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Improving learning competence inschools—what relevance does empiricalresearch in this area have for teachertraining?Claudia Solzbacher aa University of Osnabrueck , GermanyPublished online: 19 Jan 2007.
To cite this article: Claudia Solzbacher (2006) Improving learning competence in schools—whatrelevance does empirical research in this area have for teacher training?, European Journal ofTeacher Education, 29:4, 533-544, DOI: 10.1080/02619760600944837
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02619760600944837
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Improving learning competence in
schools—what relevance does empirical
research in this area have for teacher
training?
Claudia Solzbacher*
University of Osnabrueck, Germany
In an increasing manner, schools are challenged with the task of making pupils masters of their
own learning so that they are able to approach and deal with their tasks independently. Such a
promotion of learning competences implies the promotion of competence in subject knowledge
and method competence, as well as in social and personal competence. The present article
analyses the question of how the acquisition of learning competences may be enhanced at school
and at the level of educational systems. A study (2002–2004), commissioned by the Bertelsmann
Foundation was to provide relevant information in this respect, the results of which are presented
in this contribution. After a technical definition of the term of ‘learning competence’ the author
explains how the schools of the inquiry split up these general categories of learning competences
into partial areas of competence and/or dimensions, subsequently determining these as set goals
for their future work on school development. The improvement of learning competences implies
numerous changes at the level of content, method and organisation. The different ways in which
such quality development in schools may be achieved are being analyzed and categorized in the
available contribution. Finally we take a look at the conditions that are to be fulfilled in order to be
able to successfully improve learning competences at school by describing these as vital tasks for
future research and development.
C’est de plus en plus un objectif de l’ecole de faire des eleves des experts de leur propre
apprentissage, afin qu’ils puissent aborder et travailler independamment sur les problemes poses.
La promotion de la competence de methode et de la competence pour la matiere, de l’auto-
competence ainsi que de la competence sociale font partie d’une telle promotion de la competence
d’apprentissage. Dans le present article, la question est de savoir comment des ecoles et des
systemes educatifs peuvent encourager l’acquisition d’une telle competence d’apprentissage. Une
etude (2002–2004), commanditee par la Fondation Bertelsmann, fournira des informations
valables a ce sujet. Ses resultats sont presentes dans cette contribution. Apres avoir determine une
definition technique de la notion de la competence d’apprentissage, on decrit comment les ecoles
interrogees ont subdivise ces descriptions generales de la competence d’apprentissage en
competences partielles et/ou dimensions, et en definissant ceux-ci comme objectifs du
developpement scolaire envisage dans l’avenir. En effet, une telle promotion de la competence
*University of Osnabrueck, Heger-Tor-Wall 9, 49069 Osnabrueck, Germany. Email: claudia.
European Journal of Teacher Education
Vol. 29, No. 4, November 2006, pp. 533–544
ISSN 0261-9768 (print)/ISSN 1469-5928 (online)/06/040533-12
# 2006 Association for Teacher Education in Europe
DOI: 10.1080/02619760600944837
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d’apprentissage entraıne de nombreuses modifications dans les ecoles, qui concernent les
contenus, les methodes aussi bien que l’organisation. Ce travail de developpement scolaire peut
etre effectue par des voies assez differentes, ceux-ci font egalement l’objet de la presente
contribution en les analysant et categorisant. Finalement, on specifiera quelles sont les conditions
necessaires pour que la promotion de competence d’apprentissage dans l’ecole reussisse et les
decrira comme facteurs essentiels pour les taches de developpement et de recherche dans l’avenir.
Cada vez mas las escuelas se fijan como meta hacer de sus alumnos los expertos de su propio
aprendizaje, para que puedan afrontar y resolver los problemas que se les plantean. La promocion
de la competencia de metodo y habilidades, de la auto competencia y de la competencia social
forman parte de tal promocion de capacidades de aprendizaje. En el presente artıculo, se investiga
en la cuestion de como se puede fomentar la adquisicion de una competencia para el aprendizaje
en las escuelas y en los sistemas educativos. Con el fin de propocionar las informaciones relevantes
a este respecto, se hizo un estudio (2002–2004), encargado por la Fundacion Bertelsmann
(Bertelsmann-Stiftung), cuyos resultados se incluyen en esta contribucion. Despues de una
definicion tecnica del concepto de competencia de aprendizaje, se describe como las escuelas
participantes en la investigacion efectuaron una subdivision de la descripcion general de la
competencia de aprendizaje en competencias parciales y/o dimensiones, determinando estas como
objetivos de desarrollo futuro. La promocion de una competencia de aprendizaje, implica
numerosas modificaciones en cuanto al contenido, la metodologıa y la organizacion del trabajo
escolar. Promover el desarrollo escolar es una meta que puede ser realizada por caminos diferentes,
los cuales seran presentados y categorizados en la presente contribucion. Finalmente se presentan
las condiciones necesarias para que la promocion de la competencia de aprendizaje en la escuela
tenga exito, describiendose en funcion de sus importantes implicaciones para la investigacion y el
desarrollo futuro.
Es ist zunehmend Ziel von Schule, die Schuler zu Experten fur ihr eigenes Lernen zu machen,
damit sie Aufgabenstellungen selbstandig angehen und bearbeiten konnen. Zu einer solchen
Forderung von Lernkompetenz gehort die Forderung der Sach- und Methodenkompetenz, der
Sozial- und der Selbstkompetenz. In dem vorliegenden Artikel wird der Frage nachgegangen, wie
Schulen und Bildungssysteme den Erwerb von Lernkompetenz fordern konnen. Eine von der
Bertelsmann-Stiftung in Auftrag gegebene Studie (2002–2004) sollte hieruber Aufschluss geben.
Deren Ergebnisse werden in diesem Beitrag vorgestellt. Nach einer Arbeitsdefinition zum Begriff
der Lernkompetenz wird erlautert, wie die befragten Schulen diese groben Beschreibungen von
Lernkompetenz in Teilkompetenzen bzw. Dimensionen unterteilt haben und diese wiederum als
Ziele ihrer weiteren Schulentwicklung definiert haben. Die Forderung von Lernkompetenz zieht
namlich zahlreiche inhaltliche, methodische und organisatorische Veranderungen in der Schule
nach sich. Diese Schulentwicklungsarbeit kann auf recht unterschiedlichen Wegen erfolgen, die
ebenfalls im vorliegenden Beitrag analysiert und kategorisiert werden. Abschließend werden
Gelingensbedingungen von Lernkompetenzforderung in der Schule aufgefuhrt und als zukunftig
wichtige Forschungs- und Entwicklungsaufgabe beschrieben.
Introduction
It is becoming more and more important that pupils not only passively acquire
knowledge but also learn to take the acquisition of this knowledge into their own
hands. Developing skills to treat learning as a lifelong process is a basic necessity for
successfully coping with current and future demands which will be placed on society.
It should therefore be the aim of any teaching processes to make pupils masters of
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their own learning, allowing them to approach and deal with the task independently.
Independent learning is more than practising basic methods in learning and working
techniques. It also involves being able to identify which techniques are suitable for
which subject and looking into relevant aspects of the technique in more detail. In
addition, one’s own learning has to be planned, done together with others and
continually reviewed. This process is generally understood as the acquisition of
learning competence.1
In Germany, schools have often been, and will continue to be, asked to improve
the learning competence of their pupils, whereby different terms are often used for
the same content. There are currently demands for providing (learning) competence
e. g. in drafts of educational standards, in current curriculum development or in
proposals for reform of performance testing and evaluation (Solzbacher, 2001).
Competence acquisition, and in particular acquisition of learning competence, is
increasingly being seen not only as a core task for schools and lessons but also as an
issue for national educational policies.
Background and methods of the investigation into ‘improving learning
competence in schools’
How can schools and educational systems support the acquisition of learning
competence? Without question, the factors mentioned above are placing numerous
new demands on the design of lessons and the organisation of a school. Teaching
and learning is not (as is often implied in standard discussions on the topic) a
‘technique of producing and distributing knowledge, but rather a communicative
attempt to enable the intended learning processes, the initiation and guidance of
proficiency and understanding’ as Ulrich Hermann rightly emphasised (Hermann,
2003; p. 633). How can schools successfully allow the development of a learning
culture in which the pupils are able to acquire learning competences and apply them
in complex learning situations?
This was the central question behind a study, conducted between 2002 and 2004,
into ‘Improving learning competence in schools’(Czerwanski, Solzbacher &
Vollstadt, 2002, 2004). The Bertelsmann Foundation, as founder of the Network
of Innovative Schools, had initiated four learning sub-networks each consisting of
five schools which had already been working on the topic of improving learning
competences. These schools spent three years exchanging their know-how on the
acquisition of learning competence and continued to work on the approaches they
had developed. The work of these networks provided an interesting basis for a
scientific investigation of the factors influencing the success and failure of support
for the development of learning competence in schools. In 2002 the Bertelsmann
Foundation set up a panel of experts which was to pool and reflects on the results
and looks at the following questions:
N How can learning competence be defined in a way that is useful in the teaching
environment?
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N What are schools doing to satisfy the demanding task of improving learning
competence?
N What conclusions and recommendations can be made for those working in the
field and for educational systems?
The investigations were a qualitative empirical study into the introduction of
learning competences in individual schools.2 Accordingly, the emphasis was placed
on implementation and the structuring and understanding of successful good-
practice examples. The sample was divided into:
(a) One group of 26 schools which were sent a written questionnaire and
(b) A group of 6 schools which were used as case studies.
The investigation was carried out in all types of general education schools.
Seven of the schools which received a questionnaire were junior schools, as were two
of the six case studies. Naturally, the results of a study such as this cannot be
scientifically generalised. However, they do offer the opportunity to test theoretical
concepts against their applicability and plausibility in a field in which, until now,
little empirical work has been done. Added to this, they could provide further
theoretical background of relevance to wider empirical investigations. The results
given below could, for example, provide clues about the framework or reforms
which are needed when introducing educational standards or competence-
oriented curricula. The discussion in this paper is related to their importance for
teacher-training.
Working definition: what is learning competence?
The working definition used in the study was based on current discussions in
Germany about competences. It also took into consideration ideas within the
European Union about lifelong learning which are related to a specific quality of
learning competence that:
N focuses on the sustainability of learning,
N views all learning activities as part of a seamless continuum (learning during the
entire life span),
N is oriented towards the continuous improvement and renewal of competences and
sees school education as an important pre-requisite,
N connects school learning more closely with education outside school establish-
ments and uses various learning places, and which also
N takes into consideration that learning not only takes places in educational
institutions (formal learning) but also in all social groups (non-formal learning)
and is a natural consequence of daily life (informal learning). (Commission of the
European Union, 2000 ff.).
For this study ‘Improving learning competence in schools’, it is therefore sufficient
to talk about learning competence which covers the knowledge, abilities, skills,
behaviour and attitudes required for individual and co-operative learning processes
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and which, at the same time, can be developed and optimised while learning.
Learning competences involve the inter-related dimensions:
N cognitive and instrumental competence,
N social competence and
N individual competence (personal competence).3
These dimensions can only be used during analysis—real learning processes always
involve all dimensions. Learning competence cannot be achieved by simply adding
or combining these three competence areas; a reflection on the learning process and
its effects is a vital component.
Cognitive competence (for ease of analysis, discussed here separately from instrumental
competence) not only covers the acquisition of specific knowledge and attitudes in
various subjects but is also related to their application in interdisciplinary contexts and
discussions. It is related to the acquisition and application of knowledge and skills and
their relationship to one another in the practical context.
Instrumental competence, which can only be developed in combination with cognitive
competence, allows one to design one’s own activities (in this case, learning) consciously,
target-oriented, economically and creatively, and, at the same time, to have access to a
repertoire of suitable methods or instruments. The acquisition, knowledge and working
methods are always discipline related but can also be discipline specific and to some
extent interdisciplinary. And this makes this area difficult for schools.
Social competence enables the individual to harmonise their own and higher aims with
those of the others involved in a variety of changing social situations and in different
tasks and problems. The core factors are the sense of responsibility for oneself and
for others and, in particular, being aware of others, working for the common good,
and the ability to cooperate and solve conflicts.
Self competence relates to basic attitudes, values and motivation which influence the
(learning) behaviour of the individual. This can be considered to be the self-image of
a person based on self-confidence and self-esteem, which themselves are related to
one’s attitude to oneself (emotional independence, faith in one’s own abilities, etc.).
Self competence also involves critical self-evaluation in debates with one’s
environment and oneself, an appreciation of one’s own values and the ability to
make moral judgements (Czerwanski, Solzbacher & Vollstadt, 2002, pp. 29–32).4
Some of the results of the study are discussed in more detail below. They show
what pedagogical effort the schools must make and what professional abilities the
teachers must have in the development of schools and lessons in order to successfully
develop and implement educational standards.
Grading and developing: dimensions of learning competence
The representatives of the schools in the studies were of the opinion that if learning
competences were to be developed systematically, then it would be necessary to
determine the specific components which lead to each of the three competence areas
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‘cognitive and instrumental competence’, ‘social competence’ and ‘self competence’.
If learning was to be successfully continued, then clearly identifiable components of
learning competences would have to be determined and these must be both formally
and contextually separate from one another and meaningfully related to each other.
Only if this was done, it would be possible to teach these factors and thus to evaluate
them individually. Additionally, practical application in schools and lessons requires
a grading of the competences in order, for example, to enable a cumulative increase
in knowledge, to diagnose both learning barriers and opportunities more accurately
and also to be able to measure and evaluate the acquisition of the learning
competences. This search for components which could be clearly differentiated from
one another is, however, greatly hampered by the complex nature of the
competences and fact that they are often related to one another. Any list of
knowledge, abilities, skills and attitudes which enable effective, independent learning
must, therefore, be incomplete and ambiguous.
The schools then discussed and identified what they considered to be possible
basic components. The list below shows summaries of their lists of components for
the various competences.
Cognitive and instrumental competences include:
N a command of basic cultural techniques
N the ability to obtain, note, edit and judge information
N the ability to recognise subject related structures and work with them i.e.
compare, sort, order, describe, explain and justify
N the ability to effectively learn, combine, remember and use knowledge
N the ability to record results and show them to others
N knowledge of problem-solving strategies and how to use them (Czerwanski,
Solzbacher & Vollstadt, 2002, 33f).
Social competence includes:
N team skills e.g. keeping to the rules, providing ideas, offering help, accepting help,
taking over functions
N the ability to manage and reflect on cooperative learning processes
N communication skills e.g. active listening, letting others speak, giving background
information on one’s own views
N the ability to discuss i.e. accepting and giving advice and criticism etc.
N being prepared to accept responsibility and showing empathy
Self competence includes:
N the will to learn i.e. a basic inquisitiveness and desire to study things in more
detail. This includes overcoming one’s own inertia.
N the ability to assess oneself i. e. recognise strengths and weaknesses, evaluate
progress, discuss success, difficulties and mistakes, be self-critical.
N a tolerance towards frustration which means being able to accept criticism and be
open for suggestions.
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N being able to set your own learning and behavioural aims and take on
responsibility for one’s own learning including setting one’s own targets.
These lists represent a compromise of learning competences which have been
identified by the schools and tested in practice and show the basic minimum of what
the schools considered pupils should be able to do. The expert panel also considers
these competences to be necessary but does not see them as sufficient criteria for
promoting learning competences in schools, or for the evaluation of pupil
performance in various situations. The feedback from the schools also showed that
they expected support from scientific research or from those responsible for
educational policy, in differentiation and implementation as well as in the grading of
the competences. One particular question related to cognitive and instrumental
competences was of central importance to the teaching staff: how do competences
and content relate to one another? The teachers recognised the need for content; but
for which competences?5
Many roads lead to Rome: implicit and explicit support for learning
competence
The schools involved in the study agreed on concepts for improving learning
competence as part of their quality development. This quality development was
carried out in a variety of ways and the panel analysed and categorised these paths:
the concepts and approaches were as numerous as the number of schools involved in
the network. However, all of them aimed to implicitly or explicitly enable the pupils
to improve their learning abilities.
Ways of improving learning competences
Schools use indirect means of changing their learning cultures in order to improve learning
competence
This type of implicit support strategy is particularly favoured by junior schools. The
schools which indirectly improve learning competence via a change in the learning
culture often had already implemented a series of smaller ‘reform islands’, i.e.
committed and specially trained staff members introduced suitable concepts they
had learnt about. These schools tended to consider that a change in the learning
culture, which was directed at self-controlled and independently organised pupil
learning and at the same time used the numerous options available for open and
task-oriented teaching, would always lead to an improvement in learning
competences.
These schools did not generally explicitly state learning competence as a major
issue but related it generally to the rest of the tasks associated with school
development processes. Schools with an implicit support strategy relied in particular
on the reflection of the learning process as a secondary task which would in it lead on
to a secondary product of the learning process. Added to this, they used the learning
processes arising from pupils’ individual learning problems to teach the necessary
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learning and working techniques. There is clearly a danger that this strategy will not
automatically lead to an improvement in learning competence. It is absolutely vital
that the individual components are studied and evaluated during the teaching
process. There is a need for further progress in this area.
Schools take a more direct, explicit route to supporting learning competence
This approach was mainly to be found in senior schools. Right at the beginning of their
school development process, the schools had decided to organise systematic
competence training for pupils as a basis for reforming teaching. Teaching quality
and a change in the learning culture were also at the centre of this approach. However,
the necessity for the pupils to explicitly acquire learning competences, or—more
limited— learning methods, was recognised at an early stage and considered to be a
pre-requisite for effective learning. The acquisition of learning competence is an
explicit aim of these schools and can be found in their school programmes. It is also
often to be found as a specific component in their timetable: in addition to separate
training courses and working groups the panel also found specific methods’ days or
weeks, often related to Heinz Klippert’s concepts. A closer link with the general
curricula was considered to be increasingly important. Low context practice elements
were found to be less creative and motivating and had to be supplemented by high
context practical sessions. These schools managed to successfully support learning
competence acquisition in particular by relating their methods’ training to the content
Figure 1. Ways of improving learning competences (From: Czerwanski, Solzbacher,
Vollstadt, 2002, p. 116).
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of the specific lessons. This meant that many of them were already developing internal
learning competence curricula and suitable teaching material.
Some of the schools in this group were using the so-called ‘central subject
approach’. In this approach staff agrees on a central subject which would then be
used to introduce a particular technique or method (e.g. working with tables in
mathematics) within the framework of regular teaching, so that other colleagues
teaching the same class would be able to relate to this knowledge. There is usually a
staff working group which is charged with developing curricula standards and
suitable teaching material as well as with the management of method learning in the
school. In addition to the necessity of producing suitable curricula, it also became
clear that support for the acquisition of learning competence must be embedded
more strongly and applied more directly when it is to be integrated as part of the
implicit support approach. This meant that these schools were also generally
considering a change in their teaching culture. And vice versa, the schools which
were indirectly supporting learning competence realised that the pupils often first
had to directly learn the required methods in order to use them (Czerwanski,
Solzbacher & Vollstadt, 2002, pp. 106–116).6
Framework for the successful improvement of learning competence
The results of the study showed that for both of the approaches mentioned here the
schools had found in practice that the following framework was necessary if learning
competences were to be successfully improved:
1. A school strategy for the acquisition of learning competence must be developed.
This strategy should be based on the fact that
N learning competences can only be successfully acquired if they are taught using
specific contents.
N learning competences have to be built up step-by-step. This means that there
must be cooperation between the various year groups within the school.
N pupils must be taught to manage their own learning. This requires a
differentiation in teaching materials according to their content and level. This is
a huge challenge for the schools.
N pupils must learn to reflect on the learning process and its results. Particularly
important is the self-assessment of improvement. In spite of strenuous efforts in
this area, teachers are not fully satisfied with results and are increasingly resorting
to diaries and other means of recording progress.
N alternative means of assessment should be developed, in particular to support the
ability to reflect on the process.
2. Suitable material must be made available.
There was general agreement among the participating staff that extensive teaching
materials were extremely important. These should be easily accessible and generally
applicable and are considered to be a basic requirement for open methods of
teaching and for successful cooperation between staff. However, the panel found
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little evidence of material related to this. This fact was considered to be negative and
partly explained by the high costs associated with producing the material.
3. The staff must be prepared to cooperate.
During the study it became clear that the extent to which the staff cooperate with
one another and the coordination of the support for learning competence are vital.
Agreement should be reached and assessed at various levels in the school. The
schools had often set time limits for these processes. However, in junior schools this
was less often the case, a fact that was generally associated with the smaller size of
many junior schools, making agreements easier, and the fact that class teachers were
often responsible for all subjects being taught in class, which meant they had to teach
all competences and not only those related to specific disciplines.
4. Further in-house training is required.
In-house training was considered to be the most effective since it could be directly
related to the specific needs of the staff and the school. Almost all of the schools had
difficulties in introducing the concepts and methods learnt during training
undertaken by individual members of staff.
5. The process must be successfully coordinated by the head of school and/or a
working group.
There was common agreement that the effects of introducing new concepts in this
area were slow to materialise and this required a strong management team with the
school director at its head. At the same time, parents and pupil representatives
should be involved in the coordination and management processes and in quality
development. Additionally, the administrative authorities should be favourably
inclined towards improving learning competences and be prepared to accept trial
and error in the schools. There appear to be difficulties in this area in some parts of
Germany.
6. Support from partners outside the school is advantageous.
The support from partners outside the school (companies, public authorities,
libraries, universities, associations etc.) was reported as being absolutely vital in
improving learning competence. This type of support often meant that it was
possible to provide real examples of using learning competences. Other studies back
this up (Solzbacher & Minderop, 2005). There are currently few networks like this
in Germany where junior schools are involved. However, by using open lessons and
learning situations outside school some junior schools have already been able to gain
experience in this type of learning (Czerwanski, Solzbacher & Vollstadt, 2002,
pp.117–135).
Conclusion
The results of this study have provided an insight into factors which influence the
success of teaching learning competences. Approaches differ, but there was general
agreement amongst the schools involved that supporting the acquisition of learning
competences in schools is most effective when it is systematically planned and
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managed. An important aspect of this would be accounting for latest findings in
future teacher training. The core contents with which current training in Germany
must be supplemented include information on the necessary cognitive, instrumental,
social and self competences, the acquisition of a wide didactical-methodical
repertoire related to these factors, an emphasis on the reflection of the individual’s
learning, the use of competence-oriented assessment and evaluation instruments (in
close association with individual support and advice in the learning process), basic
tools for the development of school internal curricula and knowledge about
organisational development within in school. If these factors can be successfully
integrated into new teacher training schemes and the teachers can be provided with
suitable material to fulfil the task, then the first vital steps will have been taken to
improving learning competence acquisition in schools in Germany on a broader
basis.
Notes
1. Because of its importance in helping individuals to deal successfully with the general and
individual challenges of the knowledge society, learning competence is considered to be one of
the basic competences enabling individual and group learning (Baumert, 2001). Weinert
explicitly emphasises learning competence as an educational target which should be
achieved together with the acquisition of intelligent and applicable knowledge, method-
instrument key competences, social competences and an understanding of values. Weinert’s
definition of competence is therefore more than cognitive skills and performance. He
considers that competences must always be defined as learnable competences (Weinert, 2001,
27f).
2. Because of the background of the schools in the study (members of the Network of Innovative
Schools) it could be presumed that a holistic school development process had at least partially
been initiated and that they had implemented successful examples of the acquisition of
learning competence or had studied reasons why its acquisition had not been successful in the
school.
3. The variety of definitions and applications of learning competence, which can only be touched
on here, is a clear indication of the debate and differences of opinion surrounding its use. It
can only be regarded as a framework which requires the definition of values. Both Klieme and
Weinert point to the difficult relationship between competences related to one discipline and
those needed in all disciplines. Since the extent to which the competences have been acquired
was to be evaluated in educational standards, the KMK (the umbrella organisation with
representatives of all the ‘Lander’ educational ministries in Germany) has decided to define
them in a purely functional manner, reducing them to cognitive aspects. They are then specific
for one area i. e. limited to one context sector, but still considered to be of general relevance, in
spite of their limitations. In the educational standard context the KMK therefore limits
Weinert’s diversification using the argument that the KMK is not in a position to account for a
diversification into the non-cognitive area (Klieme, 2004, p. 12). This is a further clear
indication that the entire spectrum of learning competences cannot be covered in educational
standards.
4. The list is an indication of how competences defined in this way are always in danger of also
being seen as pre-requisites for the ability of pupils to be ‘educated’, and of being understood
and used as the result and aim of educational processes.
5. These questions are continually being discussed in the debate about key qualifications. The
extent to which this type of grading can be defined or achieved in the next few years is
questionable. It is indeed questionable as to whether there will ever be an agreement on this.
Improving learning competence in schools 543
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6. The third method of improving learning competences was a combination of both the above
mentioned. It is quite optimal but it was found much less seldom. It appears that an important
finding was that the understanding and agreement reached on aims requires some sort of
organisational framework for implementation, regardless of whether the pupils acquire the
learning competences implicitly or explicitly. The school has to decide how the support for
improving learning competences is going to be provided and which organisational or
educational shape this is to take. Looking at the junior schools, and the educational system of
all disciplines being combined in one general lesson which is used at some of the schools, it
would be important to start by asking how can low context, e. g. direct, methods’ learning, be
provided as a basic training (e. g. computer learning, presentation) and how can it be
integrated into high context methods’ learning allowing for reflective periods? How and to
what extent and at what point in time can discipline specific competences (e.g. reading
competences or learning by experimentation in general science or social science lessons) be
taught or learnt in junior schools?
Notes on contributor
Claudia Solzbacher, professor for educational science, University of Osnabrueck,
Germany. Her main points of work are research in school development, highly
gifted children as well as teaching and learning processes.
References
Baumert, Jurgen u. a. (2001) Kapitel 1. Untersuchungsgegenstand, Fragestellungen und technische
Grundlagen der Studie, in: Deutsches PISA-Konsortium (Hrsg.) (2001) PISA 2000—Die
Lander der Bundesrepublik im Vergleich (Opladen) 15–68.
Czerwanski, Annette, Solzbacher, Claudia & Vollstadt, Witlof (Hrsg.) Forderung von
Lernkompetenz in der Schule (Gutersloh 2002 (Bd. 1) und 2004 (Bd. 2)).
Herrmann, Ulrich (2003) ‘‘Bildungsstandards’’—Erwartungen und Bedingungen, Grenzen und
Chancen, in: Zeitschrift fur Padagogik 5, S. 625–639.
Klieme, Eckhard (2004) Was sind Kompetenzen und wie lassen sie sich messen? in: Padagogik 6,
10–13.
Kommission der Europaischen Gemeinschaft (Hrsg.) (2000) Memorandum uber Lebenslanges
Lernen Arbeitsdokument der Kommissionsdienststellen, (Brussel).
Solzbacher, Claudia (2001) Zwischen Verhalten, Arbeitstugenden und Kompetenzen: Kopfnoten
und die Bewertung von Schlusselqualifikationen, in: Solzbacher, Claudia & Freitag,
Christine (Hrsg): Anpassen, verandern, abschaffen? Schulische Leistungsbewertung in der
Diskussion. Bad Heilbrunn, 77–106.
Solzbacher, Claudia & Stehno, Sabine (2005) Lernkompetenzforderung—eine Aufgabe fur alle
Schulstufen, in: Eckert, Ela; Fichten, Wolfgang (Hrsg.): Schulbegleitforschung. Erwartungen,
Ergebnisse, Wirkunge (Munster und New York), 223–242.
Solzbacher, Claudia & Minderop, Dorothea (Hrsg.) (2005) Qualitatsentwicklung durch
Netzwerke. SchulVerwaltung spezial. Zeitschrift fur SchulLeitung, SchulAufsicht und
SchulKultur, Sonderausgabe Nr. 2.
Weinert, Franz E. (Hrsg.). (2001) Leistungsmessung in Schulen (Weinheim und Basel).
Weinert, Franz E. (2001) Qualifikation und Unterricht zwischen gesellschaftlichen
Notwendigkeiten, padagogischen Visionen und psychologischen Moglichkeiten, in:
Melzer, Wolfgang; Sandfuchs, Uwe (Hrsg.) (2001) Was Schule leistet. Funktionen und
Aufgaben von Schul. (Weinheim), 65–86.
544 C. Solzbacher
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