Medieval india

Qutb-Hul-din ibak

Qutb-ud-din Aibak was the founder of first independent Turkish kingdom in northern India. For his generosity, he was given the title of Lakh Baksh (giver of lakhs).

He constructed two mosques - Quwal-ul-lslam at Delhi and . Adhai din ka Jhopra at Ajmer. lie also began the construction of Qutub Minar, in the honour of famous Still saint Khawaja Qutub-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki.

Aibak was great patron of learning and patronized writers like Hasan- un-Nizami. author of Taj-ul-Massir and Fnkhr-ud-Din. author of Tarikh- i-Mubarak Shahi.

Iltutmish

Iltutmish was the real founder of Delhi Sultanate. He made Delhi the capital in place of Lahore. He saved Delhi Sultanate from the wrath of Chengiz Khan - the Mongol leader by refusing shelter to

Khwarizm Shah, whom Chengiz was chasing. He completed the construction of Qutub Minar. He issued the silver lanka for the first time. He organized the Iqta system and introduced reforms in civil

administration and army, which was now centrally paid and recruited. He set up an official nobility of slaves known as Chahalgani (group of forty). He patronized Minaj-us-siraj, author of Tabaqat-i-nasiri.

Razia Sultan Though Iltutmish had nominated his daughter Razia as the successor, the nobles placed Rukn-ud-din

Firoz on the throne. However, Razia got rid of Rukn-ud-din and ascended the throne. Razia was popular among the people but she was not acceptable to the nobles and theologians. She further offended the nobles by her preference for an Abyssinian slave - Yakut.

Soon after her accession, the governors of Multan, Badaun, Hansi and Lahore openly revolted against her.

There was a serious rebellion in Bhatinda. Altunia, governor of Bhatinda refused to accept suzerainty of Razia. Razia accompanied by Yakut marched against Altunia. However, Altunia got Yakut murdered and imprisoned Razia. Subsequently, Razia married Altunia and both of them marched towards Delhi. In 1240 AD, Razia became the victim of a conspiracy and was assassinated near Kaithal.

Ghiyas-ud-din Balban Balban ascended the throne in 1265 AD. He broke the power of chahalgani and restored the prestige of the crown. That was his greatest

contribution towards the stability of the Sultanate To keep himself well-informed Balban appointed spies He created a strong centralized army to deal with internal disturbances and . to check Mongols who

were posing u serious danger to Delhi Sultanate.

He established the military department - Diwan-i-Arz. The Persian court model influenced Balban’s conception of kingship. He took up the title of Zil-i-

Ilahi (shadow of God). He introduced Sijda (prostration before the monarch) and Paibos (kissing the feel of monarch) as the

normal forms of salutation,

He destoryed Mewati Rajput brigandage in the doab, where forests were cut and forts built.

Alauddin Khalji

Alauddin Khalji ascended the throne after getting his uncle Jalal-ud-din murdered. He was the first Turkish Sultan of Delhi who separated religion from politics. He proclaimed -

“Kingship knows no Kinship”. Alauddin’s Imperialism Alauddin annexed Gujarat (1298 AD), Ranthambhor (1301 AD). Mewar (1303 AD), Malwa

(1305 AD), Jalor (1311 AD). In Deccan. Alauddin’s army led by Malik Kafur defeated Yadavas of Devagiri, Kakatiyas of Warrangal, Hoysalas of Dwarsamudra and Pandyas of Madurai. Administrative Reforms

In order to avoid the problems created by the nobles, Alauddin issued four important ordinances. The first ordinance aimed at confiscation of the religious endowments and free grants of lands. By the second ordinance Ala-ud-din reorganised the spy system. An army of informers was created and their duty was to spy on all that happened in Empire and submit reports to Sultan. The third ordinances prohibited the use of wine. The fourth ordinance issued by Alauddin laid down that nobles should not have social gatherings and they should not inter-marry without his permission.

He introduced the system of Dagh or the branding of horse and Chehra or preparation of the descriptive role.

Alauddin ordered that all land was to be measured and then the share of state was to be fixed. The post of special officer called Mustakhraj was created for the purpose of collection of revenue.

The peasants had to pay half the produce as land revenue. Alauddin sought to fix cost of all commodities. For the purpose he set up three markets at Delhi.

One Market for food grains, the second for costly cloth and third for horses, slaves and catties. Each market was under the control of a high officer called Shahna who maintained a register of the merchants and strictly controlled the shopkeepers and the prices. The check on market was kept by two officers - Diwan-i-Riyasat and Shahna-i-Mandi.

All goods for sale were brought to an open market called the Sarai-Adl. Many forts were built by him and the most important of them was Alai Fort. He also constructed

the Alai Darwaja the entrance gate to Qutub Minar. He also built the palace of thousand Pillars called Hazar Situn.

Amir Khusro Amir Khusro was a prolific Persian poet (1253-1325 AD) associated with royal courts of more than seven rulers of Delhi Sultanate. Amir Khusro was a genius of those times. A very versatile person, he was a soldier, a composer of poetry in Arabic, Persian, Urdu, and a diplomat, shrewd in Court matters and was also a good musician. He accompanied Allauddin Khalji, when he conquered the Yadava kingdom of Devagiri. As a result of fusion of musical thoughts of Amir Khusro, many innovations took place. One of them was the present day Khayal that evolved around the fourteenth century. Amir Khusro wrote Tarikh-i-Alai or Khazain-ul-Fatuh. In this book he gave an

account of conquest of Alauddin. He wrote another book called Ashiqa, which contains the love story of Deval Rani and Khizr Khan. In his Nur-Siphir or nine skies, he gave the Story of Sultan Mubarak Shah. He also lived in the court of Ghias-ud-din Tughluq and wrote Tughluqnama. Khushro is also known as Tuti-i-Hind or parrot of India.

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq He tried to introduce many administrative reforms. He had five ambitious projects for which he has become particularly debatable. 1) Taxation in the Doab: The Sultan made an ill-advised financial experiment in the Doab between the Ganges and Jamuna. He not only increased the rate of taxation but also revived and created some additional Abwabs or cessess. Although the share of the state remained half as in time of Alauddin. it was fixed arbitrarily not on the basis of actual produce. Prices were also fixed artificially for converting the produce into money. It is said that the increase was twenty-fold and to this were added Ghan or House tax and the ‘Charahi’ of pasture tax.

The Sultan created a new Department of Agriculture called Diwan-i-Kohi. The main object of this Department was to bring more land under cultivation by giving direct help to peasants. 2) Transfer of Capital: The most controversial step which Muhammad Tughlaq undertook soon after his accession was the so called transfer of capital from Delhi to Deogir. Deogir had been a base for the expansion of Turkish rule in South India. It appears that the Sultan wanted to make Deogir second capital so that he might be able to control south India better. Deogir was thus named Daulatabad. After a couple of years Muhammad Tugluq decided to abandon Daulatabad largely because he soon found that just as he could not control South India from Delhi, he could not control North from Daulatabad. 3) Introduction of Token Currency: Muhammad Tughlaq decided to introduce bronze coins, which were to have same value as the silver ones. Muhammad Tughlaq might have been successful if he could prevent people from forging the new coins. He was not able to do so and soon the new coins began to be greatly devalued in markets. Finally Muhammad Taghlaq decided to withdraw the token currency. He promised to exchange silver pieces for bronze coins. 4) Proposed Khurasan Expedition: The Sultan had a vision of universal conquest. He decided to conquest Khurasan and Iraq and mobilized a huge army for the purpose. He was encouraged to do so by Khurasani nobles who had taken shelter in his court. Moreover there was instability in Khurasan on account of the unpopular rule of Abu Said 5) Quarachil expedition: This expedition was launched in Kumaon hills in Himalayas allegedly to counter Chinese incursions. It also appears that the expedition was directed against some refractory tribes in Kumaon Garhwal region with the object of bringing them under Delhi Sultnate. The first attack was a success but when the rainy season set in, the invaders suffered terribly.

His five projects had led to revolts all around his empire. His last days were spent in checking the revolts (altogether 36 revolts in 25 years).

Nature of the State

The Turkish state in India was militaristic and artistrocratic. The Turkish nobles tried at first to monopolize the high offices of state denying a share to Tajiks, Afghans and non-Turkish immigrants. Thus a noble birth still remained a very important qualification for high office.

Though the Sultans did not allow any violation of Islamic law, they however did not allow the Muslim divines to dictate the policy of state. The Sultans had to supplement the Muslim law by framing their own regulation (Zawabit).

The Hindu subjects had been given the status of or protected people who accepted Muslim rule and agreed to pay tax called Jizya.

Iqta Sometiems mistranslated as ‘Jagir’. It is that part of land granted by the sultan in us military chiefs for maintenance of a given number of troopers. The land was normally taken back when the Iqtadars were not in a position to maintain the army.

Firoz Shah Tughlaq Alter his accession Firoz Tughlaq was faced with the problem of preventing the imminent break up of Delhi

Sultunaie. He adopted the police of trying to appease the nobility, the army and theologians and of asserting his authority over only such areas, which could be easily administered from the centre. He therefore made no attempt to re-assert his authority over South India and Deccan.

He decreed that whenever a noble died his son should be allowed to succeed to his position including his Iqta and if he had no sons, his son-in-law and in his absence his slave.

Firoz extended the principle of heredity to the army. Soldiers were allowed to rest in peace and to send in their place their sons. The soldiers were not paid in cash but by assignments on land revenue of villages. This novel technique of payment led to many abuses.

Firoz tried to win over the theologians proclaiming that he was a true Muslim king and the state under him was truly Islamic. In order to keep the theologians satisfied a number of them were appointed to high offices.

He tried to ban practices, which the orthodox theologians considered un-Islamic. Thus he prohibited the practice of Muslim women going out to worship at graves of saints. It was during the time of Firoz that Jizya became a separate tax. Firoz refused to

Literature Book Author Khazyan-ul-Futuh Amir Khusro Tughluq Nama Amir Khusro Tarik-i-Alai Amir Khusro Tabqat-i-Naisiri Minhaj-us-Siraj Tarik-i-Firoz Shahi Zia-ud-din Barni Gila Govind Jayadeva Sasttra Dipika Parthasarthi Misra Mitakshara Vighanes Vara Dayabhaga J imuta Vahana Nagachandra Pampa Ramayan Alhakhandra Jagnayak Hammir Raso Sarangdhara Ashiqa Amir Khusro Amuktamalyada Krishnadeva Raya Futuhat-l-Firozshahi FirozShah Prasana Raghava Jayadeva Hamir-Mada-Mardana .. Jay Singh Sun Pradyumnabhyadaya Ravi Verman Parvati Parinay Vaman Bhatta Bana

exempt the Brahamanas from payment of Jizya since this was not provided for in Shariat. The new system of taxation was according to Quran. Four kinds of taxes sanctioned by the Quran were imposed and those were

Kharaj, Zakat. Jizya and Khams. Kharaj was the land tax, which was equal to 1 /10 of the produce of the land. Zakat was 2Wk tax on property. Jizya was levied on non-Muslims and Khams was 1/6 of the booty captured during war.

In order to encourage agriculture, the Sultan paid a lot of attention to irrigation. Firoz repaired a number of canals. The first canal was from Sutlej to Ghaggar. The second canal carried the waters of Jamuna to the city of Hissar. The third canal started from neighbourhood of Mandhavi and Sirmour Hills and connected with Hansi. The fourth canal flowed from the Ghaggar by the fort of Sirsuti up to village of Hiram - Khera.

He was a great builder, to his credit are cities of Fathabad, Hissar. Jaunapur and Firozabad. During his Bengal campaign he renamed Ikdala as Azadpur and Pandua as Firozabad. The two pillars of Asoka, one from Topra and another from Meerut were brought to Delhi.

The Sultan established at Delhi, a hospital described variously as Dar-ul-shifa, Bimaristan and Shifa Khana. The chief architect of slate was Malik Ghazi Shainan who was assisted in work by Abdul Haq.

A new department of Diwan-i-Khairat was set up to make provision for marriage of poor girls. Another step which Firoz took was both economic and political in nature. He ordered his officials that

whenever they attacked a place they should select handsome and wellborn young boys and send them to Sultan as slaves However his rule is marked by peace and tranquility and credit for it goes to his Prime Minister Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul.

Timur Invasions (1398-99 AD) Timur invaded India in 1398 AD during the reign of Nasiruddin Mahmud of Tughlaq Dynasty. The raid into India was a plundering raid and its motive was to seize the wealth accumulated by the Sultans o( Delhi over the last 200 years. He plundered Delhi and Tugluk empire could not recover from such a terrible blow and came to an end in 1412 AD.

Administration The Turkish Sultan in India declared themselves Lieutenant of the faithful i.e. of the Abbasid caliphate of

Baghdad and included his name in Khutba, it did not mean that the caliph became the legal ruler. The Caliph had only a moral position.

Political, legal and military authority was vested in the Sultan. He was responsible for administration and was also the commander-in-chief of the military forces. He was also responsible for the maintenance of law and justice.

No clear law of succession developed among Muslim rulers. Thus military strength was the main factor in succession to the throne.

The key figure in the administration was Wazir. In the earlier period the VVazir was primarily a military leader but now he began to be considered more an expert in revenue affairs and presided over a large department dealing both with income and expenditure.

The head of military department was called Ariz-i-Mamalik. The special responsibility of Ariz’s department was to recruit, equip and pay the army.

Diwan-i-Risalat dealt with religious mailers. pious foundations and stipends to deserving scholars and men of piety. It was presided over by a chief Sadr or chief Qazi.

The Qazi dispensed civil law based on Muslim law (Sharia). The Hindus were governed by their own personal laws, which were decided by panchayats in villages.

The rulers posted intelligence agents called Bands in different parts of empire to keep themselves informed of what was going on.

Wakil-i-Dar was the officer responsible for maintenance of proper decorum at the court and he looked after the personal comfort of Sultan and the Karkhanas.

When the Turks conquered the country they divided it into number of tracts called Iqtas, which were parcelled among the leading Turkish nobles. The holders of the office were called Muqti or Walis. It was these tracts,

which later became province or Subas. Below the province were the Shiqs and below them the Paragana. We are told that the villages were grouped into

units of 100 or 84 traditionally called Chaurasi. The Paragana was headed by Amil. The most important people in villages were the Khuts (Landowners) or Muqaddam or headman. We also hear of village accountant called Patwari.

Sikander Lodhi Sikander Lodhi conquered Bihar and Tirhut. He transferred his capital from Delhi to Agra, a city founded by him. Sikander Shah was a fanatical Muslim and he broke the sacred images of the Jawalamukhi Temple at Nagarkot and ordered the temples of Mathura 10 be destroyed. He took a keen interest in the development of agriculture. He introduced the gaz-i- Sikandari (Sikandar’s yard) of 32 digits for measuring cultivated fields

Ibrahim Lodhi The Afghan nobility was brave and freedom loving but it was because of its fissiparous and individualistic tendencies that the Afghan monarchy was weakened. Moreover. Ibraham Lodhi asserted the absolute power of the Sultan. As a result, some of the nobles turned against him. At last Daulat Khan Lodhi, the governor of Punjab invited Babur to overthrow Ibrahim. Babur accepted the offer and inflicted a crushing defeat on Ibraham in the first battle of Panipat in 1526 AD. Ibrahim was killed in the battle and with him ended the Delhi Sultnate.

Zia-ud-din Barani The most famous historian of the period was Zia-ud-din Barani (born 1286), a contemporary of Muhammad Tughlaq and Firoz Shah. He enjoyed the patronage of both the Sultans. He composed Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi and Fatwa-i-Jahandan. These chronicles not only served as important historical materials of study in themselves, but also furnished an example which Hindu writers and Hindu rulers were not slow to imitate.

Some Landmarks Quwwat-ul-lslam mosque, Delhi— Qutub-ud-din Aibak. Arhai Din Ka Jhopra, Ajmer—Qutb-ud-din Aibak. Qutub Minar—lltutmish. Alauddin Khilji was responsible for construction of Jamaat Khan Masjid at the Dargah of Nizamuddin

Auliya and Alai Darwaja at Qutub. The other monuments at Delhi were city of 5//”/ and the Hauz-i-Alai or Hauz-i-Khas tank. He also constructed palace ol thousand pillars called Hazar Situn.

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq founded the city of Tughlaqabad. Muhammad Tughlaq founded the small fortress of Adilabad and city of Jahanpanah. Firoz Shah Tughlaq was responsible for the foundation of cities of Jaunpur. Fathehabad and Hisar Firuza. A.

Delhi he built the palace fort of Firozabad. The best examples of architecture during the period of Sayyid and Lodhi kings are the tombs of kings and

nobles, the most important among them being the tombs of Bare Khan and Chore Khan, Bara Gumbad, Shish Gumbad, the tomb of Sbihab-ud-din Taj Khan, Dadi ka Gumbad and Port ka Gumbad.

Central Administration Department Purpose Diwan-i-Risalat Department of appeals Diwan-i-Ariz Military department Diwan-i-Bandagan Department of slaves Diwan-i-Qaza-i-Mamalik Department of justice Diwan-i-Isthiaq Department of pensions Diwan-i-Mttstakhraj Department of arrears Diwan-i-Khairat Department of charity Diwan-i-Kohi Department of agriculture Diwan-i-lnsha Department of correspondence

Art and Architecture under Sultanate The assimilation of different styles and elements to create a new one is well represented by the architecture of the Sultanate period. Many of the characteristics of Indian architecture are obvious in the buildings of the Muslim rulers. This was because though the buildings were designed by Muslim architects to suit the requirements of their religious ideas, Hindu craftsmen actually built them. The new features brought by the Turkish conquerors were:

(i) the dome; (ii) lofty towers: (iii) the true arch unsupported by beam: (iv) he vault. This showed advanced mathematical knowledge and engineering skill. They also brought with them an expert knowledge of the use of concrete and mortar, which had hitherto been little used in India. The Sultans of Delhi were liberal patrons of architecture and they erected numerous splendid edifices

The Arhai-din ka Jhonpra at Ajmer has a beautiful prayer hall. an exquisitely carved mehrab of white marble and a decorative arch screen. The first example of true or voussoired arch is said lo be the tomb of Ghiyas-ud-din Balban in Mehrauli. In the Khalji period the usage of voussoired arch and dome was established once and for all. The monuments show a rich decorative character. Famous examples are the tomb of Hazrat Nizamuddin Aulia at Delhi, whose style of beam-on-brackets under the entrance arch of the central chamber came to be almost regularly employed in subsequent buildings The Tughlaq buildings show stark simplicity and sobriety. probably indicating less financial resources as well as puritanical taste. Sloping walls and a dark appearance characterise the buildings. Typical of the Tughlaq style is thick and battered or sloping walls. squinch arches for supporting domes, multi-domed roofs and tapering minaret-like buttresses or supports at the external angles of buildings. The trabeate and arcuate are combined. Some notable Tughlaq monuments are the fort of Tughlaqahad, the tomb of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, which marked a new phase in Indo-lslamic architecture by serving as a model for later tombs and the fort of Adilabad. The Sayyid period was too short to allow construction of elaborate buildings. But the tombs of this period display some characteristics such as use of blue-enamelled tiles, the lotus-motif covering the dome and free use of guldastas. These features had much influence on the architectural style of the subsequent period. The resources available to the Lodhis were limited, and this is clearly indicated by the hard and bare tombs they erected. Bui some ol their buildings were quite elegant, with the use of enamelled tiles—a technique introduced from Persia. A certain amount of imagination and a bold diversity of design are also displayed in the Lodhi architecture. Another characteristic was the use of double domes. One building of note is the Moth Ki Masjid erected by die prime minister of Sikandar Lodhi.

Religious Movements of Medieval Age Bhakti Saints

Ramanuja - In 11th century Ramanuja tried to assimilate Bhakti to the tradition of Vedas. He argued that grace of God was more important than knowledge about him in order to attain salvation. The tradition established by Ramanuja was followed by number of thinkers such as Madhavacharya, Ramananda, Vallabhacharya and others.

Jnandeva (1275-96 AD) - He was progenitor of Bhakti movement in Maharashtra. Namdeva (1270-1350 AD) - He was a Nirguna Upasaka. Some of his abhangas are included in

Guru Granth Sahib. Ekanath (1548 AD) - He was opposed to caste distinction and evinced greatest sympathy for men of low

caste. Tukaram - He was a farmer’s son and a great devotee of Vitthal. Ramadasa (1608) -- He established ashramas all over India. It was from him that Shivaji received the inspiration to

overthrow Muslim authority and found the kingdom. Gurunanak (1469-1539 AD) - He was a mystique of Nirguna School. But his followers branched off

from Hinduism and founded a separate religious system. He became a wandering preacher of a casteless, universal, ethical, anti-ritualistic and monotheistic and highly spiritual religion.

Surdasa (1483-1513 AD) - He belongs to Saguna School. He was a disciple of famous religious teacher Vallabhacharya. He sang the glory of Krishna’s childhood and youth in his Sursagar.

Tulsi Das (1532-1623 AD)- He belongs to Saguna school of Hindu Mystics. He composed the famous Ramacharitamanas.

Another popular movement, which arose around the 12th century, was Lingayat or Vir Shaiva movement. Its founder was Basava and his nephew Channabasava who lived at the courts of Kalchuri kings of Karnataka.

In South, the Bhakti movement was led by a series of popular saints called Nayanars and Alvars. The chief object of their worship was Shiva and Vishnu respectively. They spoke and wrote in Tamil and Telugu.

Adi Sankaracharya The period alter Guptas is marked by revival and expansion of Hinduism and continued ecline of Jainism and Buddhism. Al the intellectual level the most serious challenge To Buddhism and Jainism was posed by Sankara who revived Hinduism. He is called Aquinas <>t Hinduism, since he reduced the apparently self- contradictory passages of the Upanishads into one consistent system. He propounded the doctrine of Advaita (non-dualism). According to this philosophy, there are various levels of truth. On a lower level, the world is a creation of Brahma. But. on the highest level, the whole universe is Maya (illusion) The only ultimate reality was Brahma, the impersonal world soul. Creation is his lila (eternal play). He is imminent and omniscient. According to Sankara. God and the created world were one. The differences were apparent but not real and arose due to ignorance He wrote excellent commentaries on Bhagwadgita and Upanishads. After his death 4 mathas were established in Sringeri (Karnataka), Dwaraka (Gujarat). Puri (Orissa) and Badrinath in the Himalayas

Hindu Religious Ideas Vishishtadvaita of

Ramanuja-charya - It means qualified monoism. The ultimate reality according to it is Brahma (God) who is imminent in matter and individual souls and controls them from within.

Sivadvaita of Srikanthacharya- He propounded the view that Shiva endowed with Shakti is ultimate Brahma who pervades the universe and exists beyond it.

Dvaita of Madhavachaiya - According to this dualism the world is not an illusion but reality full of real distinctions. God, matter and soul are all unique in their nature and are irreducible to each other.

Dvaitadvaita of

Nimbark-acharya - According to this dualistic monoism Brahma really transformed himself into the world and souls, which are real and distinct and different from God, but cannot exist without its support.

Suddhadvaita of Vallabha-charya - Vallabha’s philosophy is known as Pushtimarga (the path of grace) and his school by the name of Rudrasampradaya. Brahma is identified with Sri Krishna. Salvation is through Sneha (deep-rooted and all surpassing love for God).

Achintyabhedavada of Chaitanya god according to Chaitanya is Krishna. He is infinite life and bliss He is full of infinite power and consciousness.

Radha is the power of Krishna, there is no difference between him and Radha. Although infinite he incarnates in form of finite mortals and is subject to love. Bhakti or devotion is only means of liberation. Chaitanya spread the message that Raag Marg or path of spontaneous love was the best for salvation.

Sufism Those saints among the Muslims who advocated a life of purity and renunciation were called Sufis. Another

view is that the word Sufi came out of the word Sooph meaning wool. Sufism sprang from the doctrine of Wahadat-ul wajud or unity of being. This doctrine was propounded by lbn-

Ul-Arabi(1165-1240AD).

One of the earliest Sufis was a woman saint Rabia of Basra who laid great emphasis on love as bond between god and individual soul

The Sufis were organized in 12 order or Sitsilas. The silsilas were generally led by a prominent mystic who lived in Khanqah along with his disciples.

The link between the teacher or Pir and his disciple or Murid was a vital part-of Sufi system. Every Pir nominated a successor or Walt to carry out work.

The Sufi orders are widely divided into two - Ba-sahara that is those who followed the Islamic law and Be-Sahara that is those, who were not bound by it. 01 the Be-sahara movement only two acquired significant influence. These were the Chisti and Suharwardi Silsilahs.

Chisti Silsila: The Chisti order was founded by Khwaja Abdal Chisti in Herat, it was brought to India by Khwaja Moin-ud-din Chisti (1141- 1236). He arrived at Lahore in 1161 AD and settled at Ajmer about 1206 AD. However, the most famous of Chisti saints were Nizamitddin Auliya and Nasiruddin Chirag-i-Delhi. Auliya was generally known as Mahbub-i-llahi (beloved of God). They made themselves popular by adopting musical recitation called Sama to create mood of nearness to god. Suhrawardi Silsila: It was founded by Shaikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi. The credit of organising it goes to Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya. Its main centre was Multan. Saints of this order had big Jagirs and had close contact with state. Firdausi Silsila: Slunk Badruddin of Samark first established it in Delhi, but later on it moved to Bihar and became the most influential mystic older. Its most distinguished saint was Shaikh Shamasuddin Yahya Munair who believed in Pantheistic monoism. Shattari Silsila: It was founded in India by Shah Abdullah Shattari. However it gained in popularity under Shaik Muhammad Ghauth of Gwalior. Among his disciple were the famous musician Tansen. The Shattari saints sought to synthesize Hindu and mystical Muslim thoughts to practice. Qadiri Silsila Shah Niamatullah Qadri was probably the first notable saint of this order to enter India but it was Syed Muhammad Jilaui who organised it on affective basis. Dara Shikoh. the eldest son of Shah Jahan was follower of this order. Naqshbandi Silsila: This Silsila was introduced in India by Khwaja Baqi Billah during the later years of Akhar’s reign. It attained a position of great importance in India under the leadership of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi. He was opposed to pantheistic philosophy wahadat-ul-wujud and propounded the theory of wahadal-ul- shudud Mahdawi Movement: It was initiated by Syed Muhammad Mahadi of Jaunpur He concentrated his energies on regeneration of people. Raushaniyah Movement: The movement owed its origin to Miyan Bayazid Ansari a native of Jalandhar. He emphasised inter organisation of religious riles and inspired his followers with the ideal of ascetic self-denial.

The Coming of the Mughals Babur (1484-1530) Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur, descended from his father’s side in the 5th generation from Timur. and through his mother in the 15th generation from Chenghiz Khan. Reasons for his Indian expedition.

TheOttomans defeated the Safavids and the Uzbeks controlled Trans oxiana forcing Babur’s imperial impulses towards India.

Meagre income of Kabul Desire to emulate Timur

Punjab was part of the Timurid province and hence was considered a legal partrimony of the Timurids Apprehension of Uzbek attacks. He was invited to attack India by Daulat Khan Lodi, Subedar of Punjab; Ibrahim Lodi’s uncle Alamkhan

Lodi and Rana Sanga. He was successful in his 5th expedition. In the Battle of Panipat 20th April 1526. he finally defeated Ibrahim

Lodhi. Babur was the first one to entitle himself as the ‘Padshah’ Battle of Panipat (1526)- Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi Battle of Khanwa (1527)- Babur defeated Rana Sanga Battle of Chanderi(1528)- Babur defeated Medini Rai He wrote “Tuzuk-i-Baburi” or Baburnama in Turkish. It was translated into Persian by Abdur Raltim Khan i- Khanan. Other works include a “Masnavi” Significance After the Kushans, he was the first to bring Kabul and Kandahar into the Indian empire, which provided stability since it was the staging post of invasions of India. This helped in promoting trade since these towns were the starting points of caravans meant for China in the east & Mediterranean in the west. He smashed Lodi and Rajput power, destroying the balance of power which paved the way for. an empire. New mode of warfare was introduced with combination of artillery and cavalry. He restored the prestige of the crown after Feroze Shah Tughlaq.

Humayun (1530-40; 1555-56) Campaigns 1530 Kalinjar : The Raja offered nominal submission. 1532 - Muhamud Lodi defeated at Daubrua. 1533 - Siege of Chunar. Slier Khan (later Slier Shah) offered nominal submission by sending son Qutb Khan to Humayun’s court. Humayun then built Dinpanah at Delhi as his second capital. Second siege of Chunar and then the march to Gaur which was slopped at Teliagarhi pass by Jalal Khan (Slier Shah’s son) in 1538. Occupied Gaui where Slier Shah had left wine, women and opium to delay Humayun who renamed it Jannatabad (paradise). Hindal meanwhile assumed the crown at Agra. 1539: Battle of Chausa Buxar. Humayun was saved by Nizam, the water carrier (Bishti). 1540 Humayun was again defeated by Sher Shah at Kanauj

He faced a formidable opponent in the Afghan, Sher Khan (Shah) who in the successive battles of Chausa and Kannauj defeated Humayun and forced him to flee India.

Humayun saw the death of Sher Shah as an opportunity to regain the throne. Humayun had conquered Qandahar and re-established his control over Kabul with the help of the Safavid King of Persia. He could now use Kabul as his base for campaigns into India.

His sister, Gulbadan Begum, wrote his biography—Humayunama. Humayun died while climbing down the stairs of his library in 1556.

Sher Shah (1540-1545) He was born to Hasan, (the Jagirdar of Kwaspur, Sahasram and Hajipur Tanda) as Farid. Ibrahim lodi transferred his father’s Jagir to him. In 1527-28-he joined Babur’s service and then returned to Bihar as deputy governor and guardian of the minor king Jalal Khan Lohani. He aided Mahmud Lodi at Ghagra. 1530-he usurps throne as Hazarat-i-Ala. He gamed Chunar by marrying the widow Lad Malika. Humayun besieged Chunar again, in 1539, he captured Chausa. He assumed the title Slier Shah as emperor, in 1540 he annexed Kanauj and then Lahore. He died in 1545 while conquering Kalinjar. Various Diwans

Wazarat-revenues and finance. Ariz-military

Rasalatmuhtasib-correspondence. Insha-dispatches. Quza-justice. Barid-intelligence. Saman-Toy a\ household.

Administration He continued the central machinery of administration which had developed during the Sultanate period. A number of villages comprised of Pargana, which was under the charge of Shiqdar, who looked after the law and order and general administration. The Munsif or Amil looked after the collection of land revenue.Above the Pargana was the Shiq or Sarkar under the charge of the shiqdar-i-shiqdaran and munsif-i-munsifan. A number of Sarkars were grouped into a province. Justice Civil cases of pargana were heard by Amin and criminal cases by a Qazi or Mir-i-Adal. He introduced the principle of local responsibility for local crimes. Muqqadams were punished for failure to find culprits. Revenue System Land was measured using the Sikandari-gaz (a unit of measure introduced by Sikandar Lodi) One third of the average was fixed as tax. The peasant was given a patta (title deed) and a qabulivat ( deed of agreement) which fixed the peasants rights and taxes Zamindars were removed and the taxes were directly collected. Customs All internal customs and duties were abolished. Only 2 duties were levied. Currency He introduced the silver rupiya Public works Parana Qila was built along with Grand Trunk Road from Sonargaon (Bengal) to Attock (NWFP). He also built 17(H) sarais (rest houses) which also served as dak chuukis.

Akbar (1556-1604) Akbar was 14 veal’s old when he was crowned at Kalanaur in 1556 but he

could consolidate his position only after the second hunk’ of Panipat (5th November 1556), fought against Mohammad Adil Sur’s Wazir— Vikramaditya (Hemu).

Between 1556-60. Akbar ruled under Bairam Khan’s regency. Akbar’s earliest campaigns were against Durgawati of Garh-Katanga (Gond & Rajput principalities)

followed by Chittor (Rana Udai Singh); Ranthambor (Rao Surjan Hada). The two powerful forts of Rajasthan—Ranthambor and Chittor (guarded by Jaimal)—were captured

by the Mughals. Akbar’s deccan campaign began with the siege of Ahmednagar {defended by Chand Bibi).

Ahmednagar soon resurrected itself under the leadership of Malik Amber. Akbar’s last campaign was against Asirgarh, resulting in the annexation of Khandesh( 1601). Akbar

conquered Kandahar in 1595. Bharmal of Amber, followed by Jaiselmer and Bikaner established marital relationships with Akbar.

Bhagwan Das (5000/at) and Man Singh (7000 zat) enjoyed a privileged position in the Mughal court. Akbar faced a rebellion in Gujarat in 1572. which was crushed and following which he built the Buland Darwaza at

Fatehpur Sikri. Organization of the Government Parganas and Sarkar continued as before. Chief officers of the Sarkar were Fauzdar and Amalguzar. the former being in charge of law and order and the later responsible for the assessment and collection of the land revenue. The empire was divided into Jagir. Khalisa and Inam. Akbar reorganized the central machinery of the administration on the basis of division of power between the various departments. Wazir- Head of the revenue department Mir Bakshi - Head of the military department Barids-Intelligence Officers Waqia navis- Reporters Mir saman- In charge of imperial household Qazi- Head of the judicial department Akbar divided the empire into 12 subas in 15X0. These were Bengal. Bihar. Allahbad. Awadh. Agra. Delhi. Lahore. Multan. Kabul. Ajmer. Malwa. & Gujarat. A Subbahdar. diwan. bakshi. sadr, qazi. and a waqia- navis were appointed each to of the provinces

Akbar's Religious Policies

He abolished Jaziya and pilgrimage tax and forcible conversion of prisoners of war.

He built an Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri to discuss religious matters. He invited many distinguished persons. To curb the dominance of Ulema. Akbar introduced a new Khutba. written by Faizi and proclaimed

Mahzarnama in 1579. which made him the final interpreter of Islamic law (Mujtahid Imam-i-Adil) in case of an)

controversies. It made him Amir ul Momin (leader of the faithful) and Amir-i-Adil (a just ruler). His liberalism is reflected again in the pronouncement of Tauhid-i-Ilahi or Din-i-llahi. which propounded

Sufi divine monotheism. Tenets of Din-i-llahi (1582)

It could be adopted on Sunday by performing paibos (The emperor placed his feel on the head of the initiated). following which Akbar gave Shat (formula)

The initiated had to express greeting in the form of Allah-o-Akbar and Jalle-Jalalhu a He had to abstain from meat and give alms. There were no scriptures and priests.

Tauhid-i-llahi had four grades of devotion in the ascending order—sacrifice of property, life, honor and religion.

Birbal. Abul Fazl and Faizi joined the order. Badauni believed that Akbar was creating a new religion but contemporarv historians believe that he was only trying to

attain the status of Insaan-i-Kamil.

Akbar's Court Todar Mai, Abul Fazl, Faizi, Birbal, Tansen, Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, Mullah do Pyaza and Man

Singh were gems of his court. Akbar established the painting Karkhana, headed by Abdus Samad. Ralph Fitch (1585) was the first Englishman to visit Akbar’s’Court. Abul Fazl wrote Akbarnama, the appendix of which was called Ain-i-Akbari. This section deals with the laws and

revenue system.

Jahangir (1605-27) His wife, Nurjahan (daughter of Itimad-daulah) exercised tremendous influence over the state

affairs. She was made the official Padshah Begum. Jahangir banned slaughter of animals on Sunday and Thursday. He established Zanjir-i-Adal at Agra Fort for the seekers of royal justice. Jahangir also married Jodha Bai of Marwar, and a Kachchwaha princes. His son Khusrau, who received patronage of Guru Arjun Dev, revolted against Jahangir. The fifth Sikh Guru

Arjun Dev was later sentenced to death for his blessings to the rebel prince. Khurram (Shahjahan) supported by his father-in-law, Asaf Khan, also revolted against Jahangir but the

two soon reconciled. His military general, Mahabat Khan revolted and abducted him but Nurjahan saved him due to her

diplomatic efforts. He was well read and wrote his memoirs Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri in Persian. On the refusal to pay the fine, Guru Arjun’s son, Hargovind was imprisoned in the fort of Gwalior. Jahangir faced a formidable opponent in Malik Amber (an Abyssinian) in his expedition to

Ahmednagar. Shahjahan’s military capacity was proved during the expeditions undertaken during Jahangir’s reign and Ahmednagar was annexed (1601).

John Hawkins resided at Agra for two years (1609-11). He was given the mansab of 400.

Sir Thomas Roe (1615-18) was ambassador of James I. Shahjahan (1628-58)

In 1612 he married Arzmand Banu Begum who became famous as Mumtaz Mahal In 1632, he defeated Potugese and annexed Ahmednager in 1636 Shahjahan’s reign is described by French traveller Bernier and Tavernier and the Italian traveller Manucci. Peter Mundi

described the famine that occured during Shah Jahan’s time. Shahjahan succeeded to the throne on the death of Jahangir in 1628. The first thing that he had to face

was revolts in Bundelkhand (Jujjhar Singh Bundela of Orchcha) and the Deccan (Khan-i-Jahan Lodi, the governor of Deccan).

He sent his armies to Balkh and Badakshan in Central Asia in order to secure the defence of north-western India. Shah Jahan who had recovered Kandahar (1638) from the Iranians but lost it again (1649) despite three campaigns under Prince Murad, Aurangzeb and Dara.

The War of succession took a notorious turn during Shahjahan’s reign and his two daughters Jahan Ara and Roshan Ara supported his two sons. Dara and Aurangzeb, respectively.

Aurangzeb (1658-1707) He defeated Dara (1659). He took the title of ‘Alamgir’ in 1659. He was called as Zinda Pir, the living saint. In 1662, Mir Jumla, Aurangzeb’s ablest general led the expedition against Ahoms. He forbade inscription of Kalma on the coins. He ended the celebration of Navroz festival. Mutasib (regulator of moral conduct) were appointed. He forbade music in the court. He ended Jarokha darshan, use of almanacs and weighing of the emperor. Aurenzeb compiled Fatwa-i-Alamgri. Jaziya was re-introduced. However, the Hindu mansabdars maintained their high proportion

during his rule. The Mughal conquests reached a climax during his reign, as Bijapur and Golconda were annexed

in 1686 and 1687, respectively. Revolts under Aurangzeb

Aurangzeb’s failure to understand the root causes and nature of the rise of Marathas, gave him a formidable opponent, Shivaji.

The first anti- imperial reaction took place in the form of Jai \ Rebellion under Gokla. Rajaram and Chinaman Satnamis.

First Afghan rebellon was by Yusufshahi tribes of Afghanistan of Roshnai sect. Second Afghan rebellion led by Ajmal Khan. During his reign, ninth Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur was executed.

Mughal State and Architecture Mughal Architecture Babar

Babar’s built two mosques one at Kabulibagh in Panipat and the other at Sambhal in Rohilkhand. Humayun

Humayun laid the foundation of the city Din Panah at Delhi. Humayun’s tomb is called the proto type of Taj Mahal. It has a double dome of marble, while the central dome

is octagonal. It was built by his widow Haji Begum. The garden and the gateway are to be found in all Mughal-style tombs.

Akbar

Building’s built by Akbar are Agra Fort (1565), Lahore Palace (1572), Fatehpur Sikri’, Buland Darwaza and Allahabad Fort (1583).

The architecture at Fatehpur Sikri is an excellent blending of Persian, Central Asian and various Indian (Bengal and Gujarat) styles . It is also known as Epic poem in red sandstone. Indian tradition includes deep eaves, balconies and Kiosks. Central Asian Style is evident in the use of glazed blue tiles.

Two unusual buildings at Fatehpur Sikri are Panch Mahal & Diwan-i-Khas The Panch Mahal has the plan of Buddhist Vihara. The Jodhabai’s Palace, Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas are Indian in their plan. Buland Darwaja (built after Gujarat victory), formed the main entrance to Fatehpur Sikri. It is built in the Iranian

style of half dome portal. Salim Chisti’s tomb (redone in Marble by Jahangir is the first Mughal building in Pure marble), palaces of

Birbal, Anup Talao, Mariyam Mahal are also inside the Fatehpur Sikri. He built the Jahangiri Mahal in Agra fort according to Hindu design based on Man Mandir. Haroon Minor—Tower built by Akbar in memory of his elephant (Haroon). He also began to build his own tomb at Sikandara which, was later completed by Jahangir.

Jahangir

The style of architecture used by both Jahangir and Shahjahan is known as Indo Persian. Important features of this style are Curved lines, Bulbous dome, foliated arches vigorous use of marble instead of red sand stone and use of pietre dura for decorative purposes.

Nurjahan built Itimad-ud-Daula’s (another name of Mirza Ghiyas Beg) marble tomb at Agra, which is noticeable for the first use of pietra dura (floral designs made up of semiprecious stones) technique.

He built Moti Masjid in Lcdwre and his own mausoleum at Shahdara (Lahore). He also changed the plan of Akbar’s tomb at Sikandara. It is an unusual tomb as it is not surmounted by a dome

and built on the model of a Buddhist Pagoda. Shahajahan

Mosque building activity reached its climax in Taj Mahal. He also built the Jama Masjid (sand stone). Some of the important building built by Shahajahan at agra are Moti Masjid (pniy mosque of marble) in Agra,

Khaas Mahal, Musamman Bun (Jasmine Palace where he spent his last years in captivity ) and Sheesh Mahal with mosaic glasses on walls and ceilings.

Many stone buildings were destroyed by him and replaced by marble. He laid the foundations of Shahjahanabad in 1637 where he built the Red Fort and Taqt-i-taus (Peacock

throne). Most richly ornamented building in Red Fort was the Diwan-i-Khas or Rang Mahal He laid the Shalimar Gardens in Lahore. Shahjahan built Nahar-i-Fuiz.

Aurangzeb

Only building built by Aurangzeb in the Red Fort is Moti Masjid. Only monument associated with Aurangzeb is Bibi ka Makbara which is the tomb of his wife Rabbia-ud-daura

in Aurangabad. He also built the Badshahi mosque in Lahore.

Mughal Painting The Mughals introduced new themes depicting the conn, battle scenes and the chase and added new

colours (Peacock blue and Indian red). Humayun had taken into his service two master painters Mir Syed Ali and Abdus Samad. Jaswant and Dasawan were two famous painters of Akbar’s court. Apart from illustrating Persian books of fables (Hamzanama), the painters illustrated

Razamnama (Mahabharta) and Akbaranama. Jahangir claims that he could distinguish (he work of each artist in a picture. Under Akbar, European painting was introduced at the court by the Portuguese priests.

Regional Architecture

Jaunpur Tughlaq influence on the Sharqi architecture is seen in the use of arch and beam, and battering walls. Propylons (huge recessed arch framed by tapering square minars divided into registers) have been used in

Atala Masjid (Ibrahim Shah) and Jami Masjid (Hussain Shah). Malwa

It is notable for the excellent combination of arch and lintel, construction of stairs of flight, the use of coloured tiles and lofty plinth for the buildings.

Malwa boasts of Hussain Shah’s tomb, Jami Masjid. Jahaz Mandal, Hindola Mahal and the palaces of Baa: Bahadur and Rupmati.

In Chanderi, Shahzadi Ka Rauza, Kushak Mahal and the Badal Mahal are located. Bengal

Adina Masjid built by Sikandar Shah and the Eklakhi tomb of Mahmud Shah were constructed. Some other monuments are Dakhil Darwaza, Tantipura Masjid, the Bara Sona Masjid etc.

Kashmir Wood was the principle building material and the roofs are pyramidal. Kashmir has two buildings of prominence: Mir Sajjid Ali Hamadani’s Mosque and Jami Masjid of

Sikandar Shah. Gujarat

Notable monuments are Jami Masjid of Ahmedabad, Nagina Masjid of Champaner and the cities of Mahmudabad and Mustafabad founded by Mohammed Beghara.

Sur Architecture Sur Architecture forms the climax of Pre Mughal style of Architecture. Surs buit tombs at Sasaram which were octagonal but most outstanding was Shei Shah’s Mausoleum built on a

huge plinth. amidst a lake and is multi storeyed. He also built the Parana Qila whose surviving monuments are Qila-i-Kuhna Masjid and the Sher Mandal

library.

Mughal State and Administration Provincial Administration

Mughal empire was divided into subas which was further subdivided into sarkar. parganas and villages. However, it also had other territorial units as ‘Khalisa’, (royal land), Jagirs (autonomous rajas) and Inams (gifted lands, mainly

waste lands). There were 15 territorial units (subas) during Akbar’s reign, which later increased it) 20 under

Aurangzeb’s reign. Province (Suba)

Sipahsalar—The Head Executive(under Akbar and later he was known Nizam or Subedar) Diwan—Incharge of revenue department Bakshi—Incharge of military dept.

District/Sarakar Fauzdar—Administrative head Amal/Amalguzar—Revenue collection Kotwal—Maintenance of law and order, trial of criminal cases and price regulation.

Pargana Shiqdar—Administrative head combined in himself the duties of ‘fauzdar and kotwal’ Amin, Qanungo—Revenue officials

Village Muqaddam—Headman Patwari—Accountant Chowkidar—Watchman

Mansabdari System 1. Mansabdari system which was introduced in 1595-96, was a combined status, showing a noble’s civil and

mil ita ry capacity. 2. Twin ranks— Zat and Sawar, were allotted. The former indicated a noble’s personal status, while the latter, the

number of troops he had to maintain. 3. Mansabdari had three scale gradation, viz

Mansabdar (500 zat and below) Amir (between 500-2500 zat) Amir-i-Umda (2500 zat and above)

4. The salary of the Mansabdar was fixed on a Month Scale system. During Jahangir’s reign, a du aspa siha aspa system was introduced through which, a nobles’ sawar rank could he increased without affecting his zat.

5. Mansab was not an hereditary system. Mansabdars were paid through revenue assignments (jagirs).

State and Economy Apart from land revenue (charged 1/3 to ½) the state being a military state, also depended upon benefits of

conquest. However, much of its revenue was wasted in ostentation and wars The revenue was collected by state machinery in alliance with local Zamindars who got their due share. There were several methods of revenue collection in practice viz. Kankut (estimate). Rai (yield per unit

area) and ‘zabt’ (based on the yields of crops).. Zabti: A standardized method of collection based on rates of crops determined

alter 10 years assessment Todar Mai pioneered it. It required annual measurement of land and where it was not possible Nasaq was prevalent.

Another method, muqtai’ was prevalent in Bengal. GhallaBaqshi: Assesment by the division of crops (in Thatta, Kabul and Kashmir). Jagirdari system was the assignment of land in proportion to a jagirdar’s salary. Hence. Every

Mansabdar was entitled to a jagir if he was not paid in cash. A jagir could be transfered and the jagirdar had no police powers over the land

Madad-i-maash or Suyur ghal/inam were land grants to people of favour/religious assignment.

Zamindars were hereditary claimants in every category of land revenue assignment. They collected revenue on behalf of the state and received assistance callednankarorMalikana

.

Later Mughals Bahadur Shah I (1707-1712)

Aurangzeb died in 1707. A war of succession started amongst his three surviving sons viz. Muazzam-the governor of Kabul, Azam-the governor of Gujarat and Kam Baksh-The governor of Bijapur. Muazzam defeated

Mughal Administration Wazir Akbar abolished the post of all-powerful Wazir. He became the head of the revenue department Also known as Diwan-i-ala. Diwan Responsible for all income and expenditure and had control over Khalisa and jagir land. Mir Bakshi Headed military department, nobility, information and intelligence agencies. Mir Soman Incharge of Imperial household and Karkhanas. Diwan-i-Bayutat Maintained roads, government buildings etc. and worked under Mir Saman. Diwan-i-Bayutat Maintained roads, government buildings etc. and worked under Mir Saman. Sadr us Sadr Incharge of charitable and religious endowments Qazi id Quzat Headed the Judiciary department Muhtasib Censor of Public Morals.

Azam and Kam Baksh and ascended the Mughal throne with the title of Bahadur .Shah. He pursued pacifist policy and was therefore also called Shah Bekhaber.

P He also assumed the title of Shah Alam I. P He made peace with Guru Gobind Singh and Chatrasal. He granted Sardeshmukhi to Marathas and also released Shahu. P He forced Ajit Singh to submit but later in 1709. recognised him as the Rana Marwar. P He defeated Banda Bahadur at Longarh and reoccupied Sirhird in 1711

Jahandar Shah (1712-13) ascended the throne with the aid of Zulfikhar Khan. His nephew, Farrukh Siyar, defeated him. He abolished Jiziya .

Farrukh Siyar (1713-1719) ascended the throne with the help of Sayyid brothers. Abdullah Khan and Hussain Khan who were Wazir and Mir Bakshi respectively Farrukh Siyar was killed by the Sayyid brothers in 1719. Banda Bahadur was captured at Gurudaspur and executed. Mohammad Shah (1719-48). During his reign Nadir Shah raided India and took away the peacock throne and the Kohinoor diamond.

He was a pleasure loving king and was nick named Rangeela. Nizam ul mulk was appointed Wazir in 1722 but he relinquished the post and marched to the Deccan to found the state

of Hyderabad. Bengal acquired virtual independence during the governorship of Murshid Quli Khan. Saddat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk who was appointed governor of Awadh by him laid down the foundation of the

autonomous state. Ahmed Shah’s (1748-1754) During his reign, Ahmed Shah Abdali(one of the ablest generals of Nadir Shah) marched towards Delhi And the Mughals ceded Punjab and Multan. Alamgir(l754-l759) During his reign Ahmed Shah Abdali occupied Delhi. Later, Delhi was also plundered by the Marathas. Shah Alam II (1759-1806) During his reign Najib Khan Rohilla became very powerful in Delhi so much so that Shah Alam II could not enter Delhi. The Battle of Buxar (1764) was fought during his reign. Akbar Shah II (1806-37), During his reign Lord Hastings ceased to accept the sovereignty of Mughals and claimed an equal status. BahadurShah II (1837-1862), The last Mughal king , who was confined by the British to the Red Fort. During the revolt of 1857 he was proclaimed the Emperor by the rebellions. He was deported to Rangoon following the 1857 rebellion.

Vijaynagar Empire and the Bahamani Kingdoms

Vijaynagar (c. 1350 - 1564)

Vijaynagar Kingdom and the city was founded by Harihar-l and Bukka-1 (sons of Sangama) who were feudatories of Kakatiyas and later became ministers in the court of Kampili.

Harihar and Bukka were brought to the centre by Mohammed bin Tughlaq, converted to Islam and were sent to south again to control rebellion but on the instance of Vidyaranya, they established Vijaynagar Kingdom in 1336 AD.

Vijaynagar’s arch rival were Bahmani Sultans with whom they fought over Tungabhadra doab(between Krishna & Tungabhadra). Krishna-Godavari delta (Raichur) and Marathwada.

Vijaynagar-Bahamani contest was started by Bukka I in 1367 when he attacked the Bahmani

fortress at Mudkal. Il was a war state its resources being devoted to military purposes. Vijayanagar Dynasties Dynasty Founder Period Sangama Harihar and Bukka 1336-1485 Saluva Saluva Narsimha 1485-1505 Tuvalu Veer Narsimha 1503-1570 Aravidu Tirumala 1570- mid 17th c

Famous Travellers to Vijayanagar Kingdom Abu Abdullah/Ibn Batuta: A Moroccan traveller. Left account of Harihara I’s reign in his book Rehla also called Tuhfat-un-Nuzzar ft Gharaib-ul-Amsar Wa Ajaib-ul-Assar. Nicolo de Conti: A Italian traveller who visited during the time of Deva Raya I. Left an account in Travels of Nicolo Conti. Abdur Razzak: Ambassador of Shah Rukh of Samarqand at the Court of the Zamorin of Calicut, He gives an account of the reign of Devaraya 11. in his Matla us Sadain Wa Majma id Bahrain. Athanasius Nikitin: A Russian merchant who described the conditions of the Bahamani kingdom under Muhammad 111 in his Voyage to India. Ludvico de Vorthema: An Italian merchant who visited India in 1502-1508 and left his memoirs in Travels in Egypt, India. Syria etc. Duarte Barbosa (1500-1516): A Portugese He has given a vivid account of the Vijayanagar government under

Krishna Deva Raya in his famous book - An Account of Countries bordering the Indian Ocean and their Inhabitants Dominigas Paes: Portugese who spent a number of years at Krishna Deva’s court has given a glowing account of his personality. Fernao Nuniz: A Portugese writer of 16th century spent three years in Vijayanagar. (1535-37).

Vijayanagar Coins

The Vijayanagar rulers issued gold coins called Varahas or Pagodas. (Varaha because the most common symbol was the Varaha-the boar incarnation of Vishnu). These help us know that they were Vishnu worshippers. Impressions found on Vijayanagar coins include the bull, elephant and various Hindu deities and the Gandahherunda (a double headed eagle holding an elephant in its beaks and claws). On the reverse they contain the kings name in Nagari or Kannada script. Harihara 1 and Bukka I employed the Hanuman symbol, while Krishnadeva Raya had Venkatesh and Balkrishna, Achutya Raya used Garuda, while Tirumala maintained the original Varaha. Deva Raya II is described as Gajabentakara. The Varaha was the main coin, of gold with slight copper content. The Perm was half a varaha. The Fanani was one tenth a Perta. All were of gold mixed with alloy, with the Fanam as the most useful. Tar was a silver coin which was a sixth of the Fanam. The Jital was a copper coin worth a third of the Tar.

Vijaynagar Local Government The country was divided into kuttams; a kutiam into nodus; a nadu into ■dimhadin melagram’, below this came the agaram. A province in Karnataka was divided into venthes; a venthe into simes; a simi into sthalas: and a sthala into valitas. The Auagar system was an important feature of the village organistion. Body of twelve functionaries, known as “ayagars”, conducted every village affair. They were granted tax free lands “manyoms”, which they were to enjoy in perpetuity. In addition to land tax there were various other taxes such as properly lax, tax on sale of produce (rate varied according to the type of soil, crop, method of irrigation etc), profession taxes, military contribution, taxes on marriage etc.

Vijaynagar Architecture The Vijayanagara rulers produced a new style of architecture called as Provida style. The large number and prominence of pillars and piers are some of the distinct features. Horse was the most common animal on the pillars. Another important feature was the Mandapa or open pavittion with a raised platform, meant For seating deities. Important temples were Vithatswami and Hazara temples at Hampi, Tadapatri and Parvati temples at Chidambaram and Varadrajcf and Ekambarnatha temples at Kanchipuram. The Vijaynagar rulers started the practice of inscribing the stories of the Ramavana and the Mahabharata on the walls of the various temples. Hazara temple and Vithalswami temples are examples of this / type of wall inscription.

Bahmani Kingdoms Kingdom Year Founder Dynasty Annexation Beirr 1484 Fataullah Imad Shah [mad Shahi 1574 (Ahmednagar) Bijapur 1489 Yusuf Adil Khan Adil Shahi !686(Aurangzeb) Ahmadnagar 1490 Malik Ahmad Nizam Shahi l633(Shahjahah) Golkonda 1512/1581 Quli Shah Qutab Shahi l687(Aurangzeb) Bedar 1526-27 Amir Ali Band Band Shahi 16IS(Bijapur)

Vijaynagar Trade Accounts of foreigners like Nuni:, & Paes indicate a dependence on foreign trade for maintenance of the two most important bases contributing to the might of military strength iW the Vijayanagara empire; its cavalry and its firearms. Thus the success of the Vijayanagara state depended directly upon its contacts with Mus lim & Portuguese traders. The trade in warhorses remained securely in the hands of foreigners. The Vijayanagara emperors monopolized the trade so thai they could assign the best cavalry to warriors. Artillery and musket became important parts of Vijayanagara war machine.

Vijaynagar Society Only empire in Medieval India which employed women in the state services. Women even went to battles.Only state that promoted widow remarriage. Status of women improved during this time. Important Terms: Viprulu: Brahmins (teachers and preisls) Rajutu: Kshatriya Natavajativaru: Shudras Vipravinoilins: Artisans Kaikollas: Weavers Tottiyans or Kambalattars: Shephards Sahaguman: Sati Besabaga: Forced labour under begara.

Bahmani Kingdom Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah (1347-58): He also known as Hasan Gangu and whose original name was Ismail Mukh, founded the Bahmani kingdom with us capital at Gulbarga (First capital). There were a total of fourteen Bahmani Sultans. Taj-ud-din Firoz Shah (1397-1422): The Greatest among them all. He was determined to make Deccan the cultural centre of India. Inducted large number of Hindus in the administration on large scale. Paid much attention to the pons of his Kingdom Chaul & Dabhol which attracted trade ships from Persian Gulf & Red Sea. Ahmad Shah Wali (1422-35): transferred the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar

Mahmud Gawan He was the Prime Minister or the Peshwa of Muhammad Shall III between 1463-81. The Bahmani kingdom saw a resurgence under his guidance. His military conquests included Konkan. Goa and the Krishna-Godavari delta. He divided the kingdom into eight tarafs , each governed by a tarafdar. In every province . Khalisa (tract of land) was set apart for the expenses of the Sultan .

The discontented nobles, particularly the Deccan’(also called Habshis) nobles who resented the rise of’Afaqis’ (also called gharibs) or new arrivals from West Asia organised a conspiracy against Gawan (an Afaqi) and had him executed in 1482. After Gawan’s execution, the Bahmani kingdom began to decline and disintegrate.

Break up of the Bahmani Kingdom Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagur (1490-1633): Founder of city of Ahmednagar and the Kingdom was Ahmad Nizam Shah. Later conquered and annexed by Shah Jahan (1633). Adil Shahis of Bijapur (1490-1686): Founded by Yusuf Adil Shah. Greatest ruler was Ibrahim Adil Shah. Introduced Dakhini in place of Persian as court language. Gol Gumbaz, was built by Muhammad Adil Shah. It is also famous for the so-called ‘Wispering Gallery’. Bijapur was later conquered and annexed by Aurangzeb (1687). Imad Shahis of Berar (1490-1574): Founded by Fatullah Khan lmad-ul-mulk with Daulatabad as capital. Later it was conquered and annexed by one of the Nizam Shahi rulers of Ahmadnagur. Qutub Shahis of Golconda (1518-1687): Founded by Quli Qutub Shah (1518-43) who built the famous Golconda fort and made it his capital. Another Qutub Shahi ruler, Muhammad Quli Qutub Shah, was the greatest of all. and it was he who founded the city of Hyderabad (originally known as Bhagyanagar after the name of the Sultan’s favourite, Bhagyamati) and he also built the famous Charminar. Most important port of QutubShahi Kingdom was Masulipatnam. The kingdom was later annexed by Aurangzeb (1687). Barid Shahis of Bidar (1528-1619): Founded by Ali Barid. It was later annexed by the Adil Shahis of Bijapur.

The Advent of the Europeans Portuguese

Discovery of the New Sea Route The Cape route, was discovered from Europe to India by Vasco da Gama. He reached the port of Calicut on the May 17. 1498, and was received by the Hindu ruler of Calicut (known by the title of Zamorin). This led to the establishment of trading stations at Calicut, Cochin and Cannanore. Cochin was the early capital of the Portuguese in India. Utter Goa replaced it. Alfonso d' Albuquerque arrived in India in 1503 as the governor of the Portuguese in India in 1509 (The first governor being Francisco de Almeida between 1505-09). He captured Goa from the ruler of Bijapur in 1510.

Other Governors Nino da Cunha (1529-38)— transferred his capital from Cochin to Goa (1530) and acquired Diu and Bassein (1534) from Bahadur Shah of Gujarat

Martin Alfonso de Souza (1542-45) —the famous Jesuit saint Franrisco Xavier arrive in India with him

Dutch Formation of the Company in March. 1602, by a charter of the Dutch parliament the Dutch East India Company was formed with powers to make wars, conclude treaties, acquire territories and build for tresses. Establishment of Factories The Dutch set up factories at Masulipatam (1605). Pulicat (1610)-. Surat (1616), Bimilipatam( 1641), K.arikal( 1645), Chinsura (1653). Kasimbuzar.Baranagore, Patna. Balasore. Negapatam(all in 1658) and Cochin (1663). The Dutch replaced the the Portuguese as the most dominant power in European trade with the East, including India. Pulicat was their main centre in India till 1690, after which Negapatam replaced it. The Dutch conceded to English after their defeat in the battle of Bedera in 1759.

English Before the East India Company established trade in the India. John Mildenhall a merchant adventurer, was the first Englishman who arrived in India in 1599 by the over land route, ostensibly for the purpose of trade with Indian merchants. Formation of the Company Popularly known as the ‘English East India Company’. it was formed by a group of merchants known as the “Merchant Adventures’ in 1599. Decision to open a factory at Surat Following the decision of the East India Company to open a factory at Surat (1608). Captain Hawkins arrived at Jahangir’s court (1609) to seek permission. A farman was issued by Jahangir permitting the English to build a factory at Surat (1613). Sir Thomas Roe came to India as ambassador of James I to Jahangir’s court in 1615 to obtain the permission to trade and erect factories in different parts of the empire.

Danish The Danes formed an East India Company and arrived in India in 1616. They established settlements at Tranquebar (in Tamil Nadu) in 1620 and at Serampore (Bengal) in 1676. Serampore was their headquarters in India. They were forced to sell all their settlements in India to the British in 1854

French The French East India Company was formed by Colbert understate patronage in 1664. The first French factory was established at Surat by Francois Caron in I66H. A factory at Masulipatam was set up in 1669. The French power in India was revived tinder Lenoir and Dumas (governors) between 1720 and 1742. They occupied Mahe in the Malabar. Yanam in Coromandal and Karikal in Tamil Nadu (1739). The arrival of Dupleix as French governor in India in 1742 saw the beginning of Anglo- French conflict (Carnatic wars) re- sulting in their final defeat in India

Establishment of Factories The East India Company acquired Bombay from Charles II on lease. Gerald Aungier was its first governor from 1669 to 1677. The first factory was built at Surat in (160S). Later, Surat was replaced by Bombay as the headquarters of the Company on the west coast in 1687. In 1639 Francis Day obtained the site of Madras from the Raja of Chandragiri with permission to build a fortified factory, which was named Fort St. George. Madras soon replaced Masulipatam as the headquarters of the English on the Coromandal coast In 1690 Job Charnock established a factory at Sutanuti and the zamindari of the three villages of Sutanuti, Kalikata and Govindpur was acquired by the British (1698). These villages later grew into the city of Calcutta. The factory at Sutanuti was fortified in 1696 and this new fortified settlement was named fort William’ in 1700. In 1694. the British Parliament passed a resolution giving equal rights to all Englishmen to trade in the East. A new rival company, known as the ‘English Company of Merchants Trading to the East Indies’ (1698) was formed The final amalgamation of the company came in I 708 under the title of’The United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies’. This new company continued its existence till 1858.

The Maratha Age Shivaji (1627-80)

Born at Shivneri to Shahji Bhonsle and Jija Bai. he inherited the Jagir o( Poona from his lather ill 1637. After the death of his guardian. Dadaji Kondadev, in 1647, he assumed full charge of his jagir. Before that, at the age of 18. he conquered Torna .built forts at Raigarh & Pratapgarh (1645-47). Afzal Khan was deputed by the Adil Shah ruler to punish Shivaji, but the later murdered Afzal in 1659. Later Shaista Khan, governor of Deccan, was deputed by Aurangazeb to put down the rising power of Shivaji in 1660. Shivaji lost Poona and suffered several defeats till he made a bold attack on Shaista’s military camp and plundered Surat (1664) and later Ahmadnagar. Raja Jai Singh of Amber was then appointed by Aurangazeb to put down Shivaji (1665) and Jai Singh succeeded

in besieging Shivaji in the fort of Purandhar. Consequently the treaty of Purandhar (1665) was signed according to which Shivaji ceded some forts to the Mughals and pay a visit to the Mughal court at Agra In 1674 he was coronated at Raigarh and assumed the title of ‘Haindava Dharmodharak’ (Protector of Hinduism). Shivaji died in 1680.

Shivaji’s Administration Shivaji divided his territory under his rule (swaraj) into three provinces. each under a viceroy .

Provinces were divided into prams which were subdivided into parganas or tarafs .The lowest unit was village headed by Headman or Patel.

Shivaji was helped by the ashtapradhan (eight ministers) which was un-like a council of ministers, for there was no collective responsibility; each minister was directly responsible to Shivaji.

Most of the administrative reforms of Shivaji were based on Malik Ambar’s (Ahmadnagar) reforms.

Shivaji’s Revenue Administration Assessment of land revenue was based on measurement. The kathi of Ambar was adopted as the unit of’ measurement. Share of the state was fixed at two-fifths of the gross produce Chauth was one-fourth of the land revenue paid to the Marathas so as not be subjected to Maratha raids. Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10 per cent on those lands of Maharashtra over which the Marathas claimed hereditary rights, but which formed part of the Mughal Empire.

Successors of Shivaji Sambhaji (1680-89): Sambhaji, the elder son, defeated Rajaram, the younger son of Shivaji, in the war of succession. He provided protection and support to Akbar, the rebellious son of Aurangzeb. He was captured at Sangamesvar by a Mughal noble and executed. Rajaram (1689-1700): He succeeded the throne with the help of the ministers at Raigarh. He fled from Raigarh to Jinji in 1689 due to a Mughal invasion in which Raigarh was captured along with Sambhaji’s wife and son (Shahu) by the Mughals. Rajaram died at Satara, which had become the capital alter the fall of Jinji to Mughals in 1698. Rajaram’s created the new post of pratinidhi, thus taking the total number of ministers to nine. Sivaji II and Tarabai (1700-1707): Rajaram was succeeded by his minor son Sivaji II under the guardianship of his mother Tarabai. Shahu (1707-1749): Shahu was released by the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah. Tarabai’s army was defeated by Shahu at the battle of Khed (1700) and Shahu occupied Satara. But the southern part of the Maratha kingdom with its capital at Kolhapur continued to be under the control of the descendants of Rajaram (Shivaji II and later Sambhaji II). Shahu’s reign saw the rise of Peshwas and transformation of the Maratha kingdom into an empire based on the principle of confederacy.

Shivaji's Ashtapradhan They included:

Peshwa—Also called “Mukhya Pradhan” Finance and general administration; later he became Prime Minister and assumed great importance.

Sar-i-Naubat—Senapati or military commander: this was only an honorary post with no real military powers.

Majumdar or Ainatya—Accountant general during the rule of the Peshwas; he later became revenue and finance minister.

Waqenavis— Intel l igence , posts and household affairs. Surunavis or Sachiv—Also called chitnis, looked after correspondence. Dabir or Suriiania— Master of ceremonies. Nyayadhish— Justice. Pandit Rao— Charities and religious affairs.

The Peshwas (1713-1818) Balaji Viswanath (1713-20): He began his career as a small revenue official and was given the title of “Sena Karte” (marker of the army) by Shahu in 1708. He became Peshwa in 1713 and made the post the most important and powerful as well as hereditary. He played a crucial role the final victory of Shahu by winning over almost all the Maratha sardars to the side of Shahu. lie concluded an agreement with the Say y id brothers (1719) by which the Mughal emperor (Farukh Siyar) recognised Shahu as the king of the swarajya.’

Baji Rao 1 (1720-40): Baji Rao. the eldest son of Balaji Viswanath. succeeded him as Peshwa at the young age of 20. I le was considered the greatest exponent of guerrilla tactics alter Shivaji and Maratha power reached its zenith under him.

Under him several Maratha families became prominent and got themselves entrenched in different parts of India—(a) the Gaekwad at Baroda. lb) the Bhonsles at Nagpur, © the Holkars at Indore, (d.) the Scindias at Gwalior and (e) the Peshwas at Poona.

After defeating and expelling the Siddhis of Janjira from the mainland (1722). he conquered Bassein and Salsetle from the Portuguese ( 1733). lie also defeated the Nizam ul-Mulk near Bhopal and concluded the treaty of Durai Sarai by which he got Malwa and Bundelkhand from the latter (1737). lie led innumerable successful expeditions into north India to weaken the Mughal empire and to make the Marathas the supreme power in India. lie said: “let us strike at the trunk of the withering tree and the branches will fall of themselves.”

Balaji Baji Rao (1740-61): Popularly known as Nana Saheb, he succeeded his lather at the age of 20. After the death of Shahu (I 749). the management of all state affairs was left in his hands. In an agreement with the Mughal’ emperor (Ahmad Shah), the Peshwa (1752) was to protect the Mughal Empire from internal and external (Ahmad Shah Abdali) enemies in return for the chauth. The battle of Panipat (January 14. 1761 ) resulted in the defeat of the Marathas by Ahmad Shah Abdali and the death of Viswas Rao (son of Nana Saheb). Nana Saheb died in 1761. Madhav Rao (1761-72). Narayana Rao (1772-73). Sawai Madhav Rao (I 77.3-95). and Baji Rao (1795-1 81 8) succeeded him

Ascendanof the British Anglo Mysore Wars

First War (1766-69) Haider Ali defeated the British. Treaty of Madras signed Second War (1780-84). Warren Hastings attacked French port Mahe. which was in Hyder Ali’s

territory. Hyder Ali led a joint front with Nizam and Marathas and captured Arcot.

In 1781. Hyder Ali was defeated at Porto Novo by Eyre Coot. Treaty of Mangalore (1784) was signed by Tipu Sultan. Third War (1789-92). Marathas and Nizam aided the British. Cornwallis captured Bangalore.

By Treaty of Seringapatnam, Tipu ceded half of his territories. Fourth War (1799). ford Wellesley attacked and Tipu died.

Anglo Sikh Wars Began after the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839. First War (1845-46). Sikhs were defeated in all the four battles at Mudki. Feroz Shah, Aliwal and

Sobraon. Treaty of Lahore ended the War. Sir Henry Lawerence became the first resident. Second War (1948-49/. Dalhausie annexed Punjab. Sir John Lawerence became the first Chief

Commissioner of the Punjab.

The East India Company and the Bengal Nawabs Siraj ud Daula (1756-57)

He seiged the English factory at Kasimbazar. On 20th June 1756, Fort William surrendered hut Robert Clive recovered Calcutta.

On 2nd January 1757, Treaty of Alinagar was signed, whereby Siraj conceded practically all the demands. British then captured Chandernagore. the French settlement, on March

1757. Battle of Plassey was fought on 23 June 1757. Owing to the conspiracy. the Nawab was

defeated. The following betrayed the Nawab: Mir ./afar—Mir Bakshi Manikchand—Officer in charge of Calcutta Aminchand—Rich Sikh merchant Jagat Seth—Biggest banker of Bengal. Khadim Khan —Commanded a large number of Nawab’s Troops

Mir Jafar (1757-60) The Company was granted undisputed right to free trade in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. It received

the Zamindari of 24 Parganas. Mir Jafar, however, fell into arrears and was forced to abdicate in favour of his son-in-law Mir Qasim.

Mir Qasim (1760-64) Mir Qasim ceded Burdwan, Midnapore and Chittagong. He shifted his capital to

from Mursidabad to Monghyr.

Mir Qasim soon revoked as he was angry with the British for misusing the dastaks (free duty passes). However, having been defeated by the British, he fled to Awadh, where he formed a confederacy with Shuja-ud-daulah and Shah. Alain.

Battle of Buxar (1764) Shuja-ud-daulah. Shah Alam and Mir Qasim were defeated by Munro.

Mir Jafar (1763) was again placed on the throne. Nizam-ud-Daulah(l 765- 72)

On Mir Jafar’s death, his son Nizam-ud-daulah was placed on the throne and signed a treaty on 20th February. 1765 by which the Nawab was in disband most of his army and to administer Bengal through a Deputy Subahdar nominated by the company.

Clive concluded two separate treaties of Allahabad with Shuja ud daula and Shah Alam II. Dual system of government started in Bengal. The company acquired both Diwani and

Nizamat lights from Najm-ud- Daula (1765-66). the new nawab of Bengal. But the company did not take over direct administration and revenue collection. Warren Hastings ended the Dual system of government in 1772.

Anglo-Carnatic (Arcot) Wars

Anglo-Burmese Wars Aims

To control forest resources. To increase exports To check French influence. First War (1824-26). British forces drove the Burmese out of Assam, Cachar, Manipur

and Arakan. Peace Treaty of Yandobo signed. Second War (1852). British an-nexed Pegu but faced a popular guerrilla warfare. British now controlled whole of Burma’s coastline. Third War (I8S5). The British annexed upper Burma

Anglo-Afghan Wars

An instance of Anglo French Rivalry. • First (1746-48). The French besieged Madras. At St. Thome battle the Nawab of Carnatic's army was defeated by French under Dupliex • Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle (1748) ended the War of Austrian Succession. • Second War (17-49-54). Dupleix aligned with Muzaffar Jung (Hyderabad) and Chanda Sahib (Carnatic). • Alter initial victories. Robert Clive emerged victorious. • Third War {1758-63) French, Count de Lally captured Fort St. David'.

An instancxe of Angle French Rivarly. First (1746-48). The French besieged Madras. At st. Thome battle the Nawab of Carnatic’s army was defeated by French under Dupliex Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle (1748) ended the War of Austrian Succession. Second War (1749-54). Dupleix aligned with Muzaffar Jung

(Hyderabad) and Chanda Sahib (carnatic) After initial victories. Robert Clive emerged victorious. Third War (1758-63) French, Count de Lally captured ‘Fort St. David’. French were defeated at Wandiwash (1760). Pondichery was returned to French by the Treaty of Paris.

First War (1839-42). Arose because the British (Lord Auckland) wanted 10 replace Dost Muhammad with a puppet ruler. Shah Shuja.

The British laced a popular revolt but were able to re-occupy Kabul. However, they had to restore the throne to Dost Muhammad.

Second War (1878-80). Afghan ruler. Slier Ali. was defeated by Lord Lytton and his son signed the Treaty of Gandamak. A British resident was kept in Kabul. Alter he was killed. British adopted the principle of non-interference (Lord Ripon).

Anglo-Maratha Wars First War (1775-82). Favouring the cause of Raghunath Rao for Peshwaship, English

(Hastings) came in conflict with the Marathas. On being defeated, the British had to sign the humiliating Convention of Wadgaon.

British later signed Treaty of Salbai, renouncing the cause of Raghoba. Second War (1803-06). The Marathas Peshwa signed the Subsidiary Alliance Treaty of

Bassein (1802). The Maratha confederacy, which did not like the idea challenged the British power but were

defeated by the British. Third War (1817-1888). Lord Hastings’ was determined to proclaim British paramountacy in

India. Hastings moves against Pindaris transgressed the sovereignty of the Maratha chief and the war began.

The Marathas were decisively defeated.

HISTORY AT A GLANCE

Major Dynasties and rulers c. AD 650-1206 Major States, Dynasties and rule rs c. BC 550-c. AD 560 Century

6-4 BC Magadhan Ascendancy (North India)

543-491 Bimbisara 44 1-461 Ajatshatru 362-334 Mahapadma Nanda 4-2 BC Mauryan Empire (Areas south of Karnataka) 321-297 Chandraupta Maurya 297-272 Bindusara

272/268-232 Ashoka 2-1 BC Shungas (Ganges valley and part of central India) I SO-165 Demetrius II 155-130 Menander (Milinda) I BC-AD3 Satavahanas (North Deccan) 120 Gautanmiputra Satakarni I BC-AD 3 Shakas (West India) I BC-AD 3 Kushanas ( Northern India and Central Asia) 78-248 Kanishka AD 4-AD 6 Guptas (North India) 319/20-335 Chandragupta I 335-376 Samadragupta 376-415 Chandragupta II 415-454 Kumara Gupta I 454-467 Skanda Gupta AD4-AD9 Pallavas (Tamil Nadu) AD 5-AD 6 Hunas (Northwest India and Central Asia) AD 7 Harsha (North India) 606-747 Harshavardhana Major dynasties and rulers c. AD 650-1206 300-888 Pallavas (Tamil Nadu) 630-668 Narasimhavaraman Mahamalla 730-796 Nandivarman II 556-757 Chalukyas of Vatapi (West and Central Deccan) 610-643 Pulakeshin II

7th to 10th e Pandyas of Madurai (Tamil Nadu) 668-8 15 Veruguna I 815-862 Shrimara Shrivallabha 862-867 Varaguna II 630-970 Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi (Andhra Pradesh) 750-1 142 Rashtrakutras (West and Central Deccan) 780-793 Dhruva 793-833 Govinda III 814-876 Amoghavarsha 878-914 Krishna II 914-972 Indra III 939-986 Krishna III 773-1019 Pratiharas (West India and Upper Ganges >

773-793 - Vatsaraja 793-833 Nagabhata I 836-885 Bhoja 908-942 Mahipala 850-1276 Cholas of Thanjavur (Tamil Nadu) 984-1014 Rajarajal 1014-1044 Rajendra 1070-1 I 18 Kulottunga I 916-1203 Chandellas (Bundelkhand) 850-1 195 Kalachuris of Tripuri (Madhya Pradesh) 973-1 192 Chalukyas of Kalyani (West and Central Deccan) 992-1008 Satyashraya 1043-1068 Someeshvara I 1076-1 126 Vikramaditya VI 11 81-1 189 Someshvara IV 974-1238 Chaulukyas (Gujarat) 974-1060 Paramaras (Malwa) 1090-1 193 Gahadavalas (Kanauj) 10-1327 Hoysalas of Dvarasamudra (South Deccan) 18-1 199 Senas (Bengal) 90-1294 Yadavas of Devagiri (North Deccan) 197-1323 Kakatiyas of Warangal (Andhra Pradesh)

Rulers of India 1526-1707 Mughals Emperors 1526-1707 (Empire 1508-1553 Burhan 1 ends 1858) 1553-1565 Husain 1526-1530 Zahir ud Din Babur 1565-1588 Murtaza 1530-1540 Nasir ud Din Humayun 1588-1589 Miran Husain (first reign) 1580-1590 Ismail 1540-1555 Suri Sultans of Delhi 1590-1594 Burhan II 1540-45 SherShah 1594 Ibrahim 1545-54 IslamShah 1594-1595 Ahmad II 1554-55 Muhammad Shah Adil 1595 Bahadur 1555-1556 Nasir ud Din Humayun Baridi Shahs of Bidar 1526-1609 (second reign) (Sultanate begins 1492) 1556-1605 Jalal ud Din Akbar I 1504-1549 Amir I 1605-1627 Nur ud Din Jahangir 1549-1562 Ali 1627-1628 Dawar Baksh 1562-1569 Ibrahim 1628-1657 Shihab ud Din Shah Jahan I 1569-1572 Qasimll 1657 Murad Baksh (in gujarat) 1572-1609 Mirza Ali 1657-1660 Shah Shuja(in Bengal) 1609 Amir II 1658-1707 Aurangzeb Alamgirl Adilshahis of Bijapur 1526-1686 Imadshahis of Berar 1526-1572 (Sultanate (Sultanate begins 1489)

begins 1484) 151 1-1534 Ismail 1504-1529 Ala ud Din 1534-1535 Mallu 1529-1560 Burhan 1535-1557 Ibrahim 1

1568-1572 Tufal (usurper) 1557-1580 Alii Nizamshahis of Ahmadnagar 1526-1595 1580-1627 Ibrahim 11 (Sultanate begins 1490) 1627-1660 Muhammad 1660-1686 Ali 11 Qutubshahis of Golconda 1526-1687 (Sultanate begins 1512)

1512-1543 Sultan Quli 1543-1550 Jamshid 1550 SubhanQuli ‘1550-1581 Ibrahim 1581-1612 MuhammadQuli 1612-1626 Muhammad 1026-1672 Abdullah 1672-1687 Abul Hasan Faruqi Sultans of Khandesh 1526-1601 (Sultanate begins 1370) 1520-1537 Miran Muhammad I 1537 Ahmad Shah 1537-1566 Mubarak Shah II 1566-1576 Miran Muhammad II 1576-1577 Hasan Shah 1577-1597 RajaAli Khan or Adil Shah IV 1597-1601 Bahadur Shah Chhatrapati Bhonsles to 1707 1674-1680 Shivajil 1680-1689 Sambhajj 1689-1700 Rajaram 1700-1707 Tara Bai

Rulers of India 1707-1858 Mughal Emperors 1707-1858 1756-1757 SirajudDaula (Empire ends 1858) 1757-1760 Mir Jafar 1707 A/am Shah 1760-1763 Mir Qasim 1707 Kam Bakhsh(in the Deccan) 1763-1765 Mir Jafar 1707-1712 Shah Alaml 1765-1766 Najmud Daula 1712 ■ AzimushShah 1766-1770 Saif ud Daula 1712-1713 Muizz ud Din Jahandar Nawabs of Avadh 1724-1856 1713-1719 Farrukhsiyar 1724-1739 Saadat Khan 1719 Shams ud Din Rafi ud Darajat 1739-1754 Safdar Jang 1719 Nikusiyar 1754-1775 Shuja ud Daula 1719-1748 Nasir ud Dm Muhammad 1775-1797 Asaf ud Daula 1748-1754 Ahmad Shah Bahadur 1797-1798 Vazir Ali 1754-1760 Aziz ud Din Muhammad 1798-1814 Saadat Ali 1748-1754 Ahmad Shah Bahadur 1814-1827 Ghazi ud Din Haidar

1754-1760 Aziz ud Din Alamgir II 1827-1837 Nasir ud Din Haidar 1760 Shah Jahan 111 1837-1842 Ali Shah 1760-1788 Shah Alam II (first reign) 1842-1847 Amjad Ali Shah 1788 Bidar Bakht 1847-1856 Vajid Ah Shah 1788-1806 Shah Alam II (second reign) Nawabs of Arcot 1707-1858 1806-1837 Muin ud Din Akbar II 1703-1710 DaudShah 1837-1858 Sirajud Din Bahadur Shah II 1710-1732 Muhammad Sayyid Nawabs of Bengal 1703-1770 Saadatullah Khan I 1703-1727 Murshid Quli Jafar Khan 1732-1740 Dost Ali Khan 1727-1739 ShujaudDin 1740-1742 Safdar Ali Khan J739-I740 Sarfaraz Khan 1744-1749 Anvar ud Dm Muhammad 1740-1756 Alivardi Khan 1749-1795 Vain Jan Muhammad Ali

1795-1801 Umdat ul Umara 1801-1819 Azimud Daula IS 19-1867 Azam Jah Nizams of Hyderbad 1724-1858 (Rule ends 1948) 1724-1748 Mir Qamar ud Din, Nizarm ul Mulk Asaf Jah 1748-1750 Mir Muhammad Nasir Jang 1750-1751 Muzaffar Jang 1751-1762 Mir Asaf ud Daula Salabat Jang 1762-1802 Nizam Ali ,Mir Akbar Ali KhanSikandarJah 1819-1857 Nasir ud Daula 1857-1869 Afzal ud Daula The lineage of Haidar Ali of Mysore

1761-1799 1761-1782 Haidar All 1782-1799 Tipu Sultan Maratha Peshwas 1714-1818 1714-1720 Balaji Vishwanath 1720-1740 Baji Rao I 1740-1761 Balaji Baji Rao 1761-1772 Madhava Rao Ballal 1772-1773 NarayanRao 1-773-1774 RaghunathRao 1774-1796 Madhava Rao Narayan 1796-1818 Baji Rao II

HISTORY AT A GLANCE

Important Battles In Indian History B.C. 327 Alexander the Great defeated Porus in the Battle of Hydaspes 261: Ashoka captured Kalinga alter a body battle near Bhubaneswar 180: Menandcr, a Greek king invaded north-western India and became the Indo-Greek ruler till 160 B.C.

Medieval India A.D.

712: Invasion of Sind under the command of Mohammed- bin-Qasim 1191: Fust Battle of Taratn in which Prithviraj Chauhan defeated Muhammad Ghori 1192: Second Battle of Tarain in which Muhammad Kannauj was defeated by Muhammad Ghori 1194: ‘ Battle of Chandawar in which Jaichand of kannauj was defeated buy Muhammad Ghori 1526:- First Battle of Panipat. Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by Babur 1527: Battle of Khanua. Rana Sanga was defeated by Babur 1529: Battle of Ghaghar. The Afghans were defeated by Babur 1539: Battle of Chausa. Humayun was defeated by Sher Shah Suri 1540: Battle of Kanauj or Bilgram. Humayun was defeated by Sher Shah Suri, who now became the ruler of Delhi . 1556: Second Battle of Panipat. Hemu was defeated by Akbar 1565: Battle of Talikota or Banihati. Vijayanagar empire was defeated by the combined forces of live Muslim states. 1576: Bailie of Haldighali. Rana Pratap was defeated by Akbar 1601: Battle of Asirgarh. Miran Bahadur Shah was defeated by Akbar 1615: A treaty of peace was signed between Emperor Jahangirand Rana Amar Singh of Mewar 1649: Kandahar was lost to Persia for ever by the Mughals 1658: Battle of Dharmat and Samugarh. Dara Shikoh is defeated by Aurangzeb 1665: Shivaji defeated by Raja Jai Singh and the Ticaty of Purandhar is signed

Modern India 1707: Baltic of Khed. Tara Bai defeated by Shahu

1739: Battle of Karnal. The Mughal army defeated by Nadir Shah 1740: Battle of Gharia. Fought between Sarfaraz. Khan, Nawab of Bengal, and Alivardi Khan was killed.

1746-48: First Carnatic War. Fought between French and British

forces. Madras was captured by French but returned to the English by he Treaty of Aix-la-Chappalle. It is famous for the battle of St. Thome, in which a small French army defeated the Nawab’s large force.

1749-54: Second Carnatic War. Initially the French under Duplcix had some successes but at last the English

got a hold 1758-63: Third Carnatic War. French captured Fori St. David in 1758, but suffered badly at Wandiwash (1760) 1557: Battle of Plassey. The Englhish forces under Robert Clive’defeatcd the army of Siraj-ud-daula 1761: Third battle of Panipat. Marathas were defeated by Ahmad shah Abdali 1746: Battle of Buxar. The English under Mttnrodefeated Mir Qasim. the Nawab of Bengal. Shuja-ud-daiila. Nawab of Avadh, and Shah Alam II. the Mughal emperor 1767-69: First Anglo-Mysore War. Contested between Haider Ali and the British 1770: Battle of Udgir. The Nizam was defeated by the Marathas 1775: Battle of Sindkhcd between the Marathas and the Nizam. The Nizam was forced to surrender some territories 1752-82: First Anglo-Maralha War. The British army was defeated. The humiliating convention of Wadgoan (1779) was concluded. Peace was at last restored by the Treaty of Salbai (1782) 1780-84: Second Anglo-Mysore War. Haider Ali died in the battle (1782) and the field was taken by his son Tipti sultan. The war was concluded by the Treaty of Mangalore (1784) 1789-92. Third Anglo-Mysore War. Tipu Sultan was defeated (1792). The war came to a close with the Treaty of Seringapatam 1799: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War. Tipu died fighting 1803-06: Second Anglo-Maratha war. The Marathas were defeated by the British 1814-16: Nepalcse War. Between the English and the Gurkhas The war came to an end with the Treaty of Sagauli 1817-19: Third Anglo-Maralha war. The Marathas were badly defeated by the British 1824-26: First Anglo-Burmese War. The British defeated the Burmese. Peace was restored by the Treaty of Yandahhoo

1839-42: First Anglo-Afghan War. The Afghan ruler Dost Muhammad was defeated by the English 1845-46: First Anglo-Sikh War. The Sikhs were defeated by the English. The war was ended by the Treaty of Lahore 1848-49: Second Anglo-Sikh War. Sikhs were defeated and Punjab was annexed by the British 1852: Second Anglo-Burmese War. The English were successful IS65: Third Anglo-Burmese War. The English annexed Burma 1878-80: Second Anglo-Afghan war. The English suffered losses 1919-21: Third Anglo-Afghan War. The English though victorious did noi benefit from the war.

Important Foreign Travellers/Envoys Megasthenes (302-298 B.C.): An ambassador of Seleucus Nieator. who visited the court of

Chandragupta Maurya. He wrote an interesting book India in which he gave a vivid account of Chandragupta Maurya’s reign.

Fa-Hsien (405-411 A.I).): He came to India during the reign of Chandragupta II Vikiamaditya. The object of his visit was to see the holy places of Buddhism and to collect Buddhist hooks and relics. He was the first Chinese pilgrim to visit India.

Hiuen-Tsang (also spelt Yuan Chwang) (630-645 A.D): He usiied India during the reign of Harsha.

1-tsing (671-695 A.D): A Chinese traveller, he visited India in connection with Buddhism. His work Biographies of eminent Monks, provides us useful information about the social, religious and cultural life of the people of this country.

Al-Masudi (957 A.D): An Arab traveller, he has given an extensive account of India in his work Murujul Zahab

Al-beruni (1024-1030 A.D.): His real name was Abu Rehan Mahamud and he came to India along with Mahmud of Ghazni during one of his India raids. He travelled all over India and wrote a book Tahqiq-l-Hind. The book dealt with the social, religious and political conditions in India.

Marco Polo (1292-1294 A.D.): A Venetian traveller, he visited South India in 1294 A.D. His work The Book of Sir Marco Polo givers an invaluable account of the economic history of India.

Ibn Butula (1333-1347 A.D.): A Morrish traveller, he visited India during the reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. His book Rehla (the Travelogue) throws a lot of light on the reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq and the geographical, economic and social sonditions in India.

Shihabuddin al-Umari (1348 A.D): He came from Damascus. He gives a vivid account of India in his book, Masalik albsar fi-mamalik al-amsar.

Nicolo Conti (1420-1421 A.D.): A Venetian traveller, he gives a comprehensive account of the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar.

Abdur Razzaq (1443-1444 A. D.): He was a Persian traveller who came to India and stayed at the court of the Zamorin at Calicut. He has given a vivid account of the Vijayanagar empire, especially of the city.

He describes the wealth and luxurious life of the king and the nobles. Athanasius Nikitin (1470-1474 A.D): lie was a Russian merchant, who visited south India in 1470. he

describes (he condition of the Bahmani kingdom under Muhammad III (1463-82). Duarte Barbosa (1500-1516 A.D.): He was a Portuguese traveller. He has given a valuable narrative of the

government and the people of the Vijayanagar empire. Domingos Paes 11520-1522 A.D): He was a Portuguese traveller who visited the court of Krishnadeve Raya of the

Vijayanagar Empire. Fernao Nuniz (1534-1537 A.D): A Portuguese merchant who visited the Vijayanagar empire. He wrote the

history of the empire from its earliest dines lo (he closing years of Achyutdeve Raya’s reign. John Hnghen Von Linschbotten (1583 A.D): he was a Dutch traveler, who has given a valuable account of the

social and economic life of South India. William Hawkins (1608-1611 A.D.): He was an English ambassador of the British King James lo die court of

Jahangir (1609). Sir Thomas Roe (1615-1619 A.D.): He was an ambassador of James I, King of England, at (he court of

Jahangir, the Mughal emperor. Franciso Palsaert (1620-1627 A.D.): He was a Dutch traveller who stayed at Agra and gave a vivid account of the

flourishing trade at Sural. Ahmedabad, Broach. Cambay, Lahore. Multan, etc. John Albert de Mandesto (1638 A.D.): He was a German traveller, who reached Surat in 1638. Peter Mundy (1630-34 A.D): He was an Italian traveller (o (he Mughal empire m the reign of Shah Jahan. He gives

valuable information about the living standard of the common people in (he Mughal Empire. Jean Baptiste Tavernier (1638-1663 A.D.): He was a French traveller who visited India six limes. His account covers the

reign of Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb. Nicolae Manucci (1656-1708 A.D.): He was an Italian traveller, who got service at (he court of Data Shikoh. Francois Bernier (1656-1717 A.D.): He was a French physician and philosopher. Danishamand khan, a noble of

Aurangzeb, was his patron. Jean de Thevenot (1666 A.D.): He was French traveller. Who has given a good account of cities like Ahmedabad.

Cambay, Aurangabad and Golconda. John Fryer (1672-1681 A.D.): He was an English traveller who has given a vivid account of Surat and Bombay.

Gemelli Careri (1695 A.D.): He was an Italian traveler who landed at Daman. His remarks on the Mughal emperor’s military organization and administration are important.

HISTORY AT A GLANCE

Classical Writers in Indian Languages Author Work(s) Abdul Hamir Lathori ............................. Padshahnama Al-beruni ........................................... Kitab-i-Rahla AH Muhammad Khan .......................... Mirat-i-Muluk Amar Simha (Chandragupta II) ........................Amarkosa Amir Khusrau ......................................Tarikh-i-Alai Arybhatta ......................................... Surya Sidhanta Asvaghosha .................................... Bhuddha Charita Ayapa Senani ................................ Nrutyaratnakaram Babur ........................................... Tuzuk-i-Baburi Banabuatta (Harshavardham) Kadambari, Harshacharita Barani ....................................... Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi Bharavi (Simhavishun)........................ Kiratharjuneeyam Bhavabhuti........ : ..................... Uttararamacharita Bilhana ................................Vikramanakadeva Charita Chand Bardoi Prithvaraj Raso Charaka .........................................Charaka samhita Dandin (Narasimhavaraman) ........... Dasa Kumara Charita Firdausi .................................................. Shahnama Gona Buddha Reddy......................Ranganadharamayanam Gulbadan Begum................................ Humayun-nama Hala .................................................. Suptasotka Harshavardhana .......... Priyadarsika. Ratnavali. Nagananda Hulakki Bhaskara ............................ Bhaskararamayananm Ibn Batuta................................ Tughlaqnama. Safarnama (Muhammed-bin-Tughlaq) llango Adign\ ..................................... Silappadikaram Jayadeva ........................................... Gita Govinda Jayasi ................................................... Padmavat Kathana ............................................Rahantarangini

Kalidasa (Chandragupta II)........................ Ritusamhara. Raghuvamsa, Kumarasamhhava. Meghaduta,

Malavikagnimitra.Vikramorvashi. Sakuntalam Kautilya Arthasastra Author Work(s) Kumaragiri Reddy ........................... Vasanta Rajeeyam Malikarjuna Pandita ................................ Sivatatvasara Manjhan ........................................... Madhumalati Minhaj-ns-Siraj.............................Tabaqat-i-Firuzahahi Mirza Muhammad Kasim ........................ Alamgir-nama Muhammad Manzil ............................ Miral-i-Sikandri Nagachandra.....................................jainaramayanam Nandi Timmana .............................. Parijatapaharanam Palkurki Somanata ................................ Basavapuranam Panini................................................ Ashtadhyayi Patanjali................................................ Mahabhasya Pillalamarri Pina Veerabhadra ..................... Jaimini Bharatam Pingalisurana ..................................Kalapoornodayam Prataparudra ............................................. Neetisara Rajashekhara (Mahipal).. Vidha Salabhanjika, Bala Bharata.

Kavyamimansa. Bala Ramayana

Ravi Kirti (Pulakesin II)............................. Aihole Prasasti Saki Mustaid Khan ........................... Maasir-i-Alamgiri Shirazi ......................................... Tazkirat-i-Muluk Sri krishnadeva Raya .... Madalasa Charitra. Amuktamalyada Srinatha Haravilasam. Kasi Khandam ... Palnativeeracharitra. Sringara Naishadam Sudraka .......................................... Mrichchakatika Surdas................... SurSagar. SinSarawali. Sahitya Ratna Tenali Rama Krishna ................... Panduranga Mahatyain Tirnvalluvar.................................................. Kural Tulsidas .......................................... Ramacharitmans Varamihira ....................................... Brihat Sidhanta Vatsyayana ............................................ Kamasutra Vijnaneswara......................................... Mitakshara Visakhadatta .....................................Mudrarakshasa Vishnu Sharma ......................... SambhavaPanchatantra Yahya-bin-Ahmed ........... Tarikh-i-Mubarakshahi Sarhindi

Mughal Literature Author Name of the Work Remarks Gulbadan Begam Humayun Namah About Humayun’s reign Abul Fazl Ain-I-Akbari About Akbar’s reign Abul Fazl Akbar Namah About Akbar’s reign

Badauni Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh About Akbar’s reign Mulla Daud Tawarikh-I-Alfi About Akbar’s reign Nizam-ud-din Ahmad Tabaqat-I-Akbari About Akbar’s reign Jahangir Tuzuk-I-Jahangiri Autobiography Mutamad Khan lqbal Namah Aoout Jahangir’s reign Abdul Haqq Nuriyya-I-Sultaniyya Theory of kingship Abdul Hamid Lahori Padshah Namah About Shah Jahan’s reign Muhammad Waris Padshah Namah About Shah Jahan’s reign Inayat Khan Shah Jahan Namah About Shah Jahan’s reign Muhammad Salih Shah Jahan Namah About Shah Jahan’s reign Dara Shikoh Safinat-ul-Auliya Biographies of Sufi saints Dara Shikoh Sakinat-ul-Auliya Upanishads Translation Dara Shikoh Hasanat-ul-Arifin His religious and Dara Shikoh Majma-ul-Bahrain philosophical ideas Aurangzeb Raqqat-I-Alamgiri A collection of his letters Khafi Khan Muntakhab-ul-Lub about Aurangzeb’s reign

Rulers of the Vijayanagar Empire

1339-1526 {Effective rule ends IM5) 1336-1354 Harihara I 1354-1377 Bukka I 1377-1404 Harihara II 1404-1400 Bukka I 1406-1422 Devaraya II 1447-1465 Mallikarjuna 1465-1485 Virupaksa 1485-1486 Praudhadevaraya 1486-1402 Saluva Narasimha 1492-1503 Immadi Narasimha 1503-1509 Vira Narasimha 1509-1530 Krishnadevaraya