Index

ab initio methods, 183, 305, 306, 457,759, 763, 765–773

GW approximation, 762

local density approximation, 766,769–770

self-consistency, 770–771

Abbe criterion, 619

acoustic phonon, 33

ADP, 741

adsorbate, 42

periodic growth, 42–53

AFM, see atomic force microscope

Airy disk, 714

aliasing, 535

alkanethiol, 372, 373

alloy, 55, 109, 334

copper–nickel, 539

FePd, 588, 591, 616

FePt, 588, 616

ferromagnetic, 510

for STM tip, 71

GeSbTe, 583

IV–IV, 409

L10, 616

magnetic, 260

magnetic anisotropy, 517

phase-change, 594, 595, 609

SiGe, 409

surface, 51

tellurium, 595

aluminium, 342

cluster, 214, 215

film, 340

interconnects, 399

aluminium oxide matrix, 335

AM-AFM, 101

amphiphile, 369, 375, 472, 490, 491

hydrophobic tail, 369

polar head, 369

self-assembly, 370, 371

annealing, 59, 60, 63, 248, 375, 388, 485

annihilation operator, 338

anti-bonding state, 190, 270

antibody/antigen recognition, 669, 687,688

antiferromagnetic interaction, 507, 532,536, 537, 588–590, 617

antiferromagnetism, 508, 509, 608

of bulk chromium, 539

aperture SNOM, 133–136

apertureless SNOM, 131–133

argon, 12

cluster, 189

Arrhenius law, 243, 547, 587

artificial atom, 641

artificial muscle, 368

aspect ratio, 160, 161

atomic chain, 342

atomic force microscope, 90–118, 123,133, 136, 173, 594

amplitude modulated, 101

applications, 115–118

approach–retract curve, 104

as nanoindenter, 112

atomic resolution, 107

cantilever, 91–93

802 Index

contact mode, 94, 98–101diamond tip, 112electromagnetic measurement,

109–111finite size effects, 96for biology, 742force curve, 98–100, 107, 108, 112,

113force measurement, 107–109frequency modulated, 101friction mode, 94, 100–101imaging modes, 92–95in lithography, 20linear resonant mode, 102–103manipulation, 115phase image, 105resolution, 95–98resonant mode, 95, 101–107setup, 91–92shear-force mode, 132tapping mode, 95, 103–107, 132tip, 96, 97, 317tip apex, 105tip–sample interaction, 102, 104topography, 105, 106

ATP, 727hydrolysis, 741

Auger effect, 639autocorrelation function, 716avalanche photodiode, 709Aviram–Ratner model, 472

back-gate configuration, 479ballistic regime, 336, 419band

diagram, 81, 483, 657gap, 200, 261, 270, 409, 640, 762structure, 207, 758, 762, 765

Bardeen approximation, 73BCS mechanism, 216beam spreading, 31, 32benzene, 469, 709

absorption spectrum, 771dithiol, 470

binary coding, 782biological medium, 669, 670, 698, 724,

735–737biological vector, 262, 370biology, 670

biomimetic material, 691biomolecule, 448, 686, 688–691, 697

single, 737–743biophotochip, 669biophotonics, 682, 683, 686, 698–707biosensor, 165, 624–626, 669biotin, 687, 691blinking, 698, 715, 743Bloch

function, 293, 637, 647mode laser, 654theorem, 292wall, 521, 523, 524

block copolymer, 105Bohm–Aharonov effect, 437–439Bohr–Sommerfeld theory, 429Boltzmann

distribution, 755transport, 417

bond cutoff model, 183, 184bonded film, 59, 60bonding state, 190, 270Boolean logic, 782, 783Born–Oppenheimer approximation,

678, 772boron nitride, 301

nanotube, 301–303bottom-up approach, 41, 241, 326,

332–335, 349, 674, 688Bragg mirror, 79, 647–648break junction, 336, 339, 340, 342, 451,

469–471, 475Brillouin zone, 648, 762

first, 183, 294, 647graphene, 295K point, 655

Brownian motion, 727, 729Bruggeman model, 264buckminsterfullerene, 281buffer cell, 442, 443Burger circuit, 44buried dislocation, 59

C60 molecule, 87, 115, 189, 191, 192,261, 280, 282, 285–288, 313, 475,477

chemical properties, 287–288cycloaddition reactions, 289cyclopropanation, 288

Index 803

electrochemical properties, 287five-level model, 285, 286ISA, 286nonlinear absorption, 285photophysical properties, 285–287solubility, 285structure, 283transport properties, 454–456

Camley–Barnas model, 565–567capillary electrophoresis, 165, 168capillary moulding, 328carbon nanotube, 110, 111, 115,

279–318, 449, 795, 796applications, 313–318armchair, 290, 291, 295–297, 753as probe, 316assembly, 492atomic structure, 280, 319chemical properties, 313chemistry, 317chiral, 290, 291, 298–300, 311, 753chiral angle, 291, 309, 315chiral vector, 291components, 479–489conductance, 312crystal structure, 289–291deposition, 494–496discovery, 281–282, 450doped, 313ductility, 755electron emission, 316electronic structure, 295–300, 319Fermi level, 313filled, 313functionalisation, 317, 318growth, 305–307, 493hardness, 755helicity, see carbon nanotube, chiral

angleinterconnects, 314, 785large scale production, 304, 305, 315matrix memory, 613mechanical properties, 312metallic, 297–299, 312, 487–489MWNT, 301, 303, 305, 308, 312, 316,

317, 753network, 497observation, 308–311properties, 311–313

roll-up vector, 291rope network, 496self-assembly, 300, 305, 315semiconducting, 298–300, 314, 479,

494, 785SET, 486–489sorting, 494stressed, 755, 756switch, 497SWNT, 301, 303–306, 309, 310, 479,

753synthesis, 302–305technology, 785transistors, 785zigzag, 290, 291, 297–298, 753

carborane, 364carotenoids, 469CARS, 714, 736, 737catenane, 355, 366, 476, 478

doubly-interlocked, 356catenate, 354, 356

trefoil knot, 355, 356cavity mode, 627CD, 583, 584, 634CD-R, 583CD-RW, 583, 595cell engineering, 165cellular automata, 498, 789–791, 797,

798game of Life, 789

centrosymmetry breaking, 701, 704,705, 735

charge transfer interaction, 354, 365,367

chemical vapour deposition, 54, 55, 304,306, 315, 493

cholesterol oxidase, 720, 721chromatic aberration, 32chromium, 539

film, 14chromophore, 674, 720chymotrypsin, 725, 727circuit speed, 383citrate, 247, 248, 253, 276, 689

as stabiliser, 251clathrate compound, 191Clausius–Mossotti polarisability, 153closing defect, 189cluster, 49, 57, 179–277, 750

804 Index

absorption cross-section, 229, 233,235

absorption spectrum, 231, 238, 264,771

aluminium, 214, 215

array, 262–263

assemblies, 252–266

beam, 254–256

bimetallic, 261

cage, 261

chemical reactivity, 750

circular, 191

coalescence, 258–259, 754

cobalt, 250

collective excitations, 225–241

core–shell, 240, 248, 261, 696

covalent, 200, 261, 270–271

covalent binding, 190–191

cubic, 249

cubo-octahedral, 182

deposition, 254–256

diffusion, 257–259

divalent metal, 199

dynamic polarisability, 228, 773

dynamics, 755

electron shell structure, 207–217,221–225

electron supershell structure, 217–225

energy levels, 204

equilibrium shape, 180–193

extinction spectrum, 265

facetted, 249

finite-size effects, 206–241

fluctuations, 200–205, 215

functionalised, 251, 254, 262

gallium, 220, 221, 223

gold, 193, 195, 238–240, 251, 253,254, 256–258, 262, 263, 276

heat capacity, 205

in matrix, 750

ionic binding, 192–193

ionisation potential, 196–197

island, 256–259, 262

Lennard-Jones binding, 259

lithium, 231

magic, 211, 212, 220, 221, 232, 273

magnesium, 203

magnetic, 260–261, 531

mass spectrum, 210, 212–215, 220,223

melting temperature, 193–196,200–202, 215

memory effect, 230, 258metallic, 184, 196–200, 209, 213, 216,

225, 227, 232, 234, 264metallic binding, 184–189metastable, 248molybdenum, 255monovalent, 198multilayer, 248noble metal, 237, 238nucleation, 241–246optical properties, 225–241palladium, 453paramagnetic susceptibility, 202–205parity, 203photoionisation spectrum, 214potassium, 231preparation, 241–251radius, 193–200silicon, 261silver, 205, 238–240, 249, 265silver sulfide, 250size, 258, 269sodium, 209, 212, 215, 219–221, 233,

234soft ionisation, 214spherical, 191, 248stabilisation, 251static polarisability, 228, 230, 231,

234, 236transition metal, 199, 261, 766van der Waals binding, 189, 259

CMOS, 383, 385–391, 497inverter, 386–388, 390–391logic, 390technology, 783, 796transistor, 12

cobalt, 56, 261, 510, 515–517, 561, 586,588

as stabiliser, 305cluster, 182, 183, 250, 547dots, 57, 58, 163film, 526islands, 56, 531nanoparticle, 373, 547nanostructure, 58

Index 805

ultrathin film, 526, 540coercive field, 588, 591, 608, 615coherence length, 193, 418, 433, 434,

437coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering,

see CARScohesive energy, 180–181, 184, 186, 267colloid, 179–277

assemblies, 252–266metal, 246–251

colloidal suspension, 371complexation, 354

axial, 357, 358computer architecture, 776–798

2-bit adder, 782, 783binary code, 794bistable circuit, 783defect tolerance, 794–798FPGA, 788interconnects, 780, 782–783memory, 779–781NAND operator, 783, 794new ideas, 786–794NOT operator, 783, 794operator, 780, 782–783parallel processing, 789, 793processing unit, 779, 780, 785reconfigurable, 788–789, 797register, 780, 781von Neumann, 779, 780, 785, 795, 797

conductance, 335, 418, 431, 434drain, 385, 390–393Drude, 432electron gas, 432nanotube transistor channel, 485of carbon nanotube, 312of molecule, 374of nanowire, 335–343quantisation, 336, 432SET, 487single-molecule, 452, 453, 457, 469,

470universal fluctuations, 435–436

conducting multilayer, 532confinement model, 271confocal microscopy, 676, 691, 706, 709,

711–715conformation, 681

dynamics, 719, 724–726

coordination number, 56, 57, 183, 184,186, 187, 257, 269

copper, 45, 237, 529, 538, 539Fermi surface, 537, 538interconnects, 399surface, 56, 57, 86, 331

copper–oxygen stripes, 47core–shell cluster, 240, 248, 261, 696Coulomb

blockade, 342, 420–425, 427, 428, 454,464, 486, 487, 489, 612, 642

oscillations, 421–422, 428regime, 458, 465–469stairs, 454

CQED, 644, 646creation operator, 338cross-linking agent, 688, 689, 691crown ether, 707cryotron, 440crystal

bcc, 516cubic, 516defect, 543fcc, 516growth, 334ionic, 621lattice, 508, 515, 517, 518, 529, 535,

576, 637, 646structure, 751surface, 42–47

cube, 184, 185cubo-octahedron, 183, 185, 266Curie

susceptibility, 205temperature, 508, 617

cyclodextrin, 363, 364cyclophane, 363cytidine, 359cytosine, 359

dangling bond, 4, 190, 191, 200, 271silicon, 87

data processing, 777, 778data storage, 417, 443, 503, 583–618

antiferromagnetically coupling media,588–590

bit, 548, 587, 591, 595–596discrete media, 592–593error rate, 547–548, 599

806 Index

GMR read head, 585–586grain boundary, 587, 589heat-assisted recording, 591local probe techniques, 584, 593–595longitudinal medium, 585magnetic grain, 586, 587, 592nanoscale bit, 585perpendicularly magnetised media,

590–591phase-change material, 595, 609retention time, 584, 597, 600, 603,

616, 780switching time, 587word, 595–596write time, 618

DDA model, 257de Broglie

relation, 761, 762wavelength, 418, 420

decision-making cell, 442, 443decoherence, 576defect, 656–661

as cavity, 657–660as wave guide, 660–661

delocalised electronic structure, 78demagnetising field, 512–515, 543, 576,

589, 591, 615dendrimer, 349–353, 364, 720

convergent synthesis, 352–353divergent synthesis, 350–352monodispersed, 352

dendron, 352, 353density functional theory, 208, 472, 474,

767–769time-dependent, 771

density of states, 218, 219, 424, 474,511, 538, 557, 560, 561

of single QD, 640semiclassical theory, 221–225

depolarisation factor, 622developer, 6, 8dextran, 108DFT, see density functional theorydiamond, 191, 280–281

AFM tip, 112film, 112, 113structure, 190

diblock copolymer, 371, 374, 375diffraction, 627

by two slits, 141grating, 121, 624, 626, 628, 629limit, 19, 20, 24, 137–142

diffusion, 433, 726–731diffusive regime, 336dimerisation, 343diode

current rectifying, 471laser, 659light-emitting, 639, 659, 674molecular, 449, 471–474NDR, 472

dipole approximation, 226, 228dipole radiation, 143–144, 147–155

near an object, 149–150near nanoparticle, 152–155near plane mirror, 151–152

dislocation, 639, 640network, 45

distributed feedback laser, 631, 654DLVO model, 108DNA, 105, 165, 168, 172, 251, 353, 449,

453, 687, 688, 690, 695, 720, 738computer, 798tile, 498transcription, 740, 742

dodecahedron, 185, 188dodecanethiol, 250DRAM, 584, 596, 604–605, 611, 781

1T-capacitorless, 609–610bit line, 604retention time, 604storage capacity, 605word line, 604

Drudeconductance, 432metal, 621transport theory, 429

Drude–Sommerfeld model, 228, 232,233

dry etching, 11–13DVD, 583, 584, 595, 609dye, 370, 695, 727, 736, 737dysprosium silicide nanowire, 334

Eccles–Jordan flip-flop circuit, 783EELS, 308EEPROM, 596, 601, 611

flash, 601, 602

Index 807

EFISH, 701elastic energy, 52, 53elastic stress engineering, 58elastomer, 112

viscoelastic phase, 113electric force microscopy, 110electrodeposition, 158, 162, 453electroluminescent diode, 375electrolytic growth transfer, 15–18electron

back-scattered, 31, 32, 34coherence length, 418, 433, 434, 437coherent transport, 456confinement, 79, 532–540, 761delocalisation, 269, 283delocalised, 207, 209, 256, 264effective mass, 760elastically bound, 147energy levels, 209Fermi energy, 418gas, 761heat capacity, 205incoherent transport, 342indistinguishability, 507magnetic moment, 506magnetic susceptibility, 203mean free path, 418, 419, 554, 563,

567, 569mobility, 386, 409, 410numerical simulations, 757–773phase coherence length, 336quantum theory, 757–759spillout, 234–237, 240, 264spin, 203, 506spin diffusion length, 554, 563, 567,

569spin-dependent transport, 557,

559–568transport, 336, 429, 450, 454–470,

511, 773, 795wave function, 69, 72–74, 417–419,

428, 434, 533, 637, 758, 761, 772,773

wavelength, 28weak localisation, 432–434

electron beam lithography, seelithography, electron beam

electron microcolumn array, 29electron microscope, 30

electron–electron interaction, 341, 343,759, 771

electron–hole interaction, 270electron–ion interaction, 223, 225, 237,

759, 769, 771electron–magnon interaction, 560, 562electron–matter interaction, 31electron–phonon interaction, 80, 341,

343, 766Encyclopedia Universalis, 87endoreceptor, 365entangled photons, 628, 644enzyme, 690, 720, 726

detector, 489epitaxy, 15, 17, 257, 332, 591, 636, 639,

640coherent, 50condition, 257, 259incoherent, 50liquid phase, 55molecular beam, 53, 60vapour phase, 55

EPROM, 596, 601ergodic theorem, 436, 685etch mask, see lithography, maskEuler angles, 676, 677, 685Euler theorem, 191, 282evanescent wave, 122, 124–127, 137,

139, 142–143, 623, 624, 631, 651,667, 711

exchangeinteraction, 507, 514, 520–522, 540,

552, 559length, 521–523, 540

excimer laser, 25, 168, 406excitation transfer, 724–726exciton, 270, 677, 695, 766exoreceptor, 365exposure time, see lithography, dose

Fabry–Perot device, 532, 657factory roof structure, 555Faraday law, 17fcc lattice, 45, 46, 183, 187, 190FeRAM, 596, 606–607

bit line, 607Fermi

distribution, 337, 535gas, 758

808 Index

golden rule, 150, 151, 422–424, 467,681, 683

level, 72, 74, 83, 197, 198, 202, 211,219, 237, 299, 300, 421, 458, 485,534, 557, 560, 610, 611

surface, 535–537, 539wavelength, 234, 240, 264, 336, 418,

419, 430, 433Fermi–Dirac distribution, 202, 273, 423,

565, 635fermion, 207, 273ferrimagnetism, 509ferrofluid, 371ferromagnetic

film, 523, 526interaction, 507, 532, 536, 537metals, 510–511, 517, 536, 542, 559semiconductor, 559

ferromagnetism, 508, 509, 514itinerant, 530

Fick law, 728finite-size effects, 206–241FISH, 694, 697flavin adenine dinucleotide, 720flocculation, 250, 688fluctuations in nanosystems, 200–205fluorescein isothiocyanate, 709fluorescence, 123, 253, 669, 697, 700

as biological marker, 691–695intensity, 682lifetime, 710, 725microscopy, 711multiphoton, 681one-photon, 681, 682, 711quantum yield, 693, 705, 706, 708,

725single-molecule, 137two-photon, 682, 732–734

fluorescence correlation spectroscopy,716–718

fluorescent proteingreen, 673, 720red, 673

fluoroionophore, 700fluorophore, 251, 709, 720, 730, 734fluxon, see magnetic flux quantumFM-AFM, 101force feedback nanomanipulator, 117four-wave mixing, 705

Fowler–Nordheim effect, 602FPGA, 788fractal, 253fractional charge transfer, 457FRAM, 584Franck–Condon approximation, 678Frank–van der Merwe growth, 49Fraunhofer diffraction, 20, 24free-electron model, 341Fresnel diffraction, 20FRET, 678, 724, 725, 727friction, 114friction force microscopy, 94fuel cell, 317fullerene, 261, 279–318, 370

C60, see C60 moleculeC70, 283discovery, 281doped, 752, 769isomers, 282, 283production, 284smallest, 282stability, 283structure, 282–284stuffed, 191

GaAs, 79, 80, 261, 638, 639, 652, 659band gap, 82cavity, 641components, 408mesa, 37nanowire, 334photonic crystal, 164substrate, 58, 59, 640wire, 434–436

gallium cluster, 220, 221, 223GaN, 640gas sensor, 489Gaussian

beam, 34, 35probe, 30

Ge quantum dots, 60gene, 353genetic engineering, 370geometrical optics, 24giant atom, 213giant magnetoresistance, see magne-

toresistance, giantGibbs pressure, 181, 194

Index 809

Gibbs–Duhem relation, 193Gibbs–Thomson effect, 334GILD, 406glass surface, 134, 170, 372glass transition temperature, 158gold, 33, 45, 115, 196, 237, 330, 336,

538, 624, 697cluster, 193, 195, 238–240, 251, 253,

254, 256–258, 262, 263, 276dielectric function, 238electrode, 111, 469, 470film, 170, 340icosahedron, 190islands, 56, 57, 63, 64loop, 438nanoparticle, 134, 689nanostructure, 57, 63, 116, 117, 691nanowire, 333, 343, 375on AFM tip, 115particle, 632, 633pillars, 18reconstruction, 43, 44, 56, 58shell, 248silver, 238substrate, 173, 257, 258, 454, 456surface, 45, 56, 328, 330, 372, 373,

688vicinal surface, 48, 57wire, 454

golden section, 187GPS, 409grain boundary, 435graphene, 289–291, 319

electronic structure, 292–295first Brillouin zone, 295, 296, 298, 299K point, 298, 299lattice, 292, 293reciprocal lattice, 295transport properties, 293

graphite, 113, 280–281, 333structure, 280substrate, 262, 263surface, 256, 257vaporisation, 303

Green function, 341Green tensor, 150, 153, 154group theory, 681, 701growth modes, 48–52guanine, 359

guanosine, 359guest/host complex, 358, 359gyromagnetic factor, 541

hard disk, 110, 260, 503, 547, 584–593,616, 781

antiferromagnetically coupling media,588–590

capacity, 616discrete media, 592–593magnetic, 585–588perpendicularly magnetised media,

590–591read head, 553recording density, 616

hard-sphere potential, 751harmonic generation, 684, 691, 702, 706,

734–736second, 679, 714, 734–735third, 679, 705, 736

Hartree–Fock theory, 429hcp lattice, 183Hebb rule, 792, 794helicate, 355helium, 246

ion, 30Hellmann–Feynman theorem, 772Helmholtz

energy, 425equation, 138, 139

heteroatomic nanotube, 302heteroepitaxy, 53heterojunction, 336, 339, 408, 409heterostructure, 162, 409

double, 410III–V, 659semiconductor, 764Si/SiGe, 409–411SiGe/Si/SiGe, 409

high-k insulator, 404Hohenberg–Kohn theorem, 767–768hole, 758, 761, 762

mobility, 386, 409, 410holon, 343HOMO, 343, 457, 458, 473–475, 769

delocalised, 472HOPG, 256, 262, 263, 333

substrate, 257Hubbard model, 461

810 Index

Hückel model, 196Hund rules, 507hybridisation, 190–191, 200, 261, 267,

270, 271, 280, 457, 528, 562hydrogen bond, 353, 354, 359–362, 367hydrophobic interaction, 354, 363–365hyper-Rayleigh scattering, 704hysteresis, 441, 442, 545, 546, 550, 551

icosahedron, 184, 185, 187–189gold, 190

immunoglobulin, 689impurity, 435, 436, 543, 562, 652InAs quantum dots, 58, 59, 79, 80,

636–641, 643, 644laser, 638

inclusion complex, 364, 365indium, 375, 624, 640inelastic electron tunneling spec-

troscopy, 85InP, 261, 408, 409, 638, 652, 659

membrane, 651, 653, 656microlaser, 659nanowire, 495, 496

insulator–metal transition, 264, 269integrated circuit, 383, 386, 783

BiCMOS, 409CMOS, see CMOSdesign parameters, 383design rule, IXhalf pitch, 395

integration density, 260, 263, 383, 410,616

memory, 600, 606, 609, 611molecular memory, 477of Josephson junctions, 445

interdigital electrode, 165interface dislocation, 60iodobenzene, 88ion

bombardment, 11, 54, 246, 263thinning, 36, 37

ion beam etching, 12ion–ion interaction, 772ion–matter interaction, 35iron, 261, 510, 515–517, 561

atoms, 86, 331whisker, 538

island, 419, 422, 531

formation, 49–51, 53, 334growth, 49hexagonal array, 57nucleation, 51, 52, 56periodic growth, 56polarised, 427ramified, 256size distribution, 52stressed, 761

isolated pentagon rule, 283itinerant magnetism, 510–511, 530, 542ITRS roadmap, IX, X, 395–397, 405,

440, 607

Jahn–Teller effect, 216–217jellium model, 208, 210, 211, 220, 221,

223, 225, 232–235Josephson

current, 442–444junction, 440–445

Joule effect, 62, 246, 595, 609

Kelvin force microscopy, 110Kerr effect, 540kinesin, 740, 741Kohn–Sham equations, 208, 768–770koiland, 365Krätschmer–Huffmann process, 284,

302Kretschmann prism, 624Kubo

criterion, 197–200, 202, 269–271model, 202–205, 341

Landau damping, 232, 233Landauer

four-wire formula, 431linear response, 339theory, 337, 430–432, 435

Langevin process, 685, 701Langmuir film, 376Langmuir–Blodgett technique, 375, 472,

490laser ablation, 246, 494latching logic, 440, 442lateral force microscopy, 94latex film, 100, 114lattice mismatch, 49, 50, 53, 258, 259,

332, 529

Index 811

LCAO method, 292LDOS, see local density of stateslead

nanotube, 114nanowire, 333, 375

LECBD, 256–258, 262, 263Legendre polynomial, 130length scale, 671–673Lennard-Jones potential, 93, 189, 750,

751life, 674life sciences, 671, 674lift-off, 15–16, 33, 158, 162, 168, 328light storage, 648light-emitting components, 639light-emitting diode, 639, 659

GaN, 639organic, 674

lipid bilayer, 720, 726liposomes, 370liquid crystal, 364, 365, 736

display, 370liquid metal ion source, 35liquid-drop model, 180–181, 193–196,

245, 267, 682quantum, 207, 213

lithiumcluster, 231dielectric function, 232

lithography, 3–37, 42, 123, 327, 383additive transfer, 15–18AFM, 20contact, 21–22dip-pen, 115, 116, 491dose, 5, 32DUV, see lithography, EUVelectron beam, 4, 8, 30–35, 158, 168,

327, 452, 453, 493, 592, 593, 630,636, 640, 650, 669

electron projection, 28–29emerging techniques, 157–174, 326,

327EUV, 20, 28, 327, 627far-field techniques, 39FIB, 35–39field stitching, 31industrialisation, 34ion projection, 29mask, 9, 11, 12, 14, 19–21, 25–28, 30

nanoimprint, see nanoimprintingnear-field, 172–173, 328–332, 342next generation, 28parallel writing, 19pixel, 30proximity, 22resolution, 19, 21, 22, 24–26, 33, 38,

39sequential writing, 19, 30soft, 20, 40, 169–172, 327–328subtractive transfer, 9–14transfer, 8write speed, 19, 38X-ray, 18, 327

LLG equation, 541, 549local density approximation, 766,

769–770time-dependent, 232, 233, 238

local density of states, 73, 81, 457localised magnetism, 508–510lock-and-key mechanism, 370, 669, 686logic

circuit, 497gate, 483, 485, 497, 596, 606, 777,

782, 783, 794operator, 782

look-up table, 787–789Lorentz–Lorenz model, 679LTP, 406LUMO, 343, 457, 458, 473–475, 769

delocalised, 472Luttinger liquid, 343

macroscopic quantum tunnel effect, 548macrospin, 540, 576

LLG equation, 541precession, 541–544

Madelungconstant, 192energy, 192

magic cluster, 211, 212, 220, 221, 232,273

magnesium cluster, 203magnetic

alloy, 260anisotropy, 260–262, 515–518,

543–545, 616, 773cluster, 260–261, 531dipole anisotropy, 521

812 Index

dipole interaction, 520–522, 524, 589domain, 520, 523, 585domain wall, 520, 523–524dots, 163, 260, 592, 593film, 529, 572–576fingerprint, 436flux quantum, 417, 434, 441, 443hard disk, 585–588head-to-tail wall, 524induction, 504, 623interface anisotropy, 526–531liquid, 371molecule, 548moment, 504–508, 773multilayer, 532–540, 552–572nanostructure, 164, 261RAM, see MRAMrecording, 531recording head, 109semiconductor, 558shape anisotropy, 515, 524, 617storage, 547susceptibility, 271–272tape, 109thin film, 520, 522, 523, 595, 617tunnel junction, 557, 560, 568–572,

607ultrathin film, 523–524

magnetic force microscope, 109, 163magnetisation, 512, 514–516, 520

dynamics, 540–551easy axis, 260, 515, 516, 520, 523,

528, 544, 548, 549easy direction, 516hysteresis, 545, 546, 551LLG equation, 541, 549perpendicular, 590precession, 541–544, 576–578reversal, 544–551, 554, 576–578, 587saturation, 588spin transfer mechanism, 549–551vortex, 521, 522

magneto-opticaldisk, 109response, 123, 540

magnetoconductance, 434–436gold loop, 438

magnetocrystalline anisotropy, 260, 507,509, 510, 515–517, 521, 616

interface, 526–528, 574

uniaxial, 515, 520, 521, 576

magnetoelastic anisotropy, 517

interface, 529–530

magnetoelectronic device, 504

magnetoresistance, 550, 616

curve, 554, 556, 557

giant, 503, 533, 552–556, 560,562–568, 586, 615

tunnel, 556–559, 568–572

magnetoresistive device, 551

magnetoresistive read head, 585, 616

giant, 585–586, 616

magnetostatics, 504–505

magnetostriction, 518–519, 543

magnon, 543

manipulation

of adatoms, 85

of atoms, 41, 86, 87, 331, 369

of molecules, 41, 87, 115, 369

mass memory, 583–595, 781

local probe techniques, 584, 593–595

matrix memory, 584, 595–613

access transistor, 604–608, 611

addressing, 598, 600

atomic scale, 613

bit line, 596, 601, 602

detection transistor, 611, 612

floating gate, 601, 602, 604, 612

gain cell, 611–613

NAND architecture, 602, 603

nanoscale, 599–606

noise, 599

NOR architecture, 602, 603

redundancy, 599

repair, 599

word line, 596, 602

Maxwell’s equations, 647

Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution, 685

Maxwell–Garnett model, 264

MBE, see epitaxy, molecular beam

McCumber parameter, 444

mean field approximation, 759

membrane, 369

cell, 370, 686, 720, 726–731

lipid, 369

memory, 583–618

64-bit, 497

Index 813

access time, 584, 600, 604, 606, 615,780

cache, 781cell, 22, 314, 344, 375, 417, 476, 478,

595, 596, 777, 783central, 781computer, 780–781flash, 584, 601, 603, 604hierarchical structure, 780, 781mass, see mass memorymatrix, see matrix memorymicroprobe, 584, 594molecular, 163, 476, 477non-volatile, 477, 553, 598, 599,

601–604, 606NOVORAM, 606on-board, 599plane, 596, 598, 602, 605PLED, 612RAM, 598, 604–606register, 780, 781ROM, 596, 598, 601single-electron, 610–611stability, 584volatile, 604–605

mercury, 199, 200, 269, 270mesophase, 370

lyotrophic, 371mesoscale, 671mesoscopic

device, 417system, 335

metal–insulator transition, 198, 199metal–ligand bond, 354, 361metallic

binding, 184–189carbon nanotube, 113, 297–299, 312,

487–489cluster, 184, 196–200, 209, 213, 216,

225, 227, 232, 234, 253–254, 264magnetic multilayer, 552–572multilayer, 532nanoparticle, 372, 449, 451, 452, 689,

698MFM, see magnetic force microscopemicelle, 369, 370

reverse, 250micro–nano interconnects, 786micro-optics, 173

micro-phase separation, 371, 374micro-squid, 16microcanonical ensemble, 754microcavity, 642, 643, 645–662microcontact printing, 40, 170, 171, 491microdisk, 645microelectronics, IX, 162, 261, 383–413,

783, 784design, 615memory requirements, 600

microfluidicchannel, 165, 168, 495, 496chip, 165device, 170, 172, 627, 662network, 171, 172

microlaser, 646, 659micromagnetism, 173micropillar, 79, 643–645

GaAs/AlAs, 644microprocessor, 22

characteristics, 785micropump, 172microreactor, 370microscale, 671microsegregation, 371microtubule, 740, 741microvalve, 172Mie

classical theory, 226resonance, 226–228, 233, 236–239,

253, 771theory, 241, 265

Miller indices, 42, 45, 182, 187Millipede, 173, 594miniaturisation, IX, 314, 599, 600, 619,

646miscut angle, 46misorientation angle, 59MOCVD, 55molecular

abacus, 87amplifier, 474, 477assembly, 490–492bistable, 476, 478, 613circuit, 490–498components, 450–479, 497conductor, 457–469conformation, 470diode, 449, 471–474

814 Index

dipole, 678electronics, 447–499, 795energy levels, 455engineering, 698–707machine, 366–368magnet, 371memory, 163, 476, 477motor, 738, 740, 741nanocage, 361network, 362orbitals, 457–463orientation, 676photonics, 667recognition, 251, 360, 362, 364, 370,

688rectifier, 449rotor, 366, 367shuttle, 366, 367switch, 373tectonics, 362, 363transistor, 477–479triode, 449tweezer, 358, 359wire, 78, 469–471

molecular dynamics simulation, 202,255, 258, 305, 341, 751–755

ab initio, 773integration algorithm, 753–754thermostat, 754–755velocity renormalisation, 755

molecule–metal coupling, 454–456, 459molybdenum cluster, 255monolayer, 49Monte Carlo simulation, 31, 32, 202,

755–757selective sampling, 756

Moore’s law, IX, 383, 395, 784MOSFET, IX, 162, 383–386

bulk punch-through, 392–394, 404buried doping, 394, 404conduction channel, 385doping profile, 383, 393, 394, 405drain, 383electrical parameters, 396gate oxide layer, 383halo, 389, 394, 396, 404inversion layer, 384normally-off, 383–386ohmic regime, 385, 391

on SOI, 412pinch-off voltage, 385pocket, 389, 394, 396quantum effects, 406, 407retrograde doping, 388, 393, 394, 396,

397, 404saturation current, 385saturation regime, 385, 390scaling, 392–400short channel effects, 392–393, 404,

604silicon, 386, 483, 484source, 383space charge region, 384, 392superhalo, 405surface punch-through, 393, 411threshold voltage, 384, 393

Mott transition, 264MRAM, 371, 503, 504, 553, 596,

606–609, 613, 796bit line, 608

multi-quantum well, 656, 659multiphoton microscopy, 731–737multitwinned particle structure, 188,

191multiwalled nanotubes, see carbon

nanotube, MWNT

nano-antenna, 127nano-operator, 785nano-optics, 137, 144, 164nanoarray, 375nanobiophotonics, 667, 670, 686nanocage, 361nanochain, 375nanochannel, 165nanocluster, 186nanocomponents, 778nanocomputing, 776–798nanoconnection, 785nanocrater defect, 263nanodetector, 136nanoelectronics, 261, 383, 416–444

hybrid, 477, 497superconducting, 440–444

nanoembossing, 167–169, 328nanogap, 451, 456, 478, 479nanoimprinting, 20, 40, 158–166, 327,

328, 477, 593

Index 815

alignment, 162, 171UV, 166

nanoindentation, 112nanolaboratory, 660, 662nanolithography, 4, 38, 39, 136, 157–174,

329nanomagnet, 371, 551nanomagnetism, 163–164, 504–551

fundamental lengths, 525novel effects, 525–540numerical simulation, 766

nanomemory, 785nanoMOS devices, 400–412nanomoulding, 327, 328nanoparticle

assembly, 690core–shell, 696semiconductor, 697

nanophotonics, 665–745nanopillar, 165, 551, 555, 556nanopore, 335, 451, 453, 469, 471nanoscale, 671nanoscale light source, 136nanosensor, 669, 700nanostencil, 115nanowire, 45, 324–344, 449, 553, 555,

631, 796as electrical contact, 325array, 375as building block, 325assembly, 493bundle, 785electrical conductance, 335–343electrical contacts, 336–342encapsulated, 313fabrication, 326–327InAs/InP, 335InP, 495, 496molecular, 342, 343multilayer, 334self-assembly, 332–334semiconductor, 334silicon, 115, 116, 495ZnO, 336

near-field microscopy, 41, 121–155, 312,327, 328, 330, 332, 336, 627, 633

carbon nanotube tip, 317near-field optical microscope, 122, 123

apertureless, 123, 126–133

tip, 129–131, 135near-field optics, 121–155Néel pair model, 518–519, 528, 574Néel temperature, 508Néel wall, 524Néel–Brown model, 547negative refraction, 633Nernst–Einstein relation, 52neural networks, 791–794, 797

adaptive synapse, 794formal neuron, 791learning dynamics, 792relaxation dynamics, 792synapse, 791

neuron, 686nickel, 113, 247, 261, 510, 515–517, 529,

539, 561columns, 163deposition, 16, 17dots, 316pillars, 593

niobiumjunction, 442, 445layer, 553

nitride, 605nitrogen film, 57NMOS, 385–387, 389–391, 393, 394, 410NMR, see nuclear magnetic resonancenoble metal, 247, 537, 538

cluster, 237, 238non-covalent force, 354non-radiative

coupling, 147, 155recombination, 639transition, 681

nonlinear optical effects, 660normal hydrogen electrode, 247NOVORAM, 606nuclear magnetic resonance, 109, 773nucleotide, 688nucleus, 207numerical aperture, 24, 25numerical simulation, 341, 749–774

accuracy, 773computation time, 773conjugate gradients, 752effective mass method, 760–762electron, 757–773interatomic potential, 750–752

816 Index

nanomagnetism, 766Newton–Raphson method, 752potential energy surface, 752–753pseudopotential method, 760,

762–764, 766reliability, 773semi-empirical methods, 759–766steepest descent, 752

octahedron, 184–186, 266truncated, 184, 185

odd–even effect, 197, 205off-axis illumination, 25oligomer

phenyl, 469π-conjugated, 469, 470thiophene, 469

oligophenyleneethylene, 469, 470vinylene, 469

opal, 661, 662optical fibre, 123, 124, 627, 652, 667,

716, 736metal-coated, 133–135multimode, 627sensor, 630single-mode, 627unconditionally secure link, 642

optical multiplexing, 627optical tweezers, 737–740optoelectronic components, 22, 532,

641, 646optronics, 261, 619–662

optical addressing, 630, 631S3PS, 641–644subwavelength aperture, 627–629

orange peel coupling, 575organic

dye, 688nanostructure, 78, 79, 87nanotube, 362transistor, 163

organometalliccomplex, 450, 699compound, 55

organomineral, 699oxynitrides, 404, 605

palladium cluster, 453

parallel process, 19, 117, 161, 173paramagnetism, 587parameter mismatch, 50, 334parity, 681passivation layer, 14Pauli exclusion principle, 273, 429, 507,

758PBG, see photonic band gapPCRAM, 584, 596, 606–609, 613PDMS, 169–172, 327, 328

stamp, 169–171, 496Peierls transition, 343pentacene, 719perceptron, 792percolation threshold, 134, 258perturbation theory, 680, 770pH measurement, 707phase-shift mask, 25, 26, 30phonon, 437, 543, 755phospholipid, 370, 697phosphorescence, 693, 694photobleaching, 692, 709, 715, 716, 743photodepletion, 229photoemission spectroscopy, 458photoevaporation spectroscopy, 229–231photolithography, 20–28, 327

projection, 23–26X-ray, 26–27

photoluminescence, 261, 262, 640, 641,643, 644, 659

photomultiplier, 709photon

antibunching, 719bunching, 719

photon scanning tunneling microscope,123–126

photon sieve, 628–629photonic band gap, 630, 646, 655, 657,

6581D, 6482D, 649–650absolute, 650

photonic crystal, 164, 645–6621D, 647–6482D, 648–650, 652–655allowed bands, 646, 653–656coupling, 652defect engineering, 660dispersion relation, 647, 648, 651

Index 817

group velocity, 648, 654, 661laser, 654leaky mode, 652light cone, 651light line, 651mirror, 657optical confinement, 652–653, 656,

660strong confinement, 653vertical confinement, 652, 653weak confinement, 653with defects, 656–661

photopolymerisation, 706photoresist, see resistphotothermal detection, 698π interaction, 354, 365, 367picotechnology, 499plane wave expansion, 137–142, 647plasma, 620

dispersion relation, 622frequency, 622reaction, 246wavelength, 622

plasmon, 126, 226–228, 234, 238, 239,253, 276, 619–633, 698, 773

ATR coupling, 626biochemical sensor, 624–626bulk mode, 621chemical sensor, 624detection, 631, 632dispersion relations, 622–623fibre-optic sensor, 627frequency, 629, 630guide, 126in metal nanoparticle, 629–633light coupling, 622–627polariton, 620propagation length, 624, 633resonance, 624wave guide, 631–633

platinum, 45, 330, 528, 592acetylacetonate, 593nanoparticle array, 16nanowire, 331shell, 248sputtering, 453surface, 56, 57, 531vicinal surface, 333

plexiglass, 7

plumbago, 280PMMA, 7, 31–33, 36, 158, 160, 169,

327, 371, 375, 699bridge, 454resist, 636

PMOS, 385–387, 390–391, 410threshold voltage, 386

point spread function, 713polarisability, 680polarisation tensor, 678, 705polariton, 677polaron, 343polycarbonate, 158polydimethylsiloxane, see PDMSpolyhedron, 266, 282

compactness, 184, 185Euler theorem, 191regular, 185symmetry group, 185

polymer, 674contour length, 108dextran, 108elasticity, 109glass transition, 158luminescent, 720melt, 371molecular weight, 7, 159moulding, 40, 158–160, 166–168photosensitive, 706resist, 4, 158silicone oil, 169under irradiation, 7viscosity, 159wetting properties, 375

polymethylmethacrylate, see PMMApolymolecular assembly, 368–378polystyrene, 371, 375, 737, 738, 741porous matrix, 327, 335, 336porphyrin, 357–360post-exposure bake, 5potassium, 485

cluster, 231dielectric function, 232

prepatterned surface, 41–65, 332, 553,555

prestructured surface, see prepatternedsurface

programmablearchitecture, 497, 602

818 Index

ROM, see EPROM, EEPROMswitch, 497

protein, 673, 689, 695, 738, 741conformation, 725fluorescing, 719folding, 725–727

proximity effect, 31, 32proximity optical correction, 25pseudomorphic growth, 50pseudopotential method, 762–764, 766PSTM, see photon scanning tunneling

microscopePt/Co dots, 163Purcell effect, 643–645, 660pyrazine, 358pyridine, 253, 357, 358PZT, 606

quantum box, see quantum dotquantum cascade laser, 631quantum coherent conductor, 338quantum computer, 642, 798quantum confinement, 422, 532–540,

575, 635quantum corral, 86quantum cryptography, 79, 641, 642,

644quantum data processing, 627, 645quantum dot, 50, 58–61, 79, 465, 466,

498, 639, 652, 761, 791absorption spectrum, 640laser, 634, 636, 638plane, 635–637radiative cascade, 642semiconductor, 634–646, 660single, 640–646spectroscopy, 82–84transistor, 163

quantum interference, 428–439, 532, 534Bohm–Aharonov effect, 437–439

quantum size effects, 533, 537–540,575–576

quantum well, 635, 637, 639, 640, 642,652

components, 639laser, 634, 635, 638, 639, 761

quartz, 434template, 167, 168

qubit, 642

radiativecascade, 642coupling, 147, 155damping, 147–149lifetime, 148, 151, 152, 154, 643mode, 650, 651, 653, 654recombination, 639, 643

radiolytic effect, 33RAM, see memory, RAMRaman

microspectrometery, 630scattering, 708, 709, 714, 736spectroscopy, 310, 683, 708spectrum, 773

random walk, 433Rayleigh criterion, 24, 142, 619, 627,

713Rayleigh scattering, 708reactive ion etching, 13–14, 25, 36, 158,

162, 168, 389, 453, 636etch rate, 13

reciprocal lattice, 534, 536–538, 647,648

reconstructed surface, see surfacereconstruction

recording density, 260, 503, 547, 584,585, 588, 594, 595, 616, 780

reduction potential, 247refractive index, 123, 648

contrast, 652, 660, 661high, 652

reorientation transition, 528replication, 687resist, 3–9, 19, 593

contrast, 6, 20contrast curve, 7electrosensitive, 30exposure, 4glass transition temperature, 15inorganic, 33, 37negative, 6, 31polymer, 158positive, 6–8, 31refractive index, 21sensitivity, 5, 7sol–gel, 166spreading, 5

Reststrahlen region, 621Rhodamine 6G, 253, 694, 723

Index 819

RKKY interaction, 540, 589, 590, 617RNA, 353, 720, 742ROM, see memory, ROMrotaxane, 356, 366, 367, 476, 478, 497RRK model, 245RSFQ

components, 442–445logic, 417, 440logic gate, 443, 444

ruthenium, 450, 589ruthenium–trisbipyridine complex, 699

sapphire, 640SBT, 606SCALPEL, 29scanning capacitance microscopy, 111scanning electron microscope, 31, 79,

316scanning near-field optical microscope,

173, 715aperture, 133–136apertureless, 131–133, 630

scanning projection printing, 23scanning spreading resistance mi-

croscopy, 111scanning tunneling microscope, 4, 41,

68–89, 123, 173, 309, 311, 329,450, 667, 668

barrier height, 76–77, 82contrast, 75–76elastic tunnel current, 80–82, 374for biology, 741image potential, 77inelastic tunnel current, 84local chemistry, 87–88manipulation, 85–87, 368modelling, 773pulling mode, 85pushing mode, 85resolution, 74–75setup, 71single-molecule observation, 451–452sliding mode, 86spectroscopy, 80–85, 766tip apex, 72, 75, 76tip preparation, 71–72tip–sample interaction, 85–88topography, 70, 374

scattering matrix, 337, 431, 650

scattering sphere model, 127–128Schottky

barrier, 314, 480–483diode, 314gate electrode, 409

screw dislocation, 60selection rules, 681selenium, 470self-assembled monolayer, 4, 170,

491–492, 495self-assembly, 342, 498, 661, 669, 688

by charge transfer, 365by hydrophobic interaction, 363–365FePt nanoparticles, 592, 593hydrogen bonding, 359–362in bulk, 369–371of amphiphiles, 370, 371of carbon nanotubes, 300of nanowire, 332–334on surface, 372–378techniques, 327template effect, 354–359

self-consistent calculation, 208, 232,238, 239, 462, 472, 766, 770–771

self-organisation, see self-assemblyself-organised growth, 79, 636semi-empirical methods, 457semiconductor, 50

band gap, 80–82, 761carbon nanotube, 298–300, 314cavity, 645doping, 109Fermi wavelength, 418ferromagnetic, 559growth, 334heterostructure, 764III–V, 261, 639, 652laser, 634–640membrane, 652multilayer, 532nanoparticle, 449nanostructure, 261quantum dot, 634–646, 660surface, 51valence band, 765

SERS, see surface enhanced Ramanspectroscopy

shaped-beam machine, 34sharp-point effect, 129

820 Index

SHG microscopy, 734, 735short channel effects, see MOSFET,

short channel effectsshot noise, 132Sigmund formula, 11, 12silane, 372silanisation, 165, 687, 697silica, 169, 479

insulator, 479metallised grating, 627sphere, 661substrate, 496surface, 372

silicon, 11, 25, 639, 652atomic orbitals, 764band gap, 261band structure, 762, 765bead, 97, 107, 108cluster, 261dangling bond, 87dots, 315etched, 10, 14hydrogenated surface, 4, 330islands, 60lines, 162matrix, 163monocrystalline, 4MOSFET, 385mould, 167, 169nanocrystal, 765, 774nanowire, 115, 116, 330, 495oxidation, 55, 115, 388oxide, 165, 170, 385polycrystalline, 12, 169, 389, 402, 407prepatterned surface, 64probe, 594pyramid, 38substrate, 31, 32, 163, 169, 335, 495surface, 77–79, 88, 107thin film, 60transistor, 163vicinal surface, 61–63, 333wafer, 28, 59, 60, 166, 168, 616, 627

silicon-on-insulator, see SOIsilver, 237, 330, 538, 624, 697

cluster, 205, 238–240, 249, 265dielectric function, 238film, 57islands, 56

nanoparticle, 154, 689nanowire, 333, 375stripes, 633sulfide, 250surface, 372

silylation, 25SIMS, 406single molecule, 136

adhesion, 108component, 449conductance, 452, 453, 457, 469, 470elasticity, 108electrical contact, 450–456electronic device, 173emissions, 144fluorescence, 137fluorescence detection, 707–731level broadening, 457, 458, 463, 470low temperature spectroscopy,

718–719observation, 630, 675spectroscopy, 709, 725strongly coupled, 458–463transistor, 451transport properties, 456–469weakly coupled, 463–469

single-electron memory, 610–611single-electron transistor, 16, 417,

427–428, 449, 611, 612, 617, 794CNT, 486–489conductance, 487stability diagram, 428, 487, 488

single-photon source, 79, 641–644single-walled nanotubes, see carbon

nanotube, SWNTSNOM, see scanning near-field optical

microscopesodium, 237

borohydride, 247cluster, 209, 212, 215, 219–221, 233,

234, 771dielectric function, 233dodecylsulfate, 248magic cluster, 211

soft bake, 5, 158soft matter, 169SOI, 412, 652, 659

layer, 162technology, 411

Index 821

transistor, 609, 612solar energy, 303, 304, 306, 360soliton, 343spaser, 633spectral hole burning, 675spectral matching, 643spherical harmonic, 130spillout, see electron spilloutspin, 506spin electronics, 552–572

CIP geometry, 553–556, 563–565CPP geometry, 553–556, 563–565,

567Mott model, 560–562spin accumulation, 554, 567–568two-current model, 559–562

spin glass, 262spin transition complex, 377spin valve, 163, 553, 554, 586spin–orbit interaction, 506–507, 510,

528, 766spin–spin interaction, 766spinon, 343spintronics, see spin electronicsspontaneous emission, 150, 151sputtering, 11, 15, 54, 55

etch rate, 12platinum, 453yield, 11–13

squeezed field, 632SRAM, 483, 584, 600, 605, 606, 781

bit line, 605switch, 596

stacking fault, 44, 45, 56–58stamp, 328Stark effect, 719statistical physics, 755, 756step bunching, 61, 62, 64step edge, 57, 58, 78, 333

defect, 56in magnetic film, 574–575

step-and-flash, 166step-and-repeat projection printing, 23,

28, 29step-and-scan projection printing, 23STM, see scanning tunneling microscopeSTM-assisted CVD, 329stochastic matrix theory, 436Stokes shift, 694

Stone–Walles transformation, 755, 756Stoner model, 510, 559Stoner–Wohlfarth astroid, 545, 546stopping power, 11Stranski–Krastonov growth, 49–51, 58,

334streptavidin–biotin pair, 686, 688, 691subnanoscale, 671supercapacitor, 317superconducting

logic components, 440–442materials, 417MWNT, 312nanoelectronics, 440–444niobium layer, 553transition temperature, 773

superconductor, 109superlattice, 371superparamagnetism, 260, 586, 588,

591, 595, 617supershell, see electron supershell

structuresupersonic beam, 242supramolecular grid, 377supramolecule, 353–368, 674, 686surface

charge, 622chemical potential, 52, 53, 58curvature, 53, 58, 60dehydrogenation, 87, 88diffusion, 53, 57diffusion coefficient, 52dislocation, 44, 45, 50, 56faceted, 45, 48free energy, 46, 48, 49, 52, 53, 180,

258functionalisation, 494, 495functionalised, 669graphite, 256, 257plasmon, 126, 227, 228, 234, 238, 239,

619–633reconstruction, 43, 44, 332, 750relaxation, 42, 59self-organised, 47–48, 56–57stepped, 45stress, 46, 47, 53, 57, 60tension, 180topography, 70, 105, 132, 165vicinal, see vicinal surface

822 Index

surface enhanced Raman scattering, 630surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy,

253, 633surface-emitting laser, 645surfactant, 248, 249, 371, 372symbiotic computer, 798synchrotron radiation, 27systems on-chip, 614

tailor-made molecule, 698TBSMA, 269TD LDA, 232, 233, 238technological node, 395tecton, 362, 363template effect, see self-assembly,

template effectTeramac, 789Tersoff–Hamann approximation, 773Tersoff–Hamann theory, 73, 75terthiophene, 469, 470

dithiol, 470tetrahedron, 185THG microscopy, 736thienylenevinylene, 78thioalkane, 254thiol, 115, 116, 170, 173, 328, 330, 372,

374, 469, 688nanowire, 330

Thomas–Fermi approximation, 767Thomas–Reiche–Kuhn sum rule, 235THz source, 631tight-binding approximation, 184, 269,

292, 293, 300, 341, 760, 762,764–766

self-consistent, 472time reversal symmetry, 434, 505, 515time-of-flight spectrometer, 214, 273tin, 375top-down approach, 41, 326, 327, 349,

688top-gate configuration, 480transferability criterion, 763transistor, 110, 157, 375, 761, 777, 783

as switch, 783bipolar heterojunction, 409buried oxide, 411, 412CNTFET, 479–486, 494, 785CNTSET, 486–489, 497FET, 314, 611, 612, 615

FinFET, 412, 413

gate length, IX, 383

geometry, 392

HEMT, 408–409

interconnects, 398–400, 407

leakage current, 388, 390, 392, 394,403, 404, 411

miniaturisation, 784

MOSFET, see MOSFET

multiple gate, 412

new architectures, 408–412

organic, 163

quantum dot, 163

SBFET, 480

SESO, 612

single-electron, 16, 427–428, 449,486–489, 611, 612, 617, 794

single-molecule, 451, 477–479

SOI, 609

spinFET, 558, 560

threshold voltage, 384

ultra-high speed, 18

transition metal, 261, 510

cluster, 199, 766

ferromagnetic, 517, 559

transmission electron microscope, 36,308, 310, 317

triboelectricity, 109, 111

tribology, 112, 591

trimethylammonium bromide, 248

tritopic ligand, 355

truncated octahedron, 186

tungsten

AFM tip, 103

STM tip, 71

tunnel

current, 70, 72–79, 374, 403, 773

double junction, 425–427, 455

effect, 69, 72, 124, 410, 412, 420–422,425, 463, 467, 540, 602

junction, 421, 422, 456, 557, 560,568–572, 607, 612

magnetoresistance, 556–559, 568–572

resistance, 424, 425

Turing machine, 779, 780

twist angle, 60

two-level model, 680, 686, 701

two-photon acid photogenerator, 706

Index 823

two-photon fluorescence microscopy,711, 732–734

ultrasonic waves, 33

uncertainty relation, 140, 141, 143, 425

UV-NIL, see nanoimprinting, UV

vacuum vapour deposition, 15, 53

van der Waals force, 33, 93, 99, 109,189, 246, 251

Verlet algorithm, 753

vertical-cavity semiconductor laser, 38

vesicle, 370, 720, 736

bilayer, 370

giant, 735

vicinal surface, 45, 46, 332, 333, 574,576

gold, 48

growth on, 57–58

platinum, 531

silicon, 61–63

virus, 369, 691, 730, 732

VLS synthesis, 306, 307, 327

Volmer–Weber growth, 49

wave guide, 623, 627, 646, 651, 652, 656,660–661

conical, 135, 136metallic, 134, 135surface plasmon, 631–633

wave–particle duality, 761wet etching, 9–11, 330

undercut, 10wetting, 49, 375Wigner function, 677Wigner–Seitz

polyhedron, 183radius, 180, 208, 238unit cell, 183

WKB approximation, 74Woods–Saxon potential, 207, 209, 211work function, 72, 196, 213, 267–268,

464, 483, 485Wulff polyhedron, 182–184, 189, 267

YBaCuO technology, 445

Zeemaneffect, 203energy, 514

zinc, 247