ketola, 2010, 2012; and


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Cameron, 2011), will be taken as an important starting point to study the definition and constituting features, antecedents and outcomes of responsible leadership. This will help answer the core questions addressed by this dissertation: What is responsible leadership? What are the qualities and competencies that predispose business leaders to act responsibly in an increasingly complex, interlinked world, and thus meet new social, environmental, and political responsibilities?

Another question addressed by this dissertation is: How can organizations develop responsible leadership qualities in their current and future leaders? Empirical research and conceptual models lack information about how individuals learn to become more responsible global leaders and about what kinds of competencies are developed through International Service Learning Programs (Pless, Maak & Stahl, 2011). International Service Learning Programs are experiential corporate volunteering initiatives designed to give employees the chance to work abroad for a short time (often in a developing or emerging market) on a service assignment with a partner from the social sector (e.g., NGO, social enterprise). The service assignment is a project defined with a social-sector partner, on which the corporate employee works full-time on a pro-bono basis and contributes his/her knowledge and expertise in exchange for a rich learning experience. The findings from the comparison of several International Service Learning Programs, which help develop responsible leaders, offer extremely relevant information for management researchers.

The presented cumulative dissertation includes several contributions to managerial practice. First, it is highly desirable to conduct research in the area of responsible leadership and explore what are the qualities, competencies, and other attributes that constitute responsible leadership and how to instil those qualities into current and future executives. Such research, and implementation of said research, may prevent other leadership scandals and ethical misconducts from taking place. Also, it has been argued that responsible leaders and the companies they manage may act as “agents of world benefit” (Maak & Pless, 2009, p. 540) and help to improve some of the burning social and ecological issues. Responsible businesses may help alleviate poverty, fight against exclusion and pollution, cherish diversity, and significantly improve the life in the community in which they operate by proactively involving various stakeholders in constructive dialogues and by adhering to socially responsible code of conduct (Mària & Lozano, 2010; Voegtlin, 2011; Yunus, Moingeon & Lehmann-Ortega, 2010).


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In addition, responsible leadership can be seen as closely connected to the area of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), which is both a core and emerging issue in management, with a myriad of questions yet to be posed and countless questions still to be answered. There has been a growing interest among scholars concerning the managerial implications of CSR and related areas such as firm sustainability and how these can be translated into the knowledge that can be used to better manage employees in organizational settings with regard to CSR (Morgeson, Aguinis, Waldman & Siegel, 2010). There is the need to explore the impact within companies of responsible leadership on micro-level issues. The issue of training or development of people with regard to becoming responsible leaders is extremely relevant, and the practical findings in this area offered by this dissertation may provide guidelines for companies to set up effective development programs highly valuable to both the employees and the companies.

Other practical questions include the real-life impact of adopting responsible leadership standards and of having more responsible leaders in companies. It is important to conduct research that is directed toward establishing the links between responsible leadership and various organizational variables (such as organizational commitment, work climate and relationships, job satisfaction, retention, and performance) and to quantify those links. These findings will present eloquent arguments for company executives to invest more means into responsible leadership development programs and to take various measures so that their companies become responsible companies. 1.3. Overview and Framing of the Dissertation

The main objective of the presented dissertation is to address the overall topic of “Developing the Next Generation of Responsible Leaders” and provide empirical insights and recommendations for organizations. The cumulative dissertation is constructed in such a way that all the chapters are logically interconnected, and, at the same time, they distinguish four separate articles which have been or will be submitted to academic journals or leadership publications; some of them have been published. The findings are then summarized in the closing chapter.

The topics of all four manuscripts (Chapters 2 to 5) and the order in which they appear in this dissertation have been carefully chosen in order to follow the logic in introducing the topic of responsible leadership to the readers. The discussion is started from the abstract viewpoint of defining the concept and surveying academic literature. The focus is then shifted towards more specific exploration of the features


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that responsible leadership manifests in practice in the participants of International Service Learning Programs. Finally, the outcomes of responsible leadership are demonstrated by practically comparing chosen International Service Learning Programs run by corporations. In this way, the breadth and width of the topic of responsible leadership is revealed, practical insights for corporations and program designers are shared and the relevance of the topic in today’s world is made obvious. Very specifically, the dissertation proceeds as follows:

The first manuscript (Chapter 2) provides the thematic framing for the whole cumulative dissertation. It addresses the question: “What is responsible leadership and how it can address today’s challenges in a stakeholder society” It defines the construct of responsible leadership, shapes this concept against other dominant and related leadership streams (such as stakeholder leadership, relational leadership, ethical leadership, authentic leadership, servant leadership, etc.); provides a review of the area of research on responsible leadership; and offers a Conceptual Working Model of Responsible Leadership which proposes the antecedents, constituting features, and outcomes of responsible leadership. Our findings show that responsible leadership offers unique, beneficial, new or complementary insights (complementary, e.g., to ethical leadership, transformational leadership or authentic leadership) (Waldman, 2011) with respect to the overall aim – to meet the needs of all stakeholders, engage them in an inclusive dialogue and act in such a way that all constituencies can profit (rather than only some profiting at the expense of others) (Waldman, 2011). The findings show that responsible leadership is a multilevel theory connecting individual, organizational, and institutional factors and has the potential to provide vital solutions to the challenges of today’s stakeholder society benefitting individuals, organizations, and societies.

The second manuscript (Chapter 3) addresses the question: “How can organizations develop responsible leadership qualities in their current and future leaders?” Quoting Maak (2007), it can be said that “with few exceptions (Ciulla, 1998; Doh & Stumpf, 2005; Maak & Pless, 2006a) we still have little knowledge about responsible leadership and even less about how to develop responsibility in leaders to prepare them for the challenges of a global and interconnected stakeholder society” (p. 330). It is important to study the theoretical and practical knowledge concerning leadership development programs, practices, and devices (i.e., what companies are doing to develop responsible leaders) with the aim of shedding some light into this area and answering the research question. This chapter fleshes out some of the qualities global leaders need to succeed in a connected world and


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compares three innovative executive development programs that use International Service Learning Assignments as a way to instil these qualities in their executives. These programs are PricewaterhouseCoopers’ Ulysses Program, Pfizer’s Global Health Fellows Program, and IBM’s Corporate Service Corps. Findings in this area provide a useful overview and comparison of responsible leadership development practice from the viewpoint of the programs’ features and outcomes. Such findings broaden the theory presented by Maak and Pless (2009) and Pless, Maak and Stahl (2011) concerning the development or enhancement of global responsible leadership competencies through participation in International Service Learning Programs and reflection upon the field experience.

The third manuscript (Chapter 4) looks at International Service Learning Programs more from the perspective of their outcomes, and addresses the question “How to develop global leaders who make a difference?” The impact of International Service Learning Programs on internal stakeholders (participants in the programs) who have developed certain skills, attitudes, and competencies (Partiff, 2005; MyersLipton, 1996; Pless et al., 2011) and on society in general (which can be equated with the real-life results of the projects) have been touched upon in various studies. However, the outcomes have not been examined systematically due to the relative newness and scarcity of these programs in company practice. This study compares four different programs – PricewaterhouseCoopers’ Ulysses, HSBC’s Next Generation Development Program, IBM’s Corporate Service Corps, and Novartis’ Entrepreneurial Leadership Program – and studies the programs’ differences while addressing the questions of how and to what extent these programs develop global leaders who (will) make a difference. The analysis of the four programs showed the beneficial outcomes of International Service Learning Programs for individual participants, for their organizations, and for broader communities. The findings of this study have far-reaching implications for the issues concerning people management, and for the leadership and career development of the participants. It is also expected that these programs will strengthen the ties between employees (participants of these programs), their company, and society.

The fourth manuscript (Chapter 5) is a qualitative study and its biggest contribution is that it is the first one that compares International Service Learning Programs run by multinational corporations from three industries (health, technology, and accounting and professional services) and provides a typology for program classification (leadership development, organization development or community development). The data was gathered through desk research, interviews


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with program representatives, and a structured questionnaire containing closed and open-ended questions. The study identifies characteristics and similarities among programs, discusses differences, and offers criteria for program classification and areas for future research. As such, it is an important starting point for quantitative studies as well as for the evaluation of different service learning approaches. The results showed that, regardless of the stated aims (which usually stress value for the participants, the company, and the communities), most studied programs had one clear focus (two programs in the area of leadership development, two in the area of community development) while two showed closely linked foci (with a slightly greater emphasis on organization development than on the other areas). The findings show that the type of International Service Learning Program used has an effect on the learning outcomes. Since companies are still testing usefulness and outcomes of these programs, academic research that provides comparative quantitative data on the outcomes of such programs is of great value for business practice.

The closing chapter summarizes the major findings and their contribution to the theory and practice, discusses the challenges and limitations, suggests areas for future research, and concludes the dissertation as a whole. 1.4. Overall Conclusion

As a whole, this cumulative dissertation suggests that responsible leadership is a multilevel theory that connects individual, organizational, and institutional factors. Despite being relatively new, this theory has great potential for leadership and management research and practice because it responds better than any other existing leadership theory to the challenges the leaders of today’s world are facing (e.g., interconnectedness and globalization, poverty, exclusion of minorities, environmental degradation, human rights violation, wars, and pandemic diseases). Responsible leaders strive to build and maintain trustful, sustainable, and inclusive relationships within a diverse stakeholder network. They address complex dilemmas and the multifaceted demands of various stakeholders’ groups based on ethical and moral decision-making; they aim to achieve mutually beneficial solutions leading toward the creation of social value or desirable social change (Maak & Pless, 2006b). By means of putting the relational capabilities into practice, responsible leaders reconcile differences and bridge the gaps between people – the citizens of this planet – who can then identify with the resulting shared and morally sound vision and, working together, achieve higher aims.


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Consequently, the question of how to develop responsible leaders gains paramount importance. This dissertation has shown, through the study of several International Service Learning Programs, that these smart executive development programs do possess the potential to develop responsible leadership qualities in their participants. Also, they simultaneously benefit all parties, that is, the participating employees, the organizations sending the participants, and the communities where the assignments take place. International Service Learning Programs can help develop solution approaches for social issues at the local and global level; they can help organizations develop business innovations and novel approaches to customers in new markets; they can help managers and leaders develop mindsets and skills for successfully and responsibly managing businesses in a global stakeholder environment. Thus, once equipped with a smart, learning-transfer-oriented design and clear learning objectives, International Service Learning Programs are not only highly effective in developing the next generation of responsible global leaders but are also a means to advance business goals and to address critical global issues.


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1.5. References

Bass, B. M., & Steidlmeier, P. (1999). Ethics, Character, and Authentic Transformational Leadership Behavior, The Leadership Quarterly, 10, 181–217.

Cameron, K. (2011). Responsible Leadership as Virtuous Leadership, Journal of Business Ethics, 98, 25–35.

Ciulla, J. (Ed.). (1998). Ethics, the Heart of Leadership. Westport, CT, London: Praeger.

Doh, J. P., & Stumpf, S. A. (Eds.) (2005). Handbook on Responsible Leadership And Governance in Global Business. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.

Ketola, T. (2010). Responsible leadership: Building blocks of individual, organizational and societal behavior, Corporate Social Responsibility & Environmental Management, 17(3), 173–184.

Ketola, T. (2012). Losing your self: managerial persona and shadow pressures killing responsible leadership, Journal of Management Development, 31(5), 470–487.

Maak, T. (2007). Responsible Leadership, Stakeholder Engagement, and the Emergence of Social Capital, Journal of Business Ethics, 74(4), 329–343.

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Chapter 2

What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’s Challenges in a Stakeholder Society

Markéta Borecká



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2. What is Responsible Leadership and How it Can Address Today’sChallenges in a Stakeholder Society

Abstract

Responsible leadership as defined by Maak and Pless is a social-relational and ethical phenomenon which occurs in the social processes of interaction and its aim is to build and sustain trustful and lasting relationships with all stakeholders within an organization and outside its borders. This article provides a review of the area of research on responsible leadership; shapes this concept against other dominant and related leadership streams (such as stakeholder leadership, relational leadership, ethical leadership, transformational leadership, authentic leadership, servant leadership, spiritual leadership, etc.); provides a Conceptual Working Model of Responsible Leadership summarizing and synthesizing the antecedents, components, and outcome variables of responsible leadership as a social phenomenon; and offers areas for further research. The findings show that responsible leadership is a multilevel theory that connects individual, organizational, and institutional factors and has the potential to provide vital solutions to the challenges of today’s stakeholder society benefitting individuals, organizations, and societies.

Keywords

Responsible leadership, leadership theories and responsibility, corporate social responsibility, stakeholders, model of responsible leadership, review, overview


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2.1. Introduction The role of leaders in today’s turbulent environment is crucial. Depending on

their values (both personal and corporate), intentions, visions, strategies, objectives, hidden drives and motives, education, expertise, experience, and other internal and external influencing factors, leaders – some of whom are members of top management teams or executive boards of important multinational corporations – have the power to cause either significant improvement or degradation of the world around them. For the positive effect of exercised power to prevail, leaders are needed who are willing to take responsibility and accountability for their actions (George, 2003). “Given the power, potential, and abilities of business leaders to make this world a better place, the least we can expect from business leaders is that they recognize their co-responsibility for addressing some of the world’s most pressing problems” (Maak & Pless, 2009, p. 539). Indeed, corporations and their leaders are required to take a more active role as citizens in society by constructively addressing the world’s burning issues, such as poverty, environmental degradation, human rights protection and pandemic diseases (Maak & Pless, 2006b; Maak, 2008; Puffer & McCarthy, 2008; Waldman & Galvin, 2008; Delios, 2010).

There are leaders or owners of businesses whose companies are exemplary in contributing to desirable social change or in extraordinary leadership behavior, for example, Anita Roddick and her company The Body Shop (Pless, 2007), Yvon Chouinard’s company Patagonia, and Ray Anderson’s Interface. Additionally, Tex Gunning, the president of Unilever Bestfoods Asia, and James E. Burke, the CEO of Johnson & Johnson from 1976 to 1989, or Aaron Feuerstein’s Malden Mills’ example (Vogel, 2005; Maak, 2010). Other examples of “companies with a conscience” are Seventh Generation, Domini, Esprit, Celestial Seasonings, Stonyfield Farm, Tom’s of Maine, Ben and Jerry’s, Starbucks Corporation, and Danone.

There are, however, various examples of leadership failures in connection with frauds, accounting scandals, ethical misconducts and the like which have resulted in the overall mistrust of CEOs and in the public’s disillusionment with top executives, e.g., Dennis Kozlowski, the CEO of TYCO, Kenneth Lee Lay, the CEO of ENRON, and Bernard Lawrence (“Bernie”) Madoff, the admitted operator of what has been described as the largest Ponzi scheme in history (Maak, 2010). Other examples include Worldcom and Martha Stewart (Cooper, Scandura & Schriesheim, 2005). In response to repeated and spectacular lapses in ethical judgment by highly visible leaders, the public demands greater responsibility and accountability of


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organizational leaders (Dealy & Thomas, 2006). Society is demanding that leaders lead in a way that is responsible toward the environment, society, the business organization, and a variety of stakeholders.

In a world which is interconnected and globalized, leadership takes place “in interaction with a multitude of stakeholders – locally and globally, inside and outside the corporation” (Maak & Pless, 2006b, p. 101). The multiple stakeholder groups hold businesses and their leaders accountable for their actions or the lack of action (Maak & Pless, 2009). Leaders face the challenge of how to provide shareholders with wider societal value and increased accountability, whilst demonstrating that these goals are not mutually exclusive but complementary (Karp, 2003).

The challenges of the 21st century and the new demands on organizations, their management boards, and individual leaders have combined to call for a leadership theory that would clearly translate into leadership practice and help consistently address these challenges. Researchers have tried to approach some of these challenges from the angles of different theories (e.g., new-institutional theory, resource based view of the firm, dynamic-capabilities view of the firm, behavioral theory, contingency perspective, etc.). In addition, various contemporary theories of leadership focusing on followers and on ethical behavior (e.g., transformational leadership, stakeholder leadership, authentic leadership, servant leadership, ethical leadership, steward leadership, etc.) have tried to offer a solution to these challenges (Van Dierendonck, 2011). Yet, the offered solutions are limited in a certain way: some of these theories adopt a narrow view of stakeholders inside organizations and see the leader-follower relationship as a traditional dyad; other theories stress ethical behavior with the instrumental purpose of increasing performance; other ones involve leadership service beyond self sacrifice, and so on.

Responsible leadership, as defined by Maak and Pless (2006b, p. 99) is “a social-relational and ethical phenomenon, which occurs in social processes of interaction” and its aim is to build and sustain trustful and lasting relationships to all stakeholders within an organization and outside its borders. It represents an approach arising directly from the objective factors and changes typical of today’s world and it is a recent leadership theory slowly gaining ground. The lens of responsible leadership seems to provide valuable inputs into the debate and offer interesting solutions fitting the contemporary challenges that have not been tackled by other leadership theories or approaches in such a complexity. As Pless and Maak (2011, p. 4) put it, “responsible leadership responds to both existing gaps in leadership theory and the practical challenges facing leadership.” This means, in this


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approach, the meaning of responsibility is broadened to include accountability, trust, and moral decision-making while being embedded in clusters of relations. It also means responsibility is applied into leadership practice focusing on who are the “others” toward whom leaders should be responsible and whose concerns should be addressed.

The aim of this paper is to review and synthesize the existing literature about responsible leadership in order to map the state of the art of this leadership theory. A profound literature survey on the topic of responsible leadership has been missing among academic contributions so far and, given the topicality of this leadership theory, it is highly necessary that today’s state of the theory is consolidated and that it is shown how the underlying concepts of social responsibility and leadership can be connected together (Waldman, 2011).

The article proceeds in the following way: first, the construct of responsible leadership is defined. Second, responsible leadership is compared and contrasted with eleven other dominant and related leadership streams. Third, an overview of the state of the art of the responsible leadership research is provided, and summarizes and analyzes (on the basis of pre-defined categories) what has been written so far about this topic. Fourth, the results of the literature survey are discussed and research questions are identified to be addressed in future research. Finally, a Conceptual Working Model of Responsible Leadership is presented and the topic concluded.

2.2. Defining Responsible Leadership In their paper “Responsible Leadership in a Stakeholder Society – A Relational

Perspective,” Maak and Pless (2006b) define responsible leadership (hereinafter RL) as “a social-relational and ethical phenomenon, which occurs in social processes of interaction” (p. 99) “with those who affect or are affected by leadership” (p. 103). Its aim is to build and sustain good, trustful and sustainable relationships with all relevant stakeholders within an organization and outside its borders. Unlike the prevailing leadership literature which has usually focused on the relationship between leaders and followers in the organization and has defined followers as subordinates, Maak and Pless (2006b) show that leadership in a global and interconnected world takes place in interaction with a multitude of followers as stakeholders, locally and globally, inside and outside the corporation, and that key stakeholders include employees, clients and customers, shareholders, business partners, suppliers, peers, family, community, social and natural environment, and so


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on. As Maak and Pless (2006b, p. 112) put it, responsible leaders “are weavers who bring together different people to follow a shared and morally sound vision,” for which they need moral character and relational qualities. By building and cultivating sustainable relationships with internal and external stakeholders, responsible leaders “achieve mutually shared objectives based on a vision of business as a force of good for the many, and not just a few (shareholders, managers)” (Maak, 2007, p. 331). Therefore, responsible (global) leaders are those who “lead with head, hand, and heart; who have a responsible mindset, care for the needs of others, and act as global and responsible citizens” (Pless & Maak, 2008, p. 61). From the analysis of motivational drivers of a responsible leader conducted by Pless (2007), “[r]esponsible leadership can be understood as the art of building and sustaining social and moral relationships between business leaders and different stakeholders (followers), based on a sense of justice, a sense of recognition, a sense of care and a sense of accountability for a wide range of economic, ecological, social, political and human responsibilities” (p. 451). “This can imply the creation of social value and the support of desirable social change (e.g., poverty alleviation, equal opportunity, etc.) at the local level” (Pless & Maak, 2008, p. 61).

The choice of words with a normative undertone such as “ethical phenomenon,” “moral character,” and “morally sound vision” shows the visible shift from the descriptive and instrumental perspective to the normative one focusing on the ethical and quality issues of relationships and interactions of leaders and stakeholders, not necessarily based on subordination but more so on partnership (Maak & Pless, 2006b). The authors use an ethical lens and apply a relational and stakeholder perspective to answer the questions concerning the basis of responsible leadership and the qualities it requires and thereby follow Bass and Steidelmeier’s suggestion to discuss “leadership in the context of contemporary stakeholder theory” (1999, p. 200). Additionally, the different roles of a responsible leader gain importance together with the moral undertone of his or her intentions and means chosen to reach the desirable objectives and company’s aims. The complexity of roles a responsible leader undertakes, usually simultaneously, includes the roles of steward, citizen, visionary, servant, coach, architect, and a storyteller and meaning enabler (Maak & Pless, 2006b).

RL draws from stakeholder theory stressing the accountability of leaders to all different kinds of stakeholders who are interconnected in networks of relations but who do not necessarily have the same norms and values. Leadership literature has studied the various approaches within leadership behavior theories. Some of


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these theories have the same normative basis as RL, such as servant leadership or authentic leadership; others emphasize the elevating element that is created in the interaction in the course of the leadership process, for example, transformational leadership or relational leadership. The objective of the following passages is to compare and contrast RL with other dominant and related leadership streams and thus provide important insights about the concept of RL within the broader field of leadership before we dive into a more in-depth discussion of RL on the basis of a profound literature survey.

2.3. Responsible Leadership vs. Related Theories It has been pointed out earlier that RL is an inherently normative approach to

leadership. In order to study it more profoundly, the focus will be now on other related theories of leadership and constructs, especially those that focus on the ethical and quality issues of relationships and which are values-centered. In the following passages we will compare and contrast RL with stakeholder leadership, ethical leadership, servant leadership, authentic leadership, transformational leadership, charismatic leadership, spiritual leadership, virtuous leadership, steward leadership, relational leadership, and shared leadership.

2.3.1. Stakeholder Leadership The discussion around stakeholder theory started in the 1990s when

a business evolved from being understood as an organization whose sole aim was financial profit to an organization that, in addition to the private interests of its shareholders, was expected to fulfill the social requirements of everyone else involved in and with the organization, that is, its stakeholders (Galan, 2006; Maak & Pless, 2006a). In stakeholder theory, the “firm” is a series of groups with different respective relationships to it (Schneider, 2002). The “stakeholders” are all those who affect or are affected by corporate policies and practices and who are in contact with a company and help it achieve its aims (Schneider, 2002). They include internal organizational members (e.g., employees, managers, and board members) and external parties (e.g., clients, owners, shareholders, suppliers, competitors, NGOs, communities, government, nature, future generations) (Schneider, 2002; Maak, 2007).

The understanding of stakeholders has changed over decades from instrumental, theoretical constructs (such as agency theory, transaction cost, and contract theory) to incorporate the ethical viewpoint for justifying stakeholder


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relations (Freeman, 1984). Stakeholders are no longer understood as being a means to corporate ends, but rather as being ends in themselves (Maak & Pless, 2006b). In addition, the normative angle has extended the descriptive perspective and attention is now being paid to the structure and quality of relationships and interactions, as well as the values which rule the broader context (Maak & Pless, 2006b).

Schneider (2002) tried to develop a theory of stakeholder leadership and, in doing so, stressed both the context of organizations and the profound changes in these organizations. She points out the organizational changes and describes them as the movement from bureaucracy (the organizational form of the industrial age) toward a new organizational form called “the radix” (p. 209). This corresponds to the paradigm shift from the top-down approach toward the relational view or multidirectional influence (Uhl-Bien, 2006; Rost, 1995). The radix organization stresses the need to “meet the challenges of fluctuating vertical, lateral, and external demands” (Schneider, 2002, p. 209). The challenge for leaders is to encourage interactions and networks using positive emotion (rather than formal authority), “for in the radix organization stakeholders tend to join, not follow, the leader” (Schneider, 2002, p. 218). Schneider (2002) proposed a stakeholder model of organizational leadership (a non-hierarchical conceptualization of leadership) and showed that stakeholder theory provides the appropriate theoretical basis for this model, as it offers the flexibility to accommodate various leader intra- and inter-organizational relationships.

The similarity with RL is that nowadays leaders have to deal with the needs and claims of a multitude of stakeholders, weave a complex web of sustainable relationships, navigate in that web, and invite stakeholders to a dialog with the aim of creating consensus and trust (Maak, 2007). Maak (2007) mentions the difficulties companies face when trying to evaluate and balance the various and usually conflicting claims of multiple stakeholders. There have been calls for proactively engaging stakeholders in dialogue, for diversity inclusion, for engagement through a legitimating discourse (Habermas, 1981, 1991; Apel, 1988; Mària & Lozano, 2010; Voegtlin, 2011), and for ethically sound decision-making (Maak, 2007). The issues concerning stakeholders are closely related to RL and it seems that RL is an effective perspective linking leadership to stakeholder theory. Yet, while Schneider’s (2002) stakeholder model of organizational leadership helps to predict leader effectiveness, RL encompasses under the header of performance also responsibility, accountability, legitimacy, and trust (Pless & Maak, 2011).


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2.3.2. Ethical Leadership Brown and Treviño (2006) define ethical leadership as “the demonstration of

normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two-way communication, reinforcement, and decision-making” (Brown et al., 2005, p. 120). The authors have shown that ethical leadership overlaps with, yet is distinct from, other theories of leadership, for example, transformational, authentic, and spiritual leadership. All of these types of leadership are altruistically motivated (showing care and concern for people) and are exercised by leaders of integrity and virtuous behavior; they are ethical decision-makers and role-models whose visions and values are followed. Ethical leadership is the only type, however, which focuses on leaders’ proactive influence on the ethical/unethical behavior of followers in an organizational context (communicating ethical standards and insisting on accountability in the workplace). This more “transactional” aspect of ethical leadership is a key differentiator between ethical leadership and RL. RL also surpasses the traditional dyadic leader-subordinate ethical perspective by focusing more on quality and valuable leader-stakeholder relationships (Pless & Maak, 2011).

Ethical leadership focuses more on micro-level outcomes, such as leader effectiveness, employee job satisfaction, and dedication. On the other hand, RL goes beyond by stressing outcomes on multiple levels (e.g., mobilizing followers inside and outside the organization to engage in RL practices and seek social change and sustainable solutions). All in all, ethical leadership focuses on guidance by leaders in organizations and on the ways of using this guidance with the aim of improving leader effectiveness. This is different from RL, which does not seek leader effectiveness in the first place, but rather focuses on building and maintaining relations within leader-stakeholder projects without using these as means to enhanced leader effectiveness (Pless & Maak, 2011).

2.3.3. Servant Leadership Servant leadership represents an example of a normative theory of leadership

coined by Greenleaf in 1970. It is an individual-level phenomenon that resulted from the current demand for more ethical and people-centered management. Servant leaders, above all, want to serve others and elevate people (Greenleaf, 1977/2002; Ciulla, 2006). Servant leadership is a leadership theory emphasizing the personal growth of followers; it rests on moral principles, and can be described as incorporating the component of social responsibility to transformational leadership


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(Van Dierendonck, 2011; Graham, 1991). “Servant-leaders empower and develop people; they show humility, are authentic, accept people for who they are, provide direction, and are stewards who work for the good of the whole” (Van Dierendonck, 2011, p. 1232). Servant leadership is likely to encourage self-actualization, positive job attitudes, high performance, and a stronger organizational focus on sustainability and CSR (Van Dierendonck, 2011). Servant leadership is other-directed; it is in opposition with traditional top-down, individualized, self-centered forms of leadership when the interests of the constituencies are put behind the interests of the leader (Pless & Maak, 2011). Also, servant leadership should be mutually elevating for leaders and followers (Burns, 1978) during their pursuit of mutually desirable goals.

For all these reasons (i.e., paying attention to stakeholders, for ethical and caring leadership) servant leadership represents a theory highly relevant for organizations. Similar to RL, it puts followers or stakeholders into the center of attention while the leader’s task is to serve their needs and legitimate interests (Greenleaf, 1977/2002). However, a service orientation in RL is tempered in nature and not “self-sacrificial” (Sendjaya, Sarros & Samtora, 2008, p. 405). RL sees the service for stakeholders through the lens of mutually desirable social purpose, sometimes connected with organizational purpose, sometimes reaching beyond business toward broader society, including positive outcomes such as sustainable value creation and social improvement (Pless & Maak, 2011). As Pless and Maak (2011, p. 7) put it, “the central motivation is not serving others, but rather responding to others’ interests and needs, including those of outside stakeholders and society at large.” Also, servant leadership recognizes stakeholders as followers in the workplace, while RL recognizes stakeholders inside and outside of an organization. Servant leadership usually stems from spirituality or an inner calling, while RL is not limited in its basis: it can reflect spiritual, humanistic, moral, or any other values rooted in religion, family, tradition, education, and so on. Or, it can stem simply from the recognition that acting with responsibility is the right thing to do (Pless & Maak, 2011).

2.3.4. Authentic Leadership Organizational stakeholders appear to be much less tolerant of inconsistencies

concerning leaders’ proclaimed principles, values, and conduct while expecting that leaders operate at higher levels of integrity (Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing & Peterson, 2008). The recently increased attention placed on authenticity and


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authentic leadership is said to be due to several leadership scandals. Authentic leadership theory lies at the intersection of the leadership, ethics, and positive organizational behavior and scholarship literatures (Avolio, Gardner, Walumbwa, Luthans & May, 2004; Cameron, Dutton & Quinn, 2003; Cooper & Nelson, 2006; Luthans, 2002; Luthans & Avolio, 2003). Authentic leadership does not mean just being true to oneself (Cameron et al., 2003). Avolio and Gardner (2005), May et al. (2003) and Luthans and Avolio (2003) argue that authentic leadership can be characterized by positive moral perspective with high ethical standards that guide decision-making and behavior. According to George (2003), authentic leaders are people of the highest integrity with a deep sense of purpose, who are true to their core values, committed to building enduring organizations which meet the needs of all stakeholders, and who recognize the importance of their service to society. Ethical qualities (e.g., moral capacity, courage and transparency) are seen as positive psychological resources (Pless & Maak, 2011).

Authentic leadership is a multilevel construct: it includes components from individual, group and organizational levels (Pless & Maak, 2011). George (2003) stresses two levels of authentic leadership: the first level is the personal level including the topic of becoming an authentic leader and encouraging authenticity in followers (the internal and external stakeholders) through an increased self-awareness, relational transparency, internalized moral perspective, and so on (Van Dierendonck, 2011). The second level is the level of the organization, its context, vision, mission, and objectives, which the authentic leader, through his or her leadership style and tools, tries to achieve (George, 2003). The integrity of authentic leaders helps to sustain organizational results through good times and bad. Also Walumbwa et al. (2008) showed that leader authenticity enhances individual followers’ trust in the leader and consequently results in job satisfaction, job performance, and thus in leadership effectiveness.

RL overlaps partially with authentic leadership as RL also stresses the importance of self-awareness and self-regulation, which align values with intentions and actions (Pless & Maak, 2005), but RL emphasizes more the active role of leaders in developing a sense of others’ emotions and values/norms, reflecting on their adequacy, and assessing them according to what is standard in the situation or context in question (Pless & Maak, 2011). Furthermore, for RL, ethical qualities are more than positive psychological resources as they are in authentic leadership. For RL, ethical qualities (moral awareness, ethical reflection, an ability to employ moral


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imagination to reconcile dilemmas (Werhane, 1999), and moral deliberation and decision-making skills) are all important structural elements.

Authentic leadership and RL are concerned with the organizational impact of leadership: authentic leadership has positive organizational impact by helping employees find meaning at work, by contributing to sustained performance and growth through long-term value creation for shareholders (Avolio & Gardner, 2005). RL also strives for positive organizational outcomes, yet these are not necessarily the traditional economic outcome variables. RL differs in proposing that leadership should result in positive social change through its contribution to value and social capital by stakeholders in business and society (Maak, 2007; Pless & Maak, 2011).

2.3.5. Transformational Leadership Transformational leadership became a dominant paradigm in the 1960s. It

stresses the relationship between the leader and the follower in which the leader asks followers to transcend their own self-interests for the good of the group (the company) and stresses the long-term needs to develop themselves (e.g., Burns, 1978; Bass, 1985; Van Dierendonck, 2011). Transformational leadership is an individual-level phenomenon (Van Dierendonck, 2011). In this approach, followers are turned into leaders, and leaders become moral agents. Transformational leadership focuses on end-values, e.g., equality, liberty, and justice (Ciulla, 2006), to accomplish organizational goals (Stone et al., 2004; Yukl, 2002) and thus enhance followers’ performance. Transformational leadership centers on the transformational feature and combines with other elements, e.g., leader’s vision, charisma, self-confidence, and the need for and use of power. There is, however, the issue of the charismatic side of transformational leadership, the possibility of narcissism and the strictly organizational objectives to which the followers should grow (Parolini, Patterson & Winston, 2009).

RL also uses intellectual stimulation, transformational notions of vision, inspiration, and individualized consideration (Pless & Maak, 2011); yet, it is different from transformational leadership in several aspects. RL defines and considers followers more broadly as stakeholders inside and outside the organization. RL does not influence stakeholders for the instrumental purposes of improving performance or reaching organizational objectives, but it seeks to mobilize them to reach objectives of a higher social purpose (at organizational and societal levels). This is something that Maak and Pless (2006a) and Waldman and Galvin (2008) call the shift from a shareholder mindset to a stakeholder orientation


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(Pless & Maak, 2011). RL is not focused predominately on the individual characteristics (e.g., the transformative and charismatic leader or defining the “great man”), it is rather concerned with coordinating and cultivating relationships, inclusion, collaboration, and cooperation with different groups of stakeholders and building upon the relational leadership approach (Uhl-Bien, 2006). Unlike transformational leadership, which comprises examples of inauthentic transformational leaders depending on their potentially unethical behaviour, RL is an inherently ethical phenomenon (Pless & Maak, 2011). Responsible leaders have character, are ethically literate, make moral and principled decisions, and consider their impact on others. Both transformational leadership and RL use change and transformation, yet, in the case of RL, always as a means to achieve a greater social goal (Pless & Maak, 2011).

2.3.6. Charismatic Leadership Kanungo (2001) and Mendonca (2001) argue that charismatic leadership,

a concept similar and often likened to transformational leadership, is rooted in strong ethical values. It is due to the fact that charismatic leaders are likely to be guided by morally altruistic principles that “reflect a helping concern for others even at considerable personal sacrifice or inconvenience” (Mendonca, 2001, p. 268). Therefore, their visions are just and in sync with the demands of various stakeholders, not just shareholders. Furthermore, their fortitude gives charismatic leaders the courage to face risks and work at overcoming obstacles in the pursuit of goals (Mendonca, 2001).

The charismatic leader has impact on followers by means of emphasizing his or her persona and gifts. The followers believe in the leader because of his or her charisma, which is the key dynamic influence the leader has over the followers. The process is not mutually influential or reciprocal, as in transformational leadership, but rather one-sided. The charismatic leader’s persona has been described in organizational leadership literature as possibly including elements of distance from followers, of achieving hero status, and possibly of narcissistic personality tendencies. There can be a potentially and possibly inappropriately paternalistic and destructive self-power of the charismatic leader which can have negative consequences in the life of the follower (Bryman, 1992). Therefore, there is a risk, as noted by previous authors (e.g., Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999; Howell & Avolio, 1992), that not all leaders with charismatic appeal will have strong moral values; some of them may have motives leaning more toward personal power and self-


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aggrandizement (Pearce, Waldman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2006). This is the main difference between charismatic leadership and RL, as RL is an inherently ethical phenomenon (Pless & Maak, 2011). Further differences between RL and charismatic leadership are similar with the differences of RL and transformational leadership already described.

2.3.7. Spiritual Leadership Fry (2005) defines spiritual leadership as “the values, attitudes, and behaviors

that are necessary to intrinsically motivate self and others so that they have a sense of spiritual survival (Fleischman, 1994; Maddock & Fulton, 1998) through calling and membership” (p. 17). Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (2003) refer to workplace spirituality and show it as “a framework of organizational values evidenced in the culture that promotes employees’ experience of transcendence through the work process, facilitating their sense of being connected to others in a way that provides feelings of completeness and joy” (p. 13). Dent, Higgins and Wharff (2005) summarize that workplace spirituality researchers tend to assume that the concept is an individual one, a collective one, or assume the phenomenon has both facets. Spiritual leadership is described as relating to constructs such as emotional intelligence, ethics, and values, and to leadership models such as charismatic, stewardship, transformational, and servant (Biberman, Whitty & Robbins, 1999; Cacioppe, 2000; Tischler, Biberman & McKeage, 2002). Spiritual leaders are thought to be motivated by service to God or humanity and they view their leadership work as a “calling.” When leaders and their organizations operate from a spiritual-based perspective, they naturally behave responsibly on behalf of themselves, their communities, society, the environment, and all of creation, i.e., they consider followers in the broad sense.

According to Fry (2003) spiritual leadership adds components to the existing leadership literature that have been explicitly missing: a sense of calling on the part of leaders and followers, the creation of organizational cultures characterized by altruistic love whereby leaders and followers express genuine care, concern, and appreciation for both self and others (Avolio, Walumbwa & Weber, 2009). Pruzan and Miller (2006) claim that spirituality, however individual leaders define and understand it, can provide a powerful foundation for individual and organizational identity, responsibility and success.

Spiritual leaders transform organizations from merely mission-driven activities into places where individual and collective spirituality are encouraged and


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spiritual development is integrated into the day-to-day work life (Konz & Ryan, 1999). Among outcomes of spirituality, authors have claimed results of enhanced organizational learning (Bierly, Kessler & Christensen, 2000), unified and built communities (Cavanaugh, Hanson, Hanson & Hinojoso, 2001), connecting to others at work, and to work itself (Khanna & Srinivas, 2000), and a healing and harmonizing expression of compassion, wisdom, and connectedness (Dent et al., 2005). Organizations driven by spiritual leaders, who are more willing to use their personal spiritual values to make business decisions and transform organizations and who instill values that become the standard against which all organizational activities are measured, are believed to be more profitable and perform very well (e.g., Biberman & Whitty, 1997; Biberman et al., 1999; Cacioppe, 2000; Dehler & Welsh, 1994; Konz & Ryan, 1999; Mitroff & Denton, 1999; Sass, 2000).

There are several problematic issues connected with spiritual leadership, for example, the fact that it is difficult to describe because it is highly individual and intensely personal as well as inclusive and universal (Howard, 2002). Some authors note that spirituality, by definition, is anti-materialist and, therefore, they question whether increased workplace spirituality leads (or should lead) to increased productivity or profitability (Dent et al., 2005). Another controversial issue is the moral conduct of spiritual leaders: some of them can act immorally despite their claims to be true to their higher selves. They can maintain the belief that they are somehow above the moral requirements that apply to the rest of the world and rationalize engaging in prohibited behaviors. There is a danger of potential pseudo-leaders or false prophets presenting themselves as spiritual leaders who might misuse their followers (Dent et al., 2005).

RL shares with spiritual leadership the relatedness to constructs such as emotional intelligence, ethics and values, and the responsible behavior on behalf of oneself, the communities, society, and the environment. However, RL does not intend to develop followers spiritually and promote their experience of transcendence through the work process, facilitating their sense of being connected to others in a way that provides feelings of completeness and joy (which are quite abstract feelings), but RL rather focuses on more down-to-earth activities of building and cultivating sustainable relationships inside and outside the organization with the intention of creating benefit for all parties involved (Maak, 2007). Since responsible leaders have moral character and relational qualities (Maak & Pless, 2006b) and since RL is an ethical phenomenon, it does not involve the danger of would-be


32

prophets possibly feeling superior, justifying their pseudo-moral intentions and misusing their followers.

2.3.8. Virtuous Leadership Pearce, Waldman and Csikszentmihalyi (2006) define virtuous leadership as

“distinguishing right from wrong in one’s leadership role, taking steps to ensure justice and honesty, influencing and enabling others to pursue righteous and moral goals for themselves and their organizations and helping others to connect to a higher purpose” (p. 62). Havard (2007) adds that virtuous leadership defines each of the classical human virtues important for leadership: magnanimity, humility, prudence, courage, self-control, and justice. According to Cameron (2011), virtuousness is based on eudaemonism (the assumption that an inclination toward moral goodness exists in all human beings); on inherent value (the assumption that virtuousness represents “goods of first intent”); and on amplification (the assumption that observing virtuousness creates a self-reinforcing cycle toward more virtuousness).

Virtuous leadership facilitates learning within organizations and it can help establish conditions of trust (Pearce et al., 2006). According to Cameron (2011), virtuous leadership provides a fixed point for coping with change (i.e., it helps identify a universally accepted standard for what leaders can consider best or good for individuals and their organizations); and it also provides benefits for constituencies who may never be affected otherwise (i.e., by focusing on virtuous outcomes, desirable ends can be reached, e.g., organizational commitment or organizational performance outcomes, which can provide advantages for all constituencies rather than benefiting some at the expense of others).

Similarly to RL, virtuous leaders, due to their broad-ranging values of morality and justice, attempt to balance the interests of all stakeholders (Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999; Waldman, Siegel & Javidan, 2006). However, in the case of RL, the objective is to create social value and desirable change that advances the situation for all parties involved, while in the case of virtuous leadership, the objective is to enhance the welfare of the firm and leverage its learning potential (Pearce et al., 2006).

2.3.9. Steward Leadership Stewardship theory has its roots in psychology and sociology and examines

situations in which leaders, as stewards, are motivated to act in the best interests of


33

their principals (Donaldson & Davis, 1989, 1991). When a steward has a choice between self-serving behavior and pro-organizational behavior, he or she will not depart from the interests of his or her organization. Stewards believe their interests are aligned with that of the corporation and its owners and their interests and utility motivations are directed to organizational rather than personal objectives (Davis, Schoorman & Donaldson, 1997).

In the past, if there were heterogeneous groups of stakeholders and competing shareholder objectives, the steward was motivated to make decisions that he or she perceived were in the best interests of the group (which was mostly manifested by increased organizational wealth through improved performance). Recently, steward leadership has begun to be seen from a broader perspective as a new, humane and sustainable vision for the role of business and as a form of leadership that focuses on others, the community, and society at large rather than the self (April, Kukard & Peters, 2013). The stewardship model casts business in the role of being a responsible steward contributing to the well-being of customers, employees and the community; acting with positive ethics; and partnering with other social institutions for the common good. The moral position of ethical stewardship is that organizational leaders have the obligation to pursue long-term wealth creation by implementing systems that strengthen the organizational commitment of each stakeholder (Caldwell & Karri, 2005).

A steward leader cares for those with whom he or she works. A steward leader realizes that he or she is accountable to someone else to not only care for, but also maximize the potential of, the resources in their purview – all this on a long-term basis (Hernandez, 2012). This requires an active role both in working toward a mission of the organization, but also in particular when it comes to developing people so that they thrive as individuals in pursuit of a team goal. The role of a steward leader is to exemplify a standard and then encourage and coach others toward personal growth unique to them and to also model that standard to others. Some of the features of steward leaders include trustworthiness, humility, integrity, courage, honesty, transparency, and the ability to listen and admit one’s mistakes (Vincent & Krivickas, 2012).

RL shares the approach of the long-term view, but steward leadership is broader and focuses on the leaders’ dealings with the resources of which they are custodians with the objective of maximizing the profit of the majority and adopting this point of view also for individual profit (the question arises of ethics and morality). In comparison, RL focuses more on the human element of building and


34

maintaining trustful relationships and is geared toward benefitting all involved. While steward leadership used to focus more on the organizational objectives (as pointed out, recently also striving to contribute to the well-being of entities outside of the organization), RL has always been inclusive of broader groups of stakeholders and has tried to find a consensus solution acceptable for all of them.

2.3.10. Relational Leadership Researchers in leadership have studied closely the relationships between

leaders and followers and the concept of authority or power. Arguably, the point of view on these constructs has changed radically from the unequal, imbalanced hierarchical relationship of obedience toward much more inclusive and partner-like ones, in which followers have their rights and responsibilities, for example, the right to contribute to leadership development (Kellerman, 2008). Such shifts are also in line with the change of the whole paradigm from the hierarchical bureaucratic organizational structures to more fluid or “radix” ones, as described by Schneider (2002) earlier.

Uhl-Bien (2006) shifts the meaning of “relational” even more when she speaks about relational leadership. She describes the shift from the top-down approach, or the behavioral styles that are relationship-oriented (i.e., focused on support, trust and high-quality work relationships) to relational view of leadership. Relational leadership identifies individuals through their connections and interpersonal relationships to other entities, and it describes leadership as a process of social construction, the certain meaning of which results from a shared understanding and relational dialogue. Uhl-Bien (2006) emphasizes the relational dynamics of leadership and organizing and offers a “Relational Leadership Theory (RLT) as an overarching framework for the study of leadership as a social influence process through which emergent coordination (e.g., evolving social order) and change (e.g., new approaches, values, attitudes, behaviors, ideologies) are constructed and produced” (p. 654). Relational Leadership Theory is the study of both the relationships (interpersonal relationships as outcomes of or as contexts for interactions) and relational dynamics (social interactions, social constructions) of leadership. From the entity perspective, relational processes are centered in individuals’ perceptions and cognitions as they engage in exchanges and influence relationships with one another. From the relational perspective, persons and organizations are ongoing multiple constructions made “in” processes and not the makers “of” processes (Hosking, 2000).


35

RL is similar in the fact that it also puts into the center of attention the interaction of relationships which are not based on hierarchy and organizational order, but RL focuses less on constructing the common understanding and change only within an organization, and more on the common, mutually beneficial social change which is not limited by organizational borders. RL also emphasizes the active role of responsible leaders as “makers” who bring together different stakeholders with the aim of achieving a shared and morally sound vision (Maak & Pless, 2006b), rather than relying on the process of social construction resulting from individuals’ perceptions and cognitions throughout their interaction. RL also underlines the ethical and moral element employing the vision of achieving mutually shared objectives beneficial for the broader society – something that is not emphasized in relational leadership.

2.3.11. Shared Leadership Some recent definitions of leadership stress that the leadership influence

process involves a relationship component (e.g., Lord & Brown, 2001, 2004; Waldman, Ramirez, House & Puranam, 2001). There is a relationship between a leader and followers involved in the leadership process, a relationship that can be hierarchically or geographically distant and not require face-to-face interaction (Waldman & Yammarino, 1999). Although a number of authors have discussed the idea of shared leadership, academic leadership literature only recently started to focus on it. Shared or collective leadership in organizations becomes more common as hierarchical levels are deleted and team-based structures are inserted. Avolio, Walumbwa and Weber (2009) refer to the terms “shared leadership,” “distributed leadership,” and “collective leadership” interchangeably, paralleling their usage in the leadership literature. The term “shared leadership” overlaps with relational and complexity leadership, and differs from more traditional, hierarchical, or vertical models of leadership (Pearce & Sims, 2002).

Pearce and colleagues (e.g., Pearce & Conger, 2003; Pearce & Manz, 2005) articulated shared leadership theory by building on the idea of leadership as embedded in relationships. Shared leadership theory emphasizes that leadership can flow in multiple directions in organizations: both vertically and horizontally among peers. Shared leadership is defined as “the serial emergence of multiple leaders based on the task demands and the knowledge, skills and abilities of those involved in the task” (Pearce, et al., 2006, p. 61). Shared leadership is distributed within a group or a team of individuals rather than localized in any one individual who


36

serves in the role of supervisor (Pearce & Conger, 2003). Shared leadership is an emergent state and it occurs when all members of a team are collectively and fully engaged in the leadership of the team (Day, Gronn & Salas, 2004) and are simultaneously and mutually influencing each other while becoming official as well as unofficial leaders (Pearce, 2004). It is a team-level outcome and when it is “viewed as a property of the whole system, as opposed to solely the property of individuals, effectiveness in leadership becomes more a product of those connections or relationships among the parts than the result of any one part of that system (such as the leader)” (O’Connor & Quinn, 2004, p. 423).

RL shares with shared leadership the active engagement of the team members as followers, yet is broader in the definition of followers who should be actively taken into consideration to include all employees in the organization and all subjects and constituencies outside the organization. While it seems that the role of the leader in shared leadership is suppressed and substituted by the mutual influence of all team members, RL still emphasizes the important role of the leader as the one who inspires with a vision, is a role model, and plays an active role in achieving “mutually shared objectives based on a vision of business as a force of good for the many, and not just a few (shareholders, managers)” (Maak, 2007, p. 331). Shared leadership is a team-level outcome not possible to define in advance, while RL helps initiate within each individual a responsible leader with prior intentions of certain desirable outcomes and leads to outcomes on multiple levels.

Table 2.1. summarizes the main characteristic of each leadership theory described and thus allows an easy comparison and contrasting with RL, e.g., through their theoretical grounding, key characteristics or antecedents, relationship toward followers, objectives, or outcomes.

Having placed the construct of RL into the broader field of leadership theories, the aim is now to study this construct further and clarify its constituting features. In order to provide solid ground for the synthesis of knowledge available about RL, the field of scholarly literature on RL will now be reviewed and the results of the profound literature survey will be shared.

2.4. Methodology On November 25, 2013, we searched the Business Source Premier database

(the leader in full text coverage in all disciplines of business, including management, marketing, economics, accounting, finance, etc.) using EBSCO Host search engine

Tabl

e 2.

1.: T

able

Com

parin

g Re

spon

sible

Lea

ders

hip

and

Oth

er L

eade

rshi

p Th

eorie

s Le

ader

ship

Th

eory

M

ain

Aut

hors

Th

eore

tical

G

roun

ding

K

ey

Cha

ract

erist

ics

/ Con

stitu

ting

Feat

ures

Obj

ectiv

es

Basis

of R

espo

nsib

ility

R

elat

ions

hip

Tow

ard

Follo

wer

s O

utco

mes

Li

mita

tions

Res

pons

ible

Le

ader

ship

M

aak

& P

less

(2

006a

,b);

Maa

k (2

007)

; Ple

ss

(200

7); P

less

&

Maa

k (2

009)

•St

akeh

olde

r th

eory

•Bu

sines

s eth

ics

•CS

R•

Lead

ersh

ipth

eorie

s

•M

oral

cha

ract

er

and

rela

tiona

lqu

aliti

es

•To

cap

ture

the

rela

tiona

l na

ture

of t

hele

ader

–sta

keho

lder

pr

ojec

t and

its

impl

icat

ions

for m

atte

rsof

resp

onsib

ility

•

To re

spon

d to

oth

ers’

inte

rests

and

nee

ds,

incl

udin

g th

ose

ofou

tside

stak

ehol

ders

and

soci

ety

at la

r ge

•Sp

iritu

al, h

uman

istic

,m

oral

, or a

ny o

ther

valu

es ro

oted

inre

ligio

n, fa

mily

,tra

ditio

n, e

duca

tion,

and

so o

n •

Or s

impl

y re

cogn

izin

gth

at a

ctin

g w

ithre

spon

sibili

ty is

the

right

thin

g to

do

•In

tern

al a

ndex

tern

alsta

keho

lder

s •

The

impo

rtanc

eof a

full-

rang

e vi

ewof

lead

er–

stake

hold

er

rela

tions

hips

•M

utua

lly sh

ared

obje

ctiv

es b

ased

on

avi

sion

of b

usin

ess a

s afo

rce

of g

ood

for t

h em

any,

not

just

a fe

w•

The

crea

tion

of so

cial

valu

e an

d th

e su

ppor

t of

desir

able

soci

al c

hang

e(e

.g.,

pove

rty a

llevi

atio

n,

equa

l opp

ortu

nity

, etc

.) at

the

loca

l lev

el

•Th

e ai

m to

resp

ond

toth

e ne

eds a

ndr e

quire

men

ts of

oth

ers

(sta

keho

lder

s in

a br

oad

sens

e) m

ay p

oten

tially

slo

w d

own

the

proc

ess

lead

ing

tow

ard

taki

ngste

ps to

find

ing

aso

lutio

n ac

cept

able

for

all p

artie

s inv

olve

d

Stak

ehol

der

Lead

ersh

ip

Schn

eide

r (20

02)

•S t

akeh

olde

r th

eory

•St

akeh

olde

r m

anag

emen

t

•T h

e im

porta

nce

of c

onte

xt,

rela

tions

hips

, le

ader

role

-set

s, an

d le

ader

attri

bute

s

•To

mee

t the

cha

lleng

esof

fluc

tuat

ing

verti

cal,

late

ral,

and

exte

rnal

dem

a nds

•To

enc

oura

gein

tera

ctio

ns a

ndne

twor

ks u

sing

posit

ive

emot

ion

(rath

er th

anfo

rmal

aut

horit

y)

•Th

e w

hole

par

adig

m

shift

from

the

top-

dow

nap

proa

ch to

war

d th

ere

latio

nal v

iew

or

mul

tidire

ctio

nal

influ

ence

•Ve

rtica

l, la

tera

l, an

d ex

tern

alde

man

ds

•Le

ader

effe

ctiv

enes

s in

the

time

is ch

arac

teriz

ed

by th

e sh

ift fr

om th

ebu

reau

crat

icor

gani

zatio

nal f

orm

to

war

d th

e ra

dix

orga

niza

tion

•Sc

hnei

der’s

stak

ehol

der

mod

el o

f org

aniz

atio

nal

lead

ersh

ip h

elps

topr

edic

t lea

der

effe

ctiv

enes

s with

out

stres

sing

resp

onsib

ility

an

d ac

coun

tabi

lity

Ethi

cal

Lead

ersh

ip

Brow

n, T

revi

ño

& H

arris

on

(200

5); B

row

n &

Tre

viño

(200

6)

•Th

e in

ters

ectio

nof

the

ethi

cs a

ndle

ader

ship

liter

atur

es

•A

lead

er is

apo

sitiv

e ro

lem

odel

who

beha

ves

virtu

ously

, ac

ts ac

cord

ing

toet

hica

l sta

ndar

ds,

insu

res e

thic

alan

d pr

o-so

cial

cond

uct i

n th

ew

orkp

lace

•To

influ

ence

follo

wer

sby

dem

onstr

atin

get

hica

l con

duct

, ofte

nth

roug

h tra

nsac

tiona

lm

echa

nism

s

•U

sing

prin

cipl

esof

mor

al re

ason

ing

tom

ake

deci

sions

•Cl

assic

alle

ader

ship

dya

dof

lead

er–

subo

rdin

ate

i nth

e or

gani

zatio

n

•M

icro

-leve

l out

com

es,

such

as l

eade

ref

fect

iven

ess,

empl

oyee

jo

b sa

tisfa

ctio

n, a

ndde

dica

tion

•Im

prov

ed e

ffect

iven

ess

is th

e en

d of

usin

ggu

idan

ce b

y le

ader

s in

orga

niza

tions

•

The

lead

er m

ust b

ehav

eet

hica

lly in

the

lead

er’s

prof

essio

nal a

s wel

l as

per s

onal

life

Serv

ant

Lead

ersh

ip

Gre

enle

af (1

977)

; Bu

rns (

1978

); G

reen

leaf

(200

2);

Ciul

la (2

006)

; V

an D

iere

ndon

ck

(201

1)

•Th

e cu

rrent

de

man

d fo

r mor

eet

hica

l and

peop

le-c

ente

red

man

agem

ent

•Se

rvan

t-lea

ders

show

hum

ilit y

and

are

auth

entic

•Th

ey a

re

stew

ards

who

wor

k fo

r the

go

od o

f the

who

le

•To

serv

e th

e ne

eds a

ndle

gitim

ate

inte

rests

of

follo

wer

s or

stake

hold

ers

•To

pro

vide

dire

ctio

n,

empo

wer

and

dev

elop

peop

le

•Se

rvan

t lea

ders

are

driv

en b

y sp

iritu

ality

or a

n in

ner c

allin

g

•Se

rvan

tle

ader

ship

unde

rsta

nds

stake

hold

ers a

sfo

llow

ers i

n th

ew

orkp

lace

•Se

rvan

t lea

ders

hip

enco

urag

es se

lf-ac

tual

izat

ion,

pos

itive

job

attit

udes

, per

form

ance

and

a str

onge

ror

gani

zatio

nal f

ocus

on

susta

inab

ility

and

CSR

•Se

rvan

t lea

ders

hip

isot

her-d

irect

ed a

nd th

ese

rvic

e to

oth

ers m

ay

som

etim

es g

o be

yond

self

sacr

ifice

•

Serv

ant l

eade

rshi

pre

cogn

izes

stak

ehol

ders

as fo

llow

ers i

n th

ew

orkp

lace

Aut

hent

ic

Lead

ersh

ip

Geo

rge

(200

3);

Luth

ans &

Avo

lio

(200

3); C

amer

on,

Dut

ton

& Q

uinn

(2

003)

; Coo

per

& N

elso

n (2

006)

; W

alum

bwa,

A

volio

, Gar

dner

, W

erns

ing

&

Pete

rson

(200

8)

•Th

e in

ters

ectio

nof

the

lead

ersh

ip,

ethi

cs, a

ndpo

sitiv

eor

gani

zatio

nal

beha

vior

and

scho

lars

hip

liter

atur

es

•A

n in

crea

sed

self-

awar

enes

s,re

latio

nal

trans

pare

ncy,

inte

rnal

ized

posit

ive

mor

alpe

rspe

ctiv

e

•To

influ

ence

, ene

rgiz

ean

d de

velo

p fo

llow

ers

•To

enc

oura

geau

then

ticity

am

ong

the

follo

wer

s

•A

ltrui

sm (s

how

ing

care

and

conc

ern

for p

eopl

e)

•H

igh

ethi

cal s

tand

ards

that

gui

de d

ecisi

on

mak

ing

and

beha

vior

•M

ostly

su

bord

inat

es (i

nth

e or

gani

zatio

n);

yet G

eorg

e al

soco

nsid

ers

inte

rnal

and

exte

rnal

stake

hold

ers

•A

uthe

ntic

lead

ersh

ip h

aspo

sitiv

e or

gani

zatio

nal

impa

ct b

y he

lpin

gem

ploy

ees f

ind

mea

ning

at w

ork,

by

cont

ribut

ing

to su

stain

ed p

erfo

rman

cean

d gr

owth

thro

ugh

long

-te

rm v

alue

cre

atio

n fo

r sh

areh

olde

rs

•Et

hica

l qua

litie

s are

posit

ive

psyc

holo

gica

lre

sour

ces l

eadi

ng to

posit

ive

orga

niza

tiona

lou

tcom

es e

nhan

cing

lead

ersh

ip e

ffect

iven

ess

37

Lead

ersh

ip

Theo

ry

Mai

n A

utho

rs

T heo

retic

al

Gro

undi

ng

Key

C

hara

cter

istic

s / C

onst

itutin

g Fe

atur

es

Obj

ectiv

es

Basis

of R

espo

nsib

ility

R

elat

ions

hip

Tow

ard

Follo

wer

s

Out

com

es

Lim

itatio

ns

Tran

sfor

ma-

tiona

l Le

ader

ship

Burn

s (19

78);

Bass

(1

985)

; Avo

lio e

t al.

(199

1); B

ass &

A

volio

(199

5)

•Fi

rst i

ntro

duce

d by

Burn

s (19

78) i

n th

eco

ntex

t of p

oliti

cal

lead

ersh

ip, t

hen

furth

er d

evel

oped

and

conc

eptu

aliz

edby

Bas

s (19

85) a

ndhi

s col

leag

ues

•In

telle

ctua

lst

imul

atio

n•

Tran

sfor

mat

ion

al n

otio

ns o

fvi

sion,

in

spira

tion

and

indi

vidu

aliz

edco

nsid

erat

ion

•To

raise

follo

wer

s’ co

nsci

ousn

ess a

ndtra

nsfo

rm th

em in

tole

ader

s•

To a

ccom

plish

orga

niza

tiona

l goa

lsan

d en

hanc

e fo

llow

ers’

perfo

rma n

ce

•A

ltrui

sm (s

how

ing

care

and

con

cern

for

peop

le)

•St

akeh

olde

rsin

side

the

orga

niza

tion

•Tr

ansf

orm

atio

nal l

eade

rsus

ually

influ

ence

follo

wer

s for

the

instr

umen

tal p

urpo

se o

fen

hanc

ing

perfo

rman

cean

d ac

com

plish

ing

orga

niza

tiona

l obj

ectiv

es(e

.g.,

impr

ovin

g th

e ec

onom

ic b

otto

m-li

ne,

satis

fyin

g sh

areh

olde

rs)

•N

arro

w u

nder

stand

ing

offo

llow

ers

•Po

ssib

ly in

strum

enta

l use

of c

hang

e /

trans

form

a tio

n•

Pote

ntia

l cha

rism

atic

or

narc

issist

ic ri

sks o

ftra

nsfo

rmat

iona

l lea

ders

•Fo

cus o

n in

divi

dual

rath

er th

an re

latio

nal

aspe

cts

Cha

rism

atic

Le

ader

ship

W

eber

(194

7);

Hou

se (1

977)

; Br

yman

(199

2);

Gar

dner

& A

volio

(1

998)

; Sha

mir

(199

8); K

anun

go

(200

1); M

endo

nca

(200

1); G

rint (

2002

)

•O

rgan

izat

iona

lle

ader

ship

liter

atur

e•

Char

ism

atic

lead

ersh

ip is

root

edin

stro

ng e

thic

alva

lues

•Th

e ch

aris

ma

of th

e le

ader

is

the

key

dyna

mic

of

influ

ence

from

th

e le

ader

toth

e fo

llow

er

•Th

eir f

ortit

ude

give

sch

aris

mat

ic le

ader

s the

cour

age

to fa

ce ri

sks

and

wor

k at

over

com

ing

obsta

cles

inth

e pu

rsui

t of g

oals

•St

rong

eth

ical

val

ues

•G

uida

nce

by m

oral

lyal

truist

ic p

rinci

ples

that

refle

ct a

hel

ping

conc

ern

for o

ther

sev

en a

t con

sider

able

pers

onal

sacr

ifice

or

inco

nven

ienc

e

•Th

eir v

ision

sar

e ju

st an

d in

sync

with

the

dem

ands

of

vario

ussta

keho

lder

s, no

t jus

tsh

areh

olde

rs

•Vi

sion

fulfi

llmen

t by

envi

sioni

ng a

ndst

imul

atin

g fo

llow

ers t

ofo

llow

lead

er’s

visio

n

•Ch

aris

mat

ic le

ader

’spe

rson

a po

ssib

ly

incl

udin

g el

emen

ts o

fdi

stanc

e fro

m fo

llow

ers,

of a

chie

ving

her

o sta

tus,

of n

arci

ssist

ic p

erso

nalit

yte

nden

cies

, and

pos

sibly

se

lf-ag

gran

dize

men

tSp

iritu

al

Lead

ersh

ip

Fry

(200

3); D

ent,

Hig

gins

& W

harff

(2

005)

; Pr

uzan

&

Mill

er (2

006)

•Is

rela

ted

toco

nstru

cts s

uch

asem

otio

nal

inte

llige

nce,

eth

ics,

valu

es, a

nd to

lead

ersh

ip m

odel

ssu

ch a

sch

aris

mat

ic,

stew

ards

hip,

tra

nsfo

rmat

iona

l,an

d se

rvan

t

•Th

e va

lues

,at

titud

es, a

ndbe

havi

ors t

hat

are

nece

ssar

yto

intri

nsic

ally

mot

ivat

e se

lfan

d ot

hers

soth

at th

ey h

ave

a se

nse

ofsp

iritu

alsu

rviv

al•

Emot

iona

lin

telli

genc

e,et

hics

, val

ues

•Sp

iritu

al le

ader

s ins

pire

and

ener

gize

beh

avio

r in

em

ploy

ees b

ased

on

mea

ning

and

pur

pose

rath

er th

an re

war

ds a

ndse

curit

y, th

usco

mpe

lling

em

ploy

ees

to tr

ansc

end

thei

r sel

f-in

tere

sts fo

r the

we l

fare

of th

eir o

r gan

izat

iona

lm

embe

rs, t

he sa

ke o

fth

e m

issio

n a

nd fo

r the

good

of h

uman

ity a

ndth

e na

tura

l wor

ld

•Sp

iritu

al le

ader

s are

mot

ivat

ed b

y se

rvic

eto

God

or t

ohu

man

ity a

nd th

eyvi

ew th

eir l

eade

rshi

pw

ork

as a

“ca

lling

”•

Altr

uism

(sho

win

gca

re a

nd c

once

rn fo

r pe

ople

)

•Be

havi

ngre

spon

sibly

on

beha

lf of

them

selv

es,

thei

r co

mm

uniti

es,

soci

ety,

the

envi

r onm

ent

and

all o

fcr

eatio

n (i.

e.,

they

con

sider

follo

wer

s in

the

broa

dse

nse)

•En

hanc

ed o

rgan

izat

iona

lle

arni

ng, u

nifie

d an

dbu

ilt c

omm

uniti

es,

conn

ectin

g to

oth

ers a

tw

ork,

and

to w

ork

itsel

f,an

d a

heal

ing

and

harm

oniz

ing

expr

essio

nof

com

pass

ion,

wisd

om,

and

conn

ecte

dnes

s •

Org

aniz

atio

ns d

riven

by

spiri

tual

lead

ers a

rebe

lieve

d to

be

mor

epr

ofita

ble

and

perfo

rm

very

wel

l

•A

cont

rove

rsia

l iss

ue is

the

mor

al p

art o

f spi

ritua

lle

ader

s: so

me

pote

ntia

lps

eudo

-lead

ers o

r fal

sepr

ophe

ts m

ight

misu

seth

eir f

ollo

wer

s•

Ther

e is

the

issue

of t

hean

ti-m

ater

ialis

t nat

ure

ofsp

iritu

ality

que

stion

ing

whe

ther

wor

kpla

cesp

iritu

ality

lead

s (or

shou

ld le

ad) t

o in

crea

sed

prod

uctiv

ity o

r pr

ofita

bilit

yVi

rtuo

us

Lead

ersh

ip

Cam

eron

, Brig

ht &

Ca

za (2

004)

; Pea

rce,

W

aldm

an &

Cs

iksz

entm

ihal

yi

(200

6)

•Li

tera

ture

on

virtu

ousn

ess,

ethi

cs, a

ndpo

sitiv

ity

•Pe

rson

alch

arac

teris

tics

(resp

onsib

ility

di

spos

ition

)•

The

role

of

envi

ronm

enta

lcu

es (e

.g.,

ethi

cs c

odes

, re

war

dsy

stem

s, et

c.)

•To

enh

ance

the

wel

fare

of th

e fir

m, w

hile

si

mul

tane

ously

bala

ncin

g th

e ne

eds o

fth

e va

rious

stak

ehol

ders

•St

rong

eth

ical

val

ues

and

mor

ally

altr

uisti

cpr

inci

ples

•Br

oad-

rang

ing

mor

alan

d ju

stice

val

ues

•Ba

lanc

edin

tere

sts o

f all

stake

hold

ers

•By

focu

sing

on v

irtuo

usou

tcom

es, v

irtuo

usle

ader

ship

pro

duce

sde

sirab

le e

nds (

e.g.

or

gani

zatio

nal

com

mitm

ent,

orga

niza

tiona

lpe

rform

ance

out

com

es)

whi

ch c

an p

rovi

dead

vant

ages

for a

llco

nstit

uenc

ies

•Le

vera

ging

orga

niza

tiona

l lea

rnin

g

•Vi

rtuou

s lea

ders

hip

aim

sat

enh

anci

ng th

e w

elfa

reof

the

firm

and

leve

ragi

ng it

s lea

rnin

gpo

tent

ial n

ot so

muc

hfo

cusin

g on

cre

atin

gso

cial

val

ue a

nd d

esira

ble

chan

ge

38

Lead

ersh

ip

Theo

ry

Mai

n A

utho

rs

Theo

retic

al

Gro

undi

ng

Key

Cha

ract

erist

ics

/ Con

stitu

ting

Feat

ures

Obj

ectiv

es

Basis

of

Res

pons

ibili

ty

Rel

atio

nshi

p To

war

d Fo

llow

ers

Out

com

es

Lim

itatio

ns

Stew

ards

hip

Theo

ry /

Lead

ersh

ip

Don

alds

on &

D

avis

(198

9,

1991

); D

avis,

Sc

hoor

man

&

Don

alds

on

(199

7); C

aldw

ell

& K

arri

(200

5);

Cald

wel

l, Tr

uong

, Li

nh &

Tua

n (2

011)

•Ps

ycho

logy

and

soci

olog

y •

Trus

twor

thin

ess,

hum

ility

, abi

lity

tolis

ten

and

adm

iton

e’s m

istak

es•

Inte

grity

, cou

rage

,ho

nesty

and

trans

pare

ncy

•To

real

ize

that

the

stew

ard

lead

er is

acco

unta

ble

to so

meo

neel

se a

nd sh

ould

not

onl

y ca

re fo

r, bu

t also

max

imiz

e th

e po

tent

ial

of, t

he re

sour

ces i

n hi

sor

her

pur

view

– a

ll th

is on

a lo

ng-te

rm b

asis

•Th

e ste

war

dbe

lieve

s tha

t by

wor

king

tow

ard

orga

niza

tiona

l, co

llect

ive

ends

,pe

rson

al n

eeds

are

met

•Bu

sines

s is

a re

spon

sible

stew

ard

cont

ribut

ing

toth

e w

ellb

eing

of c

usto

mer

s,em

ploy

ees a

ndth

e co

mm

unity

•Lo

ng-te

rm w

ealth

crea

tion

by m

axim

izin

gth

e po

tent

ial o

f the

re

sour

ces a

ndim

plem

entin

g sy

stem

sth

at st

reng

then

the

orga

niza

tiona

lco

mm

itmen

t of e

ach

stake

hold

er

•Th

e qu

estio

n of

eth

ics a

ndm

oral

ity a

rises

in re

latio

nw

ith th

e ob

ject

ive

ofm

axim

izat

ion

of th

e pr

ofit

of th

e m

ajor

ity a

ndad

optin

g th

is po

int o

f vie

wal

so fo

r ind

ivid

ual p

rofit

Rel

atio

nal

Lead

ersh

ip

Uhl

-Bie

n (2

006)

•

Rela

tions

hip-

orie

nted

lead

ersh

ip•

Soci

al n

etw

orks

•Re

latio

nal

cons

truct

ioni

sm

•Re

latio

nal

proc

esse

s are

cent

ered

inin

divi

dual

s’ pe

rcep

tions

and

cogn

ition

s as t

hey

enga

ge in

exch

ange

s and

influ

ence

rela

tions

hips

with

one

anot

her

•Pe

rson

s and

orga

niza

tions

are

ongo

ing

mul

tiple

cons

truct

ions

mad

e“i

n” p

roce

sses

and

no

t the

mak

ers “

of”

proc

esse

s

•To

iden

tify

indi

vidu

als

thro

ugh

thei

r co

nnec

tions

and

inte

rper

sona

lre

latio

nshi

ps to

oth

er

entit

ies

•To

con

struc

t mea

ning

(or n

ew a

ppro

ache

s, va

lues

, atti

tude

s,be

havi

ors,

ideo

logi

es)

on th

e ba

sis o

f a sh

ared

unde

rsta

ndin

g an

dre

latio

nal d

ialo

gue

•Re

latio

nal

dyna

mic

s of

lead

ersh

ip a

ndor

gani

zing

•Fo

llow

ers

beyo

nd th

edy

adic

rela

tions

hip:

lead

ersh

ip is

an in

tera

ctiv

epr

oces

s

•Em

erge

nt c

oord

inat

ion

(e.g

., ev

olvi

ng so

cial

orde

r) an

d ch

ange

(e.g

.,ne

w a

ppro

ache

s, va

lues

,at

titud

es, b

ehav

iors

,id

eolo

gies

)

•Re

lyin

g on

the

proc

ess o

fso

cial

con

struc

tion

resu

lting

from

indi

vidu

als’

perc

eptio

ns a

nd c

ogni

tions

thro

ugho

ut th

eir

inte

ract

ion

rath

er th

anha

ving

the

activ

e ro

le o

f“m

aker

s” a

nd v

ision

arie

s•

The

ethi

cal a

nd m

oral

elem

ents

as w

ell a

sac

hiev

ing

soci

al c

hang

e

Shar

ed

Lead

ersh

ip

Pear

ce &

Sim

s (2

002)

; Pea

rce

&

Cong

er (2

003)

; D

ay e

t al.

(200

4)

•Sh

ared

or

colle

ctiv

ele

ader

ship

inor

gani

zatio

nsbe

com

es m

ore

com

mon

as

hier

arch

ical

le

vels

are

dele

t ed

and

team

-bas

edstr

uctu

res a

rein

serte

d

•Sh

ared

lead

ersh

ipca

paci

ty th

at v

arie

sba

sed

on th

e in

puts,

pr

oces

ses,

and

outc

omes

of t

hete

am

•Re

cipr

ocal

influ

ence

whi

chre

info

rces

and

deve

lops

furth

er

rela

tions

hips

betw

een

team

m

embe

rs

•To

lead

one

ano

ther

toth

e ac

hiev

emen

t of

grou

p or

org

aniz

atio

nal

goal

s or b

oth

•Sh

ared

lead

ersh

ipca

paci

ty th

atde

velo

psth

roug

hout

a te

am’s

lifes

pan

•Sh

ared

lead

ersh

ip is

distr

ibut

edw

ithin

a g

roup

or a

team

of

indi

vidu

als

rath

er th

anlo

caliz

ed in

any

one

indi

vidu

al w

hose

rves

in th

ero

le o

f lea

der

•Ef

fect

iven

ess i

nle

ader

ship

bec

omes

mor

ea

prod

uct o

f the

conn

ectio

ns o

rre

latio

nshi

ps a

mon

g th

epa

rts th

an th

e re

sult

ofan

y on

e pa

rt of

that

syste

m (s

uch

as th

ele

ader

)

•Th

e ro

le o

f the

lead

er in

shar

ed le

ader

ship

issu

ppre

ssed

and

subs

titut

edby

the

mut

ual i

nflu

ence

of

all t

eam

mem

bers

•Sh

ared

lead

ersh

ip is

a te

am-le

vel o

utco

me,

not

poss

ible

to d

efin

e in

adva

nce

39


40

for scholarly (peer reviewed) journals, including articles and papers in proceedings, concerning the topic of responsible leadership. We searched the title or author-supplied abstract, without any time restriction for the date of publication of the article, for the following key words or phrases and any of their meaningful combinations. Here is the list of the key terms searched for a free match (i.e., their occurrence is anywhere within the selected search destinations): responsible leadership (67 results), responsibility leadership (198 results), responsible leader (71 results), responsible leading (22 results), leader responsibility (146 results), CSR leadership (10 results), CSR leader (11 results), social responsibility leadership (33 results), corporate responsibility leadership (21 results), corporate social responsibility leadership (17). The results yielded 596 entries in total.

To narrow down the results for the first time, we checked the relevancy of the journal domain (in order to omit any health care- , nursing- , finance- , and high school education-focused journals, and also exclude articles which focused on other leadership theories and dealt with responsible leadership only marginally), we removed duplicate articles and briefly reviewed the titles of the articles and subjects using key words. We were left with 95 articles that seemingly corresponded to the studied topic. The provided annotations of each of the 95 articles were then reviewed to ensure that the article was relevant for the subject of interest, and the number of articles was further narrowed down to 72.

After the second reduction, we added several articles that we obtained on the basis of personal recommendation or from references of related relevant articles by means of a direct search in the database. We also included 19 relevant book chapters on responsible leadership (Doh & Stumpf, eds. 2005a; Maak & Pless, eds. 2006a). We then summarized the articles and analyzed all abstracts for inclusion. Some texts were dropped from inclusion into the final pool of texts even though they had responsible leadership in the title, for instance when the term “responsible leadership” was simply used as a catchphrase and the text dealt with CSR or corporate citizenship.

We were left with the total of 57 articles, which were then closely examined, analyzed and summarized with respect to the studied notion of responsible leadership. The articles forming the basis of the analysis for the literature review are listed in Table 2.2.

Tabl

e 2.

2.: T

he 5

7 Ar

ticle

s whi

ch W

ere

Subj

ect t

o th

e Li

tera

ture

Sur

vey

on R

espo

nsib

le L

eade

rshi

p A

utho

rs

Yea

r Ti

tle

Jour

nal

Lynh

am, S

. A.

1998

Th

e de

velo

pmen

t and

eva

luat

ion

of a

mod

el o

f Res

pons

ible

Lea

ders

hip

for P

erfo

rman

ce

Hum

an R

esou

rce

Dev

elop

men

t Int

erna

tiona

l

Ples

s, N

. M.,

& M

aak,

T.

2005

Re

latio

nal I

ntel

ligen

ce fo

r Lea

ding

Res

pons

ibly

in a

Con

nect

ed W

orld

Ac

adem

y of

Man

agem

ent A

nnua

l Mee

ting

Proc

eedi

ngs

Doh

, J. P

., &

Stu

mpf

, S. A

. 20

05b

Tow

ards

a fr

amew

ork

of re

spon

sible

lead

ersh

ip a

nd g

over

nanc

e H

andb

ook

on R

espo

nsib

le L

eade

rshi

p An

d G

over

nanc

e in

Glo

bal B

usin

ess (

Doh

and

Stu

mpf

, 200

5a)

Fom

brun

, C. J

. 20

05

The

lead

ersh

ip c

halle

nge:

bui

ldin

g re

silie

nt c

orpo

rate

repu

tatio

ns

Han

dboo

k on

Res

pons

ible

Lea

ders

hip

And

Gov

erna

nce

in G

loba

l Bus

ines

s (D

oh a

nd S

tum

pf, 2

005a

) U

seem

, M.

2005

Le

ader

ship

: mak

ing

resp

onsib

le d

ecisi

ons

Han

dboo

k on

Res

pons

ible

Lea

ders

hip

And

Gov

erna

nce

in G

loba

l Bus

ines

s (D

oh a

nd S

tum

pf, 2

005a

) C

amer

on, K

., &

Caz

a, A

. 20

05

Dev

elop

ing

strat

egie

s and

skill

s for

resp

onsib

le le

ader

ship

H

andb

ook

on R

espo

nsib

le L

eade

rshi

p An

d G

over

nanc

e in

Glo

bal B

usin

ess (

Doh

and

Stu

mpf

, 200

5a)

Ale

xand

er, J

., &

Wils

on, M

. 20

05

Foun

datio

ns o

f res

pons

ible

lead

ersh

ip: f

rom

self-

insig

ht to

inte

grity

and

altr

uism

H

andb

ook

on R

espo

nsib

le L

eade

rshi

p An

d G

over

nanc

e in

Glo

bal B

usin

ess (

Doh

and

Stu

mpf

, 200

5a)

Wal

dman

, D. A

., &

Sie

gel,

D.

2005

Th

e in

fluen

ce o

f CEO

tran

sfor

mat

iona

l lea

ders

hip

on fi

rm-le

vel c

omm

itmen

t to

corp

orat

e so

cial

re

spon

sibili

ty

Han

dboo

k on

Res

pons

ible

Lea

ders

hip

And

Gov

erna

nce

in G

loba

l Bus

ines

s (D

oh a

nd S

tum

pf, 2

005a

) Sa

ckm

ann,

S. A

. 20

05

Resp

onsib

le le

ader

ship

: a c

ross

-cul

tura

l per

spec

tive

Han

dboo

k on

Res

pons

ible

Lea

ders

hip

And

Gov

erna

nce

in G

loba

l Bus

ines

s (D

oh a

nd S

tum

pf, 2

005a

) Q

uigl

ey, N

. R.,

de L

uque

, M. S

., &

Hou

se, R

. J.

2005

Re

spon

sible

lead

ersh

ip a

nd g

over

nanc

e in

a g

loba

l con

text

: ins

ight

s fro

m th

e G

LOBE

stud

y H

andb

ook

on R

espo

nsib

le L

eade

rshi

p An

d G

over

nanc

e in

Glo

bal B

usin

ess (

Doh

and

Stu

mpf

, 200

5a)

Scal

berg

, E. J

. 20

05

Resp

onsib

le le

ader

ship

and

gov

erna

nce

in g

loba

l bus

ines

s: th

e ro

le o

f bus

ines

s edu

catio

n H

andb

ook

on R

espo

nsib

le L

eade

rshi

p An

d G

over

nanc

e in

Glo

bal B

usin

ess (

Doh

and

Stu

mpf

, 200

5a)

Lynh

am, S

. A.,

& C

herm

ack,

T. J

. 20

06

Resp

onsib

le L

eade

rshi

p fo

r Per

form

ance

: A T

heor

etic

al M

odel

and

Hyp

othe

ses

Jour

nal o

f Lea

ders

hip

& O

rgan

izat

iona

l Stu

dies

Wal

dman

, D. A

., Su

lly d

e Luq

ue, M

., W

ashb

urn,

N.,

& H

ouse

, R. J

. 20

06

Cultu

ral a

nd L

eade

rshi

p Pr

edic

tors

of C

orpo

rate

Soc

ial R

espo

nsib

ility

Val

ues o

f Top

Man

agem

ent:

A

GLO

BE S

tudy

of 1

5 Co

untri

es

Jour

nal o

f Int

erna

tiona

l Bus

ines

s Stu

dies

Wal

dman

, D. A

., Si

egel

, D. S

., &

Jav

idan

, M.

2006

Co

mpo

nent

s of C

EO T

rans

form

atio

nal L

eade

rshi

p an

d Co

rpor

ate

Soci

al R

espo

nsib

ility

Jo

urna

l of M

anag

emen

t Stu

dies

Dug

an, J

. P.

2006

In

volv

emen

t and

Lea

ders

hip:

A D

escr

iptiv

e A

naly

sis o

f Soc

ially

Res

pons

ible

Lea

ders

hip

Jour

nal o

f Col

lege

Stu

dent

Dev

elop

men

t

Ciu

lla, J

. B.

2006

Et

hics

: the

hea

rt of

lead

ersh

ip

Resp

onsi

ble

Lead

ersh

ip (M

aak

and

Ples

s, 20

06a)

Maa

k T.

, & P

less

, N. M

. 20

06

Resp

onsib

le le

ader

ship

: a re

latio

nal a

ppro

ach

Resp

onsi

ble

Lead

ersh

ip (M

aak

and

Ples

s, 20

06a)

Pain

e, L

. S.

2006

A

com

pass

for d

ecisi

on m

akin

g Re

spon

sibl

e Le

ader

ship

(Maa

k an

d Pl

ess,

2006

a)

Pruz

an, P

., &

Mill

er, W

. C.

2006

Sp

iritu

ality

as t

he b

asis

of re

spon

sible

lead

ers a

nd re

spon

sible

com

pani

es

Resp

onsi

ble

Lead

ersh

ip (M

aak

and

Ples

s, 20

06a)

Bren

kert

, G. G

. 20

06

Inte

grity

, res

pons

ible

lead

ers a

nd a

ccou

ntab

ility

Re

spon

sibl

e Le

ader

ship

(Maa

k an

d Pl

ess,

2006

a)

Sack

man

n, S

. A.

2006

Le

adin

g re

spon

sibly

acr

oss c

ultu

res

Resp

onsi

ble

Lead

ersh

ip (M

aak

and

Ples

s, 20

06a)

Schr

aa-L

iu, T

., &

Tro

mpe

naar

s, F.

20

06

Tow

ards

resp

onsib

le le

ader

ship

thro

ugh

reco

ncili

ng d

ilem

mas

Re

spon

sibl

e Le

ader

ship

(Maa

k an

d Pl

ess,

2006

a)

Die

rmei

er, D

. 20

06

Lead

ing

in a

wor

ld o

f com

petin

g va

lues

: a st

rate

gic

pers

pect

ive

on c

orpo

rate

soci

al re

spon

sibili

ty

Resp

onsi

ble

Lead

ersh

ip (M

aak

and

Ples

s, 20

06a)

Van

de L

oo, E

. 20

06

Resp

onsib

le le

ader

ship

at A

BN A

MRO

Rea

l: th

e ca

se o

f Fab

io B

arbo

sa

Resp

onsi

ble

Lead

ersh

ip (M

aak

and

Ples

s, 20

06a)

Ples

s, N

. M.,

& S

chne

ider

, R.

2006

To

war

ds d

evel

opin

g re

spon

sible

glo

bal l

eade

rs: t

he U

lyss

es e

xper

ienc

e Re

spon

sibl

e Le

ader

ship

(Maa

k an

d Pl

ess,

2006

a)

Maa

k, T

., &

Ple

ss, N

. M.

2006

b Re

spon

sible

Lea

ders

hip

in a

Sta

keho

lder

Soc

iety

- A

Rel

atio

nal P

ersp

ectiv

e Jo

urna

l of B

usin

ess E

thic

s

Ples

s, N

. M.

2007

U

nder

stand

ing

Resp

onsib

le L

eade

rshi

p: R

ole

Iden

tity

and

Mot

ivat

iona

l Driv

ers

Jour

nal o

f Bus

ines

s Eth

ics

Maa

k, T

. 20

07

Resp

onsib

le L

eade

rshi

p, S

take

hold

er E

ngag

emen

t, an

d th

e Em

erge

nce

of S

ocia

l Cap

ital

Jour

nal o

f Bus

ines

s Eth

ics

41

Aut

hors

Y

ear

Title

Jo

urna

l

Wal

dman

, D. A

., &

Gal

vin,

B. M

. 20

08

Alte

rnat

ive

Pers

pect

ives

of R

espo

nsib

le L

eade

rshi

p O

rgan

izat

iona

l Dyn

amic

s

Wal

dman

, D. A

., &

Sie

gel,

D.

2008

D

efin

ing

the

soci

ally

resp

onsib

le le

ader

Th

e Le

ader

ship

Qua

rter

ly

Ples

s, N

. M.,

& M

aak,

T.

2008

a Re

spon

sible

Lea

ders

as A

gent

s of W

orld

Ben

efit:

Lea

rnin

gs fr

om “

Proj

ect U

lyss

es”

Jour

nal o

f Bus

ines

s Eth

ics

Ples

s, N

. M.,

& M

aak,

T.

2008

b Re

spon

sible

Lea

ders

hip:

Ver

antw

ortli

che

Fuhr

ung

im K

onte

xt e

iner

glo

bale

n St

akeh

olde

r-Ges

ellsh

caft.

(R

espo

nsib

le L

eade

rshi

p in

a G

loba

l Sta

keho

lder

Soc

iety

. With

Eng

lish

sum

mar

y.)

Zeits

chrif

t für

Wir

tscha

fts- u

nd U

nter

nehm

ensth

ik

Maa

k, T

., &

Ple

ss, N

. M.

2009

Bu

sines

s Lea

ders

as C

itize

ns o

f the

Wor

ld. A

dvan

cing

Hum

anism

on

a G

loba

l Sca

le

Jour

nal o

f Bus

ines

s Eth

ics

DeM

aCar

ty, P

. 20

09

Fina

ncia

l Ret

urns

of C

orpo

rate

Soc

ial R

espo

nsib

ility

, and

the

Mor

al F

reed

om a

nd R

espo

nsib

ility

of B

usin

ess

Lead

ers

Busi

ness

and

Soc

iety

Rev

iew

: Jou

rnal

of t

he C

ente

r for

Bu

sine

ss E

thic

s at B

entle

y C

olle

ge

Màr

ia, J

., &

Loz

ano,

J.

2010

Re

spon

sible

Lea

ders

for I

nclu

sive

Glo

baliz

atio

n: C

ases

in N

icar

agua

and

the

Dem

ocra

tic R

epub

lic o

f the

Co

ngo

Jour

nal o

f Bus

ines

s Eth

ics

Ket

ola,

T.

2010

Re

spon

sible

lead

ersh

ip: B

uild

ing

bloc

ks o

f ind

ivid

ual,

orga

niza

tiona

l and

soci

etal

beh

avio

r C

orpo

rate

Soc

ial R

espo

nsib

ility

& E

nviro

nmen

tal

Man

agem

ent

Del

ios,

A.

2010

H

ow C

an O

rgan

izat

ions

Be

Com

petit

ive

but D

are

to C

are?

Ac

adem

y of

Man

agem

ent P

ersp

ectiv

es

Voe

gtlin

, C.

2011

D

evel

opm

ent o

f a S

cale

Mea

surin

g D

iscur

sive

Resp

onsib

le L

eade

rshi

p Jo

urna

l of B

usin

ess E

thic

s

Wal

dman

, D. A

. 20

11

Mov

ing

Forw

ard

with

the

Conc

ept o

f Res

pons

ible

Lea

ders

hip:

Thr

ee C

avea

ts to

Gui

de T

heor

y an

d Re

sear

ch

Jour

nal o

f Bus

ines

s Eth

ics

Gro

ves,

K.,

& L

aRoc

ca, M

. 20

11

Resp

onsib

le L

eade

rshi

p O

utco

mes

Via

Sta

keho

lder

CSR

Val

ues:

Testi

ng a

Val

ues-

Cent

ered

Mod

el o

f Tr

ansf

orm

atio

nal L

eade

rshi

p Jo

urna

l of B

usin

ess E

thic

s

Gon

d, J

., Ig

alen

s, J.

, Sw

aen,

V.,

& E

l A

krem

i, A

. 20

11

The

Hum

an R

esou

rces

Con

tribu

tion

to R

espo

nsib

le L

eade

rshi

p: A

n Ex

plor

atio

n of

the

CSR-

HR

Inte

rface

Jo

urna

l of B

usin

ess E

thic

s

Cam

eron

, K.

2011

Re

spon

sible

Lea

ders

hip

as V

irtuo

us L

eade

rshi

p Jo

urna

l of B

usin

ess E

thic

s

Doh

, J.,

Stum

pf, S

., &

Tym

on, W

. 20

11

Resp

onsib

le L

eade

rshi

p H

elps

Ret

ain

Tale

nt in

Indi

a Jo

urna

l of B

usin

ess E

thic

s

Mar

itz, R

., Pr

etor

ius,

M.,

& P

lant

, K.

2011

Ex

plor

ing

the

Inte

rface

Bet

wee

n St

rate

gy-M

akin

g an

d Re

spon

sible

Lea

ders

hip

Jour

nal o

f Bus

ines

s Eth

ics

Free

man

, R. E

., &

Aus

ter,

E. R

. 20

11

Val

ues,

Aut

hent

icity

, and

Res

pons

ible

Lea

ders

hip

Jour

nal o

f Bus

ines

s Eth

ics

Berg

er, R

., C

hoi,

C.,

& K

im, J

. 20

11

Resp

onsib

le L

eade

rshi

p fo

r Mul

tinat

iona

l Ent

erpr

ises i

n Bo

ttom

of P

yram

id C

ount

ries:

The

Kno

wle

dge

of

Loca

l Man

ager

s Jo

urna

l of B

usin

ess E

thic

s

Maa

k, T

., &

Ple

ss, N

. M.

2011

Re

spon

sible

Lea

ders

hip:

Pat

hway

s to

the

Futu

re (i

ntro

duct

ion

artic

le)

Jour

nal o

f Bus

ines

s Eth

ics

Ples

s, N

. M.,

Maa

k, T

., &

Sta

hl, G

. K.

2011

D

evel

opin

g Re

spon

sible

Glo

bal L

eade

rs T

hrou

gh In

tern

atio

nal S

ervi

ce-L

earn

ing

Prog

ram

s: Th

e U

lyss

es

Expe

rienc

e Ac

adem

y of

Man

agem

ent L

earn

ing

& E

duca

tion

Voe

gtlin

, C.,

Patz

er, M

., &

Sch

erer

, A

. G.

2012

Re

spon

sible

Lea

ders

hip

in G

loba

l Bus

ines

s: A

New

App

roac

h to

Lea

ders

hip

and

Its M

ulti-

Leve

l Out

com

es

Jour

nal o

f Bus

ines

s Eth

ics

Ples

s, N

. M.,

& M

aak,

T.

2012

Th

inki

ng a

bout

doi

ng th

e rig

ht th

ing

– m

appi

ng th

e re

spon

sibili

ty m

inds

ets o

f lea

ders

- pa

per o

verv

iew

Ac

adem

y of

Man

agem

ent B

est P

aper

Pro

ceed

ings

Ket

ola,

T.

2012

Lo

sing

your

self:

man

ager

ial p

erso

na a

nd sh

adow

pre

ssur

es k

illin

g re

spon

sible

lead

ersh

ip

Jour

nal o

f Man

agem

ent D

evel

opm

ent

Roz

uel,

C.,

& K

etol

a, T

. 20

12

A v

iew

from

with

in: e

xplo

ring

the

psyc

holo

gy o

f res

pons

ible

lead

ersh

ip (g

uest

edito

rial)

Jour

nal o

f Man

agem

ent D

evel

opm

ent

Mac

aux,

W. P

. 20

12

Gen

erat

ive

lead

ersh

ip: r

espo

ndin

g to

the

call

for r

espo

nsib

ility

Jo

urna

l of M

anag

emen

t Dev

elop

men

t

Col

dwel

l, D

. D.,

Joos

ub, T

. T.,

&

Papa

geor

giou

, E. E

. 20

12

Resp

onsib

le L

eade

rshi

p in

Org

aniz

atio

nal C

rises

: An

Ana

lysis

of t

he E

ffect

s of P

ublic

Per

cept

ions

of

Sele

cted

SA

Bus

ines

s Org

aniz

atio

ns’ R

eput

atio

ns

Jour

nal o

f Bus

ines

s Eth

ics

Ples

s, N

. M.,

Maa

k, T

., &

Wal

dman

, D

. A.

2012

D

iffer

ent A

ppro

ache

s Tow

ard

Doi

ng th

e Ri

ght T

hing

: Map

ping

the

Resp

onsib

ility

Orie

ntat

ions

of L

eade

rs

Acad

emy

of M

anag

emen

t Per

spec

tives

Maa

k, T

., &

Sto

ette

r, N

. 20

12

Soci

al E

ntre

pren

eurs

as R

espo

nsib

le L

eade

rs: ‘

Fund

ació

n Pa

ragu

aya’

and

the

Case

of M

artin

Bur

t Jo

urna

l of B

usin

ess E

thic

s

Ples

s, N

. M.,

Maa

k, T

., &

Sta

hl, G

. K.

2012

Pr

omot

ing

corp

orat

e so

cial

resp

onsib

ility

and

susta

inab

le d

evel

opm

ent t

hrou

gh m

anag

emen

t dev

elop

men

t: W

hat c

an b

e le

arne

d fro

m in

tern

atio

nal s

ervi

ce le

arni

ng p

rogr

ams?

H

uman

Res

ourc

e M

anag

emen

t

42


43

In order to gain an insight into the set of articles comprising the field of responsible leadership, we came up with 8 criteria that break down the analysis into comprehensive categories. The choice of categories was inspired by the logic of recurrent categories present in the analyzed articles and by other literature review articles (e.g., on “Servant Leadership” by Van Dierendonck (2011) and “Spiritual Leadership” by Dent, Higgins & Wharff (2005)). The categories were the following: 1. Type of Contribution: Conceptual or Empirical; 2. Research Questions; 3. Natureof the Phenomenon and Level of Analysis; 4. Theoretical Basis; 5. Definition of Responsible Leadership; 6. Understanding of Followers; 7. Antecedents of Responsible Leadership; 8. Outcomes of Responsible Leadership. The SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) software was used in order to obtain basic statistical data about the analyzed sample of articles.

2.5. Results Looking at the sample of 57 articles on RL that were analyzed, the results of

the cross-tabulation of the journal of publication vs. year of publication criteria show that the first publication classified as relevant for RL literature survey was published in 1998 in Human Resource Development International with a break until 2005. The rise of publications on responsible leadership started in 2005 with 10 contributions on this topic and with 15 contributions in 2006, continued slowly and boomed again in 2011 with 11 contributions. Most articles on RL were published in the Journal of Business Ethics: 19 out of 57 (33%). Up to now (the end of 2013), the most fruitful year of publishing on the topic of RL was 2006 with 15 contributions (10 of which were in the book on Responsible Leadership edited by Maak and Pless).

2.5.1. Type of Contribution: Conceptual or Empirical The analysis showed that out of 57 publications, more than half (33) are

conceptual articles (questioning the foundations of the concept, aiming at the clarification of the definition, construct, or making propositions) and 24 are empirical contributions that investigate the phenomena related to the existing state of responsible leadership by means of qualitative or quantitative methods. Since 2006, the number of conceptual contributions has been rising gradually until 2011 (with 5 conceptual contributions). Since 2011, empirical contributions became more numerous with 6 empirical contributions in 2011 and 7 in 2012.


44

2.5.2. Research Questions The research questions addressed in the literature on RL so far can be

summarized as follows (and sometimes more than one research question can be found within one article): a substantial group of authors study the objective factors that gave rise to RL (e.g., globalized, interconnected world, complexity of moral and ethical decisions, growing stakeholders’ demands, leadership misconducts, crises, world’s pressing problems, etc.) (e.g., articles by Maak & Pless, 2006b; Mària & Lozano, 2010; Voegtlin, Patzer & Scherer, 2012; Maritz, Pretorius & Plant, 2011; and Coldwell, Joosub & Papageorgiou, 2012).

Other authors ask the questions: what is RL (and thus deal with the definition issues), to whom should a leader be responsible (potential beneficiaries from RL), and why he or she should be responsible to that body. These questions tie to the area of conceptualization of the construct of RL, the underlying theoretical bases, and broader societal context in which responsible leaders operate. They include, for example, the economic vs. stakeholder dimensions of RL (Waldman & Galvin, 2008; Waldman, Sully de Luque, Washburn & House, 2006; Waldman, 2011; Waldman & Siegel, 2008), the study of RL mindset (Pless & Maak, 2012), the inclusion of minorities (Mària & Lozano, 2010; Voegtlin et al., 2012), and the fight against worldwide pressing problems (Maak & Pless, 2009).

Another group of authors study quantitative measurement and correlation with classical organizational measures such as performance and competitiveness, namely the discussions on whether RL leads to improved performance and competitiveness (e.g., Lynham & Chermack, 2006; Gond, Igalens, Swaen & El Akremi, 2011; Lynham, 1998; DeMaCarty, 2009; Cameron, 2011) and how to measure RL (Voegtlin, 2011; Gond et al., 2011). Another battery of questions concerns certain micro-level phenomena within a company, for example, “What is the contribution of HR to RL?” or “What is the connection of RL to strategy-making?”

Some authors study the mechanism of RL – its components and antecedents. They ask the questions: what does the “black box” of RL consist of (i.e., what are the values, visions, roles and virtues of a responsible leader) (e.g., Mària & Lozano, 2010; Waldman et al., 2006; Ketola, 2010; Pless, 2007), what are the prerequisites for RL (Waldman & Galvin, 2008; Dugan, 2006; Maak & Pless, 2006a,b), and what are the best practices of responsible leaders (e.g., Coldwell et al., 2012). Similarly, there are questions concerning the antecedents of RL at the organizational level, e.g.,


45

“What capacities should a company possess at the organizational level in order to promote RL?”

Policy measures toward RL development, i.e., discussion of the effectiveness of traditional managerial education, are addressed by Scalberg (2005) and Alexander and Wilson (2005) among others, and discussion of the development of responsible (global) leaders by means of experiential education such as service learning are dealt with by Pless, Maak and Stahl (2011, 2012), Pless and Schneider (2006), Pless and Maak (2008) among others.

2.5.3. Nature of the Phenomenon and Level of Analysis On what level(s) do the authors see RL operate? Is it a micro-level

phenomenon (emerging at the individual level), or is it a macro-level phenomenon (emerging at the level of organizational processes)? In order to determine the nature of the phenomenon of RL and to observe the prevalent views on this topic among the authors, we looked at the levels of analysis at which the authors studied the phenomenon of RL. According to Yammarino, Dionne, Schriesheim and Dansereau (2008, p. 695), “levels of analysis are the entities or objects of study about which we theorize and are integral parts of the definitions of constructs, operationalizations of measures, and empirical tests of theoretical associations (Dansereau & Yammarino, 2000; Yammarino & Dansereau, 2002).” Yammarino et al. (2008) differentiate two key levels of analysis: individual level of individuals or persons (independent human beings; dyads (two-person groups and interpersonal relationships), groups (work groups and teams)), and organizations (collectives larger than groups and groups of groups).

Adopting this definition in our analysis, looking at the overall number of articles and their level of analysis, it can be observed that the majority of authors (65%) analyze the studied phenomenon of RL at the individual level. Five articles (9%) analyze the phenomenon at the organizational level and 15 articles (26%) study the phenomenon at multiple levels. We could observe that some authors see RL as an individual-level phenomenon – inherent in the characteristics, values, behavior and practices of individual protagonists – leaders in organizations (e.g., Mària & Lozano, 2010; Waldman, 2011; Waldman & Galvin, 2008; Cameron & Caza, 2005; Ciulla, 2006). Within the articles that see RL as an individual-level phenomenon, we count the 3 articles whose authors see RL also as a group, team or departmental-level phenomenon. Other authors see RL as functioning at both individual and organizational levels (e.g., Doh, Stumpf & Tymon, 2011; Groves


46

& LaRocca, 2011; Freeman & Auster, 2011; Lynham & Chermack, 2006) and other authors claim that this construct operates at more than two levels surpassing the organizational level to the broader societal and environmental levels (e.g., Maritz, Pretorius & Plant, 2011; Cameron, 2011). It comes out from the literature survey that a substantial number of authors regard RL as a multi-level phenomenon, that is, functioning at both individual and organizational levels, having both individual and collective aspects, sometimes even surpassing the organizational level to the broader societal and environmental levels.

2.5.4. Theoretical Basis Out of 57 articles surveyed, 12 articles are building upon or referring to RL

theory (e.g., Voegtlin, 2011; Groves & LaRocca, 2011; Rozuel & Ketola, 2012). Authors of a substantial number of articles concerning RL ground their research in stakeholder theory (14 articles, e.g., Waldman, 2011; Cameron, 2011; Maritz, Pretorius & Plant, 2011; Maak & Stoetter, 2012), and/or CSR literature (7 articles, e.g., Mària & Lozano, 2010; Diermeier, 2006), and/or business ethics (4 articles,e.g., Freeman & Auster, 2011; Doh & Stumpf, 2005b; Sackmann, 2006). Five articles mention relational theory, which is connected to stakeholder theory (and also RL) by its focus on networks and the value in relationship building (e.g., Freeman & Auster, 2011; Maak & Pless, 2006b).

Other underlying theories, approaches and literatures included: different leadership theories (e.g., transformational, charismatic, authentic, servant leadership), or various psychological, or educational theories, which were referred to in the texts (10, 24.5, and 18 times respectively).

2.5.5. Definition of Responsible Leadership Studying what definitions authors writing about RL used helped us identify

the components (i.e., constituting features or characteristics) of RL. Looking into the definitional issues, we observed that 27 articles (almost half of the 57 articles analyzed) did not use any specific definition of RL. Of the 30 articles that used or referred to some definition of RL, all definitions were individual-level ones. Eight articles (14%) were articles by Maak and/or Pless using one of their definitions of RL. Twelve articles (21% of texts), referred to and/or extended a definition of Maak and Pless. Six articles (10.5%) used a different definition of RL (e.g., Lynham & Chermack, 2006; Cameron & Caza, 2005; Fombrun, 2005). The remaining articles (4) did not adhere to any particular definition of RL and stated that the


47

definition depended on various viewpoints (e.g., Waldman, 2011; Waldman & Galvin, 2009).

Up to 35% (20) of the 57 analyzed texts used or referred to a definition of Maak and Pless and 17 of the 20 texts explicitly mentioned a part of a definition by Maak and Pless. In the following, we analyze these 17 texts in more depth. Most often cited (10 times) was the text by Maak and Pless (2006b); in 5 cases, the definition of RL from the book edited by Maak and Pless (2006a) was used. Four authors referred to the definition of RL provided in the text by Pless (2007) and three other authors used another definition by Pless and Maak.

No author used or referred to a definition of RL before 2006, the year when the two texts by Maak and Pless (2006a and 2006b) were published. A key characteristic is that all the definitions studied mentioned the stakeholder perspective and understood RL as a values-centered and/or ethical phenomenon. More than half of the texts (11 articles) referring to a definition by Maak and Pless mentioned the relational aspect of RL. Six texts mentioned a shared sense of meaning and purpose and four texts emphasized a desirable and sustainable social change and accountability for and fight against pressing problems. Two texts mentioned different roles of a responsible leader and one text emphasized inclusion.

Twelve of the 17 articles explicitly mentioning a part of a definition by Maak and Pless used one or more of 3 recurrent parts of a definition: 8 articles used the same definition of RL as Maak and Pless (2006a) and Pless (2007): “…the art of building and sustaining… relationships to all relevant stakeholders…” (e.g., Coldwell et al., 2012; Mària & Lozano, 2010; Maak & Stoetter, 2012). Five articles see RL as Maak and Pless (2006b): “…a relational and ethical phenomenon, which occurs in social processes of interaction…“ (e.g., Gond et al., 2011; Mària & Lozano, 2010). Four articles perceive RL similarly as Maak and Pless (2006b) and Pless (2007) as “…a values-based and through ethical principles driven relationship between leaders and stakeholders…“ (e.g., Groves & LaRocca, 2011; Maak & Pless, 2009). A list of 4 definitions building on and extending the understanding of a definition of RL by Maak and Pless involves the definition of RL based on the steps of discursive conflict resolution: “Responsible leadership can thus be understood as the awareness and consideration of the consequences of one’s actions for all stakeholders, as well as the exertion of influence by enabling the involvement of the affected stakeholders and by engaging in an active stakeholder dialogue. Therein responsible leaders strive to weigh and balance the interests of the forwarded claims” (Voegtlin, 2011, p. 59);


48

and, “In the context of this article, we therefore understand responsible leadership as the awareness and consideration of the consequences of one’s actions for all stakeholders, as well as the exertion of influence by enabling the involvement of the affected stakeholders and by engaging in an active stakeholder dialogue” (Voegtlin et al., 2012). Another definition cited in Cameron (2011) defines RL using the connotation of virtuousness: “responsibility is associated with promoting goodness for its own sake (Cameron, Dutton & Quinn, 2003)” (p. 26), such responsible leadership “is characterized by three core assumptions – a eudaemonic assumption, an inherent value assumption, and an amplification assumption (Bright, Cameron & Caza, 2006; Cameron & Winn, 2012)” (p. 28). In their article, Freeman and Auster (2011) say (in connection to Maak & Pless, 2006b) that RL “requires the effort to be authentic understood in the sense of starting with one’s values, seeking to understand the influence of the past, the set of connections or relationships in which one is entangled (Uhl-Bien, 2006, p. 658), and one’s aspirations. This conception of the poetic self means that leaders must think beyond followers and take on at least some responsibility for the stakeholders in the organizations that they lead, as Maak and Pless argue (2006b, p. 105).” Table 2.3. enlists the articles which used or referred to a specific definition of RL.

2.5.6. Understanding of Followers The term “follower” is understood as someone who supports and is guided by another person, the leader. The vast majority of the authors of the analyzed articles (almost 80%, i.e., 44 out of 57 articles) understood followers as “stakeholders in a broad sense.” An example of how stakeholders in a broad sense can be understood is provided by Maak (2007, p. 330): “Still, there are both theoretical and practical challenges with respect to stakeholder salience in general (Jones et al., 2007; Mitchell et al., 1997), andevaluating and balancing the various and often conflicting claims of multiple stakeholders (employees, clients, shareholder, suppliers, NGOs, communities, government, nature, future generations, etc.) in particular.”

Almost 11% of authors understand the term followers also in a broad sense; yet focus in the article on employees within an organization. Almost 11% of the articles claim understanding of the breadth of stakeholders according to the adopted perspective (e.g., economical-shareholder vs. stakeholder perspective) (e.g., Waldman, 2011; Groves & LaRocca, 2011; Waldman & Siegel, 2008).

Tabl

e 2.

3.: T

he A

rticl

es w

hich

Use

d or

Ref

erre

d to

a S

peci

fic D

efin

ition

of R

espo

nsib

le L

eade

rshi

p A

utho

rs

Type

of D

efin

ition

D

efin

ition

R

efer

red

to

Wor

ding

of t

he D

efin

ition

Maa

k &

Ple

ss

(200

6a)

Orig

inal

arti

cle

by

Maa

k an

d/or

Ple

ss

x P.

41:

“Re

spon

sible

lead

ersh

ip is

the

art o

f bui

ldin

g an

d su

stain

ing

mor

ally

soun

d re

latio

nshi

ps w

ith a

ll re

leva

nt st

akeh

olde

rs o

f an

orga

niza

tion.

” M

aak

& P

less

(2

006b

) O

rigin

al a

rticl

e by

M

aak

and/

or P

less

M

aak

& P

less

(2

006a

) P.

103

: “Re

spon

sible

lead

ersh

ip is

a re

latio

nal a

nd e

thic

al p

heno

men

on, w

hich

occ

urs i

n so

cial

pro

cess

es o

f int

erac

tion

with

thos

e w

ho

affe

ct o

r are

affe

cted

by

lead

ersh

ip a

nd h

ave

a sta

ke in

the

purp

ose

and

visio

n of

the

lead

ersh

ip re

latio

nshi

p (F

reem

an e

t al.,

200

6).”

P.

103

: “...

the

purp

ose

of le

ader

ship

can

be

unde

rsto

od a

s to

build

and

cul

tivat

e su

stain

able

and

trus

tful r

elat

ions

hips

to d

iffer

ent

stake

hold

ers i

nsid

e an

d ou

tside

the

orga

niza

tion

and

to c

o-or

dina

te th

eir a

ctio

n to

ach

ieve

com

mon

obj

ectiv

es (e

.g. t

riple

bot

tom

-line

go

als)

, bus

ines

s sus

tain

abili

ty a

nd le

gitim

acy

and

ultim

atel

y to

hel

p to

real

ize

a go

od (i

.e.,

ethi

cally

soun

d) a

nd sh

ared

bus

ines

s visi

on.”

P.

104

: “Re

spon

sible

lead

ersh

ip is

the

art o

f bui

ldin

g an

d su

stain

ing

good

rela

tions

hips

to a

ll re

leva

nt st

akeh

olde

rs (M

aak

and

Ples

s, 20

06: 4

0). A

resp

onsib

le le

ader

's co

re ta

sk is

to w

eave

a w

eb o

f inc

lusio

n w

here

the

lead

er e

ngag

es h

imse

lf am

ong

equa

ls.”

Maa

k (2

007)

O

rigin

al a

rticl

e by

M

aak

and/

or P

less

M

aak

& P

less

(2

006a

), M

aak

& P

less

(200

6b)

P. 3

34: “

As I

hav

e de

mon

strat

ed e

lsew

here

(Maa

k an

d Pl

ess,

2006

a, 2

006b

), re

spon

sible

lead

ersh

ip c

an b

e de

fined

as t

he a

rt an

d ab

ility

in

volv

ed in

bui

ldin

g, c

ultiv

atin

g an

d su

stain

ing

trustf

ul re

latio

nshi

ps to

diff

eren

t sta

keho

lder

s, bo

th in

side

and

outsi

de th

e or

gani

zatio

n,

and

in c

o-or

dina

ting

resp

onsib

le a

ctio

n to

ach

ieve

a m

eani

ngfu

l, co

mm

only

shar

ed b

usin

ess v

ision

.”

P. 3

34: “

...it

is a

rela

tiona

l and

eth

ical

phe

nom

enon

whi

ch o

ccur

s in

soci

al in

tera

ctio

n w

ith th

ose

who

are

affe

cted

by

or a

ffect

the

lead

ersh

ip p

roje

ct a

nd th

us h

ave

a sta

ke in

bot

h pu

rpos

e an

d vi

sion

of th

e le

ader

ship

rela

tions

hip

(Fre

eman

et a

l., 2

006;

Maa

k an

d Pl

ess,

2006

b).”

Pl

ess (

2007

) O

rigin

al a

rticl

e by

M

aak

and/

or P

less

Pl

ess &

Maa

k (2

006)

– m

eani

ng

actu

ally

Maa

k &

Ple

ss (2

006b

)

P. 4

38: “

I und

ersta

nd re

spon

sible

lead

ersh

ip a

s a v

alue

s-ba

sed

and

thro

ugh

ethi

cal p

rinci

ples

driv

en re

latio

nshi

p be

twee

n le

ader

s and

sta

keho

lder

s who

are

con

nect

ed th

roug

h a

shar

ed se

nse

of m

eani

ng a

nd p

urpo

se th

roug

h w

hich

they

raise

one

ano

ther

to h

ighe

r lev

els o

f m

otiv

atio

n an

d co

mm

itmen

t for

ach

ievi

ng su

stain

able

val

ues c

reat

ion

and

soci

al c

hang

e (P

less

and

Maa

k, 2

006)

.”

P. 4

51: “

Resp

onsib

le le

ader

ship

can

be

unde

rsto

od a

s the

art

of b

uild

ing

and

susta

inin

g so

cial

and

mor

al re

latio

nshi

ps b

etw

een

busin

ess

lead

ers a

nd d

iffer

ent s

take

hold

ers (

follo

wer

s), b

ased

on

a se

nse

of ju

stice

, a se

nse

of re

cogn

ition

, a se

nse

of c

are

and

a se

nse

of

acco

unta

bilit

y fo

r a w

ide

rang

e of

eco

nom

ic, e

colo

gica

l, so

cial

, pol

itica

l and

hum

an re

spon

sibili

ties.”

Pl

ess &

Maa

k (2

008a

) O

rigin

al a

rticl

e by

M

aak

and/

or P

less

M

aak

& P

less

(2

006a

), M

aak

& P

less

(200

6b),

Ples

s (20

07),

Maa

k (2

007)

P. 6

1: “

Maa

k an

d Pl

ess (

2006

a, b

) und

ersta

nd re

spon

sible

lead

ersh

ip a

s a re

latio

nal a

nd e

thic

al p

heno

men

on th

at “

occu

rs in

inte

ract

ion

with

thos

e w

ho a

ffect

or a

re a

ffect

ed b

y le

ader

ship

” (2

006b

, p. 1

03).

Ples

s (20

07) d

efin

es a

resp

onsib

le le

ader

as a

per

son

who

re

conc

iles “

the

idea

of e

ffect

iven

ess w

ith th

e id

ea o

f cor

pora

te re

spon

sibili

ty b

y be

ing

an a

ctiv

e ci

tizen

and

pro

mot

ing

activ

e ci

tizen

ship

” (p

. 450

). M

aak

(200

7) st

ates

that

resp

onsib

le le

ader

s bui

ld a

nd c

ultiv

ate

“sus

tain

able

rela

tions

hips

with

stak

ehol

ders

insid

e an

d ou

tside

the

orga

niza

tion

to a

chie

ve m

utua

lly sh

ared

obj

ectiv

es b

ased

on

a vi

sion

of b

usin

ess a

s a fo

rce

of g

ood

for t

he m

any,

and

no

t jus

t a fe

w (s

hare

hold

ers,

man

ager

s)”

(p. 3

31).

This

can

impl

y th

e cr

eatio

n of

soci

al v

alue

and

the

supp

ort o

f des

irabl

e so

cial

cha

nge

(e.g

., po

verty

alle

viat

ion,

equ

al o

ppor

tuni

ty, e

tc.)

at th

e lo

cal l

evel

.”

P. 6

1: “

...de

sirab

le so

cial

cha

nge

requ

ires r

espo

nsib

le g

loba

l lea

ders

– le

ader

s who

lead

with

hea

d, h

and,

and

hea

rt; w

ho h

ave

a re

spon

sible

min

dset

, car

e fo

r the

nee

ds o

f oth

ers,

and

act a

s glo

bal a

nd re

spon

sible

citi

zens

.”

Ples

s & M

aak

(200

8b)

Orig

inal

arti

cle

by

Maa

k an

d/or

Ple

ss

Maa

k &

Ple

ss

(200

6a),

Maa

k &

Ple

ss (2

006b

)

refe

r to

Maa

k &

Ple

ss

Maa

k &

Ple

ss

(200

9)

Orig

inal

arti

cle

by

Maa

k an

d/or

Ple

ss

Maa

k &

Ple

ss

(200

6b),

Ples

s (2

007)

P. 5

39: “

...w

e de

fine

resp

onsib

le le

ader

ship

as a

val

ues-

base

d an

d pr

inci

ple-

driv

en re

latio

nshi

p be

twee

n le

ader

s and

stak

ehol

ders

who

ar

e co

nnec

ted

thro

ugh

a sh

ared

sens

e of

mea

ning

and

pur

pose

thro

ugh

whi

ch th

ey ra

ise to

hig

her l

evel

s of m

otiv

atio

n an

d co

mm

itmen

t fo

r ach

ievi

ng su

stain

able

val

ue c

reat

ion

and

resp

onsib

le c

hang

e (M

aak

and

Ples

s, 20

06b;

Ple

ss, 2

007)

.”

Ples

s & M

aak

(201

1)

Orig

inal

arti

cle

by

Maa

k an

d/or

Ple

ss

Ples

s (20

07)

P. 5

: “W

e un

ders

tand

resp

onsib

le le

ader

ship

as a

val

ues-

base

d an

d th

orou

gh e

thic

al p

rinci

ples

-driv

en re

latio

nshi

p be

twee

n le

ader

s and

sta

keho

lder

s who

are

con

nect

ed th

roug

h a

shea

red

sens

e of

mea

ning

and

pur

pose

thro

ugh

whi

ch th

ey ra

ise o

ne a

noth

er to

hig

her l

evel

s of

mot

ivat

ion

and

com

mitm

ent f

or a

chie

ving

susta

inab

le v

alue

s cre

atio

n an

d so

cial

cha

nge

(Ple

ss 2

007,

p. 4

38).”

P.

5: “

All

thes

e au

thor

s em

phas

ize

resp

onsib

le le

ader

ship

as a

rela

tiona

l, va

lues

-cen

tere

d co

ncep

t tha

t aim

s to

gene

rate

pos

itive

ou

tcom

es fo

r fol

low

ers a

s sta

keho

lder

s, as

spec

ified

furth

er n

ext.”

49

Aut

hors

Ty

pe o

f Def

initi

on

Def

initi

on

Ref

erre

d to

W

ordi

ng o

f the

Def

initi

on

Màr

ia &

Lo

zano

(201

0)

Usin

g or

refe

rring

to

a de

finiti

on b

y M

aak

& P

less

Maa

k &

Ple

ss

(200

6b)

P. 9

5: M

aak

and

Ples

s und

ersta

nd R

espo

nsib

le L

eade

rshi

p as

“…

a re

latio

nal a

nd e

thic

al p

heno

men

on, w

hich

occ

urs i

n so

cial

pro

cess

es

of in

tera

ctio

n w

ith th

ose

who

affe

ct o

r are

affe

cted

by

lead

ersh

ip a

nd h

ave

a sta

ke in

the

purp

ose

and

visio

n of

the

lead

ersh

ip

rela

tions

hip”

(Maa

k &

Ple

ss, 2

006,

p. 1

03).

P. 9

4: M

aak

and

Ples

s adv

ocat

e a

new

und

ersta

ndin

g of

lead

ersh

ip a

s “th

e ar

t of b

uild

ing

and

susta

inin

g go

od re

latio

nshi

ps to

all

rele

vant

stak

ehol

ders

” (M

aak

& P

less

, 200

6, p

. 104

).

P. 9

4: “

Resp

onsib

le L

eade

rshi

p pr

eten

ds to

bal

ance

the

pow

er d

ynam

ics i

n sta

keho

lder

rela

tions

by

alig

ning

the

valu

es o

f the

var

ious

pa

rties

in a

way

that

serv

es e

very

one’

s int

eres

ts (P

aint

er-M

orla

nd, 2

008,

p. 5

11).”

Be

rger

, Cho

i &

Kim

(201

1)

Usin

g or

refe

rring

to

a de

finiti

on b

y M

aak

& P

less

Maa

k &

Ple

ss

(200

6b),

Ples

s &

Maa

k (2

009)

No

expl

icit

defin

ition

of r

espo

nsib

le le

ader

ship

pro

vide

d, o

nly

refe

renc

e to

Maa

k an

d Pl

ess

P. 5

59: “

Resp

onsib

le le

ader

ship

in th

e tw

enty

-firs

t cen

tury

(De

Jong

, 200

9; P

less

and

Maa

k, 2

009)

requ

ires a

gre

ater

glo

bal c

itize

nshi

p,

and

requ

ires a

gre

ater

app

reci

atio

n of

loca

l man

ager

s’ in

stitu

tiona

l val

ue a

nd th

e ov

erco

min

g of

psy

chic

dist

ance

tow

ards

loca

l m

anag

ers o

f bot

tom

of p

yram

id c

ount

ries.”

D

oh, S

tum

pf

& T

ymon

(2

011)

Usin

g or

refe

rring

to

a de

finiti

on b

y M

aak

& P

less

Ples

s & M

aak

(200

4)

P. 8

6: D

efin

e “r

espo

nsib

le le

ader

s” w

ith re

gard

to P

less

& M

aak

(200

4) “

as o

ne w

ho c

reat

es a

cul

ture

of i

nclu

sion

built

on

solid

mor

al

grou

nd…

” P.

86:

“Re

spon

sible

lead

ersh

ip is

an

incl

usiv

e co

ncep

t whe

reby

em

ploy

ees p

erce

ive

thei

r org

aniz

atio

n as

hav

ing

an e

thic

al a

nd p

roac

tive

stake

hold

er p

ersp

ectiv

e to

war

ds c

onsti

tuen

ts ou

tside

the

orga

niza

tion

and

the

empl

oyee

s the

mse

lves

.”

Gon

d, Ig

alen

s, Sw

aen

& E

l A

krem

i (20

11)

Usin

g or

refe

rring

to

a de

finiti

on b

y M

aak

& P

less

Ples

s & M

aak

(200

6) –

mea

ning

, ac

tual

ly M

aak

& P

less

(200

6b)

P. 1

16-1

17: R

espo

nsib

le le

ader

ship

repr

esen

ts, a

t the

org

aniz

atio

nal l

evel

, an

appr

oach

of l

eade

rshi

p as

a so

cial

and

rela

tiona

l ph

enom

enon

that

focu

ses o

n th

e le

ader

-follo

wer

rela

tions

hip.

The

lead

er-fo

llow

er re

latio

nshi

p in

clud

es a

bro

ader

rang

e of

stak

ehol

ders

(P

less

and

Maa

k, 2

006,

p. 1

03);

ther

e is

a no

rmat

ive

dim

ensio

n “t

o no

t be

resp

onsib

le is

to n

ot b

e an

effe

ctiv

e le

ader

” (W

aldm

an &

G

alvi

n, 2

008,

p. 3

27);

lead

ers a

re se

en a

s fac

ilita

tors

of r

elat

iona

l pro

cess

es w

ithin

and

acr

oss s

take

hold

er re

latio

ns (P

less

& M

aak,

20

06, p

. 104

). G

rove

s &

LaR

occa

(2

011)

Usin

g or

refe

rring

to

a de

finiti

on b

y M

aak

& P

less

Ples

s (20

07),

Maa

k &

Ple

ss (2

006a

) P.

39:

Res

pons

ible

lead

ersh

ip is

def

ined

with

rega

rd to

Ple

ss (2

007)

as “

…a

valu

es-b

ased

and

thro

ugh

ethi

cal p

rinci

ples

driv

en

rela

tions

hip

betw

een

lead

ers a

nd st

akeh

olde

rs w

ho a

re c

onne

cted

thro

ugh

a sh

ared

sens

e of

mea

ning

and

pur

pose

thro

ugh

whi

ch th

ey

raise

one

ano

ther

to h

ighe

r lev

els o

f mot

ivat

ion

and

com

mitm

ent f

or a

chie

ving

susta

inab

le v

alue

s cre

atio

n an

d so

cial

cha

nge”

(p. 4

38).

P. 3

8: T

he c

once

pt o

f res

pons

ible

lead

ersh

ip w

as d

evel

oped

as a

n or

gani

zing

fram

ewor

k fo

r val

ues-

cent

ered

lead

ersh

ip (M

aak

& P

less

, 20

06a;

Doh

& S

tum

pf, 2

005;

Wal

dman

and

col

leag

ues)

. P.

38:

Lea

ders

hip

mus

t be

unde

rsto

od a

s “a

mor

al, v

alue

s-ba

sed,

and

thus

nor

mat

ive

phen

omen

on”

(Maa

k an

d Pl

ess,

2006

a; p

. 102

) in

whi

ch le

ader

s and

follo

wer

s dev

elop

a c

olle

ctiv

e id

entit

y an

d se

nse

of sh

ared

stak

ehol

der v

alue

s tha

t ext

end

beyo

nd th

eir s

elf-i

nter

ests

and

thos

e of

thei

r res

pect

ive

orga

niza

tion.

M

aritz

, Pr

etor

ius

& P

lant

(201

1)

Usin

g or

refe

rring

to

a de

finiti

on b

y M

aak

& P

less

Maa

k &

Ple

ss

(200

6b)

P. 1

02: R

espo

nsib

le le

ader

s as “

…as

act

ors o

f stra

tegy

who

wan

t to

lead

for l

ong

term

susta

inab

le su

cces

s.”

P. 1

03: “

Maa

k an

d Pl

ess (

2006

, p.1

06) i

ntro

duce

a “

role

s mod

el”

high

light

ing

the

vario

us q

ualit

ies a

nd ro

les o

f the

resp

onsib

le le

ader

. In

add

ition

to th

e qu

alita

tive

role

s of c

itize

n, se

rvan

t, vi

siona

ry a

nd st

ewar

d, th

e m

ore

oper

atio

nal r

oles

of a

rchi

tect

, cha

nge

agen

t, co

ach

and

story

telle

r are

disc

usse

d. It

is n

oted

that

thes

e ro

les a

re p

art o

f the

inte

grat

ed c

once

pt o

f res

pons

ible

lead

ersh

ip, w

here

the

resp

onsib

le le

ader

fulfi

ls a

mul

titud

e of

inte

grat

ed ro

les.

It is

furth

erm

ore

criti

cal t

o al

so v

iew

this

lead

er fr

om th

e sta

keho

lder

pe

rspe

ctiv

e w

here

the

lead

er b

ecom

es a

co-

ordi

nato

r and

cul

tivat

or o

f rel

atio

nshi

ps to

war

ds d

iffer

ent s

take

hold

er g

roup

s (M

aak

and

Ples

s, 20

06, p

. 100

).”

Col

dwel

l, Jo

osub

&

Papa

geor

giou

(2

012)

Usin

g or

refe

rring

to

a de

finiti

on b

y M

aak

& P

less

Maa

k &

Ple

ss

(200

6a)

Def

initi

on o

f res

pons

ible

lead

ersh

ip a

ccor

ding

to M

aak

and

Ples

s (20

06a)

P.

133

: “M

aak

and

Ples

s (20

06, p

. 5) d

efin

e re

spon

sible

lead

ersh

ip a

s ‘th

e ar

t of b

uild

ing

and

susta

inin

g m

oral

ly so

und

rela

tions

hips

w

ith a

ll sta

keho

lder

s of a

n or

gani

zatio

n’.”

Maa

k an

d St

oette

r (2

012)

U

sing

or re

ferri

ng to

a

defin

ition

by

Maa

k &

Ple

ss

Maa

k &

Ple

ss

(200

6b)

Def

initi

on o

f RL

as u

sed

by M

aak

and

Ples

s 200

6b

P. 4

22: “

The

auth

ors a

rgue

that

resp

onsib

le le

ader

ship

is th

e ar

t of b

uild

ing

and

susta

inin

g tru

stful

rela

tions

with

all

rele

vant

sta

keho

lder

s, ba

sed

on a

visi

on fo

r the

goo

d of

the

man

y, a

nd n

ot ju

st a

few

. It d

epen

ds o

n ad

optin

g sp

ecifi

c le

ader

ship

role

s: at

the

core

th

ose

of a

serv

ant,

a ste

war

d, a

citi

zen,

a c

hang

e ag

ent a

nd a

visi

onar

y.”

Cam

eron

(2

011)

Bu

ildin

g on

and

ex

tend

ing

the

x P.

26,

28:

Res

pons

ible

lead

ersh

ip u

sing

the

conn

otat

ion

of v

irtuo

usne

ss: “

resp

onsib

ility

is a

ssoc

iate

d w

ith p

rom

otin

g go

odne

ss fo

r its

own

sake

(Cam

eron

, Dut

ton,

& Q

uinn

, 200

3)”

(p. 2

6), s

uch

resp

onsib

le le

ader

ship

“is

char

acte

rized

by

thre

e co

re a

ssum

ptio

ns –

50

Aut

hors

Ty

pe o

f Def

initi

on

Def

initi

on

Ref

erre

d to

W

ordi

ng o

f the

Def

initi

on

defin

ition

by

Maa

k &

Ple

ss

a eu

daem

onic

ass

umpt

ion,

an

inhe

rent

val

ue a

ssum

ptio

n, a

nd a

n am

plifi

catio

n as

sum

ptio

n (B

right

, Cam

eron

, & C

aza,

200

6; C

amer

on

& W

inn,

201

2).”

(p. 2

8).

Free

man

&

Aus

ter

(201

1)

Build

ing

on a

nd

exte

ndin

g th

e de

finiti

on b

y M

aak

& P

less

Maa

k &

Ple

ss

(200

6b)

P. 2

2: R

espo

nsib

le le

ader

ship

(in

conn

ectio

n to

Maa

k &

Ple

ss, 2

006b

) “re

quire

s the

effo

rt to

be

auth

entic

und

ersto

od in

the

sens

e of

sta

rting

with

one

’s v

alue

s, se

ekin

g to

und

ersta

nd th

e in

fluen

ce o

f the

pas

t, th

e se

t of c

onne

ctio

ns o

r rel

atio

nshi

ps in

whi

ch o

ne is

en

tang

led

(Uhl

-Bie

n, 2

006,

p. 6

58),

and

one’

s asp

iratio

ns.

This

conc

eptio

n of

the

poet

ic se

lf m

eans

that

lead

ers m

ust t

hink

bey

ond

follo

wer

s and

take

on

at le

ast s

ome

resp

onsib

ility

for t

he st

akeh

olde

rs in

the

orga

niza

tions

that

they

lead

, as M

aak

and

Ples

s arg

ue

(200

6b, p

. 105

).“

P. 2

2: C

reat

ing

poet

ic, a

uthe

ntic

org

aniz

atio

ns w

hich

are

mor

e fit

for h

uman

bei

ngs i

s the

wor

k of

resp

onsib

le le

ader

s and

resp

onsib

le

lead

ersh

ip.

Voe

gtlin

(201

1)

Build

ing

on a

nd

exte

ndin

g th

e de

finiti

on b

y M

aak

& P

less

x P.

59:

New

def

initi

on o

f res

pons

ible

lead

ersh

ip b

ased

on

the

steps

of d

iscur

sive

conf

lict r

esol

utio

n: “

Resp

onsib

le le

ader

ship

can

thus

be

unde

rsto

od a

s the

aw

aren

ess a

nd c

onsid

erat

ion

of th

e co

nseq

uenc

es o

f one

’s a

ctio

ns fo

r all

stake

hold

ers,

as w

ell a

s the

exe

rtion

of

influ

ence

by

enab

ling

the

invo

lvem

ent o

f the

affe

cted

stak

ehol

ders

and

by

enga

ging

in a

n ac

tive

stake

hold

er d

ialo

gue.

The

rein

re

spon

sible

lead

ers s

trive

to w

eigh

and

bal

ance

the

inte

rests

of t

he fo

rwar

ded

clai

ms.”

V

oegt

lin,

Patz

er &

Sc

here

r (20

12)

Build

ing

on a

nd

exte

ndin

g th

e de

finiti

on b

y M

aak

& P

less

x P.

4: “

In th

e co

ntex

t of t

his a

rticl

e, w

e th

eref

ore

unde

rsta

nd re

spon

sible

lead

ersh

ip a

s the

aw

aren

ess a

nd c

onsid

erat

ion

of th

e co

nseq

uenc

es o

f one

’s a

ctio

ns fo

r all

stake

hold

ers,

as w

ell a

s the

exe

rtion

of i

nflu

ence

by

enab

ling

the

invo

lvem

ent o

f the

affe

cted

sta

keho

lder

s and

by

enga

ging

in a

n ac

tive

stake

hold

er d

ialo

gue.

”

Lynh

am (1

998)

D

iffer

ent d

efin

ition

of

resp

onsib

le le

ader

ship

x

P. 2

10: “

Resp

onsib

le L

eade

rshi

p re

flect

s effe

ctiv

enes

s, et

hics

and

end

uran

ce a

nd c

lear

ly d

emon

strat

ing

thes

e, b

oth

qual

itativ

ely

and

quan

titat

ivel

y, to

war

ds p

erfo

rman

ce a

nd p

eopl

e (W

hite

New

man

, 199

3).”

C

amer

on

& C

aza

(200

5)

Diff

eren

t def

initi

on o

f re

spon

sible

lead

ersh

ip

x D

efin

ition

of R

L in

the

Posit

ive

Org

aniz

atio

nal S

cien

ces (

POS)

sens

e:

P. 8

8: “

Resp

onsib

le le

ader

ship

in th

e PO

S se

nse

focu

ses o

n po

sitiv

e de

vian

ce, i

n th

at it

focu

ses o

n ex

traor

dina

ry p

ositi

ve o

utco

mes

and

th

e pr

oces

ses t

hat p

rodu

ce th

em.”

P.

206

: und

ersta

ndin

g (re

spon

sible

) lea

ders

hip

as a

tem

pora

ry st

ate

rath

er th

an a

per

man

ent a

ttrib

ute

Fom

brun

(2

005)

D

iffer

ent d

efin

ition

of

resp

onsib

le le

ader

ship

x

P. 6

6: “

…re

spon

sible

lead

ersh

ip is

a b

alan

cing

act

… it

invo

lves

bal

anci

ng th

e in

tere

sts o

f mul

tiple

stak

ehol

ders

, allo

win

g pr

imac

y an

d as

cend

ancy

to n

one.

It re

quire

s bal

anci

ng a

com

pany

’s fi

nanc

ial a

nd so

cial

miss

ions

: its

inve

stors

’ dem

ands

for p

erfo

rman

ce a

gain

st its

em

ploy

ees’

dem

ands

for e

quita

ble

shar

ing

of g

ains

. It i

nvol

ves b

alan

cing

the

inte

rests

of t

he m

any

agai

nst t

he in

tere

sts o

f the

few

.”

P. 5

7: “

A c

ompa

ny w

ith re

spon

sible

lead

ersh

ip th

eref

ore

(a) r

ecog

nize

s the

mul

tiple

inte

rests

of i

ts m

ajor

stak

ehol

ders

, (b)

val

ues a

nd

mon

itors

thei

r opi

nion

s, an

d (c

) tak

es a

ctio

n to

add

ress

thei

r con

cern

s.”

Lynh

am

& C

herm

ack

(200

6)

Diff

eren

t def

initi

on o

f re

spon

sible

lead

ersh

ip

x P.

77:

“Le

ader

ship

that

is re

spon

sible

is th

at w

hich

dem

onstr

ates

, and

is ju

dged

to d

emon

strat

e, e

ffect

iven

ess,

ethi

cs, a

nd e

ndur

ance

(D

ePre

e 19

89, 1

997,

Tre

vion

, Bro

wn

& H

artm

an, 2

003;

Whi

te N

ewm

an, 1

993)

. Wha

t con

stitu

tes t

hese

3E ’

s is d

eter

min

ed b

y th

e co

nstit

uenc

y of

the

perfo

rman

ce sy

stem

in w

hich

the

lead

ersh

ip o

ccur

s (Ba

ss, 1

990;

Bea

ucha

mp

& B

owie

, 199

7; B

rady

, 198

5;

Freu

dber

g, 1

986;

Fro

oman

, 199

9; Jo

nes &

Wic

ks, 1

999;

Khu

ntia

& S

uar,

2004

; Kna

pp &

Olso

n, 1

996;

Sta

vrou

, Kle

anth

ous,

& A

nasta

siou,

200

5).”

P.

77:

“...

wha

t we

mig

ht c

all r

espo

nsib

le le

ader

s (an

d w

hat L

utha

ns m

ight

cal

l hop

eful

), ar

e le

ader

s tha

t com

mun

icat

e fre

quen

tly w

ith

thei

r co-

wor

kers

, and

for w

hom

thos

e co

-wor

kers

enj

oy c

omin

g to

wor

k.”

Schr

aa-L

iu &

Tr

ompe

naar

s (2

006)

Diff

eren

t def

initi

on o

f re

spon

sible

lead

ersh

ip

x P.

140

: “…

our d

efin

ition

of r

espo

nsib

le le

ader

ship

is th

at le

ader

s are

thos

e w

ho ta

ke re

spon

sibili

ty to

war

ds th

e bo

ttom

-line

and

sh

areh

olde

rs o

f the

org

aniz

atio

n, w

hile

at t

he sa

me

time

– th

roug

h re

conc

iliat

ion

– ta

ke re

spon

sibili

ty to

war

ds in

tegr

atin

g a

dive

rse

wor

kfor

ce, m

ultic

ultu

ral c

usto

mer

s and

supp

liers

, loc

al a

nd g

loba

l com

mun

ities

, NG

Os,

envi

ronm

enta

l con

cern

s and

soci

ety

at la

rge.

Th

ese

lead

ers r

ecog

nize

and

resp

ect m

ultip

le d

eman

ds, i

nter

ests,

nee

ds a

nd c

onfli

cts s

tem

min

g fro

m d

iver

se re

spon

sibili

ties a

nd

reco

ncile

them

by

mob

ilizi

ng a

nd su

cces

sful

ly e

ngag

ing

the

orga

niza

tion

and

vary

ing

stake

hold

ers.”

Pl

ess,

Maa

k &

Sta

hl (2

011)

D

iffer

ent d

efin

ition

of

resp

onsib

le le

ader

ship

x

Def

initi

on o

f “re

spon

sible

glo

bal l

eade

rs”:

P.

238

: “Fo

r the

pur

pose

of t

his s

tudy

, we

defin

e re

spon

sible

glo

bal l

eade

rs a

s “in

divi

dual

s who

effe

ct si

gnifi

cant

pos

itive

cha

nge

in

orga

niza

tions

by

build

ing

com

mun

ities

thro

ugh

the

deve

lopm

ent o

f tru

st an

d th

e ar

rang

emen

t of o

rgan

izat

iona

l stru

ctur

es a

nd p

roce

sses

in

a c

onte

xt in

volv

ing

mul

tiple

cro

ss-b

ound

ary

stake

hold

ers,

mul

tiple

sour

ces o

f ext

erna

l cro

ss-b

ound

ary

auth

ority

, and

mul

tiple

cu

lture

s und

er c

ondi

tions

of t

empo

ral,

geog

raph

ical

, and

cul

tura

l com

plex

ity”

(Men

denh

all,

2008

: 17)

.”

51


52

2.5.7. Antecedent Variables of Responsible Leadership First of all, let us define how we understand the terms antecedents variables

(antecedents). Walker and Avant (1995) define antecedents as characteristics present whenever the concept occurs. Antecedents provide additional insight about the attributes and illustrate the context in which the concept is used. In the following, we will look at the contextual influences (occurring at different levels and usually interlinked also among each other) that enable the phenomenon of RL to manifest itself and be recognized and distinguished from other leadership theories. Looking at the antecedents of RL, within the 57 analyzed articles, it was the individual (including group) level variables of leadership/managerial behavior that were mentioned most times (26 times, e.g., acting authentically, interest in employee’s well-being, engagement in dialogue as equals, leading as a model), followed by ethical and moral qualities (22 times, e.g., trustworthiness, honesty, ethics, endurance, respect for dignity and human rights, integrity, care, etc.),psychological/personal characteristics (15 times, e.g., anticipation of achievement, role experimentation, pride and satisfaction with the organization, etc.), leader to follower(s) relationship (14 times, e.g., encouraging and building motivational confidence, team orientation, empowerment of others, etc.), values (13 times, e.g., self-transcendent values, social justice values, citizenship, stakeholder values, etc.), and leaders’ competencies or abilities (11 times, e.g., ability and willingness to learn, reflection skills, critical thinking, foresight and planning, etc.). From the organizational level variables, it was organizational strategy, structure and processes that were mentioned the most times (14 times, e.g., hierarchy, clear definitions of roles and functions, inclusive HR practices, clear concept of CSR, etc.), followed by organizational culture and its elements (7 times, e.g., clear communication and shared understanding, creating a culture of trust and integrity, network ties, etc.). Societal or cultural variables were mentioned in 3 articles (e.g., laws and regulations, market factors, stakeholders’ demands, the leader’s family background, etc.). See Table 2.4. for the results.

Tabl

e 2.

4.: A

ntec

eden

t Var

iabl

es (C

onte

xtua

l Inf

luen

ces)

of R

espo

nsib

le L

eade

rshi

p A

utho

r Ty

pe o

f Ant

eced

ent V

aria

ble

Subc

ateg

ory

of A

ntec

eden

t Var

iabl

e Ex

ampl

es o

f Ant

eced

ent V

aria

bles

Ly

nham

(199

8)

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el v

aria

bles

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Stra

tegy

, stru

ctur

e, p

roce

sses

, firm

size

, etc

.•

Psyc

holo

gica

l / p

erso

nal c

hara

cter

istic

s; le

ader

tofo

llow

er(s

)

•“P

erfo

rman

ce-s

yste

ms v

iew

” of

the

com

plex

ity o

f the

org

aniz

atio

n•

The

lead

ersh

ip c

ompo

nent

s; th

e le

ader

ship

–fol

low

ersh

ip d

imen

sion

Ples

s & M

aak

(200

5)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Qua

litie

s (us

ually

eth

ical

and

mor

al);

psyc

holo

gica

l /pe

rson

al c

hara

cter

istic

s•

Rela

tiona

l int

ellig

ence

, em

otio

nal i

ntel

ligen

ce; r

efle

ctiv

e an

d (s

elf-)

criti

cal t

hink

ing,

bei

ng a

ble

to e

xerc

ise re

flect

ion

and

orie

ntat

ion

Doh

& S

tum

pf (2

005b

) •

Org

aniz

atio

nal l

evel

var

iabl

es•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel v

aria

bles

•St

rate

gy, s

truct

ure,

pro

cess

es, f

irm si

ze, e

tc.

•Q

ualit

ies (

usua

lly e

thic

al a

nd m

oral

); va

lues

; lea

der t

ofo

llow

er(s

)

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l cha

ract

erist

ics:

CSR,

Gov

erna

nce

and

Acc

ount

abili

ty•

Valu

es-b

ased

lead

ersh

ip; q

ualit

y sta

keho

lder

rela

tions

hips

Fom

brun

(200

5)

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el v

aria

bles

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es

•St

rate

gy, s

truct

ure,

pro

cess

es, f

irm si

ze, e

tc.;

orga

niza

tiona

l cul

ture

•Le

ader

ship

/ m

anag

eria

l beh

avio

r; le

ader

to fo

llow

er(s

)

•Tr

ansp

aren

cy, v

isibi

lity,

con

siste

ncy

(bei

ng c

onsis

tent

in a

ctio

ns a

ndco

mm

unic

atio

ns to

stak

ehol

ders

)•

Cons

isten

cy a

nd d

istin

ctiv

enes

sU

seem

(200

5)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Lead

ersh

ip /

man

ager

ial b

ehav

ior

•Fi

ve c

riter

ia fo

r res

pons

ible

dec

ision

s

Cam

eron

& C

aza

(200

5)

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el v

aria

bles

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Org

aniz

atio

nal c

ultu

re•

Lead

ersh

ip /

man

ager

ial b

ehav

ior;

lead

er to

follo

wer

(s)

•Po

sitiv

e w

ork

orie

ntat

ion

and

posit

ive

clim

ate

•Po

sitiv

e co

mm

unic

atio

n; p

ositi

ve re

latio

nshi

psA

lexa

nder

& W

ilson

(200

5)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Lead

ersh

ip /

man

ager

ial b

ehav

ior;

psyc

holo

gica

l /pe

rson

al c

hara

cter

istic

s•

Inte

grity

, fos

tere

d by

self-

insig

ht a

nd fu

sed

with

altr

uism

Wal

dman

& S

iege

l (20

05)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Org

aniz

atio

nal l

evel

var

iabl

es•

Psyc

holo

gica

l / p

erso

nal c

hara

cter

istic

s•

Stra

tegy

, stru

ctur

e, p

roce

sses

, firm

size

, etc

.•

Pers

onal

qua

litie

s or a

ttrib

utes

of k

ey d

ecisi

on m

aker

s•

Stra

tegi

c va

riabl

es th

at c

onsti

tute

pre

dict

ors o

f CSR

: R&

D sp

endi

ngan

d ad

verti

sing

inte

nsity

Sack

man

n (2

005)

•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel v

aria

bles

•Ps

ycho

logi

cal /

per

sona

l cha

ract

erist

ics;

lead

er’s

com

pete

ncie

s / a

bilit

ies;

lead

er to

follo

wer

(s)

•In

tegr

ity, i

nclu

ding

attr

ibut

es su

ch a

s bei

ng tr

ustw

orth

y, ju

st an

dho

nest

Qui

gley

, de

Luqu

e &

Hou

se

(200

5)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Psyc

holo

gica

l / p

erso

nal c

hara

cter

istic

s; le

ader

’sco

mpe

tenc

ies /

abi

litie

s; le

ader

to fo

llow

er(s

)•

Bein

g tru

stwor

thy,

just

and

hone

st (h

avin

g in

tegr

ity);

havi

ng fo

resig

htan

d pl

anni

ng a

head

; bei

ng p

ositi

ve, d

ynam

ic; e

ncou

ragi

ng, m

otiv

atin

gan

d bu

ildin

g co

nfid

ence

Scal

berg

(200

5)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Psyc

holo

gica

l / p

erso

nal c

hara

cter

istic

s; le

ader

’sco

mpe

tenc

ies /

abi

litie

s; le

ader

to fo

llow

er(s

)•

Hon

esty

and

inte

grity

; cor

e bu

sines

s kno

wle

dge,

glo

bal m

ind-

set,

cultu

ral i

nter

est a

nd se

nsiti

vity

, abi

lity

to th

ink

crea

tivel

y an

d ta

kea

broa

d sy

stem

ic v

iew

; em

pow

erm

ent o

f oth

ers

Lynh

am &

Che

rmac

k (2

006)

•

Org

aniz

atio

nal l

evel

var

iabl

es•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel v

aria

bles

•St

rate

gy, s

truct

ure,

pro

cess

es, f

irm si

ze, e

tc.

•Q

ualit

ies (

usua

lly e

thic

al a

nd m

oral

); le

ader

ship

/m

anag

eria

l beh

avio

r

•RL

for P

erfo

rman

ce fr

amew

ork:

follo

wer

ship

, pro

cess

, effe

ctiv

enes

s•

Ethi

cs, e

ndur

ance

, effe

ctiv

enes

s

Wal

dman

, Sul

ly d

e Lu

que,

W

ashb

urn

& H

ouse

(200

6)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es

•So

ciet

al le

vel v

aria

bles

•Q

ualit

ies (

usua

lly e

thic

al a

nd m

oral

); va

lues

;le

ader

ship

/ m

anag

eria

l beh

avio

r•

Soci

etal

or c

ultu

ral a

ntec

eden

ts

•In

tegr

ity; c

once

rn fo

r: sh

areh

olde

r/ow

ners

, sta

keho

lder

s and

the

com

mun

ity /

state

wel

fare

; CEO

visi

onar

y le

ader

ship

and

inte

grity

•H

ighe

r ins

titut

iona

l col

lect

ivism

and

low

er p

ower

dist

ance

Wal

dman

, Sie

gel &

Jav

idan

(2

006)

•

Org

aniz

atio

nal l

evel

var

iabl

es•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel v

aria

bles

•St

rate

gy, s

truct

ure,

pro

cess

es, f

irm si

ze, e

tc.

•Le

ader

ship

/ m

anag

eria

l beh

avio

r•

Firm

size

, R&

D in

tens

ity, p

rior p

rofit

leve

ls•

The

CEO

’s in

telle

ctua

l stim

ulat

ion

Dug

an (2

006)

•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel v

aria

bles

•Va

lues

•

Citiz

ensh

ipM

aak

& P

less

(200

6b)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Qua

litie

s (us

ually

eth

ical

and

mor

al)

•Re

latio

nal i

ntel

ligen

ce (e

mot

iona

l and

eth

ical

inte

llige

nce)

Ciu

lla (2

006)

•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel v

aria

bles

•Q

ualit

ies (

usua

lly e

thic

al a

nd m

oral

); va

lues

•Et

hics

and

val

ues b

ase

Maa

k &

Ple

ss (2

006a

) •

Indi

vidu

al le

vel v

aria

bles

•Q

ualit

ies (

usua

lly e

thic

al a

nd m

oral

); le

ader

’sco

mpe

tenc

ies /

abi

litie

s•

Char

acte

r and

virt

ues,

ethi

cal i

ntel

ligen

ce, i

.e.,

mor

al a

war

enes

s,re

flect

ion

skill

s, cr

itica

l thi

nkin

g an

d m

oral

imag

inat

ion

Pain

e (2

006)

•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel v

aria

bles

•Q

ualit

ies (

usua

lly e

thic

al a

nd m

oral

); le

ader

ship

/m

anag

eria

l beh

avio

r; le

ader

to fo

llow

er(s

)•

Set o

f ana

lytic

al fr

ames

or m

oral

lens

es: p

urpo

se, p

rinci

ples

, peo

ple,

and

pow

erPr

uzan

& M

iller

(200

6)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Lead

ersh

ip /

man

ager

ial b

ehav

ior;

resp

onsib

le•

Bein

g th

e le

ast c

once

rned

with

max

imiz

ing

pers

onal

wea

lth a

s a to

p

53

Aut

hor

Type

of A

ntec

eden

t Var

iabl

e Su

bcat

egor

y of

Ant

eced

ent V

aria

ble

Exam

ples

of A

ntec

eden

t Var

iabl

es

lead

ersh

ip m

inds

et; l

eade

r to

follo

wer

(s)

prio

rity;

the

spiri

tual

-bas

ed p

ersp

ectiv

e; h

avin

g in

clus

ive

I-ide

ntity

Bere

nker

t (20

06)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Qua

litie

s (us

ually

eth

ical

and

mor

al)

•M

oral

stan

dard

s, m

oral

sens

e of

inte

grity

, act

s of r

espo

nsib

lele

ader

ship

Sack

man

n (2

006)

•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel v

aria

bles

•Ps

ycho

logi

cal /

per

sona

l cha

ract

erist

ics;

lead

er’s

com

pete

ncie

s / a

bilit

ies

•In

tegr

ity, h

ones

ty, t

rustw

orth

ines

s; be

ing

empa

thet

ic a

nd a

ble

to ta

ckle

dile

mm

as o

penl

y an

d co

nstru

ctiv

ely;

bei

ng se

nsiti

ve to

cul

tura

lsp

ecifi

cs, h

avin

g go

od d

iagn

ostic

and

soci

al sk

ills

Schr

aa-L

iu &

Tro

mpe

naar

s (2

006)

•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel v

aria

bles

•Le

ader

’s co

mpe

tenc

ies /

abi

litie

s•

The

com

pete

nce

in re

conc

iling

dile

mm

as

Die

rmei

er (2

006)

•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel v

aria

bles

•Le

ader

’s co

mpe

tenc

ies /

abi

litie

s•

Und

ersta

ndin

g an

d an

ticip

atin

g co

mpe

ting

valu

e-or

ient

atio

n

van

de L

oo (2

006)

•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel v

aria

bles

•Va

lues

; Lea

ders

hip

/ man

ager

ial b

ehav

ior;

psyc

holo

gica

l / p

erso

nal c

hara

cter

istic

s; le

ader

tofo

llow

er(s

)

•Va

lues

and

stro

ng b

elie

fs; d

iscip

line,

resu

lt-or

ient

atio

n, c

ontin

uous

self-

deve

lopm

ent,

resp

ect,

self-

awar

enes

s and

con

fiden

ce; p

atie

nce,

cons

isten

ce, r

esili

ence

; the

abi

lity

to a

dapt

the

style

and

lang

uage

acco

rdin

g to

the

spec

ific

cont

ext;

havi

ng a

gift

in re

latin

g to

peo

ple;

incl

usiv

e of

all

stake

hold

ers

Ples

s & S

chne

ider

(200

6)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Psyc

holo

gica

l / p

erso

nal c

hara

cter

istic

s; le

ader

’sco

mpe

tenc

ies /

abi

litie

s; le

ader

to fo

llow

er(s

)•

Inte

grity

, res

pons

ibili

ty, f

ores

ight

; abi

lity

to st

rive

in a

com

plex

,gl

obal

, div

erse

and

con

nect

ed e

nviro

nmen

t; bu

ildin

g su

stain

able

and

flour

ishin

g re

latio

nshi

ps w

ith d

iffer

ent s

take

hold

ers

Ples

s (20

07)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Qua

litie

s (us

ually

eth

ical

and

mor

al);

psyc

holo

gica

l /pe

rson

al c

hara

cter

istic

s; le

ader

’s co

mpe

tenc

ies /

abili

ties

•Th

e ne

ed fo

r jus

tice,

exp

lora

tion,

ass

ertio

n an

d re

cogn

ition

,at

tach

men

t and

affi

liatio

n, a

sens

e of

car

e, re

spon

sibili

ty a

nden

joym

ent;

curio

sity;

abi

lity

and

will

ingn

ess t

o le

arn

Maa

k (2

007)

•

Org

aniz

atio

nal l

evel

var

iabl

es•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel v

aria

bles

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l cul

ture

•Q

ualit

ies (

usua

lly e

thic

al a

nd m

oral

); le

ader

ship

/m

anag

eria

l beh

avio

r

•N

etw

ork

ties,

netw

ork

conf

igur

atio

n, a

nd a

ppro

pria

te o

rgan

izat

ion

•Et

hica

l qua

lity

of so

cial

cap

ital:

rela

tiona

l dim

ensio

n, c

ogni

tive

dim

ensio

n; c

entra

lity

of th

e le

ader

, em

bedd

edne

ssW

aldm

an &

Gal

vin

(200

8)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Valu

es; l

eade

rshi

p / m

anag

eria

l beh

avio

r•

Stak

ehol

der v

alue

s: im

porta

nce

of th

e ne

eds a

nd in

tere

sts o

f a w

ide

varie

ty o

f ind

ivid

uals;

lead

ers’

long

-term

aut

hent

icity

and

bei

ng tr

ue to

thei

r sta

ted

valu

es a

nd b

elie

fsW

aldm

an &

Sie

gel (

2008

) •

Indi

vidu

al le

vel v

aria

bles

•Va

lues

; lea

ders

hip

/ man

ager

ial b

ehav

ior

•Pe

rson

al m

oral

val

ues (

man

ager

ial)

valu

es o

r ins

trum

enta

l thi

nkin

g or

the

desir

able

com

bina

tion

of b

oth;

put

ting

an e

mph

asis

on b

alan

cing

mul

tiple

stak

ehol

der n

eeds

Ples

s & M

aak

(200

8a)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Valu

es; l

eade

rshi

p / m

anag

eria

l beh

avio

r; re

spon

sible

lead

ersh

ip m

inds

et•

Carin

g fo

r the

nee

ds o

f oth

ers,

resp

ect,

tole

ranc

e; a

ctin

g as

a g

loba

lan

d re

spon

sible

citi

zen,

inte

ract

ing

with

mul

tiple

stak

ehol

ders

Ples

s & M

aak

(200

8b)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Qua

litie

s (us

ually

eth

ical

and

mor

al)

•Q

ualit

ies

Maa

k &

Ple

ss (2

009)

•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel v

aria

bles

•Q

ualit

ies (

usua

lly e

thic

al a

nd m

oral

); le

ader

ship

/m

anag

eria

l beh

avio

r•

Ethi

cal p

rinci

ples

; mob

ilizi

ng o

ther

s as c

olla

bora

tors

, rai

sing

one

anot

her

DeM

aCar

ty (2

009)

•

Org

aniz

atio

nal l

evel

var

iabl

es•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel v

aria

bles

•St

rate

gy, s

truct

ure,

pro

cess

es, f

irm si

ze, e

tc.

•Le

ader

ship

/ m

anag

eria

l beh

avio

r; pe

rspe

ctiv

e•

Crea

ting

valu

e by

find

ing

strat

egie

s mut

ually

ben

efic

ial t

o al

l•

Stak

ehol

der l

oyal

ty; d

epen

ding

on

the

view

poin

t: in

strum

enta

l (or

econ

omic

) per

spec

tive,

or s

take

hold

er p

ersp

ectiv

eM

ària

& L

ozan

o (2

010)

•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel v

aria

bles

•Q

ualit

ies (

usua

lly e

thic

al a

nd m

oral

); le

ader

ship

/m

anag

eria

l beh

avio

r•

Resp

ect f

or d

igni

ty a

nd h

uman

righ

ts, to

lera

nce,

trus

t; ac

tive

invo

lvem

ent a

gain

st ex

clus

ion

of m

inor

ities

, eng

agem

ent i

n di

alog

ueas

equ

als,

prom

otio

n of

spac

es o

f tru

stK

etol

a (2

010)

•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel v

aria

bles

•Va

lues

; lea

ders

hip

/ man

ager

ial b

ehav

ior;

psyc

holo

gica

l / p

erso

nal c

hara

cter

istic

s; le

ader

tofo

llow

er(s

)

•Ca

re, c

oura

ge, i

nteg

rity;

val

ue b

asis;

bei

ng a

nd a

ctin

g co

nsist

ent;

self-

imag

e vs

. ext

erna

l im

age,

tim

e pe

rspe

ctiv

e, ro

le e

xper

imen

tatio

n,an

ticip

atio

n of

ach

ieve

men

t; le

ader

-follo

wer

rela

tion

Del

ios (

2010

) •

Org

aniz

atio

nal l

evel

var

iabl

es•

Soci

etal

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Stra

tegy

, stru

ctur

e, p

roce

sses

, firm

size

, etc

.•

Soci

etal

or c

ultu

ral a

ntec

eden

ts•

Act

ivity

in a

dopt

ing

a so

cial

car

ing

agen

da, w

ithou

t sac

rific

ing

com

petit

iven

ess;

law

s and

regu

latio

ns

54

Aut

hor

Type

of A

ntec

eden

t Var

iabl

e Su

bcat

egor

y of

Ant

eced

ent V

aria

ble

Exam

ples

of A

ntec

eden

t Var

iabl

es

Voe

gtlin

(201

1)

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el v

aria

bles

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Stra

tegy

, stru

ctur

e, p

roce

sses

, firm

size

, etc

.•

Qua

litie

s (us

ually

eth

ical

and

mor

al)

•H

iera

rchy

•Tr

ustw

orth

ines

s, ho

nesty

Wal

dman

(201

1)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Pers

pect

ive

•St

akeh

olde

r per

spec

tive,

vs.

econ

omic

/ in

strum

enta

l per

spec

tive

Gro

ves &

LaR

occa

(201

1)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Valu

es, p

ersp

ectiv

e•

Stak

ehol

der v

alue

s, ec

onom

ic v

alue

s, se

lf-tra

nsce

nden

t val

ues,

colle

ctiv

istic

wor

k va

lues

, soc

ial j

ustic

e va

lues

; sta

keho

lder

pers

pect

ive,

vs.

econ

omic

/ in

strum

enta

l per

spec

tive

Gon

d, Ig

alen

s, Sw

aen

& E

l A

krem

i (20

11)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Org

aniz

atio

nal l

evel

var

iabl

es•

Lead

ersh

ip /

man

ager

ial b

ehav

ior

•St

rate

gy, s

truct

ure,

pro

cess

es, f

irm si

ze, e

tc.;

orga

niza

tiona

l cul

ture

•Cl

ear c

omm

unic

atio

n an

d sh

ared

und

ersta

ndin

g•

Clea

r org

aniz

atio

nal d

efin

ition

s of C

SR a

nd H

R ro

les a

nd fu

nctio

ns

Cam

eron

(201

1)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Qua

litie

s (us

ually

eth

ical

and

mor

al);

valu

es•

Virtu

ousn

ess,

inhe

rent

val

ueD

oh, S

tum

pf &

Tym

on (2

011)

•

Org

aniz

atio

nal l

evel

var

iabl

es•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel v

aria

bles

•St

rate

gy, s

truct

ure,

pro

cess

es, f

irm si

ze, e

tc.

•Le

ader

ship

/ m

anag

eria

l beh

avio

r; ps

ycho

logi

cal /

pers

onal

cha

ract

erist

ics

•In

clus

ive

HR

prac

tices

•M

anag

eria

l sup

port:

tale

nt m

anag

emen

t, in

tere

st in

em

ploy

ee’s

wel

l-be

ing,

lead

ing

by e

xam

ple;

prid

e in

the

orga

niza

tion,

satis

fact

ion

with

the

orga

niza

tion

Mar

itz, P

reto

rius

& P

lant

(201

1)

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el v

aria

bles

•

Stra

tegy

, stru

ctur

e, p

roce

sses

, firm

size

, etc

.•

Char

acte

ristic

s ass

ocia

ted

with

stra

tegy

-mak

ing

Free

man

& A

uste

r (2

011)

•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel v

aria

bles

•Q

ualit

ies (

usua

lly e

thic

al a

nd m

oral

); le

ader

ship

/m

anag

eria

l beh

avio

r•

Aut

hent

icity

: see

king

to u

nder

stand

one

’s va

lues

; act

ing

auth

entic

ally

:on

the

perc

eive

d va

lues

Berg

er, C

hoi &

Kim

(201

1)

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el v

aria

bles

•

Org

aniz

atio

nal c

ultu

re•

Faire

r, eq

ual t

reat

men

t of a

ll m

anag

ers,

i.e.,

both

exp

atria

te a

nd lo

cal

man

ager

s with

in M

NEs

Ples

s & M

aak

(201

1)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Qua

litie

s (us

ually

eth

ical

and

mor

al);

valu

es;

pers

pect

ive;

resp

onsib

le le

ader

ship

min

dset

•Vi

rtues

, val

ues,

ethi

cal d

ecisi

on m

akin

g; ty

pe o

f the

resp

onsib

lele

ader

ship

min

dset

(eco

nom

ic /

strat

egic

vs.

stake

hold

er)

Ples

s, M

aak

& S

tahl

(201

1)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Qua

litie

s (us

ually

eth

ical

and

mor

al);

lead

er’s

com

pete

ncie

s / a

bilit

ies;

psyc

holo

gica

l / p

erso

nal

char

acte

ristic

s; re

spon

sible

lead

ersh

ip m

inds

et

•M

oral

judg

men

t, th

e ca

paci

ty to

bal

ance

con

tradi

ctio

ns, a

soun

dun

ders

tand

ing

of m

atte

rs o

f glo

bal j

ustic

e an

d fa

irnes

s; tra

its,

cogn

itive

orie

ntat

ion;

six

core

dim

ensio

ns o

f glo

bal l

eade

rshi

pco

mpe

tenc

ies

Voe

gtlin

, Pat

zer

& S

cher

er (2

012)

•

Org

aniz

atio

nal l

evel

var

iabl

es

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Org

aniz

atio

nal c

ultu

re•

Lead

ersh

ip /

man

ager

ial b

ehav

ior

•O

peni

ng to

a b

road

er ta

rget

gro

up (s

take

hold

ers)

to g

ain

legi

timac

y•

Solid

arity

; disc

ursiv

e co

nflic

t res

olut

ion

Ples

s & M

aak

(201

2)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Resp

onsib

le le

ader

ship

min

dset

•D

iffer

ent r

espo

nsib

ility

min

dset

s: al

truist

, eco

nom

ist, o

ppor

tuni

st(s

trate

gist)

, int

egra

tor

Ket

ola

(201

2)

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el v

aria

bles

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Org

aniz

atio

nal c

ultu

re•

Lead

ersh

ip /

man

ager

ial b

ehav

ior;

psyc

holo

gica

l /pe

rson

al c

hara

cter

istic

s

•M

atur

ity, a

war

enes

s of o

ne’s

pers

ona

and

shad

ow•

Self-

scru

tiniz

ing

one’

s con

scio

usne

ss, b

ecom

ing

awar

e

Roz

uel &

Ket

ola

(201

2)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Qua

litie

s (us

ually

eth

ical

and

mor

al)

•Co

nsci

ous a

war

enes

s of t

he se

lf in

its e

ntire

ty, a

uthe

ntic

ity to

self

inon

e’s a

ctio

ns a

nd re

flect

ive

mor

al d

evel

opm

ent

Mac

aux

(201

2)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Qua

litie

s (us

ually

eth

ical

and

mor

al);

valu

es;

lead

ersh

ip /

man

ager

ial b

ehav

ior;

lead

er to

follo

wer

(s)

•To

lera

nce

of d

iffer

ence

s; at

titud

e of

car

e an

d in

clus

ion,

bro

ad sc

ope

ofco

ncer

n, c

onsc

ious

ness

of b

eing

a g

uide

; enc

oura

ging

of o

ther

s to

lead

in th

eir o

wn

style

and

voi

ce; e

mph

asis

on th

e in

terp

erso

nal

Col

dwel

l, Jo

osub

& P

apag

eorg

iou

(201

2)

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el v

aria

bles

•In

divi

dual

leve

l var

iabl

es•

Stra

tegy

, stru

ctur

e, p

roce

sses

, firm

size

, etc

.•

Lead

ersh

ip /

man

ager

ial b

ehav

ior

•Co

mpa

ny a

ctio

n in

resp

onse

to c

rises

•M

anag

emen

t res

pons

ible

reac

tions

to c

risis

Ples

s, M

aak

& W

aldm

an (2

012)

•

Org

aniz

atio

nal l

evel

var

iabl

es•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel v

aria

bles

•St

rate

gy, s

truct

ure,

pro

cess

es, f

irm si

ze, e

tc.

•Q

ualit

ies (

usua

lly e

thic

al a

nd m

oral

); re

spon

sible

lead

ersh

ip m

inds

et; p

ersp

ectiv

e

•D

iffer

ent r

espo

nsib

le m

inds

ets,

com

petit

ive

adva

ntag

e, re

puta

tion,

PR

•D

iffer

ent r

espo

nsib

le m

inds

ets

Maa

k &

Sto

ette

r (2

012)

•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel v

aria

bles

•So

ciet

al le

vel v

aria

bles

•Le

ader

ship

/ m

anag

eria

l beh

avio

r•

Soci

etal

or c

ultu

ral a

ntec

eden

ts•

Diff

eren

t lea

ders

hip

role

s•

Fam

ily b

ackg

roun

dPl

ess,

Maa

k &

Sta

hl (2

012)

•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel v

aria

bles

•Le

ader

’s co

mpe

tenc

ies /

abi

litie

s; re

spon

sible

lead

ersh

ip m

inds

et; l

eade

r to

follo

wer

(s)

•G

loba

l lea

ders

hip,

resp

onsib

le le

ader

ship

, and

self-

lead

ersh

ip

55


56

2.5.8. Outcomes of Responsible Leadership When studying the phenomenon of RL, we also looked at its outcome

variables (outcomes or consequences of RL) that could be identified in the literature survey. We used the following definitions of the outcomes on each level by Voegtlin et al. (2012): the individual (micro-) level is the level of personal interaction of individual agents; the organizational (meso-) level is the level of internal organizational structures and practices; and the broader societal or cultural (macro-) level is the level encompassing the interaction of organizations with the broader (global) society.

From the literature survey of 57 articles, we could identify that most authors see outcomes of RL at the individual level (mentioned 48 times). Also, a lot of authors see outcomes of RL at the organizational level (mentioned 38 times). Societal level outcomes were mentioned 17 times. There were 5 articles that did not speak about specific outcomes and rather contributed to the conceptualization of the theory of RL in general. Examples of individual level outcomes of RL are the following: 1. concerning stakeholders: reduced unethical behavior of employees, inclusion of marginalized individuals and social groups, better benefit for all stakeholders including the owners; 2. desirable outcomes at the individual level: job satisfaction, responsibility and inspired commitment on the part of followers, increased performance; 3. responsible or CSR behavior: follower organizational citizenship behaviors,addressing community problems, socially responsible leadership, and community service; 4. individual characteristics and benefits: the “poetic self,” self-awareness, increased leadership learning.

Examples of organizational-level outcomes of RL include: 1. improved working environment and company culture: more ethical work environment, diversity management or gender equality programs that feed responsible leadership; 2. desirable organizational outcomes: improved job satisfaction, commitment,performance, firm’s competitive position and its broader societal context.

Societal or cultural-level outcomes of RL included: a flourishing nation: adding value to national stability, sustainable economic performance, and long-term social growth and human development. Table 2.5. presents the results.

Tabl

e 2.

5.: O

utco

me

Varia

bles

(Con

sequ

ence

s) o

f Res

pons

ible

Lea

ders

hip

Aut

hor

Type

of O

utco

me V

aria

ble

Subc

ateg

ory

of O

utco

me V

aria

ble

Exam

ples

of O

utco

me V

aria

bles

Ly

nham

(199

8)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l out

com

es•

Org

aniz

atio

nal l

evel

out

com

es•

Des

irabl

e in

divi

dual

out

com

e•

Des

irabl

e or

gani

zatio

nal o

utco

mes

•Su

stain

able

(dur

able

) lea

ders

hip

whi

ch sa

tisfie

s the

con

cern

s for

bot

h pe

rform

ance

(eco

nom

ics)

and

peo

ple

(inte

grity

and

eth

ics)

Ples

s & M

aak

(200

5)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l out

com

es

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el o

utco

mes

•So

ciet

al le

vel o

utco

mes

•Co

ncer

ning

stak

ehol

ders

•D

esira

ble

orga

niza

tiona

l out

com

es•

Des

irabl

e so

cial

cha

nge

•In

tera

ctin

g w

ith d

iffer

ent s

take

hold

ers i

n an

eth

ical

way

; res

olvi

ng c

onfli

cts a

ndre

conc

iling

dile

mm

as•

Trig

gerin

g a

high

er le

vel s

olut

ions

•Su

ppor

ting

lead

ers t

o m

eet t

he g

loba

l lea

ders

hip

chal

leng

es o

f tod

ay a

nd to

mor

row

Doh

& S

tum

pf (2

005b

) •

Indi

vidu

al le

vel o

utco

mes

•Re

spon

sible

or C

SR b

ehav

ior

•Re

spon

sible

lead

ersh

ipFo

mbr

un (2

005)

•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel o

utco

mes

•In

divi

dual

cha

ract

erist

ics o

r ben

efits

•D

istin

ctiv

enes

s, vi

sibili

ty, c

onsis

tenc

y, a

uthe

ntic

ity, t

rans

pare

ncy

Use

em (2

005)

•

Org

aniz

atio

nal l

evel

out

com

es•

Wor

king

env

ironm

ent

•Re

spon

sible

dec

ision

s

Cam

eron

& C

aza

(200

5)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l out

com

es

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el o

utco

mes

•D

esira

ble

indi

vidu

al o

utco

me

•W

orki

ng e

nviro

nmen

t

•Po

sitiv

e w

ork

orie

ntat

ion,

pos

itive

clim

ate,

pos

itive

com

mun

icat

ion,

and

pos

itive

rela

tions

hips

•Re

spon

sible

lead

ersh

ip e

nabl

es e

spec

ially

pos

itive

out

com

esA

lexa

nder

& W

ilson

(200

5)

• In

divi

dual

leve

l out

com

es

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el o

utco

mes

•In

divi

dual

cha

ract

erist

ics o

r ben

efits

•Ch

arac

teris

tics o

f org

aniz

atio

n•

Self-

insig

ht, d

evel

opin

g in

tegr

ity, c

onsis

tenc

y, p

redi

ctab

ility

•A

ltrui

sm m

ore

popu

lar i

n th

e w

orkp

lace

; dev

elop

ing

ethi

cal o

rgan

izat

ions

Wal

dman

& S

iege

l (20

05)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l out

com

es•

Resp

onsib

le o

r CSR

beh

avio

r•

Posit

ive

impa

ct o

n su

bseq

uent

CSR

act

ivity

for s

trate

gica

lly-o

rient

ed C

SR, w

hile

not f

or so

cial

ly-o

rient

ed C

SRSa

ckm

ann

(200

5)

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el o

utco

mes

•D

esira

ble

orga

niza

tiona

l out

com

es•

Enha

ncin

g ef

fect

ive

lead

ersh

ip u

nive

rsal

ly, b

ut th

e sp

ecifi

c en

actm

ent n

eeds

diff

erac

ross

cul

ture

sQ

uigl

ey, d

e Lu

que

& H

ouse

(200

5)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l out

com

es•

Org

aniz

atio

nal l

evel

out

com

es•

Soci

etal

leve

l out

com

es

•In

divi

dual

cha

ract

erist

ics o

r ben

efits

•D

esira

ble

orga

niza

tiona

l out

com

es•

Cultu

ral /

Soc

ieta

l ant

eced

ents

•Co

ntex

tual

influ

ence

indi

vidu

al fa

ctor

s with

in a

soci

ety

•Co

ntex

tual

influ

ence

org

aniz

atio

nal f

acto

rs w

ithin

a so

ciet

y•

Cont

extu

al in

fluen

ce o

n in

stitu

tiona

l fac

tors

with

in a

soci

ety

Scal

berg

(200

5)

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el o

utco

mes

•Le

ader

ship

dev

elop

men

t•

Dev

elop

ing

glob

al le

ader

sLy

nham

& C

herm

ack

(200

6)

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el o

utco

mes

•D

esira

ble

orga

niza

tiona

l out

com

es•

Perfo

rman

ce

Wal

dman

, Sul

ly d

e Lu

que,

W

ashb

urn

& H

ouse

(200

6)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l out

com

es•

Org

aniz

atio

nal l

evel

out

com

es•

Resp

onsib

le o

r CSR

beh

avio

r•

Des

irabl

e or

gani

zatio

nal o

utco

mes

•Co

ncer

n fo

r sta

keho

lder

CSR

val

ues

•Va

rious

firm

-leve

l out

com

esW

aldm

an, S

iege

l &

Jav

idan

(200

6)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l out

com

es•

Org

aniz

atio

nal l

evel

out

com

es•

Resp

onsib

le o

r CSR

beh

avio

r•

Des

irabl

e or

gani

zatio

nal o

utco

mes

•St

rate

gic

and

focu

sed

appr

oach

to C

SR•

Firm

’s co

mpe

titiv

e po

sitio

n an

d its

bro

ader

soci

etal

con

text

Dug

an (2

006)

•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel o

utco

mes

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el o

utco

mes

•Re

spon

sible

or C

SR b

ehav

ior

•Le

ader

ship

dev

elop

men

t•

Soci

ally

resp

onsib

le le

ader

ship

and

com

mun

ity se

rvic

e•

Lead

ersh

ip d

evel

opm

ent a

nd le

arni

ngM

aak

& P

less

(200

6b)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l out

com

es•

Org

aniz

atio

nal l

evel

out

com

es•

Resp

onsib

le o

r CSR

beh

avio

r•

Des

irabl

e or

gani

zatio

nal o

utco

mes

•Fo

sterin

g co

llabo

ratio

n an

d m

obili

zing

and

alig

ning

stak

ehol

ders

•Fo

llow

ing

a sh

ared

and

mor

ally

soun

d vi

sion

Ciu

lla (2

006)

•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel o

utco

mes

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el o

utco

mes

•Re

spon

sible

or C

SR b

ehav

ior

•D

esira

ble

orga

niza

tiona

l out

com

es•

Lead

ers w

ho d

o th

ings

righ

t and

do

the

right

thin

gs

Maa

k &

Ple

ss (2

006a

) •

Indi

vidu

al le

vel o

utco

mes

•So

ciet

al le

vel o

utco

mes

•In

divi

dual

cha

ract

erist

ics o

r ben

efits

•Cu

ltura

l / S

ocie

tal a

ntec

eden

ts•

Dem

ands

of l

eadi

ng b

usin

ess i

n so

ciet

y

Pain

e (2

006)

•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel o

utco

mes

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el o

utco

mes

•In

divi

dual

cha

ract

erist

ics o

r ben

efits

•Ch

arac

teris

tics o

f org

aniz

atio

n•

Ethi

cally

soun

d de

cisio

n m

akin

g•

Shap

ing

an o

rgan

izat

ion’

s mor

al p

erso

nalit

yPr

uzan

& M

iller

(200

6)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l out

com

es•

Org

aniz

atio

nal l

evel

out

com

es•

Soci

etal

leve

l out

com

es

•Co

ncer

ning

stak

ehol

ders

•D

esira

ble

orga

niza

tiona

l out

com

es•

Des

irabl

e so

cial

cha

nge

•Be

havi

ng re

spon

sibly

on

beha

lf of

one

self

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l ide

ntity

, res

pons

ibili

ty a

nd su

cces

s•

Beha

ving

resp

onsib

ly o

n be

half

of o

ne’s

com

mun

ities

, soc

iety

, the

env

ironm

ent

and

all o

f cre

atio

n

57

Aut

hor

Type

of O

utco

me V

aria

ble

Subc

ateg

ory

of O

utco

me V

aria

ble

Exam

ples

of O

utco

me V

aria

bles

Be

renk

ert (

2006

) •

Indi

vidu

al le

vel o

utco

mes

•In

divi

dual

cha

ract

erist

ics o

r ben

efits

•In

tegr

ity

Sack

man

n (2

006)

•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel o

utco

mes

•In

divi

dual

cha

ract

erist

ics o

r ben

efits

•Se

nsiti

vity

to c

ultu

ral s

peci

fics,

good

dia

gnos

tic a

nd so

cial

skill

s, em

path

y, th

eab

ility

to ta

ckle

dile

mm

as o

penl

y an

d co

nstru

ctiv

ely

Schr

aa-L

iu

& T

rom

pena

ars (

2006

) •

Indi

vidu

al le

vel o

utco

mes

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el o

utco

mes

•So

ciet

al le

vel o

utco

mes

•Co

ncer

ning

stak

ehol

ders

•D

esira

ble

orga

niza

tiona

l out

com

es•

Des

irabl

e so

cial

cha

nge

•Re

conc

iling

and

alig

ning

the

dem

ands

, nee

ds, i

nter

est,

valu

es a

nd o

ppos

ites

•In

trins

ic re

spon

sibili

ty o

f lea

ders

tow

ards

em

ploy

ees,

custo

mer

s, su

pplie

rs,

com

mun

ities

, sha

reho

lder

s, N

GO

s, th

e en

viro

nmen

t and

soci

ety

at la

rge

Die

rmei

er (2

006)

•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel o

utco

mes

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el o

utco

mes

•Co

ncer

ning

stak

ehol

ders

•D

esira

ble

orga

niza

tiona

l out

com

es•

Stra

tegi

c or

ient

atio

n th

at h

elps

lead

ers t

o ev

alua

te c

ompe

ting

valu

e-or

ient

atio

n of

stake

hold

ers

van

de L

oo (2

006)

•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel o

utco

mes

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el o

utco

mes

•Co

ncer

ning

stak

ehol

ders

•W

orki

ng e

nviro

nmen

t; de

sirab

leor

gani

zatio

nal o

utco

mes

•In

volv

ing

in th

e ch

ange

all

stake

hold

ers

•In

spiri

ng a

nd m

obili

zing

peo

ple

and

orga

niza

tions

Ples

s & S

chne

ider

(200

6)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l out

com

es

•So

ciet

al le

vel o

utco

mes

•Co

ncer

ning

stak

ehol

ders

; res

pons

ible

or

CSR

beha

vior

•D

esira

ble

soci

al c

hang

e

•D

eepl

y ro

oted

hum

an v

alue

s (lik

e eq

ualit

y, c

are

for o

ther

hum

an b

eing

s,re

cogn

ition

, coo

pera

tion)

•Ca

pabi

litie

s to

build

susta

inab

le re

latio

nshi

ps, m

otiv

atio

n to

initi

ate

furth

er so

cial

chan

ge in

side

and

outsi

de th

e or

gani

zatio

nPl

ess (

2007

) •

Indi

vidu

al le

vel o

utco

mes

•Re

spon

sible

or C

SR b

ehav

ior

•Re

spon

sible

beh

avio

r

Maa

k (2

007)

•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel o

utco

mes

•So

ciet

al le

vel o

utco

mes

•D

esira

ble

indi

vidu

al o

utco

me

•Cu

ltura

l / S

ocie

tal a

ntec

eden

ts

•Bu

ildin

g so

cial

cap

ital a

nd v

alue

net

wor

ks a

nd le

adin

g to

susta

inab

le b

usin

ess a

ndth

e co

mm

on g

ood

•Bu

ildin

g so

cial

cap

ital a

nd v

alue

net

wor

ksW

aldm

an &

Gal

vin

(200

8)

• In

divi

dual

leve

l out

com

es

•Co

ncer

ning

stak

ehol

ders

; des

irabl

ein

divi

dual

out

com

e•

Bette

r ben

efit

for a

ll sta

keho

lder

s inc

ludi

ng th

e ow

ners

; res

pons

ibili

ty a

nd in

spire

dco

mm

itmen

t on

the

part

of fo

llow

ers

Wal

dman

& S

iege

l (20

08)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l out

com

es

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el o

utco

mes

•In

divi

dual

cha

ract

erist

ics o

r ben

efits

•D

esira

ble

orga

niza

tiona

l out

com

es

•M

anag

eria

l int

uitio

n an

d ac

ting

acco

rdin

g to

man

ager

s’ m

oral

val

ues

•St

rate

gic

CSR

activ

ities

that

lead

to p

rofit

max

imiz

atio

nPl

ess &

Maa

k (2

008a

) •

Org

aniz

atio

nal l

evel

out

com

es•

Soci

etal

leve

l out

com

es•

Lead

ersh

ip d

evel

opm

ent

•D

esira

ble

soci

al c

hang

e•

Syste

mat

ic d

evel

opm

ent t

hrou

gh a

serv

ice

and

expe

rient

ial l

earn

ing

met

hodo

logy

•Re

spon

sible

bus

ines

s lea

ders

act

ing

as a

gent

s of w

orld

ben

efit

Ples

s & M

aak

(200

8b)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l out

com

es•

Soci

etal

leve

l out

com

es•

Conc

erni

ng st

akeh

olde

rs•

Des

irabl

e so

cial

cha

nge

•Cr

eatin

g va

lue

for s

take

hold

ers i

n bu

sines

s and

soci

ety

Maa

k &

Ple

ss (2

009)

•

Soci

etal

leve

l out

com

es•

Cultu

ral /

Soc

ieta

l ant

eced

ents

•Es

tabl

ishin

g an

eth

ical

ly so

und

mar

ket f

ram

ewor

kD

eMaC

arty

(200

9)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l out

com

es•

Resp

onsib

le o

r CSR

beh

avio

r•

Retu

rns o

f CSR

and

CSI

Màr

ia &

Loz

ano

(201

0)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l out

com

es•

Conc

erni

ng st

akeh

olde

rs•

Incl

usio

n of

mar

gina

lized

indi

vidu

als a

nd so

cial

gro

ups

Ket

ola

(201

0)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l out

com

es

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el o

utco

mes

•Re

spon

sible

or C

SR b

ehav

ior

•W

orki

ng e

nviro

nmen

t

•Re

spon

sible

beh

avio

r: ta

ke a

ctio

n to

cor

rect

the

wro

ng in

any

situ

atio

n an

d de

spite

any

cons

eque

nces

•Re

spon

sibili

ty is

con

tagi

ous

Del

ios (

2010

) •

Org

aniz

atio

nal l

evel

out

com

es•

Soci

etal

leve

l out

com

es•

Wor

king

env

ironm

ent

•Cu

ltura

l / S

ocie

tal a

ntec

eden

ts•

Crea

ting

an e

nviro

nmen

t of n

orm

s tha

t pro

mot

es a

har

mon

izat

ion

in c

ross

-nat

iona

lsta

ndar

ds fo

r lev

els o

f soc

ial r

espo

nsib

ility

Voeg

tlin

(201

1)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l out

com

es

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el o

utco

mes

•Co

ncer

ning

stak

ehol

ders

; des

irabl

ein

divi

dual

out

com

e•

Wor

king

env

ironm

ent

•Re

spon

sible

lead

ersh

ip is

abl

e to

redu

ce u

neth

ical

beh

avio

r am

ong

the

prim

ary

stake

hold

er g

roup

, the

em

ploy

ees;

job

satis

fact

ion

•H

elpi

ng to

cre

ate

a m

ore

ethi

cal w

ork

envi

ronm

ent

Wal

dman

(201

1)

•N

ot m

entio

ned

– ot

her

cont

ribut

ion

to th

eory

Gro

ves &

LaR

occa

(201

1)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l out

com

es

•So

ciet

al le

vel o

utco

mes

•Re

spon

sible

or C

SR b

ehav

ior

•D

esira

ble

soci

al c

hang

e

•Fo

llow

er o

rgan

izat

iona

l citi

zens

hip

beha

vior

s and

bel

iefs

in th

e sta

keho

lder

vie

wof

CSR

•A

ddre

ssin

g co

mm

unity

pro

blem

s

58

Aut

hor

Type

of O

utco

me V

aria

ble

Subc

ateg

ory

of O

utco

me V

aria

ble

Exam

ples

of O

utco

me V

aria

bles

G

ond,

Igal

ens,

Swae

n &

El

Akr

emi (

2011

) •

Indi

vidu

al le

vel o

utco

mes

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el o

utco

mes

•Re

spon

sible

or C

SR b

ehav

ior

•W

orki

ng e

nviro

nmen

t; le

ader

ship

deve

lopm

ent

•H

R tu

rns e

mpl

oyee

s int

o CS

R su

ppor

ters

•D

iver

sity

man

agem

ent o

r gen

der e

qual

ity p

rogr

ams t

hat f

eed

resp

onsib

lele

ader

ship

Cam

eron

(201

1)

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el o

utco

mes

•D

esira

ble

orga

niza

tiona

l out

com

es•

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ous l

eade

rshi

p pr

oduc

es d

esira

ble

ends

(e.g

., or

gani

zatio

nal c

omm

itmen

t,or

gani

zatio

nal p

erfo

rman

ce o

utco

mes

, or s

ettin

g vi

rtuou

s goa

ls fo

r fie

lds o

fstu

dies

)D

oh, S

tum

pf &

Tym

on

(201

1)

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el o

utco

mes

•D

esira

ble

orga

niza

tiona

l out

com

es•

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oyee

s’ pr

ide

in th

e or

gani

zatio

n, sa

tisfa

ctio

n w

ith th

e or

gani

zatio

n, a

ndre

tent

ion

Mar

itz, P

reto

rius

& P

lant

(2

011)

•

Not

men

tione

d –

othe

rco

ntrib

utio

n to

theo

ryFr

eem

an &

Aus

ter (

2011

) •

Indi

vidu

al le

vel o

utco

mes

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el o

utco

mes

•In

divi

dual

cha

ract

erist

ics o

r ben

efits

•W

orki

ng e

nviro

nmen

t; ch

arac

teris

tics o

for

gani

zatio

n

•Th

e “p

oetic

self,

” se

lf-aw

aren

ess

•“P

oetic

org

aniz

atio

ns,”

self-

awar

enes

s

Berg

er, C

hoi &

Kim

(201

1)

• O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el o

utco

mes

•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel o

utco

mes

•D

esira

ble

orga

niza

tiona

l out

com

es•

Lead

er-fo

llow

er•

Leve

rage

use

ful k

now

ledg

e re

sour

ces,

bond

s, an

d co

llect

ive

actio

n•

Ove

rcom

ing

of p

sych

ic d

istan

ce to

war

ds lo

cal m

anag

ers o

f bot

tom

of p

yram

idco

untri

esPl

ess &

Maa

k (2

011)

•

Not

men

tione

d –

othe

rco

ntrib

utio

n to

theo

ryPl

ess,

Maa

k &

Sta

hl (2

011)

•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel o

utco

mes

•So

ciet

al le

vel o

utco

mes

•Re

spon

sible

or C

SR b

ehav

ior,

indi

vidu

alch

arac

teris

tics o

r ben

efits

•D

esira

ble

soci

al c

hang

e

•Le

arni

ng in

six

area

s rel

evan

t to

resp

onsib

le g

loba

l lea

ders

hip;

dee

per r

efle

ctio

n

•En

gagi

ng w

ith p

eopl

e in

the

loca

l com

mun

ities

Voeg

tlin,

Pat

zer &

Sch

erer

(2

012)

•

Indi

vidu

al le

vel o

utco

mes

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el o

utco

mes

•So

ciet

al le

vel o

utco

mes

•D

esira

ble

indi

vidu

al o

utco

me

•Ch

arac

teris

tics o

f org

aniz

atio

n

•Cu

ltura

l / S

ocie

tal a

ntec

eden

ts

•Fo

llow

ers’

attit

udes

and

cog

nitio

ns (e

.g.,

job

satis

fact

ion,

mot

ivat

ion,

com

mitm

ent

or o

rgan

izat

iona

l citi

zens

hip

beha

vior

)•

Ethi

cal c

ompa

ny c

ultu

re, c

ultu

re o

f disc

ursiv

e co

nflic

t res

olut

ion

and

delib

erat

ive

prac

tices

, per

ceiv

ed im

porta

nce

of C

SR, e

ncou

ragi

ng so

cial

ent

repr

eneu

rshi

p,im

prov

ing

orga

niza

tion’

s fin

anci

al a

nd so

cial

per

form

ance

•Le

gitim

acy

of a

com

pany

, bui

ldin

g tru

stful

stak

ehol

der r

elat

ions

, enh

anci

ng th

eso

cial

cap

ital i

nher

ent i

n sta

keho

lder

rela

tions

Ples

s & M

aak

(201

2)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l out

com

es•

Soci

etal

leve

l out

com

es•

Conc

erni

ng st

akeh

olde

rs•

Cultu

ral /

Soc

ieta

l ant

eced

ents

•St

akeh

olde

r-orie

nted

dec

ision

mak

ing

•St

reng

then

ed so

cial

con

tract

bet

wee

n bu

sines

s and

soci

ety

Ket

ola

(201

2)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l out

com

es•

Resp

onsib

le o

r CSR

beh

avio

r•

Resp

onsib

le le

ader

ship

Roz

uel &

Ket

ola

(201

2)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l out

com

es•

Org

aniz

atio

nal l

evel

out

com

es•

Indi

vidu

al c

hara

cter

istic

s or b

enef

its•

Des

irabl

e or

gani

zatio

nal o

utco

mes

•Et

hica

l aw

aren

ess a

nd re

spon

sible

act

ion

as le

ader

s, fo

llow

ers

•Et

hica

l aw

aren

ess a

nd re

spon

sible

act

ion

as o

rgan

izat

iona

l age

nts

Mac

aux

(201

2)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l out

com

es•

Org

aniz

atio

nal l

evel

out

com

es•

Conc

erni

ng st

akeh

olde

rs•

Lead

ersh

ip d

evel

opm

ent

•Co

ncer

n fo

r the

gre

ater

goo

d•

In-d

epth

per

sona

l ref

lect

ion

and

deve

lopm

ent

Col

dwel

l, Jo

osub

&

Pap

ageo

rgio

u (2

012)

•

Org

aniz

atio

nal l

evel

out

com

es•

Des

irabl

e or

gani

zatio

nal o

utco

mes

•Re

puta

tion

capi

tal b

uilt

up th

roug

h re

spon

sible

man

agem

ent a

ctio

n

Ples

s, M

aak

& W

aldm

an

(201

2)

•In

divi

dual

leve

l out

com

es

•So

ciet

al le

vel o

utco

mes

•Re

spon

sible

or C

SR b

ehav

ior;

desir

able

indi

vidu

al o

utco

me

•D

esira

ble

soci

al c

hang

e

•Cr

eatin

g so

cial

val

ue fo

r tar

gete

d sta

keho

lder

s in

need

or s

ocie

ty a

s a w

hole

•Cr

eatin

g lo

ng-te

rm e

cono

mic

val

ue fo

r sha

reho

lder

s / st

akeh

olde

rsM

aak

& S

toet

ter (

2012

) •

Org

aniz

atio

nal l

evel

out

com

es•

Soci

etal

leve

l out

com

es•

Lead

ersh

ip d

evel

opm

ent

•D

esira

ble

soci

al c

hang

e•

Enha

ncin

g fin

anci

al li

tera

cy a

mon

g en

trepr

eneu

rs•

Self-

suffi

cien

t agr

icul

tura

l sch

ool;

runn

ing

smal

l-sca

le, o

n-ca

mpu

s bus

ines

ses

Ples

s, M

aak

& S

tahl

(201

2)

• In

divi

dual

leve

l out

com

es

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

el o

utco

mes

•Re

spon

sible

or C

SR b

ehav

ior

•Le

ader

ship

dev

elop

men

t•

Dev

elop

ing

resp

onsib

le b

usin

ess l

eade

rs•

Supp

ortin

g a

com

pany

’s CS

R an

d su

stain

abili

ty e

fforts

59


60

2.6. Discussion and Suggestions for Further Research Responsible leadership is a new phenomenon valuable for both theoretical

exploration and practical application. A growing number of scholars study it and a growing number of companies are setting up programs aimed at developing responsible leaders (Pless et al., 2011 and 2012; Pless & Borecká, 2014). The desired outcome of this study is the synthesis of knowledge available about RL, the clarification of the concept of RL and further progress in the identification of the constituting features of the phenomenon of RL. The following passages will discuss the results obtained in the literature survey on RL and suggest areas for further research.

2.6.1. Type of Contribution: Conceptual or Empirical One of the indicators to identify the progress within a field of a theory is the

kind of contributions that can be found on the topic. The results of the literature survey on RL show a shift in the nature of the contributions concerning RL: in the past (since 2005), two conceptual contributions (by Doh and Stumpf (2005a) linking RL and governance, and by the authors in Maak and Pless (2006a)) focused on carving the conceptual foundations of RL (Pless & Maak, 2011). Within the last eight years, the predominating number of conceptual articles (58% of texts) in comparison with empirical articles (42% of analyzed texts) implies that the field of RL has not still reached the point of a matured theory.

Although still nascent, the interest in the topic of RL and the field of RL is growing and the proof is also two special issues on RL: Journal of Business Ethics in 2011 (taking the ethics and leadership theories as a starting point) and Journal of Management Development in 2012 (exploring the psychology of responsible leaders). It is possible to predict that both conceptual and empirical contributions will be subjects of interest in the future, with the number of empirical contributions growing as the theory of RL becomes more established.

2.6.2. Research Questions The choice of research questions or topics that are the subject of investigation

in the contributions on RL corresponds to the previously discussed fact that the majority of contributions are conceptual ones. A substantial number of authors still deal with the question of conceptualization of the construct of RL (the definition issues, the components and factors conditioning RL, and the broader societal context in which responsible leaders operate). The articles that represent empirical


61

contributions are even scarcer and their findings need further exploration in order to obtain results that can be generalized (e.g., the attempts to measure RL, how RL leads to improved performance, competitiveness, job satisfaction, etc.). Authors of future studies should focus on the refinement of the construct variables of RL and gradually also on the issues of operationalization of RL variables and on the measurement of RL.

Looking at the angle from which the authors discuss RL, it is obvious that they do see it through an ethical lens as a phenomenon disposing of the potential to address important issues in the world, for example, the involvement of all stakeholders in dialogue, the inclusion of minorities, and the fight against the world’s pressing problems (Maak & Pless, 2009). We can observe a shift toward the importance of an ethical way of leading a business and a number of authors reflect this through their focus on the methods and ways of developing responsible leaders, for example, by means of experiential education or international service learning programs (Pless et al., 2011, 2012). Researchers should further study, among other topics, the element of relationality (in relation to shared or distributed leadership), and the questions of leadership complexity when dealing with ethical dilemmas in daily decision-making.

2.6.3. Nature of the Phenomenon and Level of Analysis As Kozlowski and Klein (2000) put it, micro phenomena are embedded in

macro contexts and macro phenomena usually emerge through the interaction and dynamics of lower-level elements. The micro perspective is rooted in psychological origins and focuses on variations among individual characteristics leading toward individual reactions and outcomes. The macro perspective is rooted in sociological origins and it assumes that there are regularities in social behavior that transcend the apparent differences among social actors, therefore, it is possible to focus on aggregates or collective responses.

According to Dent, Higgins and Wharff (2005), it is deeply rooted in tradition and supported by twentieth-century research that leadership is an individual-level phenomenon (i.e., that formal leaders in the hierarchy of an organization are carriers of influence over dyadic, group, or organizational outcomes) (Waldman, 2011). Also, our literature survey showed that most of the authors writing about RL seem to continue the traditional focus of leadership on the internal, group level of analysis (Waldman, 2011), and also on the individual persons and their attributes (looking at the constituting features, components or antecedents of RL, the values, behavior, and


62

practices of individual leaders). However, a substantial number of authors suggest that the nature of the phenomenon of RL demonstrates itself as both individual and organizational. The suggestions that leadership could be a collective phenomenon have been put forward only recently and this broader view on leadership depicts “leadership as a process of influence within organizations in which formal leaders are only a part” (Waldman, 2011, p. 81), or, as an aspect possessed by the community (e.g., the group, the team, organization, nation, etc.) (Drath, 2001). As Waldman (2011) points out, this is in line with newly established theory and research on complexity leadership (Uhl-Bien et al., 2007), leadership capacity (Day et al., 2004), and shared leadership (Pearce & Conger, 2003), that is, “a dynamic process of mutual influence among peers or individuals at differing hierarchical levels in an organization” (Pearce and Conger, 2003; as cited in Waldman, 2011, p. 81). In Waldman’s (2011) words, though there are authors who mention that RLoperates at organizational level, RL should not be confused with organizational-level phenomena (as it is sometimes misunderstood). Yet it should rather be related to individuals and processes shared by individuals, such as distributed or shared leadership. In other words, “responsible leadership should not be considered as being synonymous with responsible organizations” (Waldman, 2011, p. 81).

In line with the results of the literature survey, RL is perceived as a multi-level phenomenon operating mostly at an individual level within the organizations and social networks which they form, that is, within social context that is in a system of mutual influence and interaction (Zinnbauer, Pargament & Scott, 1999). Still, the exact dimensions of each level of the phenomenon of RL should be explored in further research. It would also be beneficial to investigate and further differentiate the manifestation of RL within the level of groups or teams (or even organization departments) which Yammarino et al. (2008) categorize as individual level entities. Even though we have seen in the literature survey that few authors identified RL as operating at the group or team level, it is possible to expect the raising interest in shared forms of (responsible) leadership distributed within a group or a team of individuals rather than localized in one leader (Pearce & Conger, 2003). Within the focus on the group level, it would be equally valuable to investigate the role of top management or executive teams whose members are involved in the highest decision-making and who set forth the company strategy and the corporate governance issues. Future research could also try to see into the issue of how RL demonstrated at the individual level translates to the group and organization level.


63

2.6.4. Theoretical Basis We have seen in the results of the literature survey that stakeholder theory,

business ethics, and CSR were most often referred to in connection with RL. Stakeholder theory and business ethics can be perceived as diversification streams of what started out as CSR (Maak, 2008). What stands out very strongly is the feature of RL aiming at initiating and integrating relationships from business to society. Relationship building (cultivating ethically sound relationships with and among stakeholders) and establishing dialogue with a wide spectrum of stakeholders with the aim of meeting the needs of all those influenced by a company’s practices is a central theme of stakeholder theory (Maak & Pless, 2006a; Kaptein & Van Tulder, 2003; Galan, 2006). The area of ethical decision-making and behavior (e.g., Brown & Treviño, 2006; Crilly, Schneider & Zollo, 2008; Kish-Gephart, Harrison & Treviño, 2010) forms an integral part of both CSR and stakeholder theory and is crucial for RL. According to Maak (2007), “responsible leadership in business needs leadership ethics (...), [e]thics is at the “heart of leadership” (Ciulla, 1998, cited in Maak, 2007, p. 330-331). The stream of CSR has been calling for the broader sense of responsibility of businesses and leaders beyond the requirements of law, shareholders’ and owners’ expectations, usually aiming at reaching a sustainable business balancing the triple bottom line objectives of the economic, ecological and social needs (Székely & Knirsch, 2005).

These and other contemporary influential leadership theories and approaches which have been discussed earlier have a certain common ground with RL, by, for example, sharing a common concern for a moral dimension of leadership or for the importance of creating lasting organizations which contribute to building community and bridges within it. A shared and morally-sound vision directed toward desirable social change at the local level includes not only the characteristics of socially responsible behavior (Heslin & Ochoa, 2008; Schwartz & Carroll, 2003) but also the transformational element typical of leadership theories (e.g. transformational leadership and authentic leadership) (Burns, 1978; Bass, 1985; George, 2003).

It should still be explored further what other streams are (or will be) influencing RL and what those exact connections are as well as any overlapping and differentiating areas. Some interesting fields that are potentially connected and beneficial for RL are, for instance, literature on global leadership, on multinational leadership, strategic leadership, echelon theory, and so on.


64

2.6.5. Definition of Responsible Leadership We have shown in the Results and in Table 2.3. that the definition of RL most

commonly used or referred to is a definition coined by Maak and Pless mentioning that RL is “…the art of building and sustaining… relationships to all relevant stakeholders…” (Maak & Pless, 2006a; Pless, 2007); or “…a relational and ethical phenomenon, which occurs in social processes of interaction…” (Maak & Pless, 2006b); or “…a values-based and through ethical principles driven relationship between leaders and stakeholders…” (Maak & Pless, 2006b; Pless, 2007). The stakeholder, relational and ethical aspects of the definition of RL seem to be recurrent and therefore broadly accepted. Four authors tried to build upon and extend a definition of Maak and Pless by introducing new aspects to it, for example, discursive conflict resolution (Voegtlin, 2011) and active stakeholder dialogue (Voegtlin et al., 2012); virtuousness (Cameron, 2011); and authenticity (Freeman & Auster, 2011). However, it should still be proven by further research and practice whether some of these aspects would offer a valuable and justifiable extension of the definition of RL.

All the definitions speak about the phenomenon of RL at the individual level. Therefore, the components (constituting features identified) also correspond to characteristics of RL manifested at the individual level, in the attitudes, behaviors and competencies of individual responsible leaders.

2.6.6. Understanding of Followers Regarding the terms “leader” and “followers”, it is important to mention that in

today’s leadership theories, the leader is no longer seen as the frontal figure standing out from the rest and “leading” the “followers”. The discussion now moves to recognition of the importance of the leaders’ relationship with the followers and an interdependency of roles. It is no longer the solo or hero leader but the team leader. Also the use of the term “followers” has been scrutinized. This is connected with the main change influencing the demands for leadership in the 21st century which is the shift in decision-making legitimacy. The source of business-management legitimacy has shifted from the powerful top of a heavy hierarchical structure to the flat pool of broadly defined stakeholders. In today’s world, leaders confront the demands of a number of culturally heterogeneous “followers” – stakeholder groups from inside and outside the organization who require a solution acceptable and beneficial for all constituencies involved (Voegtlin, 2011). Some groups of people who have been so far neglected and socially excluded should also be invited to the dialogue (Mària


65

& Lozano, 2010). The findings of our literature survey – that 80% of the authors refer to “stakeholders in a broad sense” – are in line with the shift in today’s society toward recognizing followers as stakeholders who are gaining voice, importance, and power, and who influence company decision-making.

It has become clear that the potential beneficiaries of RL do not belong to only one group, but rather to different groups of stakeholders. This is connected to Waldman and Galvin’s claim that “responsible leadership is not the same concept in the minds of all” (2008, p. 328). Rather, companies will focus on specific stakeholder groups depending on the companies’ scope of “responsible mindset,” by, for example, showing that RL might comprise responsibility with different intentions, aims and effects (Pless & Maak, 2012). This aspect of the scope of responsibility a company undertakes is worthy of further exploration. Also, studying the stakeholder outreach of RL (i.e., the stakeholder network of individual companies and individual leaders more closely) represents a valuable research topic that could help answer the questions such as who the different groups of stakeholders are and whether and how they could be ranked according to their importance.

2.6.7. Antecedent Variables of Responsible Leadership It seems obvious from the literature survey that RL has antecedents of

multiple dimensions (Table 2.4. provides the details). The survey of 57 articles shows that there is no common agreement in literature about which are the antecedents of RL and what is the exact structure (components) of RL as a social phenomenon. Some authors (Voegtlin, 2011; Groves & LaRocca, 2011; Maak & Pless, 2006b; Lynham, 1998; Rozuel & Ketola, 2012; Doh & Stumpf, 2005b; Fombrun, 2005, etc.) consider the antecedents of RL to be well-structured and point out the factors that cause them or also its components (e.g., responsible leadership conduct, relational and emotional intelligence, conscious awareness of the self, authenticity and reflective moral development, ethics, etc.). However, the majority of the authors (e.g., Waldman & Siegel, 2008; Alexander & Wilson, 2005; Brenkert, 2006; Sackmann, 2006; Pless & Schneider, 2006; and others) prefer to describe RL in general terms without a strict definition of what the antecedents or components are. Looking closely into the issue of antecedents and components of RL, we can see that there is a certain confusion in categorization and potentially a high number of overlaps between antecedents and components (or characteristics) of RL, especially at the individual level. These findings again show the multi-dimensionality and


66

complexity of the construct of RL and call for further research, investigation and clarification with regard to the antecedents and components of this phenomenon and their categories and sub-categories.

2.6.8. Outcomes of Responsible Leadership The survey of literature on RL showed that RL has outcomes at multiple

levels (see Table 2.5. for details): most were identified at the individual level (e.g., enhancing responsible or CSR behavior, positively influencing stakeholders, bringing individual benefits such as integrity, gaining self-insight or learning ethically sound decision-making), at the level of the organization (e.g., bringing desirable organizational outcomes such as commitment, job satisfaction, and performance; improving the working environment, or leadership development), and at the societal or cultural level (e.g., contributing to desirable social change or to building social capital and value networks). The findings, i.e., the identification of multi-level outcomes of RL, seem to correspond to the findings of Voegtlin et al. (2012) who come up with 8 propositions offering the positive influence of deliberative RL: (a) at the macro-level: 1. on the legitimacy of a company; 2. on building trustful stakeholder relations; 3. on enhancing the social capital inherent in stakeholder relations; (b) at the mezzo-level: 4. on the ethical company culture and on encouraging a culture of discursive conflict resolution and deliberative practices; 5. on perceived importance of CSR in an organization; 6. on encouraging socialentrepreneurship; 7. on improving organization’s financial and social performance; and (c) at the micro-level: 8. on follower’s attitudes and cognitions (e.g., job satisfaction, motivation, commitment or organizational citizenship behavior).

We have seen that RL has multi-level outcomes; authors writing about RL mention a lot of desirable outcomes (or consequences of RL) at each level, sometimes coming to the same conclusions, sometimes enlisting different or new categories. As it is still not clear enough what the exact outcomes are at each level, we encourage further empirical research in this area, which would refine and possibly measure the outcomes at each level.

2.7. Conceptual Working Model of Responsible Leadership In the previous passages, we have studied in detail several categories identified

throughout the review of literature on RL. In order to transparently summarize what has been written so far about RL, we have put together a Conceptual Working Model

Figu

re 2

.1.:

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al W

orki

ng M

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of R

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’s co

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titiv

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sitio

n, e

tc.

67


68

of RL that synthesizes the antecedents (contextual influences), components (characteristics), and outcomes (consequences) of the phenomenon of RL. See Figure 2.1. for details.

The Conceptual Working Model of RL summarizes how different authors view the phenomenon of RL. Despite the need to further fine-tune and bring more clarity to the results within each category of antecedent variables, components and outcome variables, this working model represents a first step in viewing the new theory of RL in its entirety and encompassing the concept of RL in its complexity and multi-dimensionality. Further research should try to disentangle the antecedents, components, behaviors, and outcomes and focus on identifying the mutual relationships as well as mediating or moderating processes. Given the limited empirical evidence that is currently available, the logical next step is finding suitable empirical methods to verify and test the relationships proposed in this model.

2.8. Conclusions

In this article we elucidated the construct of responsible leadership, compared and contrasted it with eleven other dominant and related leadership streams, and mapped the state of the art of the theory of responsible leadership. We came up with a Conceptual Working Model of Responsible Leadership summarizing and synthesizing the antecedents, components, and outcome variables of responsible leadership as a social and relational phenomenon.

Our findings showed that, apart from conceptual contributions, there is a growing number of empirical texts on responsible leadership implying that this field is a subject of interest of researchers and that the theory of responsible leadership is gradually becoming more established. Common research topics involve: justification of the responsible leadership theory, the breadth of responsibility, discussing antecedents and constituting characteristics of responsible leadership, association with performance or other outcome variables, and questioning how to develop responsible leaders. We have shown that the theory of responsible leadership grows from stakeholder theory and business ethics, which can be perceived as diversification streams of what started out as CSR (Maak, 2008). We have also shown that the definitions by Maak and Pless touching upon the stakeholder, relational, and ethical aspects are recurrent and seem broadly accepted; also the vast majority of authors understand followers not in the traditional sense as direct reports or employees inside the organization, but as “stakeholders in a broad


69

sense, both inside and outside the organization,” which is in line with the shift in today’s society toward stakeholders gaining importance and power.

Most of the authors studying responsible leadership seem to continue in the traditional focus of leadership on the internal, group level of analysis (Waldman, 2011), and also on the individual persons and their attributes and virtues. We have found out that the construct of responsible leadership is mostly seen as operating at the individual level and has multiple dimensions that constitute it, yet there is a certain confusion in the categorization of antecedents and components and, potentially, a high number of overlaps between the categories, which is an area that needs clarification in further research. Outcomes of responsible leadership are multilevel: the benefit is for individuals, organizations and societies.

Responsible leadership is “a multilevel theory that connects individual, organizational, and institutional factors” (Quigley et al., 2005, cited in Pless & Maak, 2011, p. 5). Despite the fact that this theory is relatively new, it has great potential for leadership and management researchers as it responds better than any other existing leadership theory to the challenges leaders of today’s world are facing (e.g., interconnectedness and globalization, poverty, exclusion of minorities, environmental degradation, human rights violation, wars, and pandemic diseases). Responsible leaders strive to build and maintain trustful, sustainable and inclusive relationships within a diverse stakeholder network. They address complex dilemmas and multifaceted demands of various stakeholders groups based on ethical and moral decision-making; they aim at achieving mutually beneficial solutions leading toward the creation of social value or desirable social change (Maak & Pless, 2006b). By means of putting the relational capabilities into practice, responsible leaders reconcile differences and bridge the gaps between people – citizens of this planet – who can then identify with a shared and morally sound vision and together achieve higher aims. Consequently, the questions of how to develop responsible leaders who embody all these qualities and competencies gain paramount importance for management scholars and leadership development researchers.


70

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Chapter 3 Developing Responsible Global Leaders Thomas Maak, Nicola M. Pless, and Markéta Borecká Current status (July 2014): Published in the journal Advances in Global Leadership (2014, Vol. 8, pp. 339 - 364), edited by: Joyce S. Osland, Ming Li, Ying Wang. The final publication is available at the website of Emerald Insight at: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/books.htm?chapterid=17113717 DOI: 10.1108/S1535-120320140000008023

Developing Responsible Global Leaders

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3. Developing Responsible Global Leaders Abstract

Two major trends have shaped the international business field over the past decade: globalization and the quest for responsible leadership. Yet, what are the qualities that predispose business leaders to act responsibly in an increasingly complex, interlinked world, and thus to meet new social, environmental and political responsibilities? How can organizations develop these qualities in their current and future leaders? In this chapter, we provide tentative answers to both questions by fleshing out some of the qualities global leaders need to succeed in a connected world and by comparing three innovative executive development programs that use international service learning assignments as a way to instill these qualities in their executives. These programs are PricewaterhouseCoopers’ Ulysses Program, Pfizer’s Global Health Fellows Program, and IBM’s Corporate Service Corps. Keywords

Responsible leadership, leadership development, international service learning, corporate volunteering, organizational development, community development, corporate social responsibility


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3.1. The Responsible Global Leadership Challenge Two major trends have shaped the international business field over the past decade – globalization and the quest for responsible leadership (Stahl, Pless & Maak, 2013). In response to the first trend, various authors have pointed out (Beechler & Javidan, 2007; Bird & Osland, 2004; Levy et al., 2007; Mendenhall, 2008) that the challenges facing managers in the global arena are much tougher than those found at home. This is because the global context increases the complexity and depth of several dimensions for managers and leaders. These settings include wide-ranging diversity both culturally and in terms of cognitive complexity. Hence the need for: knowledge spanning functions and cultures; the need to involve a range of stakeholders in decision-making. This in turn leads to: (1) broader and more frequent spanning of boundaries (both within and across organizational and national boundaries); (2) greater ambiguity in decision-making, especially in connection with ethical dilemmas arising from globalization (Donaldson, 1996).

The second trend (the quest for responsible leadership in business) is both a response to: (1) high-profile business scandals and the global financial crisis in 2008; (2) changes and new demands in the global marketplace (Pless, Maak & Stahl, 2011; Puffer & McCarthy, 2008; Waldman & Galvin, 2008). One such demand is stakeholders’ expectation that corporations and their leaders will take a more active role in contributing to environmental, social, and economic value (Bansal, 2002; Hart & Milstein, 2003), while acting as good citizens wherever they operate. More specifically, business leaders are expected to shoulder new political duties given the shift in power from public to private sectors in many fields, including health, education and human rights (Scherer et al., 2013). Accordingly, business leaders are likely to incur sanctions, suffer stakeholder pressure and lose legitimacy if they fail to acknowledge these seismic shifts in the corporate environment (Suchman, 1995; Kostova & Zaheer, 1999).

Demands that leaders “contribute to the creation of economic and societal progress in a globally responsible and sustainable way” (EFMD, 2005: 3) raise two fundamental questions. They are: (1) What are the qualities that make business leaders willing to act responsibly in an increasingly complex, global, and interconnected world (and thus to meet new social, environmental and political responsibilities)?; (2) How can organizations develop these qualities in their current and future leaders?

In this chapter, we provide tentative answers to both questions by fleshing out some of the qualities global leaders need to succeed in an interconnected world. In doing so, we compare three innovative executive development programs that use


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international service learning assignments to instill these qualities in their executives. These programs are PricewaterhouseCoopers’ Ulysses Program, Pfizer’s Global Health Fellows Program, and IBM’s Corporate Service Corps.

3.2. Responsible Global Leadership Research on global leadership has stressed the importance of qualities such as honesty and integrity (e.g., Black et al., 1999; McCall & Hollenbeck, 2002). However, there is no agreement on what competencies a responsible global leader should have. According to a review conducted by Scalberg (2005), the competencies most commonly referred to in global leadership research are: core business knowledge or business savvy, global mindset, cultural interest and sensitivity, honesty and integrity, ability to think creatively, ability to take a broad systemic view, ability to work effectively in social systems, and empowerment of others.

For the most part, this research has failed to address the complex ethical dilemmas that global leaders may encounter (e.g. child labor, see Pless et al., 2012), and their choices for resolving those dilemmas. There is growing awareness in globally operating businesses that executives must balance global integration of norms and values and responsiveness to local conditions and standards. That is to say, they must ensure globally consistent Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) while also being sensitive to local cultural norms and expectations (Donaldson & Dunfee, 1999; Husted & Allen, 2006; Pless et al., 2011). Dealing effectively with these challenges requires moral judgment (Brown & Treviño, 2006), an ability to balance contradictions (Marquardt & Berger, 2000), and a means to determine when ‘different is different’ and when ‘different is simply wrong’ (Donaldson, 1996).

Schraa-Liu and Trompenaars (2006) argue that responsible global leaders are those who recognize, respect and reconcile multiple values and demands of a diverse workforce, multicultural customers and suppliers, local and global communities, as well as all other relevant stakeholders. Thus, the propensity to deal with value tensions and ambiguity, to grapple with paradoxes and to reconcile dilemmas in responsible and sustainable ways becomes one of the core qualities of a responsible global leader. In other words, he or she needs “moral character and relational qualities to build sustainable relationships and cope with the complex leadership challenges in a global, uncertain and interconnected environment” (Maak & Pless, 2006: 112). This involves listening to diverse constituencies, empathizing with their needs and interests, acknowledging conflicting values and expectations, recognizing dilemmas when they arise, and using moral and social imagination to reconcile dilemmas (Maak & Pless, 2006; McGaw, 2005; Werhane, 1999). Responsible global


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leaders are thus mindful of challenges as they occur (Mirvis, 2008) and “effect significant positive change in organizations by building communities through the development of trust and the arrangement of organizational structures and processes in a context involving multiple cross-boundary stakeholders, multiple sources of external cross-boundary authority, and multiple cultures under conditions of temporal, geographical, and cultural complexity” (Mendenhall, 2008: 17). Yet, how do companies master the educational challenge of developing current and future responsible global leaders? This is the core question to which we devote the remainder of this chapter. 3.3. Developing Responsible Global Leaders

There is strong evidence in research on adult learning that traditional teaching methods (such as classroom teaching) do not lead to fundamental shifts in perspectives, assumptions by and premises of either individuals or corporations (e.g., Taylor, 2001; Yorks & Kasl, 2002). As Adler et al., (2005) have noted, most learning programs continue to focus primarily on building intellectual knowledge and tend to neglect the emotional dimensions of learning as well as the action-based application of new knowledge and skills. Thus, “3-dimensional learning” (Strebel & Keys, 2005: 7) is needed – management educators must design and build into their programs learning experiences that support the intellectual, emotional and behavioral dimensions of learning.

On the content side, management scholars, policymakers and educators have called for new ways to support the development of the leadership competences, mindsets and skills (Giacalone & Thompson, 2006; Ghoshal, 2005; Mintzberg, 2004; Mintzberg & Gosling, 2002; Pfeffer, 2005; Pfeffer & Fong, 2002) needed to navigate a safe course through the hazards of global business context and disrupted organizational dynamics (Broberg & Krull, 2010; Coldwell et al., 2012; Gitsham, 2012). When it comes to developing responsible global leaders the crucial question is how to envision and design educational formats fostering responsible global leadership competencies along the aforementioned trajectories. What program format (if any): (1) triggers learning leading to cross-cultural competencies and a global mindset; (2) teaches executives to cope with social and environmental challenges, ethical dilemmas and trade-offs; (3) improves the relational and emotional abilities of participants to cope with the challenges posed by relationships with multiple stakeholders? Put another way, is there a format that teaches responsible global leadership?


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Pless, Maak and Stahl (2011) in their analysis of the PricewaterhouseCoopers’ Ulysses Program suggest that effective training and development programs in the area of responsible global leadership are those that enable experiences fostering the intellectual, emotional, and behavioral dimensions of learning, and thus learning at the cognitive, affective and behavioral levels, or “3-dimensional learning” (Strebel & Keys, 2005). For instance, the Ulysses Program, which will be described in more detail below, triggers learning through paradoxical experiences. It enables participants to develop a new perspective of self and the world, and forces the executives to make sense of the emotions experienced in challenging contexts (Pless et al., 2011), thereby laying the foundation for truly transformative experiences.

For a program to be truly transformational, experiences are needed that require individuals to deal with challenges unique to current or future leadership roles and responsibilities, such as creating change, working across organizational boundaries with multiple stakeholders, or influencing people and processes over which one has no direct control (DeRue & Wellman, 2009). In general, this “pedagogy of challenge” (Higham, Freathy & Wegeri, 2010), is considered to be effective because it puts “learners in situations where they are confronted with very different perspectives, beliefs and priorities and thereby forced to reconsider, defend and adapt their own” (p. 424). As a consequence, real-world learning, or new developmental approaches and methodologies based on experiential learning are stressed. Experiential learning builds on the work and methodology of David Kolb (1984) but has its roots in the work of American pragmatist John Dewey (1916, 1938) who located meaningful education firmly in the context of social interaction and experience. According to Kolb, “learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (Kolb 1984: 38). Kolb’s theory rests on six assumptions: (1) learning is a process, not an outcome; (2) learning is rooted in experience; (3) learning requires the learner to resolve the tension between dialectically opposed demands; (4) learning is a holistic process; (5) learning involves the interplay between a person and the environment; (6) learning results in knowledge creation (see Kayes, 2002: 139; Kolb, 1984: 25).

In light of the specific challenges and core trajectories of responsible global leadership, it is hardly surprising that service learning experiences have emerged as the format of choice in leadership development programs. Service learning represents a form of experiential education, or “high-impact learning” (Dugan et al., 2011), in which participants “engage in activities that address human and community needs together with structured opportunities intentionally designed to promote [their] learning and development; service-learning combines service


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objectives with learning objectives with the intent that the activity changes both the recipient and provider of the service” (Jacoby, 1996: 5). The specialist literature stresses the potential of service learning assignments for moral development (Boss, 1994; Markus, Howard & King, 1993), for raising awareness of social issues (Kolenko et al., 1996), for encouraging civic and social responsibility (Eyler & Giles, 1999; Fleckenstein, 1997; Gabelnick, 1997; Godfrey et al., 2005; Lester et al., 2005; Morgan & Streb, 1999), for developing greater tolerance of diversity (Dumas, 2002) and for enhancing relational abilities (Eyler & Giles, 1999; Rhoads, 1997) – qualities that are essential for responsible global leadership.

3.4. The Rise of International Service Learning Programs

Given that most leaders lack the competencies, qualities, education and training to cope with the wider social, political, ecological, and ethical challenges they encounter in the global arena, a growing number of companies have started to explore new ways to prepare their current and future executives for the demands of leading responsibly in a global stakeholder environment (e.g., Cameron & Caza, 2005; Kashyap, Mir & Iyer, 2006; Samuelson, 2006; Spreitzer, 2006).

While corporate volunteering and ‘giving back to communities’ (sic) have a relatively long history, their use across borders is a relatively new phenomenon (Caligiuri et al., 2013). In this chapter we will employ the term ‘International Service Learning Programs’ (ISLP) for programs designed to create learning experiences abroad and ‘community service’ for learning at home (Pless et al., 2011). Through ISLP, companies send top performers and high-potentials on sabbaticals to developing countries to lend their expertise to nonprofit organizations, communities and (social) entrepreneurs. ISLP represent an innovative mechanism to develop employee leadership skills through social engagement and to expand business opportunities while driving growth in emerging markets (Hills & Mahmud, 2007).

ISLP can be seen as the “most powerful experience in shaping the perspective and capabilities of effective global leaders” (Black et al., 1999: 2). It has been argued that such international assignments and consciousness-raising experiences help develop leaders capable of addressing some of the most pressing global issues and of supporting and driving the company’s sustainability strategy. Generally speaking, companies implementing ISLP sponsor their employees to work on voluntary cross-border projects in developing countries either on their own or in teams. The projects last for between two weeks and a year. Program participants work with small businesses, nonprofit entities, government agencies, charities,


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universities and associations in varied industries. They leverage their core competencies and skills to provide for instance free consulting services in areas such as strategic planning, marketing, finance, IT, and project management (Thompson, Ahern & Schroeder, 2010). Examples of cross-border ISLP starting early in this decade are PricewaterhouseCoopers’ Ulysses Program, Pfizer’s Global Health Fellowship Program and EY’s Americas Corporate Responsibility Fellows Program. Since then, other companies, including IBM, Intel, GlaxoSmithKline, Novartis, HP, Cisco, HSBC, Starbucks, Dow Corning, PepsiCo, FedEx and Mars, have implemented various forms of ISLP. These programs differ according to the target group of employees, length and focus of the assignment, geographic location, and funding structure (Thompson, Ahern & Schroeder, 2010; Hills & Mahmud, 2007). Currently, over 27 Fortune 500 companies operate some kind of international corporate volunteering program in emerging economies such as India, Brazil, Vietnam, and Ghana (CDC Development Solutions Survey, 2012).

3.5. International Service Learning at PricewaterhouseCoopers, Pfizer

and IBM – A Cross-Company Comparison For the purpose of illustrating ISLP’s potential to develop the next generation

of responsible global leaders, we compare three innovative programs, which differ in terms of target groups, length and scope of the program, and stated objectives. The three programs have distinct track records but are all well- established in the ISLP field. The programs are: PricewaterhouseCoopers’ Ulysses Program (hereinafter PwC Ulysses), launched in 2001; Pfizer’s Global Health Fellows Program (Pfizer GHFP), launched in 2003; and IBM’s Corporate Service Corps (IBM CSC), launched in 2008.

PricewaterhouseCoopers’ Ulysses Program (PwC Ulysses) is a highly-structured leadership development program in which multi-cultural teams of 3 to 4 executives work for almost two months in developing countries in collaboration with NGOs, international organizations or social entrepreneurs (see Pless et al., 2011 for an in-depth analysis). A typical cross-sector assignment is the 2005 Rural Electrification Project in Madagascar where four PwC Partners from Russia, France, Indonesia, and the US went to the Andapa and Sambava Districts of Madagascar. There, they worked with UNDP on a socio-economic study whose purpose was to scout for projects to alleviate poverty and boost economic growth in Madagascar’s poorer regions. Examples of other assignments include poverty alleviation in East Timor; strengthening coordination in the fight against HIV/AIDS in Uganda; or a child helpline in India. The program triggered profound learning in: global


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mindset; cross-cultural competence; ethical mindset; the ability to deal with ambiguity and reconcile dilemmas; social and emotional intelligence; the ability to connect to stakeholders (Pless et al., 2011). Among the benefits for PwC as a company is the creation of a sustainable brand, defined and differentiated by the quality of relationships with its employees, clients and communities. Ulysses was designed to create the next generation of leaders at PwC, but it is also transforming PwC into a ‘next generation organization’, that is, a truly value-oriented community (Deiser, 2009).

Pfizer’s Global Health Fellows Program (Pfizer GHFP) is a global skill-based volunteer program launched in 2003. It sends individual Pfizer employees on health-related assignments with leading international development organizations in developing and emerging markets. Its 20-25 participants each year are considered high-performing employees. Since 2010 Pfizer has also launched team-based fellowships. Examples of assignments include working alongside Mothers2Mothers in South Africa to scale up services to combat the spread of HIV from mothers to their children; or addressing core needs of Infectious Diseases Institute in Uganda, helping to build new capacity and contributing to significant growth of the company.

IBM’s Corporate Service Corps (IBM CSC) is an international community service assignment and leadership development program for high-potential IBM employees inspired by the U.S. Peace Corps. Each year, approximately 500 high-flyers are sent in multi-cultural teams to developing countries to work on social, economic, business or environment issues. Examples of assignments include helping the Electricity Company of Ghana through an IT governance model to help standardize IT systems and ensure consistency in its management approach; or helping Nigeria’s Cross River State with two programs to facilitate free health care to mothers and young children. Frequently, the programs are designed in a way so that IBM staff can contribute their IT-related and consultant skills, for instance by focusing on the design of ‘smart cities’ in Mexico.

3.5.1. General Program Features

The various features of all three programs are summarized in Table 3.1. The stated objectives of the three ISLP cover: community development and improving health (Pfizer GHFP); boosting economic and social development and protecting the environment (PwC Ulysses and IBM CSC). Leadership development objectives and thus the learning objectives for participants and the benefits for the company are implicit in the company’s program communication. These benefits include for

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94


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instance developing new market opportunities, business innovation, improving key stakeholder relationships (Pless & Borecká, 2014).

All programs target high performers or talents: PwC Ulysses focuses on senior level leaders or top managers, predominantly partners, sending them in diverse teams with a maximum of 4 people. The team size in IBM CSC is significantly larger (12-15) but people are divided into sub-teams when on assignment. Moreover, IBM has recently created the Executive Service Corps (ESC) to provide a tailored experience to smaller teams of senior executives. Pfizer GHFP sends participants to work on individual assignments, although it has also diversified the program in 2010, creating shorter, team-based fellowships.

Finally, when it comes to program length, the three ISLP differ significantly. PwC Ulysses sends some 20 participants each year on 8-week-long assignments. Pfizer GHFP sends 20-25 participants a year for about 3 to 6 months, depending on participant and project, making it more of a longer-term secondment. IBM CSC usually lasts four weeks but enables roughly 500 participants a year to go on a service learning assignment, thereby creating a significant scaling effect within the company.

3.5.2. Program Design Regarding program design, it should be noted that all three ISLP are

structured in a similar way (but with slight differences in their terms and stage lengths): (1) pre-assignment and preparation: (2) in-country placement: (3) post-assignment. Depending on the program, these blocks are split into sub-phases. For example, both PwC Ulysses and Pfizer GHFP distinguish between the nomination or application phase (during which the participants are selected) and the actual preparation phase (guidance and preparation for the field work). PwC Ulysses has six stages: (1) nomination; (2) preparation; (3) induction; (4) assignment; (5) debriefing; (6) networking. Here, phases one through three are pre-assignment and phases five and six, post-assignment. Both induction and debriefing have proven vital to preparing participants for learning and debriefing linked to individual leadership objectives (Pless et al., 2011). The stages correspond to the basic elements of service learning as described by Dumas (2002) – namely, preparation, service, reflection, celebration. The matching of participants’ skills and background to create the ‘optimal’ program experience is either coordinated internally by the program management (PwC Ulysses and Pfizer GHFP) or with the help of external partners (for IBM CSC). For its CSC, and in light of the large number of participants, IBM enlists the help of


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3 implementation partners with experience of placing individuals in short-term business assignments in the developing world: Australian Business Volunteers (ABV), Citizens Development Corps (CDC) Development Solutions, and Digital Opportunity Trust (DOT) (IBM Company Website, 2013).

During the field assignment, participants have to use their professional skills (in consulting, finance, IT, project management, marketing, or whatever else). With few exceptions the assignments require only the use of general management skills, albeit in challenging contexts. Only the Pfizer-program also focuses on improving health service delivery or optimizing supply chains – both issues that are directly linked to the firm’s core business (Pless & Borecká, 2014). The host countries range from large emerging economies such as Brazil, China, and Russia to countries as diverse as Kenya, Egypt, Vietnam, Nigeria, and South Africa.

3.5.3. Program Methodology General features. The specific learning methods applied in the programs

usually involve a combination of elements: individual study (readings and on-line learning), teambuilding (also virtual via teleconferences), workshops and live training. Depending on the program aims, residential induction and post-experience review modules may be crucial elements for facilitating learning. As Table 3.1. shows, while they differ in the depth and breadth of the induction stage, all programs have a specific ‘post-assignment’ phase in which participants review their learning, network, finalize their reports and work on questions bearing on re-entry; the latter being of particular importance for longer programs such as Pfizer’s or PwC’s. Coaching – a frequent method in leadership development (Boyce et al., 2010; Bone et al., 2009; Hall et al., 1999), 360-degree feedback, yoga and meditation are also sometimes used to support the learning ‘journeys’. Moreover, PwC Ulysses uses a specific integrated service-learning approach to leadership development combining 360-degree feedback, coaching, team building, project-based learning, meditation and yoga, reflective exercises, and story-telling sessions to achieve learning at the cognitive, affective, and behavioral levels (Pless et al., 2011). The three elements at the core of the integrated service learning methodology – assessment, challenge, support – have been identified as crucial for effective leadership development processes (Van Velsor et al., 1998).

In the debriefing phase, participants are helped to make sense of and learn from their experience. All programs feature debriefing of participants’ learning, although they differ in details depending on the nature and scope of the assignments. For instance, in the case of IBM CSC, the debriefing is carried out with the external


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partner organizations. The debriefing aims to evaluate project outcomes. This is in line with the program emphasis on community impact rather than personal transformation, which plays a more significant role within PwC Ulysses and Pfizer GHFP. As mentioned above in connection with PwC Ulysses, the debriefing phase is very important and includes storytelling and pooling experience, debriefing by facilitators, working on 360-feedback dimensions with coaches, using team-learning stories and presenting them, sharing individuals’ vision statements, setting learning goals and preparing a development plan (Pless et al., 2011). Cari Caldwell, a London-based consultant on cultural diversity emphasizes “the need to really support the participants throughout the process by helping them to make sense of the experience personally and professionally (...) Without giving participants new frames of reference, they may risk being ‘development tourists,’ or experience traditional development attitudes of being there to ‘show NGOs the way’” (Caldwell, 2004).

Within IBM CSC, the post-service work lasts for two months and includes: synthesizing lessons learned, ongoing sharing of the experience upon return, with colleagues, family, friends and home community and connecting to IBM’s business development process. The participants reflect on learning for their careers and opportunities and often serve as mentors to succeeding teams. Since 2013, participants have been asked to review their work against the IBM competency framework and note any changes with a 6-9-month delay after return, to give the opportunity for proper on-the-job reflection (Pless & Borecká, 2014). Both, PwC Ulysses and IBM CSC also mention the reflective element towards future careers or visions of the participants.

Learning transfer in all three programs is encouraged through sharing and reflecting on the experiences. Also, the effect of becoming part of the program’s global Alumni network offers the support and opportunities for sharing and networking. In all studied programs, it seems that the application of experience and thus learning to the job environment is left to the participants, which indicates both the individualized character of the specific learning journeys and the fact that the majority of participants play some kind of management or leadership role.

3.6. Outcomes and Benefits of International Service Learning Programs What makes ISLP a method of choice to develop responsible global leaders?

Before we provide a tentative answer to this question, it should be noted that benefits occur at various levels (individual, organizational, and societal). Thus, while centered on individual learning experiences, ISLP provide the benefit of multi-level


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outcomes not just for program participants but also for companies, project partners, communities and society at large. Moreover, ISLP are both effective and transformational given that participants “return as different people, deeper thinking people, people that have stretched their brains and hearts, opened their eyes and figured out solutions to problems that they likely had never thought of before…” (Colbert, 2011). Specifically, research has shown that service learning and experiences abroad lead to enhanced critical thinking and problem solving (Eyler & Giles, 1999; Lester et al., 2005); moral development and increased moral awareness (Boss, 1994; Pless et al., 2011); civic engagement and volunteerism (Dewey, 1938; Langseth & Plater, 2004; Tomkovick et al., 2008); social responsibility and values development (Eyler, Giles, Stenson & Gray, 2000; Lester et al., 2005; Papamarcos, 2005); and self-efficacy and confidence (Giles & Eyler, 1994; Papamarcos, 2005; Tucker & McCarthy, 2001; Brower, 2011). The literature stresses the potential of service-learning assignments for developing a greater tolerance of diversity (Dumas, 2002); for raising awareness of social issues (Kolenko et al., 1996; Pless et al., 2011); for encouraging civic and social responsibility (Eyler & Giles, 1999; Fleckenstein, 1997; Gabelnick, 1997; Godfrey et al., 2005; Lester et al., 2005; Morgan and Streb, 1999), and for enhancing relational abilities (Eyler & Giles, 1999; Rhoads, 1997; Pless et al., 2011) – all qualities which are essential for responsible global leadership (Pless et al., 2011). The specific value added by international service learning assignments is that it mirrors the real-life complexity in international business, often in challenging conditions. For instance, Ulysses participants work frequently ‘off the beaten track,’ where they need to connect to local communities and stakeholders and face the complexity of problem solving ‘from the bottom up.’ Pless et al., (2011) have shown in their in-depth analysis of learning stories collected from Ulysses participants that this frequently requires dealing with paradoxes arising from local-global tensions, coping with dilemmas and finding ways to solve – both qualities needed for responsible leadership in an interconnected world. The authors conclude that the Ulysses Program is highly effective in fostering the qualities sought in responsible global leaders, namely: global mindset; cultural intelligence: responsible mindset: ethical literacy: self-awareness; relationship-building.

Of course, sending current and future leaders abroad for this kind of ISLP experience comes at a cost – companies need to make-up for participants’ time and the overall program costs can be significant, depending on the number of participants, scope and location of the projects, and so forth. Yet, ISLP provide a completely different level of stretch and personal development than do alternative


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home programs. Moreover, home programs (while offering plenty of service-learning opportunities) do not stretch people nearly as much as global programs do. Often, domestic programs leave participants to choose the work they would like to undertake, or place individuals on the basis of the skills they already have (Farmer, 2012). However, participants achieve a much greater personal-development impact when matched to projects on the basis of their development needs, as well as their skills while being sent thousands of miles away, with no support network (Farmer, 2012). According to Kanter (in Olson, 2011), such short-term international projects are actually cost-effective ways to build skills and relationships in diverse teams, mirroring the way of working where people are thrust into new situations and have to learn and react fast and at the same time adjust quickly to different cultures and circumstances. ISLP participants have to coordinate with local stakeholders to achieve outcomes, work more intensely to make an impact in the light of cross-cultural differences in values and working styles, and be resilient and think on their feet. ISLP require participants to constantly re-evaluate how they are contributing to their team’s assignment in order to reach their goals in a short timeframe (MacArthur, 2012), creating a sense of urgency to deliver. All of these skills are essential for any company looking to operate in today’s global marketplace. When it comes to organizational-level outcomes, Pless and Borecká (2014) suggest in a comparison of ISLP that participants gain business-relevant experience in developing and emerging markets; improved global team and collaboration skills; and enhanced technical skills. At the company level, programs may: generate new insights and knowledge on new business and market opportunities (particularly at the ‘bottom of the pyramid’); foster innovation and new business models; improve stakeholder relationships and brand perception; build and strengthen a global team culture and talent network; create a pool of global leaders and managers. At the community and broader societal levels, the programs spur positive changes in the communities where the projects take place; organizational development and process improvement; knowledge transfer and capacity-building. Figure 3.1. summarizes the generic features of ISLP, including the aforementioned outcomes.

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3.7. Discussion and Conclusion Whether short-term or long-term, our analysis suggests that ISLP are the

method of choice for developing responsible global leaders. Among other things, ISLP promote global mindset, intercultural skills, ability to deal with dilemmas, and relational qualities in order to successfully engage with stakeholders at home and abroad. However, there are differences in program characteristics and design that are worth discussing since they may influence the degree to which ISLP will be effective in developing global leaders, businesses and addressing major global issues (Hills & Mahmud, 2007). One of the experienced implementation partners, CDC Development Solutions (which helps corporations design ISLP) stresses that programs should be designed to further staff development, business expansion, public relations strategies while reflecting each firm’s business strategy, budget, geographic footprint, HR goals, and core competencies (CDC Development Solutions and International Corporate Volunteerism, leaflet 2010). De Vries and Korotov (2007) examined five major challenges in program design, which they identified as: (1) selecting participants; (2) identifying the focal issue they will work on; (3) the creation of a safe transitional space that enables the change process; (4) using the group dynamic to foster transformation and to arrive at internalization of the change process; (5) the educational implications for the program designers and the serving institution. Grusky (2000) noted that without thoughtful preparation, orientation, program development, and critical analysis and reflection, programs can easily recreate cultural misunderstandings and simplistic stereotypes and replay, on a smaller scale, the huge disparities in income and opportunity that characterize North-South relations today. Therefore, according to Bartsch (2012), the program design should include: (1) introduction and preparation (setting individual learning topic and choosing the beneficiary organization); (2) the experience in the chosen beneficiary organization and daily reflection; (3) evaluation and concept transfer; (4) follow-up coaching.

All the studied ISLP stress carefully crafted pre-assignment phases, although they differ in the details. For instance, only PwC Ulysses and Pfizer GHFP use residential induction modules, while IBM CSC relies on a longer individual distance preparation phase. While tailored stage-setting formats are highly desirable to ensure the effectiveness of the learning process, the scale of IBM’s program effectively rules out such modules. When it comes to the on-site experience, one should note that the actual learning unit differs in the programs. Both IBM and PwC use participant teams while Pfizer stresses the individual participant. All the programs have a good track record in selecting partnering organizations and projects to work


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on. Finding the right partners and projects is a key factor in the success of ISLP experiences. From a program perspective, one needs reliable partners who can offer projects that are challenging enough to ‘stretch’ participants. We observe that to ensure consistent quality of assignments, companies either work with specialized intermediaries (IBM) or build relationships to selected partners in assignment countries (PwC).

The most demanding task for any ISLP management is arguably the post-assignment phase, specifically the debriefing of learning and learning transfer and thus facilitating application of the knowledge, skills and attitudes gained in the ISLP context back to the work place. Our data suggest that the more challenging the experience and the deeper the emotional impact on participants, the more attention (debriefing, coaching, etc.) is needed to make a successful transition. The programs employ a variety of methods to facilitate this process: e.g., presentation of learning stories and case studies, team sessions with skilled facilitators, individual coaching, drafting and sharing of individual vision statements. Learning transfer is a challenge for all training programs (Belling, James & Ladkin, 2003; Haskins & Clawson, 2006; Johnson, Garrison, Broome, Fleenor & Steed, 2012), but it is particularly so for ISLP because of the inherent difficulty of capturing what is usually a 3D learning experience. Moreover, to date none of the programs features a specific re-entry routine; it seems that both re-entry and subsequent use of the program experience are left mainly to the participants. Alumni networks, where they exist, can provide an important point of reference and support, connecting former participants who keep in touch, meet on a regular basis, share experiences, mentor new participants, etc. However, the information regarding program alumni networks is vague and patchy. Clearly, further research is needed in order to investigate whether and how they work and to what extent they may contribute to ISLP sustainability.

As international service learning and corporate volunteering continue to grow and as firms improve and hone their programs, researchers may want to study the impact ISLP have on other constituencies in a more systematic way. While ISLP are the method of choice for developing responsible global leaders, we urge research that sheds light on the impact of ISLP on companies, partnering organizations and host communities. To date, there is only anecdotal evidence of the positive impact for organizations and individuals on the ‘receiving end.’ More substantial evidence of the effects on stakeholders may provide important insights on the effectiveness of integrated service-learning approaches (i.e., programs linking global exposure, local stakeholder engagement, individual learning and development, community service).


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Looking to the future of ISLP, we are likely to see more fine-tuning, greater impact and scaling up of ISLP. As Hills and Mahmud (2007) suggest, corporations can think more broadly about their goals: they can go beyond simply running an effective international corporate volunteering program and find opportunities for scaling up their efforts and thus increase the impact. One trend that has emerged in recent years is partnering with clients – the IBM program being a prime example. IBM has not only helped half-dozen other companies put together similar programs, including FedEx, John Deere and Dow Corning (Litow, 2011) but also taken staff from client firms on IBM CSC assignments. In 2011, for example, FedEx sent four people along with 10 IBM staffers on a CSC engagement to northeastern Brazil (Litow, 2011). Such learning partnerships have the potential to take client relationships to a deeper level, thereby reinforcing and sustaining business lifelines.

Furthermore, ISLP can serve as incubator for cross-sector collaboration beyond corporate philanthropy and volunteering. Such collaboration would bring deeper expertise embodying a broader range of competencies and perspectives, while building relationships with non-business stakeholders. In addition, IBM has co-founded the Center of Excellence for International Corporate Volunteerism. The Center has helped other firms learn from IBM’s experience to build their own programs. Thus, the company is leveraging its growing expertise and disseminates its knowledge through specified services to clients.

When it comes to new ISLP formats, we may see future examples of high-impact international volunteering. Hills and Mahmud (2007) give an example of an ISLP team that might consist of a GE engineer, an IBM technology expert, a Pfizer research scientist, and an Accenture consultant. If managed well, they could bring a range of expertise and talent to bear on targeted problems. Another potentially fruitful direction is to explore local models of service learning programs, despite the caveats discussed above. Given the relatively high cost and potential life disruptions of cross-border models, local service can offer a great way to scale up and enhance service learning formats on a company’s doorstep. Let us consider the local Novo Nordisk TakeAction! Program. It aims at engaging employees in volunteer activities reaching out to communities and supporting the ‘Novo Nordisk way,’ that is, engaging external stakeholders in changing eating habits, diabetes treatment, and in other therapy areas (Make the Fight Personal – Introduction to TakeAction, 2012). Another example is IBM’s local program ‘On Demand Community’ – a tightly focused and coordinated effort intended to help IBM volunteers assist their communities (On Demand Community help and FAQs). This program alone


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increased from 25,000 volunteers in the first year to 80,000 in the third year (Hills & Mahmud, 2007).

In conclusion, it is likely that we will witness both more fine-tuned, high-impact ISLP (in-company and cross-company) and national or local ‘spin-offs’ to scale up the leadership development efforts at the local level. Once equipped with a smart, learning-transfer oriented design and clear learning objectives, ISLP are not only highly effective in developing the next generation of responsible global leaders but are also a means to advance business goals and to address critical global issues.


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Chapter 4 Developing Global Leaders Who Make a Difference Thomas Maak, Markéta Borecká, and Nicola M. Pless Current status (July 2014): Accepted for publication as a book chapter for Edward Elgar Publishing: Research Handbook of Global Leadership: Making a difference (2014)

Developing Global Leaders Who Make a Difference

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4. Developing Global Leaders Who Make a Difference Abstract

Current leaders have no other choice than to operate in an environment that is interconnected, complex, and globalized. In order to cope in such an environment while satisfying the needs of various stakeholder groups, leaders need competencies that will help them meet the new responsibilities and make a difference. This article looks at the new trend of International Service Learning Programs that organizations use to develop responsible global leadership competencies. Specifically, four different programs are compared – PricewaterhouseCoopers’ Ulysses, HSBC’s Next Generation Development Program, IBM’s Corporate Service Corps, and Novartis’ Entrepreneurial Leadership Program – their differences are discussed, and the questions of how and to what extent these programs develop global leaders who (will) make a difference are addressed. The analysis of the four programs showed the beneficial outcomes of International Service Learning Programs for individual participants, for their organizations, and for broader communities. Keywords

International service learning programs, responsible leadership, leadership development, corporate volunteering, organizational development, community development, corporate social responsibility


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4.1. In Search of Leaders Who Make a Difference The past decade has seen a seminal shift in the global business environment:

“rapidly increasing global interconnectedness” (Adler, 2006) forces business leaders to adapt their organizations to a seamless environment, in which poverty and diseases in Africa, the speed and reliance on IT-services in India, large-scale pollution in China, and increasingly critical consumers in home markets are all connected. At the same time, we witness a power shift from local economies towards global corporations. According to UNCTAD data, 51 of the world’s largest economies are now corporations, not nation states. In light of this power shift, stakeholders call on business and their leaders to make a difference and thus to take a more active role in solving the world’s most pressing problems, such as protecting and promoting human rights, global warming, contributing to poverty alleviation and the fight against diseases such as malaria and HIV/AIDS (Maak & Pless, 2009). According to Lodge & Wilson (2006, p. 40), farsighted leaders already “have recognized that the source of their legitimacy has moved, and that alongside shareholder satisfaction (...) has come the servicing of community needs, however they might be defined.” More specifically, Maak & Pless argue that responsible business leaders “inspire and spearhead a humanist business culture that seeks to serve human needs, solve social and environmental problems, and generate well-being and prosperity for everyone” (2008, p. 359).

Surveys of senior executives (McKinsey, 2010) reveal, however, that a knowing–doing gap persists with regard to responsible global leadership: Executives recognize their broader responsibilities as global citizens, but they also struggle to cope effectively with the wider social, political, and environmental issues. This comes as no surprise as business schools are struggling as well to respond to the changing demands in developing the next generation of leaders. The late Sumantra Ghoshal (2005) has argued convincingly that we need to rethink business education and, thus, how we educate future business leaders. Ghoshal claims that academic research has had “some very significant and negative influences on the practice of management.” In fact, “by propagating ideologically inspired amoral theories, business schools have actively freed their students from any sense of moral responsibility” (2005, p. 76). No wonder, Ghoshal concludes that we get “… ruthlessly hard-driving, strictly top-down, command-and-control focused, shareholder-value-obsessed, win-at-any-cost business leaders …” (p. 85). Business schools, therefore, should start to rethink and revamp their course contents, suspend old ideologies to enable true integration of moral and ethical issues into


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research and teaching, specifically when it comes to leadership. Far too long, leadership research and teaching has been obsessed with the effectiveness of a leader to get others to do his wishes, or those of the organization; thereby neglecting the fact that leadership, by its very nature, is inextricably based on normative decisions about what is a good and desirable purpose, what leaders do and how they get others to do what is considered worth doing. Or, as Ciulla argues, ethics is at the very heart of leadership by way of normative decisions about “how leaders get people to do things (impress, organize, persuade, influence and inspire) and how what is to be done is decided (forced obedience, voluntary consent, dictated by the leader or a reflection of mutual purposes)” (2006, p. 21).

Bennis & O’Toole (2005) argue that in order to overcome the “methodolatry” at business schools one has “to restore balance to the curriculum and the faculty” to meet “the task of educating competent and ethical practitioners” and future leaders (2005, p. 103). Consequently, if “business schools have lost their way”, as Bennis & O’Toole (2005) contend, and if “bad theories are destroying good practices”, as Ghoshal (2005) argues, then we face some fundamental challenges in educating our current and future leaders. But what is it that we have to teach them; what makes a responsible global leader? As Maak (2007, p. 330) argues, “we still have little knowledge about responsible leadership and even less about how to develop responsibility in leaders to prepare them for the challenges of a global and interconnected stakeholder society”. Let’s turn to a practical example as a case in point.

Tex Gunning, the former president of Unilever Bestfoods Asia, joint Unilever in the mid-nineties when markets were saturated. Brought in as an expert for restructuring, which at that time was an open code word for laying off workers, he decided to seek new, uncommon ways to grow the business without laying off people. He decided to build a human community where individuals work together, enjoy what they are doing, care for each other, and – based on values such as trust, honesty and authenticity – take the business in creative and innovative directions (WIE, 2005). As a result, the business turned around quickly. A key to this success were multiple “breakouts”: demanding experiential learning retreats in places like Jordan, India, China or Malaysia. And, as president of Unilever Bestfoods Asia, he not only started the food business in 15 countries, but also set as his goal to significantly improve the nutrition and well-being of children in Asia (WIE, 2005). The vision for improving the livelihood of people the impact of living a social mission intrinsic to the business on a daily basis; the caring spirit unleashed by


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“breakouts” to the real world with real problems, all this is encapsulated in the Tsunami relief efforts of Unilever Best Foods in Sri Lanka (Unilever, 2005). Reflecting back on the journey of more than one hundred employees, Gunning notes: “(W)e realized again that if we inculcate a meaningful spirit, if we develop the right values of service, care and belonging and we help our people to grow as human and business beings that the rest will follow much more easily. As leaders, we need a whole new level of consciousness about the functioning of organizations. Recognize that it is a living and therefore continuously changing organism, adjusting itself to its new circumstances and adjusting to the human players that make up the organization” (WIE, 2005, p. 96).

When asked what makes a leader outstanding, Tex Gunning answers: “Average leaders take care of themselves and their families. Good leaders take care of themselves, their families and some of the community. Great leaders – and great companies – not only take care of these stakeholders but also want to change the world. They want to leave the world better than they found it” (WIE, 2005, p. 96). Gunning epitomizes the nature of a servant leader who acts as steward of values and resources (Maak & Pless, 2006), but more importantly who helps others to grow as persons so that they can become leaders in their own right (Greenleaf, 1977/2002). He also fits the definition Mendenhall (2008, p. 17) gives of a responsible global leader: “individuals who effect significant positive change in organizations by building communities through the development of trust and the arrangement of organizational structures and processes in a context involving multiple cross-boundary stakeholders, multiple sources of external cross-boundary authority, and multiple cultures under conditions of temporal, geographical and cultural complexity.”

Extending this complexity even further, executives of global corporations must balance various needs, such as global integration and local responsiveness, to ensure global consistency in corporate social responsibility approaches and initiatives while also being sensitive to local cultural norms and expectations (Donaldson & Dunfee, 1999; Husted & Allen, 2006; Pless, Maak & Stahl, 2011). Dealing effectively with these challenges requires moral judgment (Brown & Treviño, 2006), an ability to balance contradictions (Marquardt & Berger, 2000), and a means to determine when different is different and when different is simply wrong (Donaldson, 1996).

Moreover, it has been argued that leaders need a specific global mindset (e.g., Levy et al., 2007) which enables them to understand the dynamics of different


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markets, operating environments, and cultures in highly interdependent societies (Hills & Mahmud, 2007; Kok-Yee, Dyne & Soon, 2009; Thompson, Ahern & Schroeder, 2010). It has also been noted that leaders need boundary spanning capabilities to succeed in multi-stakeholder environments, specifically when engaged in cross-sector collaborations between for-profit businesses and not-for-profit entities which are growing in number and importance in light of pressing public problems (Bryson et al., 2006; Kale & Singh, 2009), like, e.g., Grameen Alliances or CARE collaborations. The parties in such collaborations differ in their goals, logics, resources, and governance structures (Austin, 2000; Berger, Cunningham & Drumwright, 2004; Doh & Teegen, 2003; Hardy, Lawrence & Phillips, 2006; Kanter, 1999; LeBer & Branzei, 2010; Rondinelli & London, 2003; Waddell & Brown, 1997). Such collaborations require not only boundary spanning capabilities, i.e., being able to extensively communicate through individual ties to external organizational entities and serve as exchange agents between organizations and environments (Wilensky, 1967), but they also offer opportunities for mutual learning experiences in generating innovative solutions to today’s global challenges.

A growing trend that has emerged in executive education in recent years is to utilize cross-sector experiences in systematic ways, usually coupled with service learning assignments, to develop responsible global leadership capabilities. Specifically, Pless at al. (2011) have shown the effectiveness of international service learning programs in the development of global mindset and intercultural competencies; ethical mindset and moral competencies; as well as social and emotional competencies and the ability to relate to others, including diverse stakeholders – all qualities that are essential for global leaders and arguably a pre-condition to make a difference.

In what follows, we will first introduce this trend in more detail. We will then discuss the benefits of international service learning programs. Specifically, we will compare four different programs – PricewaterhouseCoopers’ Ulysses; HSBC’s Next Generation Development Program; IBM’s Corporate Service Corps, and Novartis’ Entrepreneurial Leadership Program – and discuss their differences and how, and to what extent, these programs develop global leaders who (will) make a difference. 4.2. International Service Learning Programs (ISLP)

As indicated, numerous multinational corporations have started to send selected executives and employees on “mini-sabbaticals” to developing countries


122

with the aim to lend their expertise to non-profit organizations or high-impact social entrepreneurs and contribute to improving some of the world’s burning issues (Hewlett, 2012a). For example, Novartis through its Entrepreneurial Leadership Program is sending global teams of high-performing talent to emerging markets to develop solution to country-specific health challenges; EY has the Americas Corporate Responsibility Fellows Program in which employees help entrepreneurs in emerging markets to develop their businesses; and the Intel Education Service Corps program enables talented employees to work with NGOs in developing countries to support the deployment of Intel-powered classmate PCs, including pro-bono teaching and training. Among the companies which have adopted ISLP are furthermore IBM, Pfizer, PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC), GlaxoSmithKline, Cisco, HSBC, Starbucks, and Mars. These companies operate programs with varied parameters – target group of leaders/employees, length and focus of assignment, geographic location, and funding structure (Thompson et al., 2010; Hills & Mahmud, 2007); yet they share the common feature of challenging cross-border assignments, stakeholder engagement, and service learning.

The cross-border model of international corporate volunteering and service learning programs is a relatively new phenomenon in multinational companies, although the methodology as such is not. ISLP offer a unique and an innovative mechanism to develop leadership skills and capacity through social engagement, while serving as potential drivers of growth in emerging markets. It also marks a shift from local service models (and thus traditional corporate volunteering) to more elaborate international programs which can leverage corporate assets and expertise more strategically (Thompson et al., 2010; Hills & Mahmud, 2007) and, more importantly, provide a unique learning format fostering the above mentioned global leadership capabilities.

We use the term International Service Learning Programs (ISLP) when referring to cross-border corporate volunteering programs because the term ISLP is broader and goes beyond the usual understanding of volunteering in emphasizing the learning experience through service provided to local beneficiaries (Pless et al., 2011). In principle, ISLP are carefully designed experiential corporate volunteering programs that send employees on mini-sabbaticals to overseas locations (often developing or emerging markets) for a limited period of time to contribute their knowledge and expertise in areas such as strategic planning, marketing, finance, IT, and project management while providing pro bono consulting services to a social partner (e.g., a selected group of NGOs, social entrepreneurs, government agencies,


123

charity organizations, universities and associations in varied industries) and, in exchange, develop leadership skills and adopt a broader picture (Thompson et al., 2010).

Methodologically and functionally, ISLP are a hybrid of service and experiential learning. Service learning represents a form of experiential education in which participants “engage in activities that address human and community needs together with structured opportunities intentionally designed to promote [their] learning and development; service-learning combines service objectives with learning objectives with the intent that the activity change both the recipient and provider of the service” (Jacoby, 1996, p. 5). The philosophical roots of service learning can be traced back to the American pragmatist philosopher and educational reformer John Dewey (1859-1952). Dewey emphasized the importance of genuine learning through focusing the attention on real-world issues in a real-world context and subsequent reflection upon the experience, enabling participants to develop the capacity for intelligent thought and action (Harkavy & Hartley, 2010). Student-centered service-learning programs have a long history, specifically in colleges and universities in the United States, such that they are integrated into the curriculum (at, e.g., University of Pennsylvania, University of Nebraska, Boston College) (Crews, 2010) with the overall objective to enable “transformative learning, education for democracy, and research to better understand and improve the World” (Harkavy & Hartley, 2010, p. 419).

The use of service learning assignments, specifically ISLP, in business is a relatively recent trend though. ISLP respect service learning principles while extending the idea of community service across borders, incorporating an integrated learning concept that combines field experiences with individual assessment, coaching, and team building (Pless et al., 2011). ISLP provide a completely different level of stretch and personal development than domestic volunteering programs. Usually, domestic programs leave participants to freely choose the work they would like to undertake, or place individuals on the basis of the skills they already have (Farmer, 2012). However, participants achieve a much greater personal-development impact when matched to projects on the basis of their development needs, as well as their skills, while being sent abroad, with no regular support network in place (Farmer, 2012).

According to Kanter (in Olson, 2011), short-term international projects are cost-effective ways to build skills and relationships in a diverse team. They mirror a way of working where people are thrust into new situations and have to learn and


124

react fast and at the same time adjust quickly to different cultures and circumstances. The participants on the assignments have to coordinate with local people to get things done, work more intensely to make an impact in light of cross-cultural differences, employ out-of-the-box thinking, be resilient and think on their feet. ISLP require employees to constantly re-evaluate how they are contributing to their team’s assignment in order to reach their goals in a short timeframe (MacArthur, 2012). The time-limited nature of the assignments and the social value they are expected to create lead to an urgency to deliver. All of these skills are essential for any company looking to operate in today’s global marketplace (Farmer, 2012).

It has been argued that ISLP can play a key role in developing responsible global leaders and thereby enhance a company’s CSR and sustainability efforts (e.g., Colvin, 2009; Googins, Mirvis & Rochlin, 2007; Hart & Milstein, 2003; Mirvis, 2008). Yet, with a few exceptions (Pless et al., 2011), there is a lack of empirical research on the outcomes of ISLP, how these outcomes are achieved and sustained. In the following, we will summarize what we know thus far.

4.3. Outcomes and Benefits of ISLP

As a general assessment, it is noted that ISLP create business and societal value simultaneously such that they are a triple win for companies, program participants, and local clients and communities, all of whom benefit from the partnerships, through life-changing experiences and new skills learned, and the pro-bono services provided (Thompson et al., 2010; Hewlett, 2012b). Extant research thus far has focused primarily on studying the effects and outcomes on the participants, and for the companies sending executives and employees.

When it comes to program participants, and thus individual-level outcomes, Gitsham (2012) comments on the positive impact of ISLP on participants’ general understanding, perspective and intent. Pless et al. (2011, 2012) provide evidence for the actual effectiveness of ISLP experiences in developing responsible global leadership. Specifically, the authors stress the positive developmental impact on responsible mindset, ethical literacy, cultural intelligence, self-development, community building, and global mindset. Further, more general, overall positive effects on the cognitive, intrapersonal, and interpersonal development of ISLP participants have been noted (Green, 2001; Jay, 2008; Jones & Abes, 2004; Lechuga, Clerc & Howell, 2009; Litke, 2002; Myers-Lipton, 1998; Rockquemore & Schaffer, 2000; Vogelgesang & Astin, 2000, Einfeld & Collins, 2008; Keen & Hall, 2009; Dugan, 2006).


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The specific individual learning outcomes of service learning and ISLP include enhanced critical thinking and real world problem solving (Eyler & Giles, 1999; Lester et al., 2005; Salimbene, Buono, Lafarge & Nurick, 2005; Papamarcos, 2005); moral development (Boss, 1994; Markus, Howard & King, 1993); civic engagement and volunteerism (Langseth & Plater, 2004; Tomkovick et al., 2008); social responsibility and values development (Eyler, Giles, Stenson & Gray, 2000; Lester et al., 2005; Papamarcos, 2005); as well as attitudes toward enabling to better recognize nuances when reconciling tension under conditions of complexity and gaining awareness of the broader impact of individuals’ decisions on their surroundings (Pless et al., 2011; Maznevski and El-Agamy, 2009); developing a greater tolerance for diversity (Dumas, 2002); and for enhancing relational abilities (Eyler & Giles, 1999; Rhoads, 1997); self-efficacy and confidence (Giles & Eyler, 1994; Papamarcos, 2005; Tucker & McCarthy, 2001). The programs also seem to have an impact on strengthening participants’ intent and commitment to act and support their organizations’ activities in the area of engagement (Gitsham, 2012).

Among the potential disadvantages noted by researchers are time limitations, given that many ISLP are relatively short-term, as well as the lack of true innovation when it comes to project outcomes; moreover, some studies found a high rate of departure for executives returning from assignments who could not align with the culture at company headquarters or who found themselves off the management track (Olson, 2011).

As for the organizational outcomes, according to MacArthur (2012) the benefits of skills-based volunteering abroad through an ISLP include: company loyalty, leadership skills, adaptability, team building and cultural competence, among other things. Companies running ISLP have generated new knowledge of potential clients and partners in countries important to business expansion. Their personnel succeeded in obtaining new knowledge about working in emerging markets, improving resiliency and the ability to lead in uncertain circumstances (MacArthur, 2012). Guarnieri & Kao (2008) also point out to increased staff engagement, retention and performance, increased trust in the company culture and enhanced corporate reputation among partners and potential clients in ISLP countries. Companies implementing ISLP manage to better attract and retain in-demand talents (Hewlett, 2012b). There are also new opportunities for building public relations through positive media coverage around the work of participating employees, including videos and blogs as many of them write from the field (Hewlett, 2012b; Tergesen, 2012; Guarnieri & Kao, 2008). As Muthuri, Matten


126

& Moon (2009) add, employee volunteering influences the different dimensions of social capital – networks, trust and norms of cooperation which connect to the creation, maintenance and management of meaningful stakeholder relations (Maak, 2007). By providing tools enabling the dissemination of ISLP experiences on the organizational level, the personal experience can be elevated into organizational ethical learning (Deiser, 2009). To gather a more refined understanding of what exactly is learned in ISLP and how companies may adapt ISLP to fit their specific needs, we have studied the outcomes of four established ISLP and will compare them in the next section.

4.4. Developing Leaders Who Make a Difference: International Service

Learning at PwC, HSBC, IBM, and Novartis For the purpose of this chapter, we have chosen to study ISLP run by

multinational corporations from four different industries (accounting and advisory services; banking; IT and consulting; and pharma). Since the programs differ in scope and length – from as short as one week to eight weeks of assignments in multinational teams – we capture a broad spectrum of approaches and will discuss the major differences, their learning impact and how they help to grow leaders who make a difference further below. Table 4.1. summarizes basic program descriptions.

The Ulysses Program at PricewaterhouseCoopers is a highly structured

leadership-development program in which multi-cultural teams work for two months in developing countries in collaboration with social organizations, NGOs, or UN agencies. The Ulysses Program was launched in 2001 and it has various key focus areas (economic and social development, health, education, environment, etc.). When participants are sent to their overseas assignments, they work on activities such as creating a framework for good governance, anticorruption and poverty reduction, developing a strategy and business plan of sustainable growth, designing a microfinance credit-loaning model for SMEs in the region, to name a few. Specific examples of assignments are growing sustainable business in Madagascar, poverty alleviation in East Timor, strengthening coordination in the fight against HIV/AIDS in Uganda, or child helpline support in India. Participants’ learning journeys focus on enhancing ethical mindset, global mindset and relational skills and thus core capabilities for leaders to succeed in responsible and sustainable ways in the 21st century.

Tabl

e 4.

1.: G

ener

al In

form

atio

n ab

out t

he In

tern

atio

nal S

ervi

ce L

earn

ing

Prog

ram

s (IS

LP)

Pric

ewat

erho

useC

oope

rs’

The

Uly

sses

Pro

gram

H

SBC

’s N

ext G

ener

atio

n D

evel

opm

ent P

rogr

am

IBM

’s C

orpo

rate

Ser

vice

Cor

ps

The

Nov

artis

Ent

repr

eneu

rial

Le

ader

ship

Pro

gram

D

escr

iptio

n of

the I

SLP

A hi

ghly

stru

ctur

ed le

ader

ship

-de

velo

pmen

t pro

gram

in w

hich

m

ulti-

cultu

ral t

eam

s wor

k in

de

velo

ping

cou

ntrie

s in

colla

bora

tion

with

soci

al

orga

niza

tions

A le

ader

ship

dev

elop

men

t pro

gram

de

signe

d to

dev

elop

futu

re le

ader

s of

the

HSB

C G

roup

focu

sing

on

prac

tical

app

licat

ion

of le

arni

ng a

nd

real

out

com

es

An

inte

rnat

iona

l com

mun

ity

serv

ice

assig

nmen

t and

lead

ersh

ip

deve

lopm

ent p

rogr

am fo

r hig

h-po

tent

ial I

BM e

mpl

oyee

s in

spire

d by

the

U.S

. Pea

ce C

orps

An

actio

n-ba

sed

lead

ersh

ip

deve

lopm

ent p

rogr

am se

ndin

g gl

obal

team

s of t

alen

t to

emer

ging

m

arke

ts to

dev

elop

a so

lutio

n to

co

untry

-spe

cific

hea

lth c

halle

nges

Year

of

laun

ch

2001

(with

a b

reak

in 2

002,

at

this

mom

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the

prog

ram

is

pend

ing)

2007

20

08

2010

Size

of t

he

team

•

3-4

peop

le•

12-1

5 pe

ople

•12

-15

peop

le, b

roke

n in

to su

b-te

ams

•6-

10 p

eopl

e

Leng

th o

f pl

acem

ents

•

8 w

eeks

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wee

k•

4 w

eeks

•4

wee

ks

Key

focu

s ar

ea

Vario

us: E

cono

mic

and

soci

al

deve

lopm

ent,

heal

th, e

duca

tion,

en

viro

nmen

t, et

c.

Vario

us: E

cono

mic

and

soci

al

deve

lopm

ent,

envi

ronm

enta

l, et

c.

Vario

us:

Soci

al, e

cono

mic

, bu

sines

s, en

viro

nmen

t, ed

ucat

ion,

he

alth

, etc

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al: H

ealth

Type

s of

activ

ities

pa

rtic

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ts

do o

n as

signm

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•E.

g., c

reat

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fram

ewor

k fo

rgo

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over

nanc

e,an

ticor

rupt

ion

and

pove

rtyre

duct

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evel

opin

g a

strat

egy

and

busi n

ess p

lan

of su

stain

able

grow

th,

•D

esig

ning

a m

icro

finan

cecr

edit-

loan

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mod

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rSM

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the

regi

on, e

tc.

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g., s

take

hold

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eetin

gs,

mee

ting

prim

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clie

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NG

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sines

s mod

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prod

ucin

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mar

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com

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dpr

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bilit

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ther

act

iviti

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med

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uppo

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partn

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crea

sing

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com

petit

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of S

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by,

e.g

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proj

ects

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sibili

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dies

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posa

ls fo

r fun

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,de

velo

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bus

ines

s stra

tegi

es,

etc.

)

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g., s

take

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s,•

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lyzi

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arke

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ditio

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jour

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sines

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rim

prov

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rvic

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liver

yop

portu

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s, et

c.

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ples

of

assig

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row

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susta

inab

le b

usin

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in M

adag

asca

r•

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then

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st H

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in In

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prov

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info

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nddo

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vestm

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hana

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iger

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with

two

prog

ram

s whi

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car

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and

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rativ

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gsu

pply

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in p

robl

ems o

fm

alar

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rug

in T

anza

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r pot

entia

l sol

utio

nsco

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NCD

s (no

n-co

mm

unic

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dise

ases

) bur

den

in lo

w in

com

e co

mm

uniti

es in

Mex

ico

and

Sout

h A

frica

127


128

The Next Generation Development Program at HSBC, launched in 2007, is described as a leadership development program designed to develop future leaders of the HSBC Group focusing on the practical application of learning and real outcomes. Its key focus areas are similar to the Ulysses Program and include economic and social development and issues related to sustainability. The key difference is that the actual field assignments are much shorter (1 week), and the post-assignment project work significantly longer. The methodology utilizes three core disciplines: “sensing”, “reflection” and “action.” During the field assignments participants engage in stakeholder meetings, meet primary clients (NGOs), and conduct field visits. They then develop business models for their social partners, produce a marketing plan, complete a business plan to improve product distribution and profitability, and engage in other activities aimed at supporting the partner company. For example, groups of 12-15 participants worked with an NGO in the area of rainforest protection in Argentina, specifically in the development of a hybrid model at the intersection of charity, donation and investment. After completion of the field assignment, a 6-month-long work starts in virtual teams on a real life business project for HSBC, involving a sustainability component.

IBM’s Corporate Service Corps was launched in 2008. This program is an international community service assignment and leadership development program for high-potential IBM employees inspired by the U.S. Peace Corps and it has various foci (social, economic, business, environment, education, health, etc.). The project assignments include improving the competitiveness of SMEs through strategy development, marketing, HR management, organizational design, or by working on special projects (creating websites, feasibility studies, proposals for funding, developing business strategies, etc.), but also assistance to public companies. For example, IBMers have helped in their four-week-long projects the Electricity Company of Ghana by designing an IT governance model to standardize IT systems and ensure consistency in management; or Nigeria’s Cross River State with two programs with the objective to provide free health care to mothers and young children.

Finally, the Novartis Entrepreneurial Leadership Program is an action-based leadership development program that sends global teams of talent to emerging markets to develop a solution to country-specific health challenges. The program was launched in 2010 and its key focus area is health and is therefore close to the core of the company’s core business. While on assignment, participants engage in stakeholder interviews, analyzing market conditions and patient journeys, developing business models or improving services. Typical examples would be


129

a 4-week assignment in Tanzania to work with local stakeholders on resolving supply-chain problems of malaria drug distribution, or looking for potential solutions concerning non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in low income communities in Mexico and South Africa.

4.5. ISLP Outcomes Based on semi-structured interviews with ISLP representatives of the

aforementioned companies, as well as publicly available secondary sources, we now review some of the specific ISLP outcomes related to three key constituencies: program participants, the firms, and stakeholders on the ground, that is to say, project partners and local constituencies.

Evidently, each individual learning journey is unique and depends on participants’ developmental readiness, team composition, assignment, and the challenges resulting from the assignment, including the socio-cultural and economic context in which it is embedded. To enable deep-level learning rather than surface-level experience, it is recommended that the assignments should be challenging and the teams diverse enough to get program participants out of their comfort zone (Pless et al., 2011). An the individual level, the following learning outcomes are reported: (1) leadership capabilities and other soft skills, like, e.g., ability to work in a multi-cultural environment, cultural intelligence, relationship building skills, stakeholder engagement skills, innovation skills, perspective-taking and a new view of the world, resilience, understanding of the company’s CSR commitment and role in the developing world, and desire to make a positive impact in the world; (2) team-work skills, such as global teaming and collaboration skills, mutual learning in cross-functional teams, ability to lead a diverse team; (3) experience from growth markets, such as an increased understanding of the target population and delivery systems, learning to deliver in a more disruptive and creative way, creating sustainable solutions respecting limited resources, and ability to work with complex, multi-stakeholder projects and situations. In addition, (4) functional outcomes like a promotion, or new responsibilities at work, are mentioned; as well as (5) service work-related outcomes, like, e.g., an increased motivation of participants to continue community work after the completion of the program, or a continuous involvement of participants in the firm’s ISLP as volunteers. Finally, in light of the unsettling nature of ISLP, (6) personal and professional disturbances may occur, such as difficulties to settle into the unchanged work context at least in the first few weeks after returning from the assignment – which highlights the necessity of re-entry support; in some cases the mind boggling nature of the assignment might be such


130

that participants may question the meaning of both, their work and their purpose in life. In these cases, the re-entry phase will turn out to be the most crucial. Table 4.2. summarizes the individual-level impact of the ISLP studied.

Among the outcomes of ISLP assignments that are most beneficial at the firm level, company representatives mention the following: (1) building and developing global leaders and managers who understand the challenges of emerging markets; (2) alignment of the new skills and mindsets with the strategic focus of the company, for example, when it comes to understanding cultural differences and communicating and problem solving in a global context; (3) fostering innovation and generating new business models in untapped market segments; (4) global teaming and building a network within the firm by working on projects with participants from different continents and cultures; (5) team building and cohesiveness to the extent that program participants continue to collaborate on other community development projects or as company volunteers; (6) being able to deliver responsible and sustainable business solutions through collaboration with multiple stakeholders; (7) retaining high-potentials, improved employee morale, as well as attracting new talent; (8) improved stakeholder relationships and positive effects from a brand perspective; (9) generating new business and sales opportunities; and (10) preparing for future business opportunities, e.g., through familiarization with supply chains and country environments in emerging markets. Table 4.3. summarizes the firm-level impact of the ISLP studied.

At both individual and firm level, we observe significant positive effects of ISLP. But what about the communities in which the assignments take place? The most frequently noted outcomes include (1) overall positive change effects in the communities where projects take place through the pro-bono services provided; (2) capacity building on the ground and numerous process improvements, for instance in building smart communities and concerted approaches across boundaries to fight HIV AIDS; and, lastly, (3) instilling and revitalizing of civic commitment among employees since many continue to engage in community work after the completion of the program. Table 4.4. provides a brief overview of the key effect at the macro level.

T abl

e 4.

2.: I

SLP

Parti

cipa

nt O

utco

mes

O

utco

me

Cat

egor

y Pr

icew

ater

hous

eCoo

pers

’ The

U

lyss

es P

rogr

am

HSB

C’s

Nex

t Gen

erat

ion

Dev

elop

men

t Pro

gram

IB

M’s

Cor

pora

te S

ervi

ce C

orps

Th

e N

ovar

tis E

ntre

pren

euri

al

Lead

ersh

ip P

rogr

am

Lead

ersh

ip

capa

bilit

ies a

nd

othe

r sof

t ski

lls

•Re

spon

sible

min

d-se

t•

Ethi

cal l

itera

cy•

Cultu

ral i

ntel

ligen

ce•

Glo

bal m

ind-

set

•Se

lf-de

velo

pmen

t•

Com

mun

ity b

uild

ing

•In

terc

ultu

ral c

ompe

tenc

e•

Loca

l sen

sitiv

ity•

Non

judg

men

taln

ess

•M

oral

refle

ctio

n•

Self-

awar

enes

s•

Des

ire to

mak

e a

posit

ive

impa

ct in

the

wor

ld

•W

orki

ng in

a m

ulti-

cultu

ral

envi

ronm

ent

•A

bilit

y to

giv

e an

d re

ceiv

efe

edba

ck•

Abi

lity

to h

ave

‘diff

icul

tco

nver

satio

ns’

•Id

entif

ying

lead

ersh

ip p

urpo

se,

bran

d an

d va

lues

•U

nder

stand

ing

and

inte

grat

ing

susta

inab

ility

asp

ects

into

day

to d

ay w

ork

of th

e ba

nk•

Build

ing

rela

tions

hips

acr

oss

geog

raph

ies a

nd b

usin

ess u

nits

•Se

lf co

nfid

ence

to o

pera

te in

ale

ader

ship

role

in a

glo

bal

envi

ronm

ent

•Cu

ltura

l aw

aren

ess

•U

nder

stand

ing

of th

eco

mpa

ny’s

CSR

com

mitm

ent

and

role

in th

e de

velo

ping

wor

ld•

Glo

bal a

war

enes

s and

citiz

ensh

ip•

New

per

spec

tive

on th

e w

orld

,ot

her c

ultu

res a

nd o

nese

lf•

Stro

nger

per

sona

l res

ilien

ce•

Rela

tions

hip

build

ing

skill

s•

Stak

ehol

der e

ngag

emen

t ski

lls

•In

terc

ultu

ral s

kills

•In

nova

tion

skill

s•

Tran

sfor

mat

iona

l lea

ders

hip

skill

s•

Patie

nt c

entri

city

skill

s

Team

-wor

k sk

ills

•A

bilit

y to

lead

a d

iver

se te

am•

Abi

lity

to le

ad a

glo

bal v

irtua

lte

am

•G

loba

l tea

min

g an

dco

llabo

ratio

n sk

ills

•M

utua

l lea

rnin

g in

cro

ss-

func

tiona

l tea

ms

Not

e: p

artic

ipan

ts d

o no

t wor

k in

te

ams

Expe

rien

ce fr

om

grow

th m

arke

ts

•A

bilit

y to

iden

tify

stake

hold

erne

eds a

nd d

eliv

er re

sults

•W

orki

ng w

ith c

ompl

ex, m

ulti-

stake

hold

er p

roje

cts a

ndsit

uatio

ns

•Le

arni

ng to

del

iver

in a

mor

edi

srup

tive

and

crea

tive

way

•Cr

eatin

g su

stain

able

solu

tions

resp

ectin

g lim

ited

reso

urce

s

•In

crea

sed

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

the

targ

et p

opul

atio

n an

d de

liver

ysy

stem

s

Posit

ion-

rela

ted

outc

omes

•

Prom

otio

n•

New

resp

onsib

ilitie

s at w

ork

Serv

ice

wor

k-re

late

d ou

tcom

es

•M

otiv

atio

n of

par

ticip

ants

toco

ntin

ue c

omm

unity

wor

kev

en a

fter t

he c

ompl

etio

n of

the

prog

ram

•M

ost p

artic

ipan

ts en

d up

as

cons

ulta

nts f

or N

GO

s afte

r the

prog

ram

(giv

e stg

. fin

anci

ally

on

thei

r ow

n, c

arry

out

rela

tions

hips

with

the

orga

niza

tions

)

•M

otiv

atio

n of

par

ticip

ants

toco

ntin

ue c

omm

unity

wor

k ev

enaf

ter t

he c

ompl

etio

n of

the

prog

ram

•St

ayin

g in

volv

ed w

ith th

epr

ogra

m a

s vol

unte

ers

Pote

ntia

l pe

rson

al a

nd

prof

essio

nal

dist

urba

nces

•Fi

ndin

g it

diffi

cult

to se

ttle

the

first

few

wee

ks a

fter r

etur

ning

from

ass

ignm

ent (

the

nece

ssity

of re

-ent

ry su

ppor

t)

•Re

cons

ider

ing

the

mea

ning

of

thin

gs n

ever

que

stion

ed o

rre

form

ulat

ing

life

purp

oses

(if

not r

esol

ved

wel

l in

the

struc

ture

d re

-ent

ry p

hase

)

131

T abl

e 4.

3.: I

SLP

Org

aniza

tiona

l-lev

el O

utco

mes

O

utco

me

Cat

egor

y Pr

icew

ater

hous

eCoo

pers

’ Th

e U

lyss

es P

rogr

am

HSB

C’s

Nex

t Gen

erat

ion

Dev

elop

men

t Pro

gram

IB

M’s

Cor

pora

te S

ervi

ce C

orps

Th

e N

ovar

tis E

ntre

pren

euri

al L

eade

rshi

p Pr

ogra

m

Build

ing

glob

al le

ader

s an

d m

anag

ers

•Bu

ildin

g gl

obal

lead

ers

and

man

ager

s•

Self

conf

iden

ce to

ope

rate

ina

lead

ersh

ip ro

le in

a g

loba

len

viro

nmen

t

•D

evel

opin

g fu

ture

lead

ers w

ho u

nder

stand

chal

leng

es o

f dev

elop

ing

mar

kets

Alig

nmen

t of t

he n

ew

lear

ning

with

the

stra

tegi

c fo

cus o

f the

co

mpa

ny

•U

nder

stand

ing

cultu

ral

diffe

renc

es in

pro

blem

solv

ing,

com

mun

icat

ing

ingl

obal

con

text

•So

me

busin

ess p

roje

cts d

evel

oped

a ta

rget

ed so

cial

med

ia id

entit

y,str

ateg

y an

d ca

mpa

ign

for t

he b

ank,

a cu

stom

er c

ontra

ct fo

r a g

eogr

aphy

to su

ppor

t tra

nspa

renc

y an

d bu

ildin

gtru

st w

ith th

e cu

stom

ers,

and

anem

ploy

ee v

alue

pro

posit

ion

Fost

erin

g in

nova

tion,

ne

w b

usin

ess m

odel

s •

Foste

ring

inno

vatio

n•

New

bus

ines

s mod

els i

n un

tapp

ed m

arke

t seg

men

tsG

loba

l tea

min

g an

d ne

twor

king

•

Glo

bal t

eam

ing

and

build

ing

a ne

twor

k w

ithin

the

firm

by

wor

king

on

proj

ect w

ith p

artic

ipan

tsfro

m a

ll ov

er th

e w

orld

•Bu

ildin

g re

latio

nshi

ps a

cros

sge

ogra

phie

s and

bus

ines

s uni

ts•

Glo

bal t

eam

ing

and

build

ing

a ne

twor

k w

ithin

the

firm

by

wor

king

on

proj

ect w

ithpa

rtici

pant

s fro

m a

ll ov

er th

e w

orld

Team

coh

esiv

enes

s •

Glu

ing

parti

cipa

nts t

oget

her,

cohe

siven

ess o

f tea

ms,

wor

king

on o

ther

(com

mun

ity d

evel

opm

ent)

proj

ects

or a

s com

pany

vol

unte

ers

Sust

aina

bilit

y an

d sh

ared

val

ue

•Be

ing

able

to d

eliv

erre

spon

sible

and

susta

inab

lebu

sines

s sol

utio

ns th

roug

hle

arni

ng h

ow to

cre

ate

shar

ed v

alue

,un

ders

tand

ing

and

coop

erat

ion

with

mul

tiple

stake

hold

ers

•U

nder

stand

ing

and

inte

grat

ing

susta

inab

ility

asp

ects

into

day

to d

ay w

ork

of th

e ba

nk

•Be

ing

able

to d

eliv

er re

spon

sible

and

susta

inab

le b

usin

ess s

olut

ions

thro

ugh

lear

ning

how

to c

reat

esh

ared

val

ue, u

nder

stand

ing

and

coop

erat

ion

with

mul

tiple

stake

hold

ers

Incr

ease

d re

tent

ion

and

com

mitm

ent o

f em

ploy

ees,

tale

nt

attr

actio

n

•In

crea

sed

com

mitm

ent o

fpa

rtici

pant

s•

Incr

ease

d re

tent

ion

and

com

mitm

ent o

f em

ploy

ees,

attra

ctio

n of

top

tale

nts

Impr

ovin

g st

akeh

olde

r re

latio

nshi

ps, b

rand

im

prov

emen

t

•Br

and

impr

ovem

ent

•Im

prov

ing

stake

hold

er re

latio

nshi

ps

Pres

ent b

usin

ess

oppo

rtun

ities

•

Ope

ning

new

pos

sibili

ties f

or th

ebu

sines

s•

Gen

erat

ing

new

bus

ines

s and

sale

sop

portu

nitie

sFu

ture

bus

ines

s op

port

uniti

es

•G

ener

atin

g ne

w o

ppor

tuni

ties i

nsid

eex

istin

g in

itiat

ives

•Pr

epar

ing

grou

nd fo

r fut

ure

busin

ess i

n de

velo

ping

cou

ntrie

s•

Fam

iliar

izat

ion

with

supp

ly c

hain

s and

cou

ntry

envi

ronm

ent

•U

sing

the

pote

ntia

l to

reac

h a

new

cus

tom

er b

ase

•A

ccel

erat

ing

grow

th in

dev

elop

ing

mar

kets

132

T abl

e 4.

4.: I

SLP

Out

com

es fo

r Com

mun

ities

and

Bro

ader

Soc

iety

O

utco

me

Cat

egor

y Pr

icew

ater

hous

eCoo

pers

’ The

U

lyss

es P

rogr

am

HSB

C’s

Nex

t Gen

erat

ion

Dev

elop

men

t Pro

gram

IB

M’s

Cor

pora

te S

ervi

ce C

orps

Th

e N

ovar

tis E

ntre

pren

euri

al

Lead

ersh

ip P

rogr

am

Posit

ive

chan

ge in

th

e co

mm

unity

w

here

the

proj

ects

to

ok p

lace

•G

row

ing

susta

inab

le b

usin

ess

in M

adag

asca

r•

Pove

rty a

llevi

atio

n in

Eas

tTi

mor

•

Stre

ngth

enin

g co

ordi

natio

n in

the

fight

aga

inst

HIV

/AID

S in

Uga

nda

•Ch

ild h

elpl

ine

supp

ort i

n In

dia

•W

orki

ng w

ith a

com

mun

ity o

nth

eir o

wn

finan

cial

stab

ility

resu

lted

in th

e es

tabl

ishm

ent o

fa

com

mun

ity b

ank

whi

ch is

up

and

runn

ing

•W

orki

ng w

ith a

n N

GO

cons

ervi

ng a

rain

fore

st in

Arg

entin

a on

dev

elop

ing

am

odel

that

was

hyb

rid b

etw

een

char

ity a

nd d

onat

ion

and

inve

stmen

t mod

el

•H

elpi

ng E

lect

ricity

Com

pany

of

Gha

na b

y pr

opos

ing

an IT

gove

rnan

ce m

odel

to h

elp

stand

ardi

ze IT

syste

ms a

nden

sure

con

siste

ncy

inm

anag

emen

t•

Hel

ping

Nig

eria

’s Cr

oss R

iver

Stat

e w

ith tw

o pr

ogra

ms:

Proj

ect

HO

PE &

CO

MFO

RT, w

hich

prov

ides

free

hea

lth c

are

tom

othe

rs a

nd y

oung

chi

ldre

n

•Co

llabo

rativ

ely

reso

lvin

g su

pply

-ch

ain

prob

lem

s of m

alar

ia d

rug

in T

anza

nia

•Lo

okin

g fo

r pot

entia

l sol

utio

nsco

ncer

ning

NCD

s (no

n-co

mm

unic

able

dise

ases

) bur

den

in lo

w in

com

e co

mm

uniti

es in

Mex

ico

and

Sout

h A

frica

Build

ing

the

capa

city

for t

he

indi

vidu

al

bene

ficia

ries

•D

evel

opin

g bu

sines

s mod

els

for s

ocia

l par

tner

s, pr

oduc

ing

a m

arke

ting

plan

, com

plet

ing

a bu

sines

s pla

n to

impr

ove

prod

uct d

istrib

utio

n an

dpr

ofita

bilit

y, a

nd e

ngag

ing

inot

her a

ctiv

ities

aim

ed a

tsu

ppor

ting

the

partn

er c

ompa

nyC

omm

unity

co

ntri

butio

n-re

late

d ou

tcom

es

•M

otiv

atio

n of

par

ticip

ants

toco

ntin

ue c

omm

unity

wor

k ev

enaf

ter t

he c

ompl

etio

n of

the

prog

ram

•M

ost p

artic

ipan

ts en

d up

as

cons

ulta

nts f

or N

GO

s afte

r the

prog

ram

(giv

e stg

. fin

anci

ally

on th

eir o

wn,

car

ry o

utre

latio

nshi

ps w

ith th

eor

gani

zatio

ns)

•M

otiv

atio

n of

par

ticip

ants

toco

ntin

ue c

omm

unity

wor

k ev

enaf

ter t

he c

ompl

etio

n of

the

prog

ram

133


134

4.6. Developing Leaders Who Make a Difference Extant research and the results of our exploratory study show that International

Service Learning Programs make a real difference. An international service-learning assignment makes a difference for participants, their firms and the host communities and stakeholders they engage with. For participants, it is often a “once in lifetime-experience”, as a Ulysses team framed it; participants are pushed outside their comfort zone and need to cope with diversity and ambiguity. In so doing, they build essential leadership competencies. As they have to deal with the complexity of problem solving in the real world, usually in a not for profit- context (Salimbene, Buono, Lafarge & Nurick, 2005; Papamarcos, 2005; Kenworthy-U’Ren, 2003), with resource constraints, ambiguous habits, and multiple stakeholder demands, program participants explore the fringes of the world they know and, as a consequence, adopt a new outlook on the same. In other words, ISLP prepare current and future leaders to see the real challenges many parts of the world are facing; to reflect on and understand their own role as leaders; and ultimately to develop the competencies to make a difference.

What that difference is depends on the transformational impact of the ISLP experience, the organizational objectives, and the boundary conditions of the individual leadership project. Clearly, ISLP participants are equipped to make a difference both in and beyond the immediate boundaries of their organizations. The organizations benefit from having built more experienced, confident and responsible global leaders which are able to work across geographies and business units on international projects, lead multi-cultural teams, and who can identify, and better assess, diverse stakeholder needs. Participants also return from the assignments with a broader understanding of sustainability issues and pressing social problems and the ability to apply this learning in their organizations and their work with clients. As such, ISLP bear the potential to help develop present and create future business opportunities, improve stakeholder relations and brand, and bring social as well as business innovation into companies.

As indicated, ISLP make a difference for the communities in which projects are located, and broader society at home and abroad. ISLP build capacity, improve the living or economic conditions of local stakeholders and have an overall positive impact on the communities. More specific outcomes for local NGOs and other partnering organizations include organizational development and process improvements; and, since many participants are motivated to continue similar pro-bono work once being back home, the overall impact on society in general, while difficult to measure, is positive.


135

It is in the nature of complex learning experiences that affect individual cognition, emotions and behaviors that outcomes are difficult to measure. Mostly, these are evaluated using customized metrics, surveys, interviews, and inquiries. Thus far, no systematic measurement has been put forward (Pless & Borecká, 2014). If the impact on business is evaluated, it is done on an ad-hoc basis, e.g., by looking at the extent to which ISLP are able to develop innovative social business models, partnerships or opportunities to enter new market segments or expand the company’s presence in existing segments. Next to more systematic research on ISLP, researchers should further examine the specific benefits to companies that invest in developing leaders “that make a difference”.

We will conclude with one example of the positive impact ISLP can make, taken from HSBC’s Next Generation Development Program (NGDP). In 2013 a team of 14 HSBC’s employees went to India to work with an NGO facilitating the collection of ayurvedic herbs with women as business owners. The task was to help the organization understand how they could improve business opportunities for the benefit of the communities and quality of life. Suggestions from the client were that they were keen to explore a franchise model, as well as integrating across the supply chain. During the “sensing phase” the team met with the founders of the NGO, the current manager, the women herb gatherers and owners, their communities, the buyers of the herbs, procurement center managers, local hospitals who use the herbs, toured medicine facilities, met local ayurvedic doctors to understand the health system of ayurvedic medicine. The team discovered many ideas to support the NGO through these meetings and visits. They then needed to prioritize what would meet the client’s needs. They discovered that the procurement managers of the sites were not in favor of a franchise model. They worked to gain buy-in and support with this key stakeholder. They also looked at the production steps and how to add value through the supply chain to be able to sell products for a higher price. Moreover, they also explored new Indian legislation requiring companies to support sustainability efforts and what might be required and available resources in light of the new legislation.

The main deliverable from the field challenge project was that the NGO received a clear road map on how to plan their intended franchising strategy. It contained a matrix scorecard which allowed the NGO to rate and score potential franchisee partners. The team also hosted a meeting with potential franchisees to open the dialogue and also a meeting with the local bank to explore funding/credit options for their expansion, starting an on-going relationship between HSBC and


136

the NGO resulting in a number of follow up activities with the HSBC sustainability team in India.

Worth mentioning is also the follow-up business project the participants worked on once back at HSBC: participants commenced a 6-month business project in the bank’s retail division with the objective of improving the use of digital channels and customer experience. The project built on and utilized the same core disciplines that the group had learnt and experienced working together in India, that is to say, “sensing”, “reflection” and “action”. It enabled the group to experience both personal and team development alongside exploring and identifying the key ingredients to building and sustaining high performing teams within the firm environment.

Vanessa Bateson, Head Global Learning Solutions at HSBC Bank PLC, sums up the philosophy and impact of the program as follows: “There is a clear need to refocus behaviour on meeting customers’ and stakeholders’ needs to restore trust into the financial industry. Culture change interventions like the NGDP that I designed with Future Considerations really do shift culture and we will be investing more in these types of programmes. The NGDP provided us with a view about what it takes to create a high performing organisation and culture and how working collaboratively with our customers and our communities is a winning formula. This learning is being used to inform our global culture change programme, where we focus on fundamental human values like mutual respect and trust to create responsible leaders that respond to the responsibilities of organisations in society. When we are collaborating between our employees, customers and communities we can truly fulfil our purpose ‘to enable businesses to thrive and economies to prosper, helping people fulfil their hopes and dreams and realise their ambitions’ which is hugely exciting.”


137

4.7. References

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138

Donaldson, T. (1996), ‘Values in tension: Ethics away from home’, Harvard Business Review, 74, 48-62.

Donaldson, T. and Dunfee, T. W. (1999), ‘The promise and peril of global business ethics’, California Management Review, 41, 45-63.

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Chapter 5

Comparative Analysis of International Service Learning Programs

Nicola M. Pless, and Markéta Borecká

Current status (July 2014): Published in the special issue of the Journal of Management Development on The experience of learning: Approaches to sustainability & ethics education (2014, Vol. 33, No. 6, pp. 526 - 550).

The final publication is available at the website of Emerald Insight at: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?articleid=17115179&WT.mc_id=journaltocalerts DOI: 10.1108/JMD-04-2014-0034


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5. Comparative Analysis of International Service LearningPrograms

Abstract

Purpose – International service learning is a new trend in management development and a new field of research. International Service Learning Programs are experiential corporate volunteering initiatives designed to give employees the chance to work for a short spell abroad (often in a developing or emerging market) on a service assignment with a partner from the social sector (e.g., NGO, social enterprise). The service assignment is a project defined with a social-sector partner on which the corporate employee works full-time on a pro-bono basis and contributes his/her knowledge and expertise in exchange for a rich learning experience. This paper focuses on the use of International Service Learning Programs in business firms and conducts a comparative analysis of six programs set up by multinational corporations from three industries (health, technology, and accounting and professional services). It identifies characteristics and similarities among programs, discusses differences, offers criteria for program classification, and areas for future research. As such, it is an important starting point for quantitative studies. Design/methodology/approach – This is a qualitative study based on six International Service Learning Programs. The data was gathered through desk research, interviews with program representatives and a structured questionnaire containing closed and open-ended questions. Findings – Regardless of the stated aims (which usually stress value for the participants, the company and the communities), most programs had one clear focus (two programs in the area of leadership development, two in the area of community development) while two showed closely-linked foci (with slightly greater emphasis on organization development than on the other areas). Research limitations/implications – The authors suggest that the type of International Service Learning Program has an effect on the learning outcomes. Since companies are still testing usefulness and outcomes of these programs, academic research that provides comparative quantitative data on the outcomes of such programs is of great value for business practice. Practical implications – This systematic overview and classification of International Service Learning Programs is a starting point for empirical program


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comparisons as well as for the evaluation of different service learning approaches. This could prove very useful for other companies planning to set up or refine their own International Service Learning Programs to achieve certain outcomes. Originality/value – This is the first article that compares International Service Learning Programs run by multinational corporations. It identifies a number of category areas in which they differ (e.g., in placement length, nature of the assignment – individual or in teams, learning methods used) and provides a typology for program classification (leadership development, organization development or community development). Keywords – service learning, corporate volunteering, international leadership development, organizational development, community development, responsible leadership Paper type – Research paper


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5.1. Introduction Doing business in a global stakeholder environment forces managers and

leaders to face fundamental challenges (e.g., global warming, political unrest) and more demanding public expectations (e.g., taking broader responsibilities as a corporate citizen). This in turn requires a wider knowledge base and new competencies for coping with social problems, resolving ethical issues and engaging with different stakeholder groups in ways that cannot be based on traditional management education (Giacalone and Thompson, 2006; Ghoshal, 2005; Mintzberg, 2004; Mintzberg and Gosling, 2002; Pfeffer, 2005; Pfeffer and Fong, 2002; Broberg and Krull, 2010; Coldwell et al., 2012). Hence the need for new ways of learning and development (Pless et al., 2011).

To prepare current and future managers and leaders to deal with global social, political, ecological, and ethical challenges, a growing number of companies have started to explore new vistas in management education (Cameron and Caza, 2005; Kashyap et al., 2006; Samuelson, 2006; Spreitzer, 2006; Pless et al., 2011). Recently, multinational corporations have started sending their employees on International Service Learning Programs (hereinafter ISLP) to give staff the chance to work for a short spell abroad. ISLP are experiential corporate volunteering initiatives designed to provide employees the opportunity to work for a limited period of time in a foreign country (often developing or emerging market) on an international service assignment (hereinafter ISA) with a partner from the social sector (e.g., NGO, social enterprise). The ISA is a project defined with a social-sector partner, on which the corporate employees work full-time on a pro-bono basis in a foreign country such as India, Brazil, Vietnam, and Ghana (Hewlett, 2012; CDS, International Corporate Volunteerism Survey, 2012). In exchange for a rich learning experience, they lend their knowledge and expertise to non-profit organizations or high-impact entrepreneurs in addressing some of the world’s burning issues (Hewlett, 2012). Currently, some 27 Fortune 500 companies, including IBM, Intel, Pfizer, EY, Dow Corning, PepsiCo, FedEx, and HSBC run programs based on ISA.

Service learning is a form of experiential learning (Kolb, 1984) on which ISLP are based. While service learning has a long tradition as a learning methodology at colleges and universities, it has only recently been applied in business firms in general and in leadership development in particular (see Pless et al., 2011). The first program was set up in 2001 by PricewaterhouseCoopers. Apart from empirical studies of this program (Pless et al., 2011, 2012) and a few case study descriptions of other programs (Marquis and Kanter, 2009; Stolz et al., 2012;


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Gitsham, 2012), no systematic investigation of corporate programs using ISA has been undertaken. The purpose of this article is to give an overview of various ISA-based programs, describe their characteristics (objectives, design, etc.), identify similarities and differences between these programs and offer a typology for classifying them (depending on the kinds of specific benefits sought by the programs for the participants, the companies and society in general) as a leadership development program, an organization development program, and a community development program. This systematic overview and classification will guide future research and be the starting point for empirically comparing programs.

The article is structured as follows: we start with a brief introduction which is followed by a literature review on service learning. After giving an overview of our methodological approach, we share the results of the program comparison and specifically outline the similarities and differences of the programs according to chosen criteria, namely: program objectives; target group of participants; placement length; team size; local partner organizations; types of activities; program design; learning methods used. We then classify the programs into three categories and end by discussing the implications of the findings for the programs’ learning outcomes and by outlining areas for future research.

5.2. Service Learning Service learning is a form of experiential education in which participants

“engage in activities that address human and community needs together with structured opportunities intentionally designed to promote [their] learning and development; service-learning combines service objectives with learning objectives with the intent that the activity change both the recipient and provider of the service” (Jacoby, 1996, p. 5). Some corporations have started using service learning in the form of ISA and consciousness-raising experiences. The aim is to develop responsible leaders willing to tackle the most pressing global issues and support and drive the firm’s sustainability strategy. The commonest ways of defining such strategies are in terms of Elkington’s (1997) “triple bottom line” (creating environmental, social and economic value), or Porter and Kramer’s (2011) “concept of shared value” (i.e., practices both boosting a company’s competitiveness and economic and social progress of the communities in which it operates).

There are also various experiential learning cross-border or local partnership models of international (non-profit) organizations and corporations. These models design and deliver programs for developing participants’ key leadership skills,


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teamwork and cultural integration skills. They do so bringing together corporations and communities to tackle sustainability issues. These include the corporate partnership schemes of the Earthwatch Institute and LEAD International (which have been delivering leadership development and community/scientific benefits for decades) as well as a number of consultancies and social entrepreneurial entities such as Emzingo, TiE, Three Hands (all offering comparable services in partnership with local NGOs).

Authors writing on ISLP argue that ISLP create business and societal value simultaneously in emerging markets; they are a triple win for the companies, the program participants, and local clients all of whom benefit from the partnerships, the life-changing experiences and new skills learned, and the services provided (Thompson et al., 2010; Hewlett, 2012). Service learning literature authors stress that such experiences abroad have the potential for moral development of the participants (Boss, 1994; Markus et al., 1993), help the participants become more tolerant of diversity (Dumas, 2002), more aware of social issues (Kolenko et al., 1996), and more civically and socially responsible (Eyler and Giles, 1999; Fleckenstein, 1997; Gabelnick, 1997; Godfrey et al., 2005; Lester et al., 2005; Morgan and Streb, 1999; Pless and Maak, 2008). Research has shown that ISA-based leadership programs may help in developing responsible leaders (possessing certain characteristics and performing particular roles) (Pless et al., 2011, Maak and Pless, 2006). There are some empirical studies (e.g., Pless et al., 2011, 2012; Marquis and Kanter, 2009; Stolz et al., 2012) on how individuals learn to become better, more responsible leaders through service learning assignments and the benefits are for all parties involved. Other studies have explored both the nature of the outcomes achieved by ISLP and participants’ perceptions of what aspects of these programs were most important in achieving these outcomes (Gitsham, 2012). The company-related benefits identified in the literature include: greater staff engagement and performance (Guarnieri and Kao, 2008); talent attraction and retention (Hewlett, 2012); increased trust in the company culture (Guarnieri and Kao, 2008); and a generally high return on investment in the form of new knowledge of the countries important to business expansion (MacArthur, 2012). The communities and broader society benefit from ISLP through having their problems addressed free of charge (Litow, 2012).

However, given the growing emphasis on internationalization and the requisite intercultural skills and dispositions necessary in a global society, more research is needed to explore the intersections between global (and local) priorities


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and experiential learning practices (Engberg and Fox, 2011). Also Pless et al. (2011) call for more research on the effectiveness of different approaches for delivering service learning programs. Similarly, Kok-Yee et al. (2009) suggest that researchers should examine how international assignments can be designed to maximize leadership development, assess the developmental components of foreign assignments, and discover what leaders learn.

Apart from the description of individual programs (often available on company websites, in newsletters, in popular journals, or in journals dealing with high school education), there has been no systematic investigation of what distinguishes one corporate ISLP from another in terms of program composition (design), placement length, motivation and benefits, among other things. Neither have there been attempts to classify programs based on their aims and claimed benefits.

There are several compelling reasons for carrying out a systematic comparative analysis of ISLP. First, identifying characteristics of ISLP will give insights into what aspects may influence a program’s short-term and long-term outcomes, impact and effectiveness. Drawing distinctions between ISLP is thus an important preliminary step before evaluating programs’ effectiveness/impact. Second, identifying ISLP differentiating features and classifying the programs into three categories helps one compare service learning approaches. Third, providing a detailed program comparison will also help learning and education officers in their search for new developmental methods. Finally, this comparison will help researchers select programs for empirical comparison.

5.3. Methodology The article compares various ISA-based programs, describing their

characteristics, identifying similarities and differences, and classifying the programs according to their claimed benefits. We conducted qualitative research of six ISLP run by multinational corporations. The programs were chosen using the following criteria: the programs had to be company developmental initiatives categorized as ISLP in which: (1) participants cross international borders and provide service to local partners based primarily on the skills they use in their daily jobs; (2) participants are engaged in an activity that falls beyond their common tasks and responsibilities; (3) participants carry out projects that do not generate revenue for their firms and are intended to provide economic or social benefits to local businesses and communities (CDS, International Corporate Volunteerism Survey,


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2012); (4) the programs had to be launched in 2010 or earlier in order to see the results.

The six ISLP that met the above-mentioned criteria and whose representatives agreed to data-gathering were: (1) PricewaterhouseCoopers’ The Ulysses Program (hereinafter PwC-Ulysses), launched in 2001; (2) Pfizer’s Global Health Fellows Program (Pfizer-GHFP), launched in 2003; (3) EY’s Americas Corporate Responsibility Fellows Program (EY-ACRFP), launched in 2005; (4) IBM’s Corporate Service Corps (IBM-CSC), launched in 2008; (5) Intel Education Service Corps Program (Intel-IESC), launched in 2009; (6) The Novartis Entrepreneurial Leadership Program (Novartis-ELP), launched in 2010. The sample of firms with ISLP covers three industries (health, technology, and accounting and professional services), most of them being headquartered in the US.

Data on the programs were gathered through interviews or questionnaire inquiry with program representatives based on a structured questionnaire with mostly open-ended questions. The questionnaire covered five areas (general information about the ISLP, target group of participants, information on the assignments, nature of the initiative and learning methods, outcomes) and consisted of 28 questions. Sample questions are: What is the target group of participants? How long are the assignments? What is the key focus area of the assignments (e.g., social or environmental issues, health or education issues, business/economic issues or community development issues)? What is the design of the initiative (e.g., preparation phase, assignment phase, review phase)? What are key learning outcomes for the participants? The categories and items were identified based on a literature review (Pless and Schneider, 2006; Pless et al., 2011; Thompson et al., 2010; Marquis and Kanter, 2009; Stolz et al., 2012). All interviews were transcribed verbatim and sent back to the program representatives for approval; all questionnaires completed in the written form were analyzed and we asked the program representatives additional questions in case clarification was needed. In order to ensure the credibility and validity of the results, we triangulated the data sources (Yin, 2009; Anand et al., 2007) using the following secondary sources of evidence: written information about each program available on company web pages, in academic or practitioner journals and books, in case studies, company presentations, measurement reports, blogs, videos, and other promotional materials. Before analyzing the data, gathered information was sent back to the respective program representative asking for additional information where needed and providing opportunities for adding missing information. The final data set was then


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analyzed in order to identify themes or patterns and organize them into consistent categories describing the characteristics of each ISLP; based on this analysis, cases were compared. After conducting the comparative analysis and finalizing the article, we shared the manuscript with the participating companies, again providing them the chance for some minor revisions.

5.4. Results The ISLP and their basic descriptions are included in Table 5.1. The programs have the following characteristics in common. All six programs have been launched within the first decade of the 21st Century; PwC-Ulysses being the first one (started in 2001) and Novartis-ELP being the newest (launched in 2010). All programs use an international service component, sending participants into developing or emerging markets to work on social issues with partner organizations at the local community level. Except for EY-ACRFP (which is reaching exclusively, through partnership with the NGO Endeavor, to high-impact entrepreneurs or for-profit organizations in emerging economies), all programs are partnering with local organizations such as NGOs or social enterprises, some also with governmental entities or international bodies. All programs foster community development but have different foci: two programs focus particularly on health (Pfizer-GHFP and Novartis-ELP), two on economic development (EY-ACRFP and Intel-IESC), one (Intel-IESC) also on education and training, and two others (PWC-Ulysses and IBM-CSC) on different fields (e.g., economic and social development, health, education, environment). All but one program representative stated directly that one of the objectives of the ISLP is leadership development (only Intel-IESC did not directly mention leadership development but rather spoke of skill-development). Five of the representatives mentioned activities benefiting their company as objectives (e.g., business innovation, building a sustainable business in a multi-stakeholder setting, improving key stakeholder relationships, or new market development).

While all programs are designed for company high-flyers, three programs (PwC-Ulysses, EY-ACRFP and Novartis-ELP) explicitly target employees with leadership experience, either managers or senior leaders; IBM-CSC also targets potential leaders. PwC-Ulysses and Novartis-ELP programs target the highest management level. In 3 cases (Pfizer-GHFP, EY-ACRFP and Novartis-ELP), the ISLP is an incremental part of a systematic talent development process or a career development program.

Tabl

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1.: G

ener

al In

form

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n on

the

Inte

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iona

l Ser

vice

Lea

rnin

g Pr

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ISLP

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ram

(Uly

sses

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Pfiz

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HFP

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ility

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CR

FP)

IBM

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rate

Ser

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ps

(CSC

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Serv

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ps P

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ESC

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signm

ent a

nd le

ader

ship

de

velo

pmen

t pro

gram

for h

igh-

pote

ntia

l IBM

em

ploy

ees i

nspi

red

by th

e U

.S. P

eace

Cor

ps.

An

Inte

rnat

iona

l Cor

pora

te

Volu

ntee

ring

prog

ram

en

ablin

g ta

lent

ed e

mpl

oyee

s to

wor

k w

ith N

GO

s in

deve

lopi

ng c

ount

ries t

o su

ppor

t the

dep

loym

ent o

f In

tel c

lass

mat

e PC

s in

clud

ing

teac

hing

and

tra

inin

g.

An

actio

n-ba

sed

lead

ersh

ip

deve

lopm

ent p

rogr

am

send

ing

glob

al te

ams o

f ta

lent

to e

mer

ging

mar

kets

to d

evel

op a

solu

tion

to

coun

try-s

peci

fic h

ealth

ch

alle

nges

.

Year

of L

aunc

h 20

01 (w

ith a

bre

ak in

20

02, a

t thi

s mom

ent,

the

prog

ram

is p

endi

ng)

2003

20

05

2008

20

09

2010

Loca

l Par

tner

ing

Org

aniz

atio

ns

•N

GO

s and

mul

tilat

eral

orga

niza

tions

, U.N

.ag

ency

, or o

ther

soci

al se

ctor

orga

niza

tions

.

•M

ore

than

40

partn

eror

gani

zatio

ns; c

urre

ntpa

rtner

s, e.

g., P

roje

ctH

OPE

, Pha

rmA

cces

s,Sa

ve th

e Ch

ildre

n,U

SAID

, etc

.

•H

igh-

impa

cten

trepr

eneu

rs in

emer

ging

eco

nom

ies v

iath

e N

GO

End

eavo

r.

•Sm

all b

usin

esse

s, go

vern

men

tag

enci

es, c

ivil

soci

ety

orga

niza

tions

, and

NG

Os i

nem

ergi

ng m

arke

ts.

•In

tern

atio

nal N

GO

s (e.

g.,

Wor

ld V

ision

, Sav

e th

eCh

ildre

n, C

ARE

, etc

.),lo

cal N

GO

s,go

vern

men

ts.

•So

cial

bus

ines

ses,

NG

Os,

gove

rnm

ents.

•W

orki

ng w

ithco

mpa

nies

, sm

alle

rbu

sines

ses o

r alo

ne(d

epen

ding

on

the

scop

eof

the

chal

leng

es).

Key

Foc

us A

rea

•Va

rious

: Eco

nom

ican

d so

cial

deve

lopm

ent,

heal

th,

educ

atio

n,en

viro

nmen

t, et

c.

•So

cial

: Hea

lth•

Econ

omic

: SM

Ede

velo

pmen

t•

Vario

us:

Soci

al, e

cono

mic

,bu

sines

s, en

viro

nmen

t,ed

ucat

ion,

hea

lth, e

tc.

•So

cial

: Edu

catio

n an

dtra

inin

g•

Econ

omic

: Tec

hnol

ogy

depl

oym

ent

•So

cial

: Hea

lth

Proc

laim

ed

Obj

ectiv

es o

f th

e Pr

ogra

m

•Le

ader

ship

deve

lopm

ent

•Bu

sines

s inn

ovat

ion

•Bu

ildin

g a

susta

inab

le b

usin

ess

in a

mul

ti-sta

keho

lder

envi

ronm

ent

•Co

mm

unity

pro

blem

-so

lvin

g•

Lead

ersh

ipde

velo

pmen

t•

Impr

ovin

g ke

ysta

keho

lder

rela

tions

hips

•Co

mm

unity

pro

blem

-so

lvin

g an

d de

velo

pmen

t•

Lead

ersh

ip d

evel

opm

ent

•Co

mm

unity

pro

blem

-sol

ving

and

deve

lopm

ent

•Le

ader

ship

dev

elop

men

t•

New

mar

ket d

evel

opm

ent f

or th

eco

mpa

ny

•N

ew m

arke

tde

velo

pmen

t for

the

com

pany

•Sk

ill d

evel

opm

ent

•Co

mm

unity

pro

blem

-so

lvin

g an

d de

velo

pmen

t

•Co

mm

unity

pro

blem

-so

lvin

g•

Lead

ersh

ip d

evel

opm

ent

•N

ew m

arke

tde

velo

pmen

t•

Impr

ovin

g ke

ysta

keho

lder

rela

tions

hips

Targ

et G

roup

of

Par

ticip

ants

•

Hig

h-po

tent

ial,

seni

or le

vel l

eade

rs(p

artn

ers)

•H

igh-

perfo

rmer

s•

Hig

h-pe

rform

ing

empl

oyee

s at t

hem

anag

er o

r ass

istan

tdi

rect

or le

vel a

nd a

bove

•H

igh-

perfo

rmer

s, to

p ta

lent

s,po

tent

ial l

eade

rs•

Pass

iona

te a

bout

com

mun

ityw

ork

enga

gem

ent

•H

igh-

perfo

rmer

s, fu

ll-tim

e em

ploy

ees

•Fi

tting

the

role

of

teac

her,

SW e

ngin

eer

or p

roje

ct m

anag

er

•Se

nior

man

ager

s and

top

tale

nts

Part

of a

Tal

ent

Dev

elop

men

t Pr

oces

s or

a C

aree

r D

evel

opm

ent

Prog

ram

•N

ot sy

stem

atic

ally

in a

ll co

untri

es•

Both

•Ye

s as w

ell a

s a m

obili

tyex

perie

nce

•W

ith it

s stro

ng c

omm

unity

serv

ice

core

, the

pro

gram

isa

lear

ning

and

dev

elop

men

tex

perie

nce

for t

hose

who

shar

eth

e pa

ssio

n to

eng

age

•N

ot fo

rmal

ly•

Yes

156


157

The programs vary (follow in Tables 5.2.-5.4.): IBM-CSC sends the largest number of participants on ISA – approximately 500 a year. The other programs send 12 to 75 participants a year. Assignment length varies between 2 weeks (Intel-IESC) and up to six months (Pfizer-GHFP). Two programs (IBM-CSC and Novartis-ELP) send employees for 4 weeks and two programs use seven to eight-week assignments (EY-ACRFP and PwC-Ulysses). Most programs (two-thirds) send participants in teams, only two companies send participants individually (EY-ACRFP and Pfizer-GHFP – Pfizer also launched team-based assignments in 2010; however, they were not included in this study). Programs using team assignments send participants either in teams of 3-5 people (PwC-Ulysses, Intel-IESC) or in larger cohorts of 6-10 people (Novartis-ELP) or even 12-15 people (IBM-CSC). However, in the IBM-CSC case, teams are broken up into sub-teams. Except for Intel-IESC, all programs stress diversity criteria when making up the teams.

There are also differences among the programs regarding the placement of participants. Two firms use external implementation partners (EY-ACRFP, IBM-CSC) to match the participants’ skills and expertise with local organizations’ needs; in the other four firms, the process is coordinated internally by the program management or local unit in cooperation with the partner organization (PwC-Ulysses, Pfizer-GHFP, Intel-IESC and Novartis-ELP). All projects require participants to use various professional skills, knowledge, and assets, usually by means of offering consulting services in areas such as strategic planning, marketing, finance, IT, or project management.

The design of all programs follows three phases (all of them slightly different in nature and length): a pre-assignment phase, a field assignment phase and a post-assignment phase. Regarding the pre-assignment phase, the programs distinguish between a nomination phase (during which participants are selected) and the actual learning preparation (offering orientation and preparation for the field work). All programs apply a post-assignment phase with PwC-Ulysses offering the most comprehensive debriefing in the form of a one-week on-site learning event.

The learning methods used in the programs usually involve a combination of individual study (specifically on-line learning), teambuilding (also virtual via teleconferences), workshops and live training. Three representatives of PwC-Ulysses, Intel-IESC and Novartis-ELP mentioned coaching as a learning measure, which is a frequently-used method in leadership development (Boyce et al., 2010; Bone et al., 2009; Hall et al., 1999). PwC-Ulysses also uses 360-degree feedback, yoga and meditation. Schneider et al. (2010) stress the usefulness of the latter in developing socially responsible managers and leaders.

Tabl

e 5.

2.: I

nfor

mat

ion

abou

t the

Tar

get G

roup

and

Ass

ignm

ents

(Pla

cem

ents)

Pr

icew

ater

hous

eCoo

per

s’ Th

e U

lyss

es P

rogr

am

(Uly

sses

)

Pfiz

er’s

Glo

bal H

ealth

Fel

low

s Pr

ogra

m (G

HFP

) EY

’s A

mer

icas

Cor

pora

te

Res

pons

ibili

ty F

ello

ws

Prog

ram

(AC

RFP

)

IBM

’s C

orpo

rate

Ser

vice

C

orps

(CSC

) In

tel E

duca

tion

Serv

ice

Cor

ps P

rogr

am (I

ESC

) Th

e N

ovar

tis

Entr

epre

neur

ial

Lead

ersh

ip P

rogr

am

(ELP

) N

umbe

r of

Part

icip

ants

pe

r Yea

r

20

20-2

5 12

in 2

011

and

2012

A

ppro

x. 5

00

App

rox.

75

15-2

0

Leng

th o

f Pl

acem

ents

8

wee

ks

12-2

4 w

eeks

(3

-6 m

onth

s)

7 w

eeks

4

wee

ks

2 w

eeks

4

wee

ks

Size

and

C

ompo

sitio

n of

Te

am

•3-

4 pe

ople

•M

ultin

atio

nal

•Pa

rtici

pant

s wor

k in

divi

dual

ly•

(Sin

ce 2

010

also

team

-bas

edfe

llow

ship

s – n

ot st

udie

d he

re)

•Pa

rtici

pant

s wor

kin

divi

dual

ly•

12-1

5 pe

ople

, bro

ken

into

sub-

team

s•

Mul

tinat

iona

l

•5

peop

le•

Div

ersit

y is

not t

hefo

cus

•6-

10 p

eopl

e•

As d

iver

se a

s pos

sible

Mat

chin

g Pa

rtic

ipan

ts’

Expe

rtise

with

Lo

cal

Org

aniz

atio

ns’

Nee

ds

•It

is do

ne th

roug

hdi

rect

disc

ussio

n of

the

proj

ect t

eam

and

the

partn

er o

rgan

izat

ion

rega

rdin

g th

e sk

ills-

need

s mat

ch.

•It

is do

ne th

roug

h di

rect

disc

ussio

n of

the

proj

ect t

eam

and

the

partn

er o

rgan

izat

ion

rega

rdin

g th

e sk

ills-

need

sm

atch

.

•A

not-f

or-p

rofit

orga

niza

tion

Ende

avor

mat

ches

the

parti

cipa

nts

with

thei

r hos

t com

pani

esin

ord

er to

mat

ch th

epr

ojec

ts an

d pa

rtici

pant

s’ pr

ofes

siona

l ski

ll se

t.

•3

impl

emen

tatio

n pa

rtner

she

lp p

lace

the

parti

cipa

nts

(Aus

tralia

n Bu

sines

sVo

lunt

eers

, CD

CD

evel

opm

ent S

olut

ions

,an

d D

igita

l Opp

ortu

nity

Trus

t).

•It

is do

ne th

roug

hdi

rect

disc

ussio

n of

the

proj

ect t

eam

and

the

partn

er o

rgan

izat

ion

rega

rdin

g pa

rtici

pant

sele

ctio

n, sc

ope

of th

epr

ojec

t and

ens

urin

gco

ntin

uity

bet

wee

nas

signm

ents.

•Th

e de

sign

and

scop

ing

of th

e pr

ojec

t and

the

deve

lopm

ent o

f the

solu

tion

is do

ne b

yN

ovar

tis’ l

ocal

bus

ines

sun

its in

inte

ract

ion

with

the

loca

ls (C

DC

Dev

elop

men

t Sol

utio

nsis

only

a p

artn

er in

term

sof

logi

stics

).Ty

pes o

f A

ctiv

ities

Pa

rtic

ipan

ts

Do

on

Ass

ignm

ents

•E.

g., c

reat

ing

fram

ewor

k fo

r goo

dgo

vern

ance

,an

ticor

rupt

ion

and

pove

rty re

duct

ion,

•D

evel

opin

g a

strat

egy

and

busin

ess p

lan

ofsu

stain

able

gro

wth

,•

Des

igni

ng a

mic

rofin

ance

cre

dit-l

oani

ngm

odel

for S

MEs

in th

ere

gion

, etc

.

•E.

g., o

ptim

izin

g su

pply

cha

ins

and

busin

ess f

unct

ions

,•

Scal

ing

up p

rom

ising

hea

lthpr

even

tion

appr

oach

es,

•A

dmin

istra

tion

syste

mde

velo

pmen

t,•

Non

-clin

ical

and

clin

ical

train

ing,

•Sa

les a

nd m

arke

ting,

•Se

rvin

g as

nur

ses,

doct

ors,

teac

hers

, bus

ines

s con

sulta

nts,

etc.

•U

tiliz

ing

the

wor

kpla

cesk

ills a

nd k

now

ledg

e (in

acco

untin

g, ta

x, a

udit,

IT,

and

proj

ect m

anag

emen

t)•

Impr

ovin

g a

rang

e of

busin

ess p

roce

sses

,•

Fina

ncia

l rep

ortin

g,•

Mar

ketin

g an

d in

form

atio

nte

chno

logy

,•

Impr

ovin

g ca

sh fl

owm

onito

ring,

etc

.

•In

crea

sing

the

com

petit

iven

ess o

f SM

Esby

, e.g

.,•

Stra

tegy

dev

elop

men

t,•

Mar

ketin

g,•

HR

man

agem

ent,

•O

rgan

izat

iona

l des

ign,

spec

ial p

roje

cts (

web

sites

,fe

asib

ility

stud

ies,

prop

osal

s for

fund

ing,

deve

lopi

ng b

usin

ess

strat

egie

s, et

c.)

•Pr

imar

ily te

chni

cal

insta

llatio

n, se

t up

and

troub

lesh

ootin

g of

hard

war

e an

d so

ftwar

e,•

Trai

ning

of t

each

ers,

stude

nts a

nd sc

hool

lead

ers o

n th

e ef

fect

ive

use

of te

chno

logy

,•

Proj

ect/

prog

ram

man

agem

ent t

oco

ordi

nate

the

impl

emen

tatio

n of

the

team

’s w

ork.

•E.

g., s

take

hold

erdi

alog

ue/ e

ngag

emen

t,es

p. in

low

-inco

me

setti

ngs,

•A

naly

zing

mar

ket

cond

ition

s and

pat

ient

jour

ney,

•D

evel

opin

g bu

sines

sm

odel

s or i

mpr

oved

serv

ice

deliv

ery

oppo

rtuni

ties,

etc.

Exam

ples

of

Ass

ignm

ents

•

Gro

win

g su

stain

able

busin

ess i

nM

adag

asca

r•

Pove

rty a

llevi

atio

nin

Eas

t Tim

or•

Stre

ngth

enin

gco

ordi

natio

n in

the

fight

aga

inst

HIV

/AID

S in

Uga

nda

•Ch

ild h

elpl

ine

supp

ort

in In

dia

•W

orki

ng a

long

side

Mot

hers

2Mot

hers

in S

outh

Afri

ca to

scal

e up

serv

ices

toco

mba

t the

spre

ad o

f HIV

from

mot

hers

to th

eir c

hild

ren

•A

ddre

ssin

g co

re n

eeds

of

Infe

ctio

us D

iseas

es In

stitu

te in

Uga

nda,

hel

ping

bui

ld n

ewca

paci

ty a

nd c

ontri

butin

g to

signi

fican

t gro

wth

of t

heco

mpa

ny

•Im

prov

ing

the

fore

casti

ngan

d m

anag

ing

the

annu

albu

dget

of t

he B

uin

Zoo

inCh

ile•

Ass

istin

g Bl

ueM

essa

ging

,a

busin

ess t

hat o

ffers

orga

niza

tions

a m

essa

ging

plat

form

bas

ed o

n ar

tific

ial

inte

llige

nce,

on

finan

cial

proc

esse

s

•H

elpi

ng E

lect

ricity

Com

pany

of G

hana

by

prop

osin

g an

ITgo

vern

ance

mod

el to

hel

psta

ndar

dize

IT sy

stem

s and

ensu

re c

onsis

tenc

y in

man

agem

ent

•H

elpi

ng N

iger

ia’s

Cros

sRi

ver S

tate

with

two

prog

ram

s whi

ch p

rovi

defre

e he

alth

car

e to

mot

hers

and

youn

g ch

ildre

n

•W

orki

ng w

ith L

’Eco

lede

Cho

ix, a

new

scho

olin

Hai

ti, to

set u

pco

mpu

ters

in th

eir

scho

ol a

nd p

rovi

detra

inin

g to

thei

rte

ache

rs a

nd st

uden

ts(th

e fir

st te

am w

as se

ntin

201

1, a

nd tw

ofo

llow

up

team

s in

2012

)

•Co

llabo

rativ

ely

reso

lvin

gsu

pply

-cha

in p

robl

ems o

fm

alar

ia d

rug

in T

anza

nia

•Lo

okin

g fo

r pot

entia

lso

lutio

ns c

once

rnin

gN

CDs (

non-

com

mun

icab

le d

iseas

es)

burd

en in

low

inco

me

com

mun

ities

in M

exic

oan

d So

uth

Afri

ca

158

Tabl

e 5.

3.: D

esig

n El

emen

ts an

d Le

arni

ng M

etho

ds o

f the

Inte

rnat

iona

l Ser

vice

Lea

rnin

g Pr

ogra

ms (

ISLP

) Stu

died

Pr

icew

ater

hous

eCoo

pers

’ The

U

lyss

es P

rogr

am (U

lyss

es)

Pfiz

er’s

Glo

bal H

ealth

Fel

low

s Pr

ogra

m (G

HFP

) EY

’s A

mer

icas

Cor

pora

te

Res

pons

ibili

ty F

ello

ws

Prog

ram

(AC

RFP

)

IBM

’s C

orpo

rate

Ser

vice

Cor

ps

(CSC

) In

tel E

duca

tion

Serv

ice

Cor

ps

Prog

ram

(IES

C)

The

Nov

artis

En

trep

rene

uria

l Le

ader

ship

Pro

gram

(E

LP)

Com

posit

ion

(Pha

ses)

of

the

ISLP

•( 1

) Nom

inat

ion

phas

e,•

(2) P

repa

ratio

n ph

ase,

•(3

) Ind

uctio

n ph

ase,

•(4

) Ass

ignm

ent p

hase

,•

(5) D

ebrie

fing

phas

e,•

(6) N

etw

orki

ng p

hase

.

•( 1

) App

licat

ion/

inte

rvie

w/

sele

ctio

n,•

(2) O

rient

atio

n/ p

repa

ratio

nfo

r fie

ldin

g,•

(3) F

ield

ing

of a

ssig

nmen

t,•

(4) F

inal

repo

r ting

/co

mpl

etio

n/ re

turn

/ eva

luat

ion.

•(1

) App

licat

ion/

inte

rvie

w/

sele

ctio

n,•

(2) 2

-day

live

trai

ning

, •

(3) O

nsite

wor

king

for 7

wee

ks,

•(4

) Eva

luat

ion

and

debr

iefin

g.

•(1

) 4 m

onth

s of a

pplic

atio

n(n

omin

atio

n) p

hase

and

sele

ctio

n,•

( 2) 3

mon

ths o

f “pr

e-w

ork”

prep

arat

ion,

•(3

) 1 m

onth

abr

oad,

•(4

) 2 m

onth

s of “

post

-wor

k”.

•(1

) App

licat

ion

win

dow

(4w

eeks

), •

(2) I

nter

view

s (2

wee

ks),

•(3

) Log

istic

s (2

wee

ks),

•(4

) Tra

inin

g (4

wee

ks, 8

hrs

/wk)

, •

(5) I

n-co

untry

pla

cem

ent (

2w

eeks

), •

(6) P

ost-m

orte

m (2

wee

ks, 4

-8hr

s/wk)

.

•(1

) Pro

ject

sele

ctio

n,•

(2) P

artic

ipan

tse

lect

ion,

•(3

) Pre

para

tion

phas

e,

•(4

) In-

coun

try

depl

oym

ent,

•(5

) Re-

entry

.

Spec

ific

Lear

ning

M

etho

ds

App

lied

•36

0-de

gree

feed

back

, co

achi

ng, t

eam

bui

ldin

g,pr

ojec

t-bas

ed le

arni

ng,

med

itatio

n an

d yo

ga,

refle

ctiv

e ex

erci

ses,

and

story

-te

lling

sess

ions

. •

Parti

cipa

nts a

lso w

ork

on th

eir

pers

onal

dev

elop

men

t pla

ns o

fw

hat t

hey

wan

t to

lear

n fro

m

NG

O p

artn

ers.

•A

rigor

ous m

anda

tory

or

ient

atio

n fo

r all

new

ly

sele

cted

Fel

low

s inc

ludi

ng o

n-lin

e m

odul

es fo

r ind

ivid

ual

study

, virt

ual/

live

mee

tings

and

reso

urce

libr

ary.

•2-

day

live

train

ing

•Th

e ro

bust

curri

culu

m in

clud

eson

line

lear

ning

, edu

catio

n ab

out

host

coun

tries

, pro

ject

pro

blem

sta

tem

ents,

tim

e fo

r tea

m b

uild

ing

via

tele

conf

eren

ces a

nd so

cial

netw

orki

ng w

ebsit

es, l

eade

rshi

pde

velo

pmen

t wor

ksho

ps a

ndon

line

lear

ning

mod

ules

on

cultu

ral a

war

enes

s, in

tern

atio

nal

deve

lopm

ent,

corp

orat

ere

spon

sibili

ty.

•Th

e m

etho

ds in

clud

e: e

xten

sive

coac

hing

bef

ore

the

plac

emen

ts,

mee

tings

virt

ually

in te

ams v

iaSk

ype,

pho

ne, t

elec

onfe

renc

esw

ith sl

ides

, vid

eoco

nfer

ence

,fa

ce-to

-face

trai

ning

day

in

clud

ing

hand

s-on

HW

and

SW

de

mos

, tea

mbu

ildin

g, e

tc.

•Th

e Alu

mni

shar

e ex

perie

nces

with

the

next

team

and

men

tor

them

.

•Th

e m

etho

ds in

clud

e:w

orks

hop

and

virtu

alle

arni

ng c

ompo

nent

s, tra

inin

g, in

divi

dual

pr

epar

atio

n, a

ctio

nba

sed

lear

ning

, co

achi

ng a

nded

ucat

ion

faci

litat

ion

durin

g th

ede

ploy

men

t, pe

er

coac

hing

,in

tern

al/e

xter

nal

spea

kers

.H

ow is

the

Lear

ning

D

ebri

efed

in

a R

evie

w

Phas

e

•Sh

arin

g th

e pr

ojec

t exp

erie

nce

with

all

parti

cipa

nts a

ndU

lyss

es te

am, d

ebrie

fing

the

expe

rienc

es w

ith fa

cilit

ator

sin

larg

er g

roup

and

one

-in-

one,

wor

king

on

360-

feed

back

dim

ensio

ns w

ith c

oach

es,

usin

g le

arni

ng st

orie

s and

pres

entin

g th

em, s

harin

gin

divi

dual

’s vi

sion

state

men

ts,

the

oppo

rtuni

ty to

pr a

ctic

eyo

ga a

nd m

edita

tion

each

day

.

•It

is do

ne th

roug

h as

sess

men

tsu

rvey

s tak

en im

med

iate

ly

afte

r the

fello

wsh

ip a

nd o

ne-

year

late

r by

both

the

Fello

ws

and

the

partn

er o

rgan

izat

ion.

•

The

less

ons a

re sh

ared

thro

ugh

case

stud

ies a

nd p

artic

ipat

ion

in c

onfe

renc

es/ e

vent

s,th

roug

h str

ong

inte

rnal

com

mun

icat

ions

pla

n to

conn

ect a

cros

s all

Pfiz

er si

tes

to c

olle

ague

s, m

anag

ers a

ndle

ader

ship

as w

ell a

s par

tner

s.

•Co

mbi

natio

n of

surv

eys a

ndin

divi

dual

pho

ne c

alls.

•

Revi

ew o

f fin

al d

eliv

erab

les

subm

itted

, deb

riefin

g w

ithex

tern

al p

artn

er E

ndea

vor.

•In

divi

dual

less

ons s

hare

d in

team

and

offi

ce m

eetin

gs,

etc.

•A

nnua

l com

mun

icat

ions

plan

with

in th

e Am

eric

as to

shar

e th

e re

sults

of t

he c

lass

.•

Form

al fe

edba

ck fo

r eac

hin

divi

dual

refle

ctin

gfe

edba

ck fr

om th

e ho

st.

•Tw

o m

onth

s pos

t-ser

vice

wor

kin

clud

es: s

ynth

esiz

ing

less

ons

lear

ned,

ong

oing

shar

ing

of th

eex

perie

nce

upon

retu

rn w

ithco

lleag

ues,

fam

ily, f

riend

s and

hom

e co

mm

unity

and

con

nect

ing

to IB

M’s

busin

ess d

evel

opm

ent

proc

ess.

•Th

e pa

rtici

pant

s ref

lect

on

lear

ning

for t

heir

care

ers a

nd o

ppor

tuni

ties

and

ofte

n se

rve

as m

ento

rs to

succ

eedi

ng te

ams.

•D

ebrie

fing

occu

rs in

two

stage

s:Ex

tern

al d

ebrie

fing

take

s pla

cew

ith th

e fie

ld re

pres

enta

tive

ofth

e N

GO

and

revi

ews t

heac

com

plish

men

ts an

dre

com

men

ds n

ext s

teps

. Int

erna

lde

brie

fing

take

s pla

ce w

ith th

eIE

SC te

am a

nd o

ther

inte

rnal

stake

hold

ers;

the

proj

ect i

sre

view

ed, i

nter

nal i

mpr

ovem

ents

reco

mm

ende

d, a

ndre

com

men

datio

ns fo

r the

clie

ntar

e sh

ared

.

•I t

is do

ne th

roug

ha

clos

ing

wor

ksho

p(la

st da

y of

in-

coun

try) a

ndfe

edba

ck o

nin

divi

dual

surv

ey

resu

lts, s

harin

gle

arni

ng re

sults

and

beco

min

g pa

rt of

the

ELP

Glo

bal A

lum

niN

etw

ork.

•D

ebrie

fing

the

lear

ning

usin

ga

coac

h.W

hat i

s D

one

to

Faci

litat

e Le

arni

ng

Tran

sfer

•Th

e m

etho

ds u

sed

in th

ede

brie

fing

phas

e.

•Be

com

ing

part

of th

e U

lyss

esN

etw

ork

– a

glob

al n

etw

ork

ofU

lyss

es p

artic

ipan

ts th

at sh

are,

refle

ct a

nd su

ppor

t eac

h ot

her

tow

ard

resp

onsib

le le

ader

ship

.

•In

201

0, th

e G

HF

Alu

mni

Busin

ess N

etw

ork

was

foun

ded

enab

ling

shar

ing

GH

F in

sight

s and

inno

vatio

nsth

roug

h m

eani

ngfu

lco

llabo

ratio

n ac

ross

the

busin

ess,

supp

ortin

gre

crui

tmen

t, m

ento

ring

curre

ntFe

llow

s, ra

ising

aw

aren

ess

abou

t pro

gram

and

partn

ersh

ips a

cros

s site

s.

•In

tern

al c

omm

unic

atio

ns,

enco

urag

ing

the

parti

cipa

nts

to sh

are

thei

r exp

erie

nces

at

even

ts.

•St

ruct

ured

act

iviti

es to

shar

eex

perie

nces

and

tran

sfer

know

ledg

e an

d re

latio

nshi

psga

ined

with

loca

l IBM

team

s.•

The

parti

cipa

nts o

ften

serv

e as

men

tors

to su

ccee

ding

team

s.•

Sinc

e 20

12, t

here

has

bee

na

prac

tical

gui

de to

re-e

ntry

.•

Conn

ectio

n to

oth

er A

lum

nith

roug

h fo

rum

s and

inte

rnal

netw

orks

. •

The

appl

icat

ion

of th

e ex

perie

nces

to th

e di

vers

e jo

bs is

left

to th

e pa

rtici

pant

s the

ms e

lves

.

•Th

e tra

nsfe

r is n

ot sy

stem

atic

ally

en

cour

aged

. The

focu

s is o

nsh

arin

g th

e ex

perie

nce

and

story

telli

ng th

roug

h so

cial

med

iaan

d in

tern

al c

hann

els s

uch

asha

ving

a b

row

n ba

g lu

nch

sess

ions

, an

open

foru

m w

ith th

ete

am o

r bus

ines

s uni

t or s

ite, e

tc.

•W

ritin

g bl

ogs o

n th

ein

trane

t and

info

rmin

g te

ams

whi

le in

cou

ntry

. •

Afte

r ret

urn,

cont

inui

ng to

tran

sfer

th

e ne

w k

now

ledg

ean

d sk

ills t

o th

eor

gani

zatio

n, su

ppor

tin

read

justi

ng to

the

wor

kpla

ce,

netw

orki

ngop

portu

nitie

s, pe

erco

achi

ng.

159

Tabl

e 5.

4.: B

enef

its o

f the

Inte

rnat

iona

l Ser

vice

Lea

rnin

g Pr

ogra

ms (

ISLP

) Stu

died

Pr

icew

ater

hous

eCoo

pers

’ Th

e U

lyss

es P

rogr

am

(Uly

sses

)

Pfiz

er’s

Glo

bal H

ealth

Fe

llow

s Pro

gram

(G

HFP

)

EY’s

Am

eric

as C

orpo

rate

R

espo

nsib

ility

Fel

low

s Pr

ogra

m (A

CR

FP)

IBM

’s C

orpo

rate

Ser

vice

C

orps

(CSC

) In

tel E

duca

tion

Serv

ice

Cor

ps P

rogr

am (I

ESC

) Th

e N

ovar

tis

Entr

epre

neur

ial

Lead

ersh

ip P

rogr

am

(ELP

) C

laim

ed

Bene

fits f

or

Part

icip

ants

•Le

ader

ship

cap

abili

ties a

ndot

her s

oft s

kills

•Te

am-w

ork

skill

s•

Posit

ion-

rela

ted

outc

omes

•Po

tent

ial p

erso

nal a

ndpr

ofes

siona

l dist

urba

nces

•Le

ader

ship

cap

abili

ties

and

othe

r sof

t ski

lls•

Expe

rienc

e fro

mde

velo

ping

and

emer

ging

mar

kets

•H

ard

and

tech

nica

lsk

ills

•Le

ader

ship

cap

abili

ties a

ndot

her s

oft s

kills

•Le

ader

ship

cap

abili

ties a

ndot

her s

oft s

kills

•Te

am-w

ork

skill

s•

Expe

rienc

e fro

mde

velo

ping

and

em

ergi

ngm

arke

ts•

Pote

ntia

l per

sona

l and

prof

essio

nal d

istur

banc

es

•Le

ader

ship

cap

abili

ties

and

othe

r sof

t ski

lls•

Team

-wor

k sk

ills

•Ex

perie

nce

from

deve

lopi

ng a

nd e

mer

ging

mar

kets

•H

ard

and

tech

nica

l ski

lls

•Le

ader

ship

cap

abili

ties

and

othe

r sof

t ski

lls•

Team

-wor

k sk

ills

•Ex

perie

nce

from

deve

lopi

ng a

ndem

ergi

ng m

arke

ts•

Pote

ntia

l per

sona

l and

prof

essio

nal

distu

rban

ces

Cla

imed

Be

nefit

s for

C

ompa

nies

•Bu

ildin

g gl

obal

lead

ers a

ndm

anag

ers

•A

lignm

ent o

f the

new

lear

ning

with

the

strat

egic

focu

s of t

he c

ompa

ny•

Glo

bal t

eam

ing

and

netw

orki

ng•

Susta

inab

ility

and

shar

edva

lue

•In

crea

sed

rete

ntio

n an

dco

mm

itmen

t of e

mpl

oyee

s,ta

lent

attr

actio

n

•In

crea

sed

rete

ntio

n an

dco

mm

itmen

t of

empl

oyee

s, ta

lent

attra

ctio

n•

Impr

ovin

g sta

keho

lder

rela

tions

hips

, bra

ndim

prov

emen

t•

Futu

re b

usin

ess

oppo

rtuni

ties

•Bu

ildin

g gl

obal

lead

ers

and

man

ager

s•

Foste

ring

inno

vatio

n, n

ewbu

sines

s mod

els

•Im

prov

ing

stake

hold

erre

latio

nshi

ps, b

rand

impr

ovem

ent

•Fu

ture

bus

ines

sop

portu

nitie

s

•G

loba

l tea

min

g an

dne

twor

king

with

in th

e fir

m•

Team

coh

esiv

enes

s•

Susta

inab

ility

and

shar

edva

lue

•In

crea

sed

rete

ntio

n an

dco

mm

itmen

t of e

mpl

oyee

s,ta

lent

attr

actio

n•

Impr

ovin

g sta

keho

lder

rela

tions

hips

, bra

ndim

prov

emen

t•

Pres

ent b

usin

ess

oppo

rtuni

ties

•Fu

ture

bus

ines

sop

portu

nitie

s

•Pr

esen

t bus

ines

sop

portu

nitie

s•

Futu

re b

usin

ess

oppo

rtuni

ties

•Bu

ildin

g gl

obal

lead

ers

and

man

ager

s•

Foste

ring

inno

vatio

n,ne

w b

usin

ess m

odel

s•

Impr

ovin

g sta

keho

lder

rela

tions

hips

, bra

ndim

prov

emen

t•

Futu

re b

usin

ess

oppo

rtuni

ties

Cla

imed

Be

nefit

s for

C

omm

uniti

es

and

Broa

der

Soci

ety

•Po

sitiv

e ch

ange

in th

eco

mm

unity

whe

re th

epr

ojec

ts to

ok p

lace

(see

exam

ples

of p

roje

cts)

•Co

mm

unity

con

tribu

tion-

rela

ted

outc

omes

•Po

sitiv

e ch

ange

in th

eco

mm

unity

whe

re th

epr

ojec

ts to

ok p

lace

(see

exam

ples

of p

roje

cts)

•Bu

ildin

g th

e ca

paci

tyfo

r the

indi

vidu

albe

nefic

iarie

s

•Po

sitiv

e ch

ange

in th

eco

mm

unity

whe

re th

epr

ojec

ts to

ok p

lace

(see

exam

ples

of p

roje

cts)

•Bu

ildin

g th

e ca

paci

ty fo

rth

e in

divi

dual

ben

efic

iarie

s•

Hel

ping

cre

ate

thriv

ing

com

pani

es•

Crea

ting

scal

able

,su

stain

able

eco

nom

ic v

alue

•Po

sitiv

e ch

ange

in th

eco

mm

unity

whe

re th

epr

ojec

ts to

ok p

lace

(see

exam

ples

of p

roje

cts)

•Co

mm

unity

con

tribu

tion-

rela

ted

outc

omes

•Po

sitiv

e ch

ange

in th

eco

mm

unity

whe

re th

epr

ojec

ts to

ok p

lace

(see

exam

ples

of p

roje

cts)

•In

crea

sed

acce

ss to

tech

nolo

gy in

the

com

mun

ities

•Co

mm

unity

con

tribu

tion-

rela

ted

outc

omes

•Po

sitiv

e ch

ange

in th

eco

mm

unity

whe

re th

epr

ojec

ts to

ok p

lace

(see

exam

ples

of p

roje

cts)

160


161

Debriefing of participants to review learning is a feature of all the programs. However, there are big differences in terms of execution. The results of the experience are usually reviewed internally. Some firms also carry out debriefing with external partners to evaluate project outcomes (PwC-Ulysses, EY-ACRFP, Intel-IESC and Novartis-ELP). With regard to internal debriefing, the programs use: surveys (Pfizer-GHFP, EY-ACRFP, Novartis-ELP); phone calls (EY-ACRFP); coaching (Novartis-ELP). Some companies prefer to review project outcomes in numerical terms (e.g., Intel-IESC), while others add learning outcomes (e.g., PwC-Ulysses, Novartis-ELP). PwC-Ulysses seems to stress the debriefing phase most – it runs a one-week module on reviewing the lessons learned. In this week, the experience is transformed into learning through a sophisticated distilling process based on Kolb’s learning cycle (1984) involving reflection, analysis of previous experiences, and discourse with others who faced similar challenges (Pless et al. 2011). Storytelling, as the forming and sharing of rich learning narratives, is systematically used as a distilling method aided by coaches and facilitators at the individual and group level. To support the learning transfer, sharing of experiences through social media and blogs and also talks at internal and external events are actively encouraged by all programs. Some of the programs have set up Alumni networks to support exchange among participants. Those with a formal network approach aim at strengthening the ties among participants and facilitating ongoing learning (e.g., PwC-Ulysses and IBM-CSC). Novartis-ELP also applies peer coaching to facilitate learning transfer. Nevertheless, to transfer deep learning experiences back into an unchanged workplace still poses one of the biggest challenges.

The ISLP produce beneficial outcomes at the individual, organizational and broader societal level. We shall now give a brief overview of the individual learning benefits as stated by program representatives. All programs seem to develop (albeit to varying degrees) leadership capabilities and other (inter)personal competencies – for example, awareness of cultural differences, inclusion, empathy, relationship-building skills. Various program representatives mentioned learning gains in the following areas: business-relevant learning gains from assignment experience in developing and emerging markets, such as increased understanding of the target population (e.g., in the case of Novartis-ELP, there is a strong patient-focus learning outcome) and delivery systems, learning to deliver in a more disruptive and creative way (Pfizer-GHFP, IBM-CSC and Intel-IESC); improved team-work skills – for example, global team and collaboration skills, mutual learning in cross-functional teams (PwC-Ulysses, IBM-CSC, Intel-IESC and Novartis-ELP); and enhanced hard


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and technical skills – Health Management Information Systems, skills in hardware and software (Pfizer-GHFP and Intel-IESC).

The service assignments also provide relevant benefits for the companies sending the participants. These include: development of new business knowledge (about supply chains and country environment important for penetrating developing markets) and the creation of new business and sales opportunities (Pfizer-GHFP, EY-ACRFP, IBM-CSC, Intel-IESC, Novartis-ELP); fostering innovation and generating new business models in untapped market segments (EY-ACRFP and Novartis-ELP); improved stakeholder relationships (e.g., building trust and respect even before entering a new market) and brand image (e.g., raising brand awareness) (Pfizer-GHFP, EY-ACRFP, IBM-CSC, Intel-IESC and Novartis-ELP); building and strengthening a global team culture and a global talent network (Intel-IESC, IBM-CSC, PwC-Ulysses); and creating a pool of global leaders and managers (PwC-Ulysses, EY-ACRFP and Novartis-ELP).

The service assignments also come with benefits for the communities and society at large. All program representatives mentioned positive changes in the community where the projects took place (see examples of assignments in Table 5.2.). Specific outcomes for the partnering organizations are, for instance, organizational development and process improvement, knowledge transfer and capacity-building.

Having compared the programs, at first sight, the picture remained relatively undifferentiated with regard to key program emphases and objectives: leadership development, organization development and community contributions. We therefore conducted a more in-depth analysis, which, while confirming this general impression, yielded a finer-grained picture. This was achieved by sorting individual program characteristics and their values (see Table 5.5.) into 3 categories – LDP (Leadership Development Program) category with 16 values, ODP (Organization Development Program) category with 13 values, and CDP (Community Development Program) category with 12 values.1

1 The values of characteristics were identified based on respondents’ replies and other secondary sources and matched with one of the 3 categories (LDP, ODP, CDP) resulting in 16 possible values for the category of LDP, 13 values for ODP and 12 values for CDP. We assessed each program based on these values. Table 5.5. shows the methodology used for matching the values of characteristics with the 3 categories. All values corresponding to each category were summed, which resulted in the final number of matches for each category as shown in Figure 5.1.: Classification of International Service Learning Programs (ISLP).


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Table 5.5.: Typology for Classifying International Service Learning Programs as Leadership Development Program, Organization Development Program or

Community Development Program

Leadership Development Program (LDP)

Organization Development Program (ODP)

Community Development Program (CDP)

Characteristics Values (max. 16) Values (max. 13) Values (max. 12)

Description of the Program

• Leadership development program • Volunteering program • Community-service program

Proclaimed Objectives of the Program

• Leadership development • Business or organization development • Community problem-solving

Target Group of Participants

• Leaders • Engaged in community work

Teams • Working in teams• Team diversity is stressed

• Different teams return to the partner organization in several rounds

Program Design

• Distinguishes debriefing andnetworking in the program design

• Relies on the effect of the Alumninetwork

• Reviews the achievements with theexternal partner

• Uses various learning methods • Debriefs the learning using facilitators

and coaches• Stresses the reflective element towards

the future careers or visions of theparticipants

• Relies on the effect of the Alumninetwork

• Encourages individual learning(personal development plans)

Embeddedness of the Program

• The program is part of a talentdevelopment process or career development program

Claimed Benefits for Participants

• Develops skills important forleadership

• Hard and technical skills

• Provides valuable experience from developing and emerging markets

• Team-work skills• Position-related outcomes

Claimed Benefits for Companies

• Future business opportunities • Improving stakeholder relationships,

brand improvement• Building global leaders and managers• Increased retention and commitment of

employees, talent attraction• Fostering innovation, new business

models• Global teaming and networking • Sustainability and shared value• Present business opportunities • Alignment of the new learning with the

strategic focus of the company• Team cohesiveness

Claimed Benefits for Communities and Broader Society

• Positive change in the community wherethe projects took place

• Community contribution-relatedoutcomes

• Building the capacity for the individualbeneficiaries, process improvements

• Helping create thriving companies thatgenerate employment opportunities

• Creating scalable, sustainable economicvalue and inspiration for futuregenerations to innovate and take risks

• Increased access to technology in thecommunities


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This enabled us to identify which program ranks the highest in each category and which programs have prioritized objectives. Figure 5.1. shows the results.

Figure 5.1.: Classification of International Service Learning Programs (ISLP)

Legend: LDP = Leadership Development Program; ODP = Organization Development Program; CDP = Community Development Program

Overall, IBM-CSC, PwC-Ulysses and Novartis-ELP showed the highest number of matches across programs (≥22). These programs were also the ones that scored highest in the area of leadership development, yielding between 10 (IBM-CSC) and 14 (PwC-Ulysses) out of 16 possible matches. PwC-Ulysses (88%) and Novartis-ELP (81%) placed the main emphasis on leadership development, while IBM-CSC showed the highest focus on organization development (69%) followed


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by leadership development (59%) and community development (50%). EY-ACRFP and Intel-IESC, on the other hand, gave nominally and percentage-wise the greatest and clearest priority to community development (incorporating 58% of the CDP values). Most programs had one clear program focus (two programs in the area of leadership development, two in the area of community development). While IBM-CSC had closely-linked objectives (organization development first but with leadership development and community development scoring right behind), Pfizer-GHFP was the only program in which all three areas were given nearly the same emphasis (with the difference within the range of 8%), with slightly greater stress on organization development.

Looking at each program individually and comparing it with its proclaimed objectives, the following can be noted. PwC-Ulysses was communicated mainly as a leadership development program focusing less on organization development and community development. This was also confirmed by our analysis. Pfizer-GHFP was promoted as a program aimed at providing contribution for all parties involved (the community, participants and the company). The analysis showed that, in reality, it focused on organization development, closely followed by community development and then by leadership development objectives. EY-ACRFP, given that its reason for starting the program was community problem-solving and leadership development, proved from our analysis to provide comparable benefits (focusing a bit less on organization development). IBM-CSC was presented as focusing on community problem-solving, leadership development and new market development but our analysis led us to classify it as an organization development program closely connected with leadership development (IBM-CSC ranked highest in the criteria for an organization development program). Intel-IESC can be classified as a community development program and this was in keeping with its focus on technology deployment and education in communities (the strategic focus on organization and business development has not shown strong enough). Novartis-ELP stresses in communication the creation of shared value and our analysis led us to classify it as a strong leadership development program but with less impact on organization development and least impact on community development.

5.5. Discussion and Suggestions for Further Research The use of international service assignments is a new trend in business practice

in general (Hills and Mahmud, 2007) and in management development (Colvin, 2009; Gitsham, 2012) in particular. A growing number of companies explore ISLP as a new way of building awareness for the broader social and environmental


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challenges facing mankind (climate change, poverty, access to food and water, pandemics) and developing talents for dealing with the challenges of managing in a global stakeholder setting.

While the number of participants sent annually on ISLP seems to be rather small (ranging between 0.0001% and 0,0012% of the workforce of the companies participating in this study), programs are usually not geared toward the overall population of a company, but target specific segments (e.g., current or future leaders). For instance in the case of IBM, thousands of future leaders participate in ISLP. It can be expected that this will have a significant impact on the way executives lead – Pless et al. (2011, 2012) showed that ISLP foster the development of responsible leadership competence – and on organizational change towards sustainability (Millar and Gitsham, 2013). Thus, academic research that provides comparative data on the outcomes of such programs is highly relevant to business practice.

Research on international service learning is still in its infancy. While programs’ learning outcomes are evaluated using internally-developed metrics, surveys, interviews, inquiries, and by external consultancies (the case of Pfizer-GHFP, IBM-CSC), hardly any systematic measurement has been published so far. IBM made an internal survey on how the CSC experience helped to develop certain IBM competencies. The survey yielded benefits regarding global cooperation, communication and influencing skills, trust-building, and partnering for client success. Pless et al. (2011) showed in a scientific study including all PwC-Ulysses participants (2003-2007) that an integrative service-learning design applied in PwC-Ulysses is an appropriate methodology for developing learning outcomes in the area of global mindset, cultural intelligence, responsible mindset, ethical literacy, self-awareness and relationship-building. However, to better understand the generalizability of the findings, they suggest the Ulysses research study be replicated.

The purpose of this qualitative study was to compare various programs as a starting point for further comparative studies. We provided a typology for differentiating programs (leadership development, organization development and community development – see Table 5.5.). We suggest that it is likely that the type of program affects learning outcomes. So, while all programs may achieve relatively high learning gains in the area of cultural competence due to the international nature of service programs, community development programs may specifically foster learning in the field of community-building and other learning areas that have not been captured by, e.g., PwC-Ulysses (focusing primarily on leadership


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development). Organization development programs, on the other hand, may be specifically suited to developing business-related competencies (for example, partnering for clients’ success, communication and influencing skills, or innovation skills), while programs with an emphasis on leadership development are likely to yield greater learning gains with regard to personal development, reflection and behavioral change. As mentioned by one program representative, benefits for the company come naturally when there is a strong focus on real community impact (i.e., focus on community development) and on innovative use of core skills pushing the skills frontiers and leading to great learning (i.e., focus on leadership development) – an observation worthy of further investigation.

The programs that we discussed here also provide a variety of differentiating features (e.g., the nature of the assignments – individual or in teams, placement length and learning methods used) that might form the basis for further systematic studies. As we saw, a differentiating feature between programs is whether participants are sent in teams on these assignments or alone (as in the case of Pfizer-GHFP and EY-ACRFP). In all likelihood, a team assignment provides a stronger basis for developing team-work skills and potentially also community building skills as identified by Pless et al. (2011) than individual experience (which, on the other hand, forces the participant to rely on and engage with the locals much more in order to get results).

Regarding placement length, Pfizer-GHFP provides (with up to 6 months) a considerably longer field experience than other programs with short-term assignments (e.g., Intel-IESC). We observe a trend towards shorter assignments, possibly because they are not so costly and time-consuming. In the meantime, Pfizer has started to run a short version of the Pfizer-GHFP to cater to those staff who cannot commit themselves to long-term assignments. The program is called Global Health Teams and enables high-performing employees from across countries and business functions to work on team assignments. There are two program designs available. One is a full-time 3-week long on-location assignment and the other a part-time 3-month assignment where a team spends a certain amount of time per week for a longer duration with a local partner organization. Five team initiatives have been completed so far: four in the 3-week assignment design (in Peru, Colombia, Mexico, Chile) and one following the part-time design (in Groton, CT). Also HSBC has a program in place called the Next Generation Development Program (NGDP). Based on the original PwC-Ulysses idea, the program uses one-week field assignments, sophisticated learning methodology and 6-month-long follow-up business projects with a sustainability component that bring measurable


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outcomes for HSBC. Using a new mode of cooperation, EY has set up in 2011 the EMEIA Financial Services Intrapreneur Program in which the participants either work full time in Endeavor Entrepreneur offices on a six-week project (as Placement Intrapreneurs) or give their time to deliver shorter pieces of work from their home offices (as Virtual Intrapreneurs who support shorter term projects). IBM also started to explore new type of engagements on local/regional level called IBM Services Grants. Future studies should explore whether short-term assignments (alone or complemented with follow-up business projects) can provide similar powerful learning experiences and lead to intended outcomes for community, organization, and individual. Indications about the optimal duration of field assignments and type of engagement would be of practical relevance and would help learning officers in the cost-benefit analysis and in selling service programs internally.

From a learning perspective, we propose that project design will have a big impact on outcomes. A unique feature of PwC-Ulysses is the integrated service-learning methodology which, we suggest, is a good way of fostering responsible leadership competence. In PwC-Ulysses, 99% of the participants exhibited learning gains in the areas of responsible mind-set and 85% in the area of ethical literacy (Pless et al., 2011, p. 246). While challenging service assignments provide a great learning platform and a potential catalyst for learning (Conger and Benjamin, 1999; McCall, 1998; Van Velsor et al., 1998), the transformation of experience into learning requires a sophisticated distilling process based on storytelling as a debriefing method in individual and guided team sessions with coaches and facilitators (Pless et al., 2012). The integrated approach of different methods (coaching, meditation and yoga, appreciative inquiry and storytelling) is one of the key factors in this distilling process. A systematic comparison of programs with different designs and methods would help to study this proposition.

It would also be interesting to study to what extent seniority and life experience have an effect on the learning. While the Ulysses study is based on a sample of partners (executives) of the firm, EY-ACRFP and Intel-IESC provide a participant sample at the employee level. Moreover, IBM allows comparing the outcomes for participants with leadership potential in the CSC program with the outcomes for executives (with proven leadership experience) in the executive version of the CSC called Executive Service Corps (ESC) launched in 2010.

Another area worthy of further exploration and systematic research is studying the extent to which senior leadership support is involved in the program and in leveraging the business development potential of ISLP. Based on partial evidence, we suggest that in some programs (e.g., Pfizer-GHFP and IBM-CSC),


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former CEOs or chairmen got the ball rolling while in other programs (e.g., PwC-Ulysses and Intel-IESC), senior leaders influenced the nomination of the candidates or approved participation.

Future research should also try to systematically measure and compare the effectiveness of different service programs with regard to the outcomes and the impact they create for all parties involved (including the Return On Investment (ROI) of the programs in terms of payback in tangible or intangible terms). This can help program designers to further improve the design of international service initiatives and enhance their impact. However, not all firms measure ROI systematically, and those that do usually keep this information internally and do not share it easily with the broader public. It should be interesting to explore the results to be obtained by IBM’s quantitative community impact measurement model which the company has launched in the second half of 2013. In addition, there is the question of scaling ISLP: some companies, with IBM at the forefront, have great operational assets about how to scale these programs. We suggest that future research focuses on this.

Evaluating the development of responsible leadership competence and behavior is a challenge. It would be useful from both theoretical and practical standpoints to study the extent to which service experience sparks deeper interest in service work (something mentioned by program representatives of Intel-IESC, IBM-CSC and PwC-Ulysses) and fosters greater responsibility towards stakeholders. The findings in this area are particularly important in light of the call for a new generation of responsible leaders (EFMD, 2005; UN Global Compact, 2011).

5.6. Conclusions In this paper we compared six International Service Learning Programs set up

by multinational corporations from three different industries (health, technology, and accounting and professional services). We identified a number of category areas in which they differ and provided a typology for program classification. Our findings showed that, regardless of the stated objectives of the programs (usually stressing shared value for the participants, the company and the communities), most programs had one clear program focus (two programs in the area of leadership development, two in the area of community development) while two programs showed closely linked foci (focusing slightly more on organization development than on the other areas).

As this analysis shows, International Service Learning Programs have the potential to achieve several objectives all at the same time. They can help develop


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solution approaches for social issues at the local and global level; they can help organizations develop business innovations and new approaches to customers in new markets; they can help managers and leaders develop mindsets and skills for managing successfully and responsibly in a global stakeholder environment. From this perspective, International Service Learning Programs and innovative ways of scaling them up are sorely needed. Further research should be undertaken to grasp the best design for achieving the various objectives (leadership development, organization development and community development). The most challenging but also the most promising task will be to provide guidance for designing an approach that effectively integrates all three objectives.


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Chapter 6

Closing Chapter: Overview of the Findings and Areas for Future Research

Markéta Borecká



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6. Closing Chapter: Overview of the Findings and Areas for FutureResearch

Abstract

The closing chapter discusses the author’s motivation for this research, provides an overview of the major findings drawn from each of the manuscripts, and shows their contribution to theory and practice. It also discusses the challenges and limitations of the presented research, suggests areas for future exploration, and discusses new developments in International Service Learning Programs. The conclusion can be made that responsible leadership and the development of responsible leaders by means of International Service Learning Programs are fields of study offering plenty of opportunities for future research – research in an area that has the potential to contribute to the improvement of today’s stakeholder society.

Keywords

Responsible leadership, new trends in leadership development, International Service Learning Programs


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6.1. Reasons for Writing this Dissertation This cumulative dissertation has come into being due to several reasons. First,

it is a highly relevant topic and worthy of exploration as today’s leadership practice does not always show examples of responsible leadership behaviour from top executives, but rather the contrary (Pless and Maak, 2011). Second, current leadership theories (such as transformational, authentic, charismatic, servant, ethical, spiritual and others) miss the responsibility element, which is actually one of the most important ones for leadership effectivity (Waldman and Galvin, 2008). Third, this dissertation offers a viewpoint on responsible leadership theory which, when applied in practice by corporations and their leaders who possess the power to make a change, may help deal with pertinent social and environmental challenges. Fourth, it seemed valuable to explore corporate initiatives (International Service Learning Programs) that help develop responsible leaders, or increase the level of responsibility they already possess, and provide empirical insights for corporations and program designers. Last but not least, the reason for writing this dissertation is the author’s interest in taking responsibility in all her endeavours and activities on a daily basis.

The following lines provide an overview of the major findings drawn from each of the presented manuscripts, showing their contribution to theory and practice. They also discuss the challenges and limitations of the presented research, suggest areas for future exploration, and discuss new developments in International Service Learning Programs.

6.2. Major Findings and their Contribution to Theory and Practice The four manuscripts this dissertation consists of represent a solid piece of

work around the topic of responsible leadership and responsible leadership development. They have aimed at contributing both to leadership theory and practice and coming up with insights worth being shared with leadership practitioners, corporate leadership development program designers, as well as with a broader audience.

The first manuscript opened the discussion with the question: “What is responsible leadership and how it can address today’s challenges in a stakeholder society”. It dealt with the questions of the construct of responsible leadership and started by defining the concept and then comparing and contrasting it with other related leadership theories (e.g., transformational leadership, ethical leadership, authentic leadership, servant leadership, etc.). This comparison has shown that responsible leadership is a relevant and justifiable values-based leadership theory,


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very practical in its approach of including various stakeholder groups when addressing this world’s problems and finding solutions that are acceptable to and beneficial for everyone. Next, the topic was examined profoundly based on a literature survey of 57 articles that have so far been written in academic literature about the topic of responsible leadership. It could be observed that a substantial number of articles use as their basis stakeholder theory and business ethics, which can be perceived as diversification streams of what started out as CSR (Maak, 2008). The common topics addressed by the authors involved: the breadth of responsibility, justification of the responsible leadership theory, connection with performance, discussing constituting features and questioning how to develop responsible leaders. A significant number of the texts referred to one of the definitions of responsible leadership by Maak and Pless touching upon the stakeholder, relational and ethical aspects of the definition. A vast majority of authors considered followers not in the traditional sense as direct reports, but rather as “stakeholders in a broad sense” (inside and outside the organization), pointing to the fact that stakeholders in today’s society gain importance and power. Most authors continued in the traditional focus of leadership on individual persons and their attributes and also on the internal, group level of analysis (Waldman, 2011). The literature survey enabled the author to come up with a Conceptual Working Model of Responsible Leadership (presented in Figure 2.1.), which proposed the antecedents, constituting features, and outcomes of responsible leadership. It was possible to see that the construct of responsible leadership has multiple dimensions, yet it also has a certain confusion in the categorization of antecedents and components and, potentially, a high number of overlaps between categories which needs further clarification. The outcomes of responsible leadership are multilevel – the benefit should be for the individuals, organizations and societies.

The second manuscript has built upon the theoretical grounding of the previous one and has addressed the question: “How can organizations develop responsible leadership qualities in their current and future leaders?” It strived to fill in the gap of knowledge about developing responsibility in leaders and preparing them for the challenges of a global and interconnected stakeholder society (Ciulla, 1998; Doh and Stumpf, 2005; Maak and Pless, 2006). From the viewpoint of the theory, it studied leadership development programs, practices, and devices (i.e., what companies are doing to develop responsible leaders). From the viewpoint of the practice, it explored the features that responsible leadership manifests in the participants of International Service Learning Programs designed by corporations. The outcome has been a much more specific knowledge of the qualities global


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leaders need to succeed in a connected world, such as global mindset, intercultural skills, and the ability to deal with dilemmas and relational qualities in order to successfully engage with stakeholders at home and abroad. Three innovative executive development programs that use International Service Learning Assignments as a way to develop responsible leaders were described. These programs were PricewaterhouseCoopers’ Ulysses Program, Pfizer’s Global Health Fellows Program, and IBM’s Corporate Service Corps. Looking closely at the programs’ design, methodology and outcomes, a descriptive Figure 3.1. has been presented with Features and Outcomes of International Service Learning Programs. We could observe that the most demanding task was arguably the post-assignment phase, specifically the debriefing of learning and learning transfer, which facilitates application of the knowledge, skills and attitudes gained while on an assignment, back to the work place. The findings broaden the theory presented by Maak and Pless (2009) and Pless, Maak and Stahl (2011) concerning the development or enhancement of global responsible leadership competencies through participation in International Service Learning Programs and reflection upon the field experience.

While the second manuscript has looked more at program design and methodology, as well as at the effect of the learning experience on internal stakeholders (the participants of the program), the focus of the third manuscript has been on the specific outcomes of International Service Learning Programs. This was achieved by means of comparing four different programs – PricewaterhouseCoopers’ Ulysses, HSBC’s Next Generation Development Program, IBM’s Corporate Service Corps, and Novartis’ Entrepreneurial Leadership Program. The study has shown the beneficial outcomes of International Service Learning Programs for individual participants (developing leadership capabilities and other soft skills, team-work skills, gaining experience from growth markets, etc.), for their organizations (building global leaders and managers, fostering innovation, new business models, improved stakeholder relationships, etc.), and for broader communities (a positive change in the community where the projects took place, building the capacity for the individual beneficiaries, and community contribution-related outcomes). It has been shown that International Service Learning Programs strengthen the ties between employees (participants of these programs), their company, and society.

The fourth manuscript is a qualitative study that compared six International Service Learning Programs run by multinational corporations from three industries (health, technology, and accounting and professional services). The programs studied were PricewaterhouseCoopers’ The Ulysses Program, Pfizer’s Global Health


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Fellows Program, EY’s Americas Corporate Responsibility Fellows Program, IBM’s Corporate Service Corps, Intel Education Service Corps Program, and The Novartis Entrepreneurial Leadership Program. The study was based on data-gathering through desk research and on interviews with program representatives and a structured questionnaire containing closed and open-ended questions. The analysis has identified a number of category areas in which the International Service Learning Programs differ (e.g., in placement length, or nature of the assignment – individual or in teams, learning methods used) and has provided a typology for program classification (leadership development, organization development or community development). It has been shown that regardless of the stated objectives (usually stressing value for the participants, the company, and the communities), most studied programs had one clear focus (two programs in the area of leadership development, two in the area of community development) while two showed closely linked foci (with a slightly greater emphasis on organization development than on the other areas). It has been proven that the type of International Service Learning Program used has an effect on learning outcomes. This manuscript represents an important starting point for quantitative studies as well as for the evaluation of different service learning approaches which, when focused on in future research, will provide important findings for companies testing usefulness and outcomes of International Service Learning Programs or planning to set up or refine their own programs to achieve specific outcomes.

6.3. Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research The presented four manuscripts, which will be or have already been published,

encompass the theoretical issues and practical findings around the topic of responsible leadership, by means of reviewing academic literature and studying real International Service Learning Programs run by multinational corporations. They provide practical insights for corporations and program designers and show the relevance of the topic in today’s world. However, there are certain limitations of this dissertation that have to be considered and which can, at the same time, be regarded as opportunities for future research.

As described earlier, one of the biggest challenges was connected with creating the model of responsible leadership, because of the inconsistencies and overlaps within the categorization of the constituting features of the construct. The Conceptual Working Model of Responsible Leadership presented in this dissertation will, therefore, need to be refined in future research. It will be worth conducting further empirical research (and, if possible, measurement) in the area of the


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multilevel antecedents (contextual influences), components (characteristics), and outcomes (consequences) of the phenomenon of responsible leadership.

Another topic that should be further explored is the level of analysis and the “phenomenon-level” of responsible leadership. In the literature survey, the findings have shown that responsible leadership is seen as a multilevel phenomenon operating mostly at an individual level, yet there has not been a consensus in this area. It was also possible to observe the shift from understanding the phenomenon at the individual level to the collective one, reflecting the trend towards complexity leadership (Uhl-Bien et al., 2007) and shared leadership (Pearce and Conger, 2003). Future research should focus on studying the phenomenon at the team level as well as at the organizational level and should study how responsibility is translated from the individual to the collective, organizational, and broader societal levels.

Due to the limitations regarding the access to the data about International Service Learning Programs (or even the scarcity of programs themselves), the findings presented in this dissertation provide only a limited insight, which needs to be verified and fine-tuned by studying an additional number of corporate programs. For example, the content in the Figure 3.1. outlining the Features and Outcomes of International Service Learning Programs will probably need to be adjusted with the growing number of programs studied in order to represent reality more accurately. Similarly, a higher amount of identified outcomes of the programs may be expected, as some outcomes might appear only later, after participation in the program. Therefore, a more longitudinal research is highly demanded.

As for the design and methodology of the programs, the topic of cross-company teams should be further explored in the future. A combined team of experts on different areas could indeed succeed in delivering a much more tangible positive impact in the community as well as at their workplaces. Definitely, the post-assignment phase, which was shown to be crucial for the successful learning transfer of the knowledge gained while on the assignment to the practice, should also be explored much further than the space restrictions in this dissertation allowed.

Interesting findings will potentially be obtained when including, apart from the data gathering through desk research and interviews with program representatives, also interviews or focus groups with the participants of International Service Learning Programs, and possibly also with a few recipients of the service from the host organizations. This could not be done in this dissertation due to limitations of research capacity and the demanding time schedule. Similarly, the opinion of the chairperson regarding the programs, their results and impact, could be obtained and future research could focus on studying the critical influence of


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a chairperson on the programs (motivation for running the program, expectations of a return on investment, etc.).

Some new developments or trends within companies designing International Service Learning Programs have been identified and should be focused on more in future research. For instance, some companies (e.g., Intel and IBM) have started sending more (teams of) participants on additional rounds to the same partnering organization in the developing country, which assures continuation of help provided and also assures that there is a real impact resulting from the participants’ effort.

According to the information available, few programs (including IBM) use a competency framework with specific skills to be developed through the assignment – looking further into this topic might greatly improve the effectiveness of the programs and make the competencies gained through the program translate into company practice better, faster and with more durability.

Another topic is connected with the fact that most companies (PwC, IBM, Pfizer, Intel and Novartis) are building global networks from program alumni within the company, who then mentor new participants or provide peer coaching, help share the learnings or put it into practice, and also further engage in volunteering. The topic of the effect of the alumni networks and how they function and help in further corporate volunteering activities, and also whether and how the alumni differ from employees who have not participated in the programs, is definitely worth exploring and measuring.

The analysis has shown the tendency towards a shorter-term team approach (shorter 2-3 week projects), e.g., in Pfizer. Also, the tendency towards in-country assignments (predicted by Hills and Mahmud, 2007) has been identified, e.g., in the Novo Nordisk’s Take Action program – a community-based program encouraging employees to engage in voluntary activities in local communities, in social or environmental actions that can support sustainable solutions to specific needs in their own community or other areas and align the service more to their core business.

International Service Learning Programs at Novartis and Pfizer are thought of as being a strategic initiative creating and delivering shared value (leadership development, social value and business value). It would be worth investigating, on a longer-term basis, to what extent the shared value is created and delivered.

6.4. Closing Words All in all, Hills and Mahmud (2007) proposed that the future of international

corporate volunteering efforts might be in the exponential increase of the scale of


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impact of these programs. This could be achieved through local service aligned to core business and designed properly to involve volunteering with impact, which is financially less demanding than cross-border programs and also more accessible to employees. An important aspect is collaboration with other corporations (leveraging expertise across different businesses and units, addressing local issues more effectively, sharing risks and costs). An example of a first joint project is IBM-CSC, which took FedEx employees to assignments. All these topics represent areas for future research which will provide valuable insights into the field of responsible leadership and responsible leadership development.

In sum, the research presented in this dissertation is one of the first attempts at diving into the deep – and not yet systematically explored – waters of individual and corporate responsibility. It has proposed that the theory of responsible leadership responds better than any other existing leadership theory to the challenges today’s leaders are facing (e.g., globalization, exclusion of minorities, environmental degradation, poverty, wars, etc.). It has shown, through the study of several International Service Learning Programs, that these smart leadership development programs do possess the potential to develop responsible leadership qualities in their participants. Also, they benefit all parties involved, that is, the employees who participate in the programs, the organizations sending the participants, and the host communities in developing countries. International Service Learning Programs possess the potential to help leaders and top executives develop mindsets and skills for successfully and responsibly managing businesses in a global stakeholder environment; they help organizations develop business innovations and novel approaches to customers in new markets; and provide solutions for social issues at the local and global level.

This dissertation has hopefully made a vital contribution to research and practice by clarifying the construct of responsible leadership and by showing that when International Service Learning Programs are equipped with a smart, learning-transfer-oriented design and clear learning objectives, they are not only highly effective in developing the next generation of responsible global leaders but are also a means to advance business goals and to address burning global issues. Therefore, further research and attempts by practitioners in this area have the potential to contribute to the improvement of today’s stakeholder society.


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6.5. References

Ciulla, J. (Ed.). (1998). Ethics, the Heart of Leadership. Westport, CT, London: Praeger.

Doh, J. P., & Stumpf, S. A. (Eds.) (2005). Handbook on Responsible Leadership And Governance in Global Business. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.

Hills, G., & Mahmud, A. (2007). Volunteering for Impact: Best Practices in International Corporate Volunteering, FSG Social Impact Advisors, available at: http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/papers/2007/9/volunteering/volunteering_for_impact (accessed June 2012).

Maak, T. (2008). Undivided Corporate Responsibility: Towards a Theory of Corporate Integrity, Journal of Business Ethics, 82(2), 353–368.

Maak T., & Pless, N. M. (2006). Responsible leadership: a relational approach. In Maak, T., & Pless, N. M. (Eds.), Responsible Leadership (pp. 33–53). London, New York: Routledge.


Pearce, C. L., & Conger, J. A. (2003). Shared Leadership: Reframing the Hows and Whys of Leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Pless, N. M., & Maak, T. (2011). Responsible Leadership: Pathways to the Future, Journal of Business Ethics, 98, 3–13.


Uhl-Bien, M. (2006). Relational Leadership Theory: Exploring the social processes of leadership and organizing, The Leadership Quarterly, 17(6), 654–676.

Uhl-Bien, M., Marion, R., & McKelvery, B. (2007). Complexity leadership theory: Shifting leadership form the industrial age to the knowledge era, The Leadership Quarterly, 18(4), 298–318.


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Curriculum Vitae of Markéta Borecká

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Curriculum Vitae of Markéta Borecká

1982 Born in Prague (Czech Republic)

Education

2010 – 2014 University of St. Gallen, Switzerland Ph.D. studies, Strategy and Management, Responsible Leadership

2003 – 2008 Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic Master’s degree, Adult Education and Personnel Management

2002 – 2007 Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic Master’s degree, English and American Studies

2005 – 2005 Université de Nantes, France ERASMUS study stay in France

Work Experience

Since 2013 ETON Business Consulting, Czech Republic Consultant and Recruiter

Since 2013 FOREWEAR, Czech Republic Founder and Project Leader, Social Impact Award Winner

2008 – 2010 M.C.TRITON, Czech Republic Junior Consultant and Business Development Specialist, Project Leader of the competition for The European Corporate Responsibility Award

Documents

Introduction: Developing the Next Generation of Responsible