CHAPTER

18Modified AtmospherePackaging for Fresh Fruitsand Vegetables

Hong Zhuang�, M.Margaret Barth��, and Luis Cisneros-Zevallos����ARS�USDA Quality and Safety Assessment Research Unit, Athens, Georgia, USA ��Cal

Baptist University, Department of Health Sciences, Riverside, California, USA ���Texas A&M

University, Horticultural Sciences, College Station, Texas, USA

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Introduction............................................................................................................445

MAP for fresh and fresh-cut produce........................................................................446

Microperforated films..............................................................................................450

Bioplastics and biodegradable films.........................................................................452

Active MAP (backflush and absorption) ....................................................................454

Antimicrobial MAP systems .....................................................................................457

Intelligent MAP.......................................................................................................462

Summary ................................................................................................................463

References .............................................................................................................464

IntroductionModified atmosphere packaging (MAP) is a packaging technology that modifies

or alters the gas composition around the products in food packages from normal

air (20.95% O2, 78.09% N2, 0.93% argon, and 0.038% CO2) to provide an atmo-

sphere for increasing shelf life and maintaining the quality of food. Observations

and records of effects of a modified atmosphere on the physiology and quality of

fresh fruits and vegetables can be traced back to 1821 (Robertson, 2006; Zhuang,

2011). Although the commercial application of modified atmospheres began with

chilled meat products (Inns, 1987), it is very common for fresh fruits and vegeta-

bles, especially fresh-cut (or minimally processed) fruits and vegetables, to be

Innovations in Food Packaging. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394601-0.00018-7

© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.445

packed with MAP technology in today’s marketplace (Toivonen et al., 2009).

Compared with MAP for fresh meat products, MAP for fresh fruits and

vegetables is much more challenging and complicated. Because fresh fruits and

vegetables are still alive after harvesting and during marketing, the successful use

of MAP will be based not only on the specific O2 and CO2 permeation properties

of polymer films but also on the respiration activity of packed food (Jayanty

et al., 2005; Kader, 1986). Since the late 1980s, many review articles and books

on MAP for fresh fruits and vegetables have been published covering different

aspects of the technology and mechanisms. In this chapter, efforts were made to

summarize the latest innovations or studies related to MAP for fresh fruits and

vegetables based on published research in the past 5 to 6 years. For readers who

are also interested in the history, mechanisms, and applications of MAP for fresh

produce, reviews written by Kader (1986, 2002), Kader et al. (1989), Mir and

Beaudry (2003), Jayanty et al. (2005), Toivonen et al. (2009), and Brody et al.

(2011) are very valuable references.

MAP for fresh and fresh-cut produceConsumer demand for a healthier diet has led to increased consumption of fresh

produce globally (Pollack, 2001). In the United States, this demand has resulted

in increased per capita consumption and imports of fresh produce (Clemens,

2004) and has led to the introduction of new fruit and vegetable items to the mar-

ket that many Americans did not even know existed a few decades ago (Pollack,

2001). Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) is a technique that complements

temperature management and is used to reduce quality deterioration and improve

the shelf life of packaged fresh produce during storage, transportation, and mar-

keting (Kader, 1986). However, the beneficial quality effects of MAP on the

packaged fresh fruits and vegetables depend upon a number of uncontrollable fac-

tors, such as the species, cultivar, cultural practices, stage of development, harvest

technique, tissue type, postharvest handling, and storage environments, as well as

controllable factors, including packaging material gas permeability, respiration

rate, and storage conditions (Kader, 1986; Mir and Beaudry, 2003). Commercial

applications of MAP for fresh produce have been utilized since the 1940s

(Mir and Beaudry, 2003; Zhuang, 2011) and boomed with growth in the fresh-cut

business between the late 1980s and early 2000s (Brody et al., 2011; Toivonen

et al., 2009). Over the past 5 years, development, validation, and investigation of

MAP conditions for individual fresh fruits and vegetables have been actively pur-

sued globally, especially for those species that are not traditionally consumed in

the fresh stage in the United States.

The use of MAP for both traditional and non-traditional fresh and fresh-cut

fruits and vegetables in the U.S. market has been the subject of much research for

the past few years. The traditional commodities studied include cantaloupe (Amaro

446 CHAPTER 18 Modified Atmosphere Packaging for Fresh Produce

et al., 2012), pears (Li et al., 2012b), apples (Sharma et al., 2010), mushrooms

(Jamjumroon et al., 2012; Ye et al., 2012), broccoli (Cho et al., 2009; Rai et al.,

2009), carrots (Ayub et al., 2010), green bell pepper (Manolopoulou et al., 2010),

okra pods (Rai and Balasubramanian, 2009), and strawberries (Aday and Caner,

2010; Aday et al., 2011; Odriozola-Serrano et al., 2010), among others.

For non-traditional fresh commodities sold in the United States, examples include

mango (Boonruang et al., 2012; Montanez et al., 2010, Ramayya et al., 2012; Ullah

et al., 2012), papaya (Wang et al., 2010), litchi (De Reuck et al., 2010; Mangaraj et al.,

2012), whole rambutan fruit (Hernandez-Arenas et al., 2012), whole fresh date fruit

(Al-Eid et al., 2012; Dehghan-Shoar et al., 2010; Lal et al., 2009), edible flowers (Kou

et al., 2012), whole sugar apple (Pinheiro et al., 2012), fresh-cut chard leaves (Tomas-

Callejas et al., 2011), fresh-cut tatsoi (Tomas-Callejas et al., 2012), whole guavira fruit

(Campos et al., 2012), loquat (Amoros et al., 2008; De Campos et al., 2007; Sanches

et al., 2011), Salicornia bigelovii Torr. (Lu et al., 2009), jamun (Rai et al., 2011), bitter

orange (Khazaei et al., 2011), lampascioni (Conte et al., 2009), fresh-cut cime di rapa

(Conte et al., 2011), dill leaves (Sakaldas et al., 2010), few-flower wild rices (Cao

et al., 2010), oriental melons (Kim et al., 2010), and rocket leaves (Arvanitoyannis

et al., 2011a,b; Koukounaras et al., 2009, 2010; Lokke et al., 2012; Seefeldt et al.,

2012). These developments indicate that there are still many potential innovations, as

well as unsolved application challenges, with regard to MAP systems for fresh pro-

duce. Below are the two examples highlighting progress made with individual

commodities.

Litchi (Litchi chinensis) is a tropical and subtropical fruit native to southern

China and well known for its delicate pulp and short shelf life (Aklimuzzaman

et al., 2011; Nagar, 1994). Development of MAP for fresh litchi fruit can be

traced back to the late 1980s, and MAP has been shown to be beneficial to main-

taining high humidity around the fruit during storage, which is essential for pre-

venting water loss and browning discoloration of litchi pericarp (Ghosh et al.,

2000; Kader, 1993; Paull et al., 2003; Tian et al., 2005). Recent studies have

focused on evaluating various factors of MAP to extend the shelf life of fresh

whole litchi fruit during postharvest storage, such as packaging films, mathemati-

cal modeling, litchi cultivars, and active MAP. Somboonkaew and Terry (2010)

evaluated the effects of different films on the physical properties and biochemical

components in fresh whole litchi fruit. Packaging films or methods included

unpacked (control), micro-perforated polypropylene (PP) with 0% CO2 at equilib-

rium, PropaFresh PFAM with 7.5213 10218 mol s21 m �m22 Pa21 O2 permeabil-

ity and 4% CO2 at equilibrium, NatureFex NVS with

1.4103 10220 mol s21 m �m22 Pa21 O2 permeability and 10% CO2 at equilib-

rium, and Cellophane WS with 1.4103 10220 mol s21 m �m22 Pa21 O2 perme-

ability with 28% CO2 at equilibrium. They found that the PropaFresh PFAM film

maintained fruit weight, sugars, and organic acid contents in both aril and peri-

carp tissue, and individual anthocyanins in pericarp tissue compared with the

other treatments at the end of the 9-day storage (10�C). It was concluded that

PropaFresh PFAM was the best packaging film to maintain the physical and

447MAP for fresh and fresh-cut produce

biochemical properties of litchi fruit. Lima et al. (2010) stored litchi fruit in plas-

tic trays either uncovered or covered with low-density polyethylene (LDPE) or

perforated LDPE (15 1-mm holes per tray). Results showed that the package cov-

ered with perforated LDPE film was more efficient in reducing weight loss, peri-

carp browning, and anthocyanin loss of fruit barks than other packages at room

temperature (25�C) during a 6-day storage. In another study, four plastic packages

were evaluated for use with fresh litchi fruit (Hojo et al., 2011), including control,

rigid polystyrene (PS) trays wrapped with a 0.015-mm polyolefin film, transparent

rigid PE terephthalate (PET) trays with lids, and PS trays wrapped with

0.014-mm polyvinylchloride (PVC) film. Samples were stored at 5�C, 94% RH,

for 24 days and results showed that the trays with wrappings significantly reduced

the mass loss of fruit, especially with PVC film.

Since the respiration rate of fresh produce has a direct effect on MAP

effectiveness. Mangaraj and Goswami (2011) developed mathematic models to

estimate the respiration rates of litchi fruit based on enzymatic kinetics. The

models showed that O2 consumption and CO2 evolution were 7.55 mL [O2]

kg21 h21 and 6.57 mL [CO2] kg21 h21, respectively, at 2�C. Based on the

model, they designed a MAP using laminates of perforated bi-oriented poly-

propylene (BOPP) films and PVC to meet the gas transmission requirements

with targeted air composition of 5% O2 and 5% CO2 at equilibrium. Results

showed that the gas compositions in the packages at equilibrium were much

closer to the targets in the designed MAP. Compared with unpacked fruit at

various storage temperatures, the shelf life increased by 100 to 150%, and the

quality was comparable to freshly harvested fruit.

Active MAP was also evaluated for extension of shelf life of fresh fruit of two

litchi cultivars during refrigerated storage. De Reuck et al. (2010) compared the

effects of passive and active MAP on quality retention of two litchi cultivars

stored at 2�C, 95% RH, for up to 21 days. Litchi cultivars Mauritius and

McLean’s Red were packed in either active (backflushed with 5% O2 and 5%

CO2) or passive MAP in PP punnets sealed with polyester lidding film with either

4 or 10 holes. Results showed that regardless of litchi cultivar, both active and

passive MAP helped retain fruit quality during storage. The litchi cultivar

McLean’s Red was more suited for MAP treatment than the Mauritius cultivar.

The lidding film with four holes resulted in B7% O2 and 9% CO2 at equilibrium

and demonstrated higher retention of pericarp color of the McLean’s Red. The

lidding film with 10 holes resulted in B17% O2 and B5% CO2 at equilibrium

and maintained the ratio of soluble solids to titratable acidity with

acceptable pericarp color. The use of active MAP did not enhance the quality

retention of litchi fruits regardless of litchi cultivar except for lessening the time

necessary to reach equilibrium. In another study, De Reuck et al. (2009a) investi-

gated the effects of 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) vapor on the quality of two

litchi cultivar fruits in a passive MA package at 2�C for 21 days. 1-MCP is

known to block the effects of plant hormone ethylene and maintain the freshness

of produce. Results showed that a low concentration (300 nL L21) of 1-MCP

448 CHAPTER 18 Modified Atmosphere Packaging for Fresh Produce

vapor prevented browning and retained color, membrane integrity, and anthocya-

nin. The samples exposed to 1-MCP vapor also showed reduced polyphenol oxi-

dase and peroxidase activity during storage; however, at higher concentrations

(1000 nL L21), 1-MCP showed negative effects on membrane integrity, pericarp

browning, and the enzymatic activity in both cultivars. The effect of low 1-MCP

concentration was more promising for McLean’s Red than Mauritius. These

results indicate that cultivars respond to MAP treatment differently. The active

MAP system with 1-MCP vapor may extend the shelf life of fresh litchi fruit up

to 21 days at 2�C. In addition, De Reuck et al. (2009b) found that the combina-

tion of antimicrobial chitosan coating with MAP could further prevent fresh litchi

fruit from decay, retain the pericarp color and reduce polyphenol oxidase and per-

oxidase activity compared with only MAP. The treatment was more effective

with litchi cultivar McLean’s Red than Mauritius.

Another example is salad rocket (Eruca sativa). Salad rocket, also called

arugula, is an edible annual plant. It is very popular in both Europe and the

United States, where it is consumed in raw salads either alone or in a mixture

with other vegetables. The major postharvest problem of this vegetable is yel-

lowing, wilting, and rotting (Siomos and Koukounaras, 2007). In the market-

place, rocket is packaged in films to avoid physical damage and prevent wilting

of leaves due to loss of water (Koukounaras et al., 2009; Lokke et al., 2012). In

the past few years scientists have intensively studied different aspects of MAP

for fresh rocket leaves, including processing treatments, packaging film oxygen

transmission rates (OTRs), and active MAP (gas flush). For processing treat-

ments, Koukounaras et al. (2009, 2010) investigated the effects of degree of

cutting and hot-water dipping on packaging atmosphere composition, metabolic

activity and quality of rocket leaves under MAP (8�C for 14 days) and found

no significant differences in atmosphere compositions (O2, CO2, and ethylene

concentration) of the packages or the color and nutritional parameters of rocket

leaves with different degree of cutting. However, dipping leaves in a thermo-

statically controlled tapwater bath at 50�C for 20 to 40 s prevented MAP rocket

leaves from yellowing and extended their shelf life. Char et al. (2012) reported

that a H2O2 (30 mg/L) wash resulted in increased CO2 and C2H4 production

compared to a NaClO (100 mg/L) wash during MAP storage. Arvanitoyannis

et al. (2011a) found that salad rocket mixed with olive oil stored under MAP at

56 1�C in the dark for a time period of 10 days gave the best score for overall

impression at the ninth day of storage. There was no significant impact on leaf

firmness but the color attributes were improved. Adding vinegar to the mixture

limited sensory shelf-life to 3 days. The use of MAP retained mesophile and

psychrophile populations under 7-log CFU/g at the end of the storage period.

Lokke et al. (2012) studied the effect of film OTR on the sensory quality of

fresh rocket stored at different temperatures (2, 10, and 20�C). The low-OTR film

(0.65 pmol s21 m22 kPa21) resulted in reduced O2 concentration (#0.5%) and a

“smoked odor” in packages; the rocket leaves lost their color, integrity, and tex-

ture. The high-OTR film (17.4 pmol s21 m22 kPa21) resulted in O2 concentrations

449MAP for fresh and fresh-cut produce

of 10 to 18% inside the package and induced leaf senescence (they turned light-

green to yellow). They concluded that wild rocket must be packaged in an OTR

film that permits sufficient levels of O2 for aerobic respiration when storage tem-

perature cannot be controlled. Arvanitoyannis et al. (2011b) studied the effect of

active MAP on the microbial and sensory quality of rocket salad and reported

that flushing the packages with gas mixtures of 5% O2 and 10% CO2 extended

the shelf life of rocket salad by 4 days compared to the control samples with

restrained mesophile growth (1-log reduction) and better leaf firmness. Char et al.

(2012) evaluated the effect of MAP enriched with non-conventional gases

(65�70% Ar, 70�75% He, or 94�95% N2) and found that the samples in the Ar-

enriched atmospheres exhibited respiration rates 13 to 17% higher than the leaves

under He and N2 enrichment, suggesting that different noble gases may have dif-

ferent effects on metabolic activity of fresh rocket leaves in MAP.

These examples indicate that from research to application, there are still a lot

of opportunities for innovations and improvement in MAP for either traditional or

non-traditional fresh fruits and vegetables in the future as the consumption of

fresh produce increases.

Microperforated filmsThe limitations of polymeric films and growing interest in MAP for bulk packages,

high respiring products, and/or fresh-cut products led to the development of perfo-

rated films for fresh fruits and vegetables in the 1990s (Emond and Chau, 1990;

Fonseca et al., 2000). Microperforated films are perforated film with holes ranging

from 40 to 200 µm in diameter (Gates, 2011; Ghosh and Anantheswaran, 2001;

Toivonen et al., 2009) which became commercially available for fresh produce

about 10 years ago. Compared with conventional continuous films (Mir and

Beaudry, 2003), perforated films, including microperforated film, result in two dif-

ferent gas exchange behaviors in MAP systems. The first is that perforated films

allow a much higher exchange of gases across packaging films (Fishman et al.,

1996; Mir and Beaudry, 2003). The diffusion of O2 and CO2 through holes (consid-

ered the same as through air) is 8.5 and 1.5 million times greater, respectively, than

through LDPE continuous films (Mannapperuma et al., 1989). This difference

means that the gas exchange of a package occurs almost entirely through the micro-

perforations in relatively impermeable films and the perforation can significantly

increase film OTRs (Kartal et al., 2012). The second gas exchange difference lies

between the ratio of the permeability for CO2 and O2. Perforated films have a ratio

close to 1 (Brody, 2005; Mir and Beaudry, 2003), while the ratio is between 3 and

6 for continuous polymeric films (Kader, 2002; Toivonen et al., 2009). This differ-

ence means that with the same oxygen transmission rate (OTR), microperforated

films result in higher CO2 levels in food packages without anaerobiosis. On the

450 CHAPTER 18 Modified Atmosphere Packaging for Fresh Produce

other hand, microperforated film and macroperforated films are considered to be

two different technologies (Gates, 2011). Macroperforations are typically used for

packaging bulk fresh produce and offer no shelf-life extension via MAP technol-

ogy. However, microperforated films reduce gas transmission rates through the

holes significantly and create a modified atmosphere in packages. Due to these

unique properties, microperforated films enable MAP design for highly respiring

produce such as litchi, strawberry, blueberry, capsicum, broccoli, and mushrooms,

among others. For example, the benefits of microperforated films for cut produce

may include packaging in rigid gas-impermeable trays with reduced surface area

for gas exchange, reduction of water loss, and alleviation of water stress without

the possible deleterious effects of anaerobiosis such as off-flavors or fermentation.

In addition, benefits may be observed for those products that tolerate high CO2

without experiencing injury or are sensitive to even small changes in concentra-

tions of O2, CO2, and C2H4 (Ben-Yehoshua et al., 1993; Zagory 1997).

In the past few years, several studies were conducted to evaluate microperfo-

rated films for both fresh whole and fresh-cut produce. Lucera et al. (2011b)

investigated microperforated films for broccoli florets using various PP-based

films with thicknesses of 20, 40, or 80 µm or with microperforations of 50, 20,

12, 9, or 7 micro-holes (70-µm diameter) per package. They found that for broc-

coli packaged in non-perforated films the O2 concentration decreased rapidly to

zero within the first day of storage, while the CO2 concentration increased above

15%. On the other hand, for broccoli florets packaged in the bag with 20 micro-

perforations the O2 concentration slowly decreased during the first 3 days and

then reached an equilibrium value of about 16%. A modified atmosphere charac-

terized by about 10% O2 and 9% CO2 was created in the bag with 7 holes. The

microperforated films effectively reduced mass loss and wilting, maintained sen-

sory quality for a longer period, and resulted in a 50% shelf-life increase of fresh-

cut broccoli florets (7-hole film) compared to whole broccoli, and about 30%

with respect to the unpackaged control. Lucera et al. (2012a) also reported that

the microperforated polymeric matrix with the lowest oxygen transmission rate

value (two 70-µm microperforations) resulted in the optimum headspace gas com-

position (5�6% O2 and 12�13% CO2) in the MAP bag for cauliflower. In evalu-

ation of microperforated films for fresh-cut green beans, Lucera et al. (2011a)

found that the shelf life of fresh-cut green beans packaged in the no-perforated

film (25-µm polyethylene) and in two micro-perforated films (polypropylene

films with 7 and 4 micro-holes per package) was longer than that of the control

(unpackaged) or samples packaged in the microperforated film with 12 micro-

holes per package. A study on the shelf life of fresh-cut butternut squash pack-

aged in PP film with 20, 12, 7, and 2 micro-holes (70-µm diameter) per package

showed that microperforations only slightly affected the O2 and CO2 levels in

MAP (by 4% and 3.3%, respectively) from air and resulted in a high proliferation

of molds compared to the non-perforated control (Lucera et al., 2012b).

Cliff et al. (2010) packed sliced gala apple fruit using a solid multilayered

polyolefin film (producing high CO2 and low O2) or an ultra-microperforated film

451Microperforated films

(producing a headspace atmosphere consisting of high CO2 and high O2). The

samples were stored at 5�C for up to 21 days. On day 14, apple slices packed

with microperforated films had significantly (p# 0.05) higher fruity aroma and

taste and perceived sweetness and better textural characteristics. Boonruang et al.

(2012) tested four different films (i.e., non-perforated, highly gas-permeable film;

non-perforated, ethylene-absorbing, highly gas-permeable film; microperforated,

highly gas-permeable films; and common non-perforated polyethylene film) for

storage of fresh whole mangoes. The best shelf life was achieved with the non-

perforated, highly gas-permeable films. De Reuck et al. (2010) found that polyes-

ter lidding film with four holes maintained better pericarp color of fresh litchi

fruit during storage.

These experimental results demonstrate that the beneficial effects of microper-

forated films on fresh produce, especially on fresh-cut produce, are not necessar-

ily consistent. This agrees with the fact that there are very limited fresh and

fresh-cut produce packed with microperforated films in today’s U.S. retail

market.

Bioplastics and biodegradable filmsBioplastics or biopolymers (plastics derived from renewable biomass sources) and

biodegradable films (plastics that will decompose in natural aerobic and anaerobic

environments) have been gaining more attention in recent years because of eco-

logical problems posed by petrochemical-based plastic films and increased envi-

ronmental awareness among consumers. In addition, the current global

consumption of plastics is more than 200 million tons each year, which represents

the largest use of crude oil. With the increases in the cost of petroleum over the

past years, using bioplastics for food packaging is becoming more economically

viable (Siracusa et al., 2008).

Compared with petrochemical-based plastic films, bioplastics are made using

biological materials such as polysaccharides, proteins, polyesters, lipids, and deri-

vatives. Films primarily composed of polysaccharides or proteins have proper

mechanical and optical properties but are sensitive to moisture due to their poor

water vapor barrier properties. In contrast, films composed of lipids or polyesters

have good water vapor barrier properties, but are usually opaque and relatively

inflexible (Guilbert et al., 1996). Many of the films developed to date are very

well suited to protect dry to intermediate moisture food products but are not

suited for high moisture food products (foods with high surface water activity)

because they swell, dissolve, or disintegrate upon contact with water (Guilbert

et al., 1996). For example, both wheat gluten and soy protein films are very effec-

tive oxygen barriers at low relative humidity (RH), whereas their vapor barrier

ability is rather limited (Brandenburg et al., 1993; Gennadios et al., 1993).

However, the oxygen permeability of a wheat gluten film increases from 0.24 to

1.5 mL �mm/(m2 � d � atm) when relative humidity increases from 0 to 60%

452 CHAPTER 18 Modified Atmosphere Packaging for Fresh Produce

(25�C), and it becomes 200 mL �mm/(m2 � d � atm) at 91% RH. A similar steep

increase in permeability is observed for CO2, going from ,10 mL �mm/

(m2 � d � atm) at 60% RH to 6000 mL �mm/(m2 � d � atm) at 91% RH (25�C).Studies on the effectiveness of MAP with biodegradable/bioplastics materials

in prolonging fresh produce shelf life can be traced back more than 15 years.

Makino and Hirata (1997) evaluated the potential utilization of a biodegradable

film (laminate of a chitosan�cellulose and polycaprolactone) for fresh produce

based on produce respiration rates and film gas permeability, and concluded that

the biodegradable laminate was suitable as a packaging material for MAP storage

of shredded lettuce, shredded cabbage, head lettuce, cut broccoli, whole broccoli,

tomatoes, and sweet corn. Kantola and Helen (2001) studied quality changes of

fresh whole tomatoes packed in different biodegradable packages (a perforated

corn starch-based bag, a coated paperboard tray, a polylactic acid [PLA]-coated

paperboard tray, and a perforated cellophane bag) compared with a LDPE bag

control. They found that the quality of fresh tomatoes in biodegradable packages

remained as good as that of tomatoes stored in LDPE bags for three weeks.

Rakotonirainy et al. (2001) found that zein films were effective gas barriers that

allowed the development of a modified atmosphere inside broccoli floret

packages stored at refrigeration temperatures and maintained the original firmness

and color of broccoli florets after 6 days of refrigerated storage. Microscopic

examination revealed that refrigerated storage caused zein films to become soft

and soggy except for films laminated and coated with tung oil, suggesting that

lamination and coating could be used to improve the performance of bioplastics

films in refrigerated storage of fresh produce. Koide and Shi (2007) tested a

PLA-based biodegradable film for fresh green peppers. They found no remarkable

differences in color, hardness, and ascorbic acid concentration between PLA and

controls (LDPE and perforated LDPE films) after 1 week of storage at 10�C.However, lower coliform bacteria counts (by 1-log CFU) were observed on the

peppers in the biodegradable film packaging than in the LDPE film packaging.

The results suggest that the biodegradable film with higher water vapor perme-

ability can be used to maintain the quality of freshly harvested green peppers in

MAP. Almenar et al. (2008) investigated the potential of biodegradable containers

for small berries and found that the PLA containers prolonged blueberry shelf life

at different storage temperatures compared with commercial vented synthetic

clamshell containers.

Bioplastics have shown a promising application for fresh mushrooms.

Guillaume et al. (2010) showed that wheat gluten-coated paper was very effective

at improving the shelf life of mushrooms compared with stretchable PVC film.

Gastaldi et al. (2007) found that, compared with hydrophilic synthetic materials, a

bioplastics wheat gluten film generated the same steady-state atmosphere and was

more efficient at eliminating CO2 from the package and maintaining the freshness

of mushrooms, although it exhibited poor mechanical properties.

In recent years, evaluation of biodegradable/bioplastics for MAP of fresh produce

was primarily made by a group of scientists in Italy using similar polyester-based

453Bioplastics and biodegradable films

films in comparison with synthetic film controls. For fresh-cut lettuce, the shelf life

of the lettuce packed into the two biodegradable films was longer compared to OPP

film (Del Nobile et al., 2008). For fresh grapes, both biodegradable films and the syn-

thetic films successfully preserved their quality (Conte et al., 2012; Del Nobile et al.,

2009). For minimally processed lampascioni, the biodegradable films resulted in

reduced respiratory activity and the browning process for cut produce, reduced

microbial growth, and prolonged shelf life compared with an OPP film (Conte et al.,

2009). For fresh-cut zucchini, Lucera et al. (2010) found that OPP film under both

active and passive MAP showed better performance in prolonging shelf life com-

pared to the biodegradable film for cultivar Diamante. For fresh-cut cime di rapa, the

biodegradable materials resulted in leaf wilting due to high water permeable bags,

while the OPP film considerably increased the shelf life (Conte et al., 2011).

From these results, we can conclude that biodegradable/bioplastics films over-

all can be good alternatives for MAP systems to extend the shelf life of selected

fresh fruits and vegetables.

Active MAP (backflush and absorption)Active MAP involves actively changing gas compositions by gas flushing or add-

ing absorbers in fresh fruit and vegetable packages. Kim et al. (2009) investigated

the effect of flushing high CO2 in MAP (15, 25, or 50% CO21 5% O2 balanced

with N2, or 100% CO2) on the quality of Campbell Early grapes. High CO2 MAP

inhibited the browning of stalk and pedicel, the decay of berries, and shattering,

and the organoleptic score of grapes was higher than in the control. MAP with 50

and 100% CO2, however, resulted in off-flavor. When 100% CO2 was used for

grapes, the browning, decay, and shattering of bunches actually increased com-

pared with the 15, 25, and 50% CO2-treated ones. The authors recommended a

MAP with 15 and 25% as a practical technique for improving the appearance of

fresh grapes and inhibiting the browning, decay, and shattering of the berries.

Jamjumroon et al. (2012) found that during modified atmosphere storage of straw

mushrooms overwrapped with PVC film, applications of high CO2 concentrations

(10 or 20%) combined with 15% O2 effectively reduced browning discoloration.

Li et al. (2012a) investigated the effects of superatmospheric O2 active MAP

(initial O2/CO2: 30/5 or 80/0) compared to passive and reduced O2 active MAP

(O2/CO2: 5/5) on the antioxidant capacity and sensory quality of fresh-cut

Yaoshan pears stored at 4�C for 12 days. Cut pears stored in superatmospheric O2

(30% and 80%) packages showed higher phenolics and anthocyanin contents

compared with those in passive and low O2 packages. After 12 days of storage,

the phenolics and anthocyanin contents of 80% O2 samples were 2.5 and 12 times,

respectively, higher than those in the passive package, and 3 and 2 times higher

than those in low O2 package, respectively. Superatmospheric O2 MAP was also

effective in maintaining free radical scavenging capacity. The sensory evaluation

454 CHAPTER 18 Modified Atmosphere Packaging for Fresh Produce

indicated that the surface color of cut fruit was stable for at least 12 days in the

high O2 MAP. These results suggested that superatmospheric O2 MAP could be

used to inhibit browning and prolong the shelf life of fresh-cut pears. However,

Li et al. (2012b) found that in ready-to-eat honey pomelo slices both ascorbic

acid content and antioxidant capacity underwent a significant depletion under

superatmospheric O2 MAP (75%) in comparison with low O2 active MAP (3%

O21 5% CO2) and passive MAPs. Total phenolic content among the samples

stored under superatmospheric O2 and passive MAP decreased significantly, but

not for low O2 MAP. Superatmospheric O2 MAP was more effective in maintain-

ing the firmness of the slices, and both superatmospheric oxygen and low oxygen

flushing inhibited the growth of spoilage microorganisms.

Oms-Oliu et al. (2008a,b) studied the physiological, physicochemical, and

microbiological quality of fresh-cut Piel de Sapo melon packaged under 2.5%

O21 7% CO2, 21% O2, and 70% O2 atmospheres. Active MAP with initial low

O2 levels reduced in-package ethylene concentration, whereas superatmospheric

O2 levels (70%) avoided anaerobic metabolism by reducing CO2 production rate

and preventing ethanol production. Both 2.5% O21 7% CO2 and 70% O2 atmo-

spheres significantly reduced the growth of microorganisms for 14 days of storage

at 5�C. Superatmospheric O2 as well as low O2 plus high CO2 conditions were

found to have a certain inhibitory effect on growth of Rhodotorula mucilaginosa,

a dominant yeast prevailing during the subsequent storage of fresh-cut Piel de

Sapo melon. For sensory quality, although 70% O2 level involved a high O2 respi-

ration rate and a decrease in the soluble solids content, it maintained the firmness

and chewiness of fresh-cut Piel de Sapo melon for 2 weeks of storage. They con-

cluded that a high (70%) O2 atmosphere prevented fermentation and significantly

improved the texture quality and microbiological stability of fresh-cut melons.

Wang et al. (2011) found that golden needle mushrooms stored in MAP without

oxygen or 20 to 50% O2 for 0 to 34 days had poor sensory quality with increased

levels of peroxidation and browning. However, MAP with 80% O2 delayed the

senescence process in the later period of storage, and the mushrooms had the best

quality until the end of the 34 day storage period.

Lee et al. (2011) investigated the microbiological behavior of fresh-cut cab-

bage as affected by active MAP treatments including superatmospheric oxygen

(70% O21 15% CO2/balanced N2), low oxygen (5% O21 15% CO2/balanced

N2), and moderate vacuum in combination with gas-permeable (LDPE) or barrier

(Ny/PE) films. Shredded cabbage was also inoculated with spoilage bacteria and

pathogens and samples were stored at 5�C. The overall population of the tested

bacteria was noticeably reduced in superatmospheric O2 MAP with Ny/PE film,

but was little influenced by low O2 MAP. However, the inoculated bacteria in

vacuum packaging with Ny/PE film significantly increased. In sensory evaluation,

Ny/PE film maintained better visual quality compared to LDPE film. Caner and

Aday (2009) studied the influence of various types of MAP (% O2/ % CO2: 21/

0.05, 4/8, and 60/20) on fresh strawberry quality. They found that storage in 60%

O2 or 4% O2 resulted in reduced Brix and titratable acidity and increased pH

455Active MAP (backflush and absorption)

compared with storage in 21% O2. Superatmospheric O2 resulted in better texture

(springiness and chewiness) than 4% O2 and 21% O2, but it did not significantly

affect resilience. It was concluded that superatmospheric O2 MAP could be a

good alternative to maintain fresh strawberry qualities for at least 12 days.

Noble gases Ar and He have been considered as replacements for N2 as the

balancing gas in MAP due to their diffusivity characteristics, which may modify

the diffusion of O2, CO2, and C2H4 in fresh commodities (Burg and Burg, 1965).

Replacing the N2 in air with He enhanced gas diffusion and reduced the concen-

tration gradient of O2 between the inside and outside of a commodity. These

changes allow fresh commodities that experience internal low O2 deficiencies at

lower O2 storage to tolerate the low O2 environment better than they could toler-

ate in the presence of N2 atmospheres (Jamie and Saltveit, 2002). Various studies

have investigated the effect of the noble gases on the quality of fresh produce dur-

ing postharvest storage. Argon used as a major component of the atmosphere in

MAP was found to reduce microbial growth and improve product quality reten-

tion (Berne, 1994; Day, 1996, 1998). The ripening of mature green tomatoes was

delayed and their rate of CO2 and C2H4 production reduced in a 3% O2 controlled

atmosphere balanced with Ar compared with the same controlled atmosphere bal-

anced with N2 (Lougheed and Lee, 1989). Robles et al. (2010) found that con-

trolled atmospheres with high He (83% He1 15% CO21 2% O2 and 98%

He1 2% O2) were more effective for inhibiting mesophilic bacteria counts when

compared with a typical MAP atmosphere (1% O21 20% CO21 79% N2) for

mizuna leaves stored at 5�C for 8 days. Tomas-Callejas et al. (2011) investigated

the antimicrobial and quality effects of 100% O2-, He-, N2-, or N2O-enriched

active MAP compared to a passive MAP control for fresh-cut red chard baby

leaves at 5�C during an 8-day storage. For the passive MAP, 15.8% O2 and 4.8%

CO2 were monitored within packages after 8 days. In O2-enriched MAP packages,

gas compositions were 87% for O2 and 6 to 7% for CO2 balanced with N2 after 8

days. N2-enriched MAP maintained a N2 level of over 95%, O2 below 1%, and

CO2 nearly 5% after 8 days of storage. In the He-enriched MAP treatment, He

progressively decreased within packages to 20% with about 8% O2 and 2% CO2

after 8 days. N2O-enriched MAP maintained a N2O level throughout the shelf life

of over 95% with about 1% O2 and 2.5% CO2. Superatmospheric O2 MAP inhib-

ited natural microflora growth throughout 7 days of storage, and there were no

differences in microbial growth between He-, N2-, and N2O-enriched MAPs and

the passive MAP. Initial total phenolics content increased to 61 to 93% after

6 days at 5�C under O2-, He-, and N2-enriched MA packages. The active MAP

retained vitamin C content better compared with the passive MAP control. He-

enriched MAP preserved the total chlorophyll content throughout the shelf life.

Char et al. (2012) found that active MAP enriched with non-conventional gases

(Ar, He, and N2) affected the quality of ready-to-eat arugula during storage. In

the experiments, arugula leaves were packed in three different atmospheres

enriched with Ar (65�70% Ar1 5�6% O2 balanced with N2), He (70�75%

He1 5�6% O2 balanced with N2) or N2 (94�95% N21 5�6% O2) and stored at

456 CHAPTER 18 Modified Atmosphere Packaging for Fresh Produce

5�C for 8 days. During storage, the O2 level in the fresh-cut packages reduced

from approximately 5% to a range of 1.2 to 0.7% after 7 days of storage. There

were no differences between the packaging methods. The CO2 levels reached

levels in the range of 6.3 to 9.9% on the fifth day. The He atmosphere produced

the lowest increase of CO2. The initial He concentration (75%) was maintained

throughout the entire experiment; in contrast, the Ar concentration (67%) was

maintained for 4 days and then decreased to 32% at the end of storage. The He-

and Ar-enriched atmospheres reduced respiratory activity, effectively controlled

microbial growth, retained color characteristics, and had a positive effect on the

bioactive compound contents. These results suggest that noble gas-enriched atmo-

spheres may be efficient tools for maintaining the quality of some fresh-cut fruits

and vegetables during MAP storage.

Adding absorbers in MAP for fresh fruits and vegetables was also evaluated in a

couple of experiments. Aday et al. (2011) evaluated the effects of O2 and CO2 sca-

vengers (sachets) on the quality of fresh strawberries in a passive modified atmo-

sphere (sealed PLA trays) throughout storage at 4�C for 4 weeks. Results showed

that the packages with CO2 absorbers significantly reduced CO2 content (,16%

versus .32% by day 28 of storage) throughout storage compared with the control

package (without scavenger) and the packages with the O2 absorber. However, the

O2 absorber did not show any large impact on O2 levels in the package during stor-

age. The scavengers, especially CO2 absorbers, in packages resulted in higher total

soluble solid contents, lower electrical conductivity and pH values, firmer texture,

better color, and better sensory quality during storage. Another study (Kartal et al.,

2012) on strawberry fruit packaged in PVC/PE trays with or without oxygen scaven-

gers sealed with BOPP or microperforated BOPP (7 and 9 holes), showed that the

oxygen scavenger had a much smaller impact on O2 and CO2 contents in packages

at equilibrium compared with the film perforations. Regardless of oxygen absorber,

the BOPP group resulted in higher total soluble solids reduction and pH changes

than BOPP with perforations. The fruit in perforated packages was firmer and L�

and a� color values were also better maintained. Results of sensory analysis showed

that packages with oxygen scavengers resulted in overall higher scores for the sen-

sory attributes of appearance, color, firmness, and general acceptability compared

with packages without oxygen scavengers. These results demonstrate that active

MAP with O2/CO2 scavengers may benefit shelf life and the quality of fresh fruits

and vegetables during postharvest storage.

Antimicrobial MAP systemsPassive MAP with low O2 and high CO2 contents has been demonstrated to be an

effective technology for retaining quality and extending the shelf life of fresh

fruits and vegetables by reducing the metabolism of live plant tissues and inhibit-

ing aerobic microbial growth. When facultative and/or anaerobic spoilage

microbes, such as lactic acid bacteria and yeast, become the dominant microbial

457Antimicrobial MAP systems

flora on fresh fruits and vegetables the effectiveness of MAP technology is signif-

icantly reduced. Therefore, one innovation of MAP for fresh fruits and

vegetables is to improve MAP functionality by adding antimicrobials to the

packages or to develop antimicrobial MAP systems. These systems prevent

microbes from growing on the product by means of incorporating antimicrobial

substances into packaging materials or through antimicrobial volatiles that are

released by the package into the headspace (Almenar et al., 2007, 2009).

Among the active substances used in the design of antimicrobial MAP sys-

tems, compounds of natural origin such as plant essential oils and food aromas

have been preferred and the compounds are either incorporated within the

package materials or added in an independent sachet (Appendini and Hotchkiss,

2002; Lee et al., 1998; Zivanovic et al., 2005). For example, Serrano et al. (2008)

evaluated the concept by using the essential oils eugenol, thymol, menthol, and

eucalyptol for fresh grapes and cherry berries. They added the individual oil on a

sterile gauze and placed the gauzes separately inside the bags with fresh fruit

samples before the packages were sealed (Guillen et al., 2007; Serrano et al.,

2005; Valero et al., 2006; Valverde et al., 2005). Experimental results showed

that gas compositions at equilibrium were similar (11�12% O2 and 2�3% CO2

for sweet cherry and 10�14% O2 and 1.3�2.0% CO2 for table grapes) between

the bags with and without the essential oils. However, for grapes, the addition of

eugenol or thymol significantly reduced the total viable counts of mesophilic aer-

obics and yeast and molds on the fruit. The oils also delayed weight loss, color

changes, rates of rachis deterioration, and berry decay compared to the control

(Valverde et al., 2005). Sensory evaluation showed that panelists perceived the

typical aroma of the essential oils after opening the packages, but after tasting the

grapes 90% of the judges could not detect the presence of the essential oils

(Guillen et al., 2007). Treated berries showed better fruit and rachis aspect, firm-

ness, and crunchiness, but control berries were sweeter and juicier. For control

berries, 70% of the panelists reported bad aromas and off-flavors; for berries trea-

ted with thymol, only 10% of panelists found the occurrence of off-flavors

(Valero et al., 2006). For sweet cherries, all of the essential oils tested reduced

molds and yeasts and total aerobic mesophilic colonies by 4- and 2-log CFU,

respectively, compared with the control. Eugenol and thymol treatments reduced

weight loss, delayed color changes, and maintained fruit firmness (Serrano et al.,

2005). It was concluded that adding plant essential oils in MAP might improve

both microbiological and sensory quality of fresh fruits (Serrano, 2008).

Ayala-Zavala and Gonzalez-Aguilar (2010) used garlic oil as an antimicrobial

agent in MAP for retaining quality of fresh strawberries. They adhered a filter

paper impregnated with different amounts of garlic oil (0, 50, 100, or 200 µg) or agarlic oil capsule sachet (0, 0.25, 0.5, or 1 g) inside a sealed fresh-cut tomato tray

and stored the samples at 5�C for up to 5 weeks. Results showed that the most

effective concentrations of garlic oil and garlic oil capsules to reduce microbial

growth were 200 µg/100 g of tomato fruit (resulting in 2-log reduction in yeast and

mold and 4-log reduction in mesophiles by day 14 of storage) and 1 g/100 g (1-log

458 CHAPTER 18 Modified Atmosphere Packaging for Fresh Produce

reduction in mesophiles and more than 3-log reduction in mold and yeast by day 21

of storage), respectively. The tomato slices treated with garlic oil (200 and 100 µg/100 g) were not acceptable for panelists on day 7 of storage, but the panelists did

not report any differences of odor acceptability among the control and garlic

capsule-treated products on day 14 of storage.

2-Nonanone is an aromatic volatile commonly found in plant tissues. It is also

an antifungal compound with low mammalian toxicity, a pleasant fruity/floral

odor, resistance to rapid decomposition, adequate volatility, environmental accept-

ability, and a high potential for commercial development (Vaughn et al., 1993).

Almenar et al. (2007) evaluated 2-nonanone for control of fungal growth on fresh

wild strawberry fruit in MAP. Strawberry fruit was packed in PP/ethylene�vinyl

alcohol copolymer (EVOH)/PP cups sealed with PET/PP lids with three microper-

forations. A sachet impregnated with different amounts of 2-nonanone was

attached to the inner surface of the lid, allowing the volatile to release in the

container during storage. The results showed that fungal growth or fungal decay

was inhibited in the packages, and weight, soluble solids, titratable acidity, and

anthocyanin losses were retarded by the presence of 2-nonanone. There were no

significant differences in the general appearance or taste of wild strawberries

packed with amounts of 2-nonanone ranging from 0.1 to 3 µL/pack after 4 days

of storage, although at the higher 2-nonanone quantities tested, a slight odor of

this volatile was perceived immediately after opening (Almenar et al., 2009).

These results indicated that MAP with 2-nonanone is a complementary technol-

ogy capable of improving the shelf life of strawberry fruit.

Ethanol vapor has been reported to reduce microbial populations and decay

incidences (Bai et al., 2004; Plotto et al., 2006) and retain the quality of fresh pro-

duce (Pesis, 2005); however, until recently, postharvest ethanol vapor treatments

were usually limited to pre-packaging stages. Suzuki et al. (2004, 2005) investi-

gated the quality retention efficacy of ethanol vapor in MAP using alcohol powder

and fresh broccoli. In the experiments, six broccoli branchlets were placed in a

perforated PE bag with 0, 3, 6, or 12 g of alcohol sachets (made by immersing sili-

con dioxide powder in food-grade ethanol) and stored at 20�C. The untreated broc-

coli florets started to turn yellow at the third day of storage. The broccoli florets

treated with 3 and 6 g of alcohol powder turned slightly yellow at the fifth day of

storage. The yellowing was inhibited with 12 g of alcohol powder over a 5-day

storage period. In untreated broccoli florets, ACC oxidase activity and ethylene

production increased at 2 and 3 days of storage, whereas there was no increase in

those treated with alcohol powder. The authors concluded that treatment with alco-

hol powder was effective for prolonging the shelf life of broccoli florets. Lurie

et al. (2006) evaluated the effects of applying ethanol methods on table grape

decay during storage. Ethanol was applied by (1) dipping grapes in 50% ethanol

for 10 s followed by air drying before packaging; (2) placing a container with a

wick and 4 or 8 mL ethanol per kg grapes inside the package; (3) applying 4 or

8 mL ethanol per kg grapes to paper and placing this paper above the grapes in the

package. The grapes were stored at 0�C for 6 or 8 weeks. Data showed that all

459Antimicrobial MAP systems

methods of application controlled decay as well as or better than a SO2-releasing

pad. The taste of the berries was not impaired by any of the ethanol applications.

Candir et al. (2012) used Red Globe table grapes to investigate ethanol vapor treat-

ment under MAP. Grapes were packaged in either perforated PE or MAP PE bags

with or without different levels of ethanol vapor-generating sachets (3, 6, and 9 g

powder per bag). A SO2-generating pad in MAP was used as a positive control.

Results showed that the perforated PE bag containing an 8-g ethanol sachet was as

effective as the SO2 treatment in reducing the incidence of fungal decay in natu-

rally infected and artificially inoculated grapes for 1 month. Ethanol vapors

released by the ethanol sachets enhanced berry color but caused stem browning.

Further experiments showed that an 8-g sachet added to MAP PE bags resulted in

higher anthocyanin content, ferric-reducing antioxidant power, and trolox equiva-

lent antioxidant capacity during storage (Ustun et al., 2012). They concluded that

ethanol sachets are good alternatives to SO2-generating pads for preventing the

decay of grapes under MAP for short-term storage. Sabir et al. (2010) also found

that MAP with ethanol treatments helped to minimize the quality loss of grape ber-

ries. The taste of the berries was not impaired by ethanol applications during stor-

age. MAP was superior in most cases, such as restriction of weight loss and

maintenance of berry appearance. However, the use of MAP together with ethanol

produced the best results in maintenance of overall quality parameters.

Bai et al. (2011) evaluated the effects of an ethanol vapor release pad on

decay and postharvest quality of whole and fresh-cut sweet cherries packed in

perforated clamshell containers. For ethanol treatment, a pad made with silica gel

powder containing 10 g ethanol and covered with perforated film was attached to

the upper lid of the clamshell. Results showed that the ethanol treatment reduced

brown rot in fresh-cut cherries stored at 20�C and retarded softening, darkening,

and acid decrease in fruit as well as discoloration of the stems. Shelf-life of intact

cherries was extended regardless of storage temperatures (1, 10, or 20�C). A sen-

sory taste panel did not perceive any flavor difference from the ethanol treatment.

Muscodor albus is a plant-dwelling fungus that has the ability to produce a

mixture of antimicrobial volatile compounds, including alcohol, acid, ester, and

terpenoid derivatives, with broad-spectrum activity. These volatiles were shown to

be lethal to most postharvest decay pathogens and other fungi (Strobel et al.,

2001). In inoculated apples, peaches, lemons, and grapes, M. albus was effective

as a biofumigant in controlling postharvest diseases (Mercier and Jimenez, 2004;

Mercier and Smilanick, 2005; Mlikota et al., 2006). Mercier et al. (2010) investi-

gated the effectiveness of the volatile-generating sachets containing 50 g or 90 g

of M. albus culture for extending the shelf life of grape berries. The M. albus

sachets were activated by dipping in water for 15 s and then held in a plastic tub at

ambient room temperature for 2 to 6 h to ensure reactivation of the culture before

use at low temperature. A single reactivated M. albus sachet was placed over the

grapes in the middle of each box (called MA liner). Control boxes received no

sachet. Results showed that the M. albus sachets reduced decay incidence among

table grapes. The MA liner alone reduced decay incidence by about 70%, but the

460 CHAPTER 18 Modified Atmosphere Packaging for Fresh Produce

combination of the M. albus sachet and MAP proved to be the most effective

decay control treatment. No adverse effects were associated with the M. albus

treatment. It was concluded that biofumigation with M. albus sachets in MA

packages could provide significant improvement in shelf life of table grapes.

The idea of incorporating antimicrobial materials, such as nanoparticles or

nanocomposites, and essential oils in packaging materials has been evaluated to

develop antimicrobial MAP for fresh fruits and vegetables. Kang et al. (2007)

blended polyethylene resin with liquefied Bactecide-N (BN) to make a so-called

BN/PE antimicrobial film and evaluated microbial populations and shelf-life

extension of fresh-cut iceberg lettuce packed in the BN/PE film bags in compari-

son with samples in OPP, PE, and PET film bags. They found that the shelf life of

the fresh-cut iceberg lettuce was longer than 5 days in the BN/PE film at 10�C,whereas the shelf life of the products packed with PE, OPP, or PET films was less

than 3 days. The samples packed in BN/PE film maintained an excellent visual

quality during the 3 days of storage without any browning discoloration and tex-

ture changes, whereas the samples packaged in the other films were inedible by

3 days of storage. Further studies (Kang et al., 2008) showed that the total meso-

philic population in BN/PE film under active MAP conditions (flushed with 2%

O2 and 2% CO2) was dramatically reduced in comparison with that of a PE film

(without gas flush), PE film under active MAP conditions, and BN/PE film (with-

out gas flush). The O2 concentration in the BN/PE film under MAP conditions

decreased slightly as the storage period progressed and browning of the iceberg

lettuce developed the slowest when it was packaged in BN/PE film under MAP

conditions, followed by BN/PE film, PE film, and PE film under MAP conditions.

The shelf life of fresh-cut iceberg lettuce was extended by more than 2 days at

10�C compared with the BN/PE film alone and was more than 4 days longer than

that in PE controls. In conclusion, the BN/PE antimicrobial film packaging was

very effective at extending shelf life compared to films without antimicrobial

functions.

Yang et al. (2010) fabricated novel nanopackaging materials with lower relative

humidity and oxygen transmission rate and high longitudinal strength by blending

PE with nanopowder (nano Ag, kaolin, anatase TiO2, or rutile TiO2) and tested

them for preservation of quality of strawberry fruit at 4�C. After 12 days of storage,

the nanopackaging materials retained the levels of total soluble solids,

titratable acidity, ascorbic acid, anthocyanin, and malondialdehyde, in addition to

reducing the decay rate of the strawberry fruit. In addition, polyphenoloxidase and

pyrogallol peroxidase activities were significantly lower in the nanopackaging than

the control. These data indicated that the nanopackaging might provide an alterna-

tive to improve preservation of strawberry fruit during extended storage. Li et al.

(2011) developed a nanocomposite-based film by coating PVC film with nano ZnO

powder, and packed Fuji apple slices either in a nano ZnO film bag or in a control

PVC bag. Both samples were stored at 4�C for 12 days. They found that, at equilib-

rium, O2 and CO2 concentrations were 8% and 16% in the nanopackaging, respec-

tively, whereas they were 2% and 21% in the control, respectively. Compared with

461Antimicrobial MAP systems

the control, nanopackaging significantly reduced the fruit decay rate, accumulation

of malondialdehyde, production of wound-induced ethylene, and activities of poly-

phenoloxidase and pyrogallol peroxidase in the cut product. The initial appearance

of apple slices was retained and browning was prevented. They concluded that

nano ZnO-based antimicrobial packaging could be a viable alternative to common

MAP technologies for improving the shelf life of fresh-cut products.

Muriel Galet et al. (2012, 2013) composed an antimicrobial film by mixing

PP/EVOH with oregano essential oil or citral (5 or 10%) and evaluated the film

for extension of quality (5 days at 4�C and 3 days at 8�C) and improvement of

food safety for minimally processed salads (four-season salad). The results

showed that the package film with oregano essential oil and citral resulted in

reductions of 1.38 log and 2.13 log, respectively, in enterobacteria and about

2 log in yeasts and molds. The total aerobic count was reduced by 1 log with

oregano oil and 1.23 log with citral. The reduction of lactic acid bacteria and psy-

chrotrophic was about 2 log. Growth of pathogens Escherichia coli, Salmonella

enterica, and Listeria monocytogenes in contaminated salads was also inhibited.

Sensory studies showed that cut salads in the package with the essential oils were

the most accepted by customers at the end of the shelf life.

Fernandez et al. (2010) studied the antimicrobial activity of newly developed

antimicrobial absorbent pads made from cellulose�silver nanoparticle hybrid

materials during storage of minimally processed Piel de Sapo melon. Fresh-cut

melon pieces were stored for 10 days at 4�C under passive MAP in the presence

or absence of silver-loaded absorbent pads. The authors found that the antimicro-

bial pads released silver ions after melon juice impregnated the materials, and the

lag phases of the microorganisms were considerably incremented. Microbial loads

in the pads remained on average some 3-log CFU/g below the control during the

investigated storage period. Furthermore, the presence of silver-loaded absorbent

pads retarded the senescence of melon cuts with remarkably lower yeast counts

after 10 days of storage.

Antimicrobial MAP continues to attract the attention of postharvest produce

researchers. Based on the limited experiments thus far, it seems to work well as far

as retaining the quality of both fresh and fresh-cut fruit and vegetable products,

even though in some cases it causes non-typical odors or flavors of the treated

products.

Intelligent MAPIntelligent packaging is a packaging system that is capable of carrying out intelli-

gent functions (such as detecting, sensing, recording, tracing, communicating, and

applying scientific logic) to facilitate decision making with regard to extending

shelf life, enhancing safety, improving quality, providing information, and warn-

ing about possible problems (Yam et al., 2005). In MAP, the headspace composi-

tions, mainly O2 and CO2, of fresh produce packages undergo changes during

462 CHAPTER 18 Modified Atmosphere Packaging for Fresh Produce

storage. Devices capable of identifying, quantifying, or reporting the changes in

these gases within the package as well as the temperatures during transfer and

storage and the microbiological quality of food can provide valuable information

to both the final consumer and producer and/or marketer about the effectiveness

of the conservation strategies used in the marketing chain (de Abreu et al., 2012).

A couple of such devices have been tested in MAP for fresh fruits and

vegetables over the past few years. One of the devices is the wireless sensor net-

work (WSN). In contrast to wired sensors, the WSN can monitor processes non-

invasively and where cabling is not possible, and it has been used to monitor

environmental and growing conditions in the field and greenhouse and environ-

mental conditions during postharvest transport and storage (Ruiz-Altisent et al.,

2010). Lokke et al. (2011) evaluated the WSN for monitoring oxygen and temper-

ature changes of postharvest horticultural crops using fresh-cut broccoli florets.

The WSN devices were placed in glass jars with fresh-cut broccoli florets and the

jars were stored at 5, 10 or 20�C under modified gas compositions. Their results

showed that the applied systems were unable to determine O2 levels lower than

5% and CO2. But, the systems could continuously measure the respiration rate of

O2 in a container with a high O2 content, thereby allowing the relationship

between temperature and the respiration of fresh produce to be investigated.

Seefeldt et al. (2012) used the same device to study the effects of harvest time,

seasons, varieties, and temperature on respiration rates of broccoli florets and

wild rocket salad by continuously monitoring the O2 changes in a glass jar. Their

results demonstrated that the WSN could differentiate broccoli varieties, growth

seasons, storage temperatures, and harvest times based on the changes in O2 in

packages.

Another device that has been evaluated is an optical oxygen sensor, the Optech sys-

tem. Borchert et al. (2012) used it for non-destructive sensing of residual O2 in the

headspace of fresh produce packages. In their experiments, three types of ready-to-eat

salads, iceberg lettuce, Caesar salad, and Italian leaf mix salad, were packed under dif-

ferent modified atmospheres (5% CO2, 5�60% O2) and stored at 4�C for up to 10

days. Optech O2 sensor stickers were attached in each pack to the inside area of the

sealing film. Results showed that O2 contents sensed with Optech devices in the

packages were well correlated with those measured by a gas analyzer (CheckPoint,

Dansensor A/S, DK-4100, Ringsted, Denmark). It was concluded that the system was

convenient and capable of monitoring O2 changes in individual fresh-cut produce

packs.

Only very limited tests of intelligent MAP for fresh fruits and vegetables have

been conducted, and the devices were restricted to oxygen sensors in the past few years

that have met with some success.

SummaryModified atmosphere packaging has been successfully used for fresh fruits and

vegetables for decades; but, based on the review of recently published studies in

463Summary

this area, research on MAP for fresh fruits and vegetables is still very active, sug-

gesting that there are still a lot of challenges and opportunities for its innovations.

Identification of the best MAP practices for individual fresh and fresh-cut fruits

and vegetables appear to be the major focus of research. Active MAP, including

antimicrobial packaging, is drawing significant attention. New packaging materi-

als and packaging systems have been evaluated in response to market changes

and needs, and only very limited investigations have been conducted into intelli-

gent packaging design.

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