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APPLIED ENERGY Applied Energy provides a forum for information on innovation, research, development and demonstration in the areas of energy conversion and conservation, the optimal use of energy resources, analysis and optimization of energy processes, mitigation of environmental pollutants, and sustainable energy systems. The journal publishes original papers, review articles, technical notes, and letters to editor. Authors are encouraged to submit manuscripts which bridge the gaps between research, development and implementation. The breadth of coverage ranges from innovative technologies and systems of both fossil and renewable energy to the economic industrial and domestic use of energy with no or minor impact on the environment. Applied Energy is also concerned with the attendant problems of modeling and forecasting, conservation strategies, and the environmental, social and economic impacts of energy policies and usage, including climate change mitigation and other environmental pollution reduction. Editor PROFESSOR J. YAN Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Department of Chemical Engineering, Energy Processes, TR50, SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden Associate Editor S. K. Chou National University of Singapore, Singapore U. Desideri University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy Subject Editors A. K. Gupta University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA H. Jin Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Tony Roskilly Newcastle Institute for Research on Sustainability, UK S. Tu East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China H. Yang Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong K. Yoshikawa Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, Japan Yi-Ming Wei School of Management and Economics, Beijing Institute of Technology, China Editorial Board M. Beer Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA J. Bundschuh Karlsruhe University of Applied Sciences, Institute for Applied Research, Karlsruhe, Germany Y. Cheong (Dennis) Leung University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong A. J. Conejo University of Castilla - La Mancha, Ciudad Real, Spain E. Dahlquist Ma ¨ lardalen University, Va ¨ stera ˚ s, Sweden J. De Ruyck Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussel, Belgium I. Dincer University of Ontario Institute of Technology (UOIT), Ontario, Canada H. Frank Royal Academy of Engineering Sciences and ABB, Sweden S. V. Garimella Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA J. Goldemberg Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil G. Hammond University of Bath, Bath, UK J. Hetland SINTEF, Trondheim, Norway N. Jenkins Institute of Energy, Cardiff University, UK T. B. Johansson Lund University, Sweden M. J. Kaiser Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA S. A. Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology, Cyprus L. Kazmerski National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado, USA X. Li University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada Y. Li University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong H. Lund Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark R. Madlener RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany A. Massardo University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy A. Meier Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, San Francisco, USA M. J. Moran The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA M. Obersteiner Laxenburg, Austria A. P. Roskilly Newcastle University, UK J. Schoonman Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands R. Span Ruhr-Universitat Bochum, Bochum, Germany B. Stigson World Business Council for Sustainable Development, Switzerland D. Stolten Institute of Electrochemical Process Engineering IEK-3, Ju ¨ lich, Germany T. Tezuka Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan Y. Uchiyama University of Tsukuba, Japan J. Wang Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, USA X. Xia University of Pretoria, South Africa Y. Yamagata National Institute for Environmental Studies, Ibaraki, Japan H. Yoshida Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan D. Zhang The University of Western Australia, Australia Emeritus Editor D. Probert Cranfield University, UK Publication information: Applied Energy (ISSN 0306-2619) is published monthly by Elsevier (Radarweg 29, 1043 NX Amsterdam, The Netherlands) and distributed by Elsevier, 360 Park Avenue South, New York, NY 10010-1710, USA. Periodicals Postage Paid at New York, NY and at additional mailing offices. USA POSTMASTER: Send change of address to Applied Energy, Elsevier Customer Service Department, 3251 Riverport Lane, Maryland Heights, MO 63043, USA. Orders, claims, and journal enquiries: please contact the Elsevier Customer Service Department nearest you: St. Louis: Elsevier Customer Service Department, 3251 Riverport Lane, Maryland Heights, MO 63043, USA; phone: (877) 8397126 [toll free within the USA]; (+1) (314) 4478878 [outside the USA]; fax: (+1) (314) 4478077; e-mail: [email protected] Oxford: Elsevier Customer Service Department, The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, UK; phone: (+44) (1865) 843434; fax: (+44) (1865) 843970; e-mail: [email protected] Tokyo: Elsevier Customer Service Department, 4F Higashi-Azabu, 1-Chome Bldg, 1-9-15 Higashi-Azabu, Minato-ku, Tokyo 106-0044, Japan; phone: (+81) (3) 5561 5037; fax: (+81) (3) 5561 5047; e-mail: [email protected] Singapore: Elsevier Customer Service Department, 3 Killiney Road, #08-01 Winsland House I, Singapore 239519; phone: (+65) 63490222; fax: (+65) 67331510; e-mail: [email protected] Funding body agreements and policies: Elsevier has established agreements and developed policies to allow authors whose articles appear in journals published by Elsevier, to comply with potential manuscript archiving requirements as specified as conditions of their grant awards. To learn more about existing agreements and policies please visit http://www.elsevier.com/fundingbodies Applied Energy has no page charges

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APPLIED ENERGYApplied Energy provides a forum for information on innovation, research, development and demonstration in the areas of energy conversionand conservation, the optimal use of energy resources, analysis and optimization of energy processes, mitigation of environmentalpollutants, and sustainable energy systems. The journal publishes original papers, review articles, technical notes, and letters to editor.Authors are encouraged to submit manuscripts which bridge the gaps between research, development and implementation. The breadth ofcoverage ranges from innovative technologies and systems of both fossil and renewable energy to the economic industrial and domesticuse of energy with no or minor impact on the environment. Applied Energy is also concerned with the attendant problems of modeling andforecasting, conservation strategies, and the environmental, social and economic impacts of energy policies and usage, including climatechange mitigation and other environmental pollution reduction.

Editor

PROFESSOR J. YANRoyal Institute of Technology (KTH),

Department of Chemical Engineering, Energy Processes,TR50, SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden

Associate EditorS. K. Chou National University of Singapore, SingaporeU. Desideri University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy

Subject EditorsA. K. Gupta University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USAH. Jin Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, ChinaTony Roskilly Newcastle Institute for Research on Sustainability, UKS. Tu East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, ChinaH. Yang Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong KongK. Yoshikawa Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, JapanYi-Ming Wei School of Management and Economics, Beijing Institute of Technology, China

Editorial BoardM. Beer Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USAJ. Bundschuh Karlsruhe University of Applied Sciences, Institute for Applied Research, Karlsruhe, GermanyY. Cheong (Dennis) Leung University of Hong Kong, Hong KongA. J. Conejo University of Castilla - La Mancha, Ciudad Real, SpainE. Dahlquist Malardalen University, Vasteras, SwedenJ. De Ruyck Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussel, BelgiumI. Dincer University of Ontario Institute of Technology (UOIT), Ontario, CanadaH. Frank Royal Academy of Engineering Sciences and ABB, SwedenS. V. Garimella Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USAJ. Goldemberg Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, BrazilG. Hammond University of Bath, Bath, UKJ. Hetland SINTEF, Trondheim, NorwayN. Jenkins Institute of Energy, Cardiff University, UKT. B. Johansson Lund University, SwedenM. J. Kaiser Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USAS. A. Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology, CyprusL. Kazmerski National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado, USAX. Li University of Waterloo, Ontario, CanadaY. Li University of Hong Kong, Hong KongH. Lund Aalborg University, Aalborg, DenmarkR. Madlener RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, GermanyA. Massardo University of Genoa, Genoa, ItalyA. Meier Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, San Francisco, USAM. J. Moran The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USAM. Obersteiner Laxenburg, AustriaA. P. Roskilly Newcastle University, UKJ. Schoonman Delft University of Technology, Delft, The NetherlandsR. Span Ruhr-Universitat Bochum, Bochum, GermanyB. Stigson World Business Council for Sustainable Development, SwitzerlandD. Stolten Institute of Electrochemical Process Engineering IEK-3, Julich, GermanyT. Tezuka Kyoto University, Kyoto, JapanY. Uchiyama University of Tsukuba, JapanJ. Wang Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, USAX. Xia University of Pretoria, South AfricaY. Yamagata National Institute for Environmental Studies, Ibaraki, JapanH. Yoshida Kyoto University, Kyoto, JapanD. Zhang The University of Western Australia, Australia

Emeritus EditorD. Probert Cranfield University, UK

Publication information: Applied Energy (ISSN 0306-2619) is published monthly by Elsevier (Radarweg 29, 1043 NX Amsterdam, TheNetherlands) and distributed by Elsevier, 360 Park Avenue South, New York, NY 10010-1710, USA. Periodicals Postage Paid at New York,NY and at additional mailing offices. USA POSTMASTER: Send change of address to Applied Energy, Elsevier Customer Service Department,3251 Riverport Lane, Maryland Heights, MO 63043, USA.Orders, claims, and journal enquiries: please contact the Elsevier Customer Service Department nearest you:St. Louis: Elsevier Customer Service Department, 3251 Riverport Lane, Maryland Heights, MO 63043, USA; phone: (877) 8397126 [toll freewithin the USA]; (+1) (314) 4478878 [outside the USA]; fax: (+1) (314) 4478077; e-mail: [email protected]: Elsevier Customer Service Department, The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, UK; phone: (+44) (1865) 843434;fax: (+44) (1865) 843970; e-mail: [email protected]: Elsevier Customer Service Department, 4F Higashi-Azabu, 1-Chome Bldg, 1-9-15 Higashi-Azabu, Minato-ku, Tokyo 106-0044, Japan;phone: (+81) (3) 5561 5037; fax: (+81) (3) 5561 5047; e-mail: [email protected]: Elsevier Customer Service Department, 3 Killiney Road, #08-01 Winsland House I, Singapore 239519; phone: (+65) 63490222; fax:(+65) 67331510; e-mail: [email protected] body agreements and policies: Elsevier has established agreements and developed policies to allow authors whose articles appearin journals published by Elsevier, to comply with potential manuscript archiving requirements as specified as conditions of their grantawards. To learn more about existing agreements and policies please visit http://www.elsevier.com/fundingbodies

Applied Energy has no page charges