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Identifying and using critical thinking skills in theelementary classroomDonald L. Barnes aa Professor of Elementary Education , Ball State UniversityPublished online: 20 Jan 2010.

To cite this article: Donald L. Barnes (1970) Identifying and using critical thinking skills in the elementary classroom,Supervisors Quarterly, 6:2, 7-16, DOI: 10.1080/08878737009554472

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IDENTIFYING AND USING CRITICAL THINKINGSKILLS IN THE ELEMENTARY CLASSROOM

Donald L. Barnes

We have been studying the human mind, its functions and limi-tations for centuries; and, yet, as Richard Renfield points out, wedo not know even today the difference between a brain that thinkspoorly and a brain that thinks well. We see the results of intelli-gence, but we do not know what it is. We can examine a machineor tool and (after we have ascertained its function, horsepower ortensile strength, and other major characteristics) predict with con-siderable accuracy how it will perform. With the brain, we are forced,like the characters in Plato's cave, to assess reality only indirectly.

This inability to view the functioning of the mind directlyspawned one of the great debates in history—that between the Ra-tionalists and Empiricists. To state the argument briefly and some-what inaccurately, Rene Descartes and the other Rationalists be-lieved that the mind could produce ideas—ideas which were moreaccurate and real than those received through sensory impressions.Francis Bacon and his fellow Empiricists, on the other hand, main-tained that the mind could not originate ideas; all thought wasborn out of sensory impressions. The debate appeared counter pro-ductive and hopeless until Emanuel Kant, the great intellectual giantof his time, partially resolved the dispute by pointing out that ideashave both content and form. The content is supplied through sensoryexperiences and the form is determined by the mind.

We are more likely to speak of "perceptions" and "structure"today, but in many ways we are reaffirming Kant's thesis. We be-lieve the mind does analyze, sort, organize and synthesize sensoryimpressions. It can also organize and relate sensorial elements toform new patterns (which in a sense represents the production ofideas). We know, too, that man's mind, like the rest of his body,is changing and that life experiences are probably continually gen-erating new or more refined human competencies.

A great many investigators have sought to plumb the depthsof human intelligence and define the conditions which nurture andsustain intellectual achievement. While Binet, Spearman, Wechsler,Terman, Thurstone, and other researchers were grappling with the

Dr. Barnes is Professor of Elementary Education at Ball State University.

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basic identification and measurement of human competencies, Dewey,Thorndike, Köhler, Skinner, Rogers, and many others were attempt-ing to relate these to problem-solving strategies, instructional tasks,and learning environments. In more recent years greater attentionhas been given to the identification of developmental stages of think-ing (Piaget), specific modes of learning (inquiry, creativity, discovery),and the structure of knowledge (with its implications for teachingand learning).

As the raw ingredients of thinking and reasoning were beingidentified and outlined, it was natural for other investigators to seekways of framing these into systems or hierarchies. Some researchers,notably Spearman and Guilford, attempted large overarching struc-tures within which they might plot the broad reaches of humancompetencies; some fashioned taxonomies for use in interpretinglevels of thinking and instructional roles; still others have soughtto identify the levels at which a particular form or modality of hu-man expression may be represented. Taylor, for example, in his dis-cussion, "The Nature of the Creative Process," suggests five levelsof creative experience:

a. Expressive creativity—independent expression typical of an infantor very young child.

b. Productive creativity— gaining mastery over some portion of theenvironment, not necessarily discernible from products of theirs.

c. Inventive creativity—presence of ingenuity; new uses for old; nonew ideas. This is exemplified in accomplishments of discoverers,explorers, inventors.

d. Innovative creativity—significant alterations in the basic founda-tion or principles.

e. Emergentive creativity—absorbing experiences commonly providedand produce something that is quite different: Einstein, Freud,Picasso, Wright. (7, p. 138)

Formats, protocols, and hierarchies similar to the one aboveallow us to compare and classify individual or group products, per-formances, and episodes. It is often possible to establish norms aswell. Far too frequently, however, we know something of the gen-eral classification but can think of few ways of identifying specificskills or generating methods of translating them into viable class-room activities. A first grade teacher, for example, may want todevelop listening competencies but not know which specific skillsto introduce. She may have further difficulties in finding or fash-ioning activities which will contribute to the skills she is seekingto foster.

There appears to be considerable merit in identifying and sug-gesting applications for critical thinking and reasoning skills eventhough most reputable educators would be exceedingly cautious in

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the use of such a listing. This caution stems from two concerns:

a. The belief that skills related to anything as complex as humanproblem-solving should not be taught in isolation.

b. The recognition of the fact that critical thinking and reasoningskills per se do not guarantee proficiency in problem-solving. HenriPoincare suggested many years ago that science is built up offacts, as a house is built of stones; but an accumulation of factsis no more a science than a heap of stones is a house. Criticalthinking and reasoning skills, likewise, may be used with profitor misused. Much depends upon the child's ability to see rela-tionships between the skills he has acquired and their usefulnessin specific situations.

The range of critical thinking and reasoning skills which mightcontribute to problem-solving is overwhelming. Using convergentthinking, a child may compare or contrast ideas, events, or condi-tions; trace procedural sequences and cause and effect relationships;or outline the rationale for a belief. He may also cite evidence, se-lect key ideas, relate basic principles to their applications and uses,or make judgments concerning the relevance or significance of infor-mation. If he is asked for explanations, these, too, may take manyforms. There are mechanical explanations, sequential explanations,procedural explanations, normative explanations, causal explana-tions, and teleological explanations. Imaginative or creative endeav-ors, on the other hand, normally require very different kinds of com-petencies. When working within closed systems such as mathematicsor weighing the desirability of value decisions, the child is con-fronted with still another set of conditions.

The fifty critical thinking and reasoning skills outlined belowwere selected because they appear to be appropriate for elementary-aged children and are closely related to the kinds of problems chil-dren of this age may be investigating. Almost all of the skills maybe offered in a very rudimentary form or presented in a highly so-phisticated context. Since they are abstracted from the last threeclassifications of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives; however,they deal with what are normally described as "higher order mentalprocesses."

In working with children, it is well to remember that our ten-dency to construct hasty, incomplete, or inaccurate generalizationsabout objects or events around us is a reflection of several verybasic human needs. Most of us have little tolerance for ambiguity.We feel unsettled, uncomfortable, and insecure when we cannotclearly identify and classify the happenings we experience. It is notvery satisfying to consistently reserve judgments, to hedge our con-clusions and live in a tentative no-man's-land. Sweeping statementsare much more striking. They can be quickly and easily introduced

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without study or examination, they seem to carry greater color andauthority, and they can be tailor-made to fit our personal prejudices.This desire for drama as well as certainty and our need for sup-porting evidence to shore up our unexamined biases make the taskof teaching critical thinking skills a very formidable one.

There are at least three general approaches or strategies a teachermay employ in making use of basic skills within learning programs:

a. Under the most ideal conditions, the pupil will sense the needfor the skills as a part of the means he uses in realizing his per-sonal goals. As he searches for information on dinosaurs, he mayrecognize (perhaps only vaguely) the need to organize the infor-mation and relate the ideas he has collected. In a sense, he choosesa topic but learns a process.

b. A more systematic or structured approach may make use of peri-odic assessments and contrived learning experiences. The teachermay evaluate children's performances on tasks which require theapplication of the critical thinking skills she seeks to foster andthen teach those skills which need strengthening through plannedproblem-solving activities.

c. Finally, we may build all, or a part of, the curriculum aroundcritical thinking skills. The ÂAAS programs widely used through-out the United States today reflect this approach.

Each teacher will need to select ways of introducing critical think-ing and reasoning which best fit the requirements of his classroomsituation.

Fifty critical thinking and reasoning skills are arranged belowunder the last three classifications of the Taxonomy of EducationalObjectives. Classroom behavioral illustrations are given for each.

ANALYZINGI. Discriminating and Classifying1. Outlining or summarizing information for particular purposes

An older pupil may list the three major causes of forest fires under an ap-propriate heading, or he may write a brief, concise review of the major pointsdiscussed in a story about forest fires.

2. Classifying objects, people or events into groups according to common factorsA middle grade student may divide his classroom into four uneven parts ac-cording to the color of their eyes, or he may subdivide them according to thefirst letter of their last name.

3. Discriminating among groupings of objects according to established criteriaA fifth grade girl is learning to use certain guidelines in judging the char-acteristics of groupings of pictures (warm colors, lifelike action and humor).She is now examining three groups of pictures to determine which group meetsthe established guidelines.

4. Discriminating among orders of phenomena (higher order, lower order, etc.)A bright child may know that a creature must have keen sense organs which

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discriminate effectively in order to qualify as a highly-developed animal. Heis attempting to determine which of his five specimens will qualify as highly-developed animals.

5. Distinguishing among statements of fact and opinionA pupil is reading a paragraph which contains a large number of statements.He is underlining those statements in red which can be verified and markingthose statements with green which express the personal judgments or inter-pretations of the author.

6. Distinguishing between the real and fanciful (or imaginary)A third grade student is circling those parts of a story that can really happenand marking out those portions which are not believable.

7. Distinguishing between definitions and examplesA sixth grade pupil knows that the dictionary gives word meanings. He mayalso provide information about an object by describing its uses or applica-tions in specific situations. He is now checking a list to see which wordsare described by meanings and which are described through their uses inspecific situations.

II. Identifying, Comparing, and Contrasting

1. Identifying the main idea or main purpose of a presentation

A middle grade child has read three short stories. He is now describing (ina few words) the primary point or thought expressed in each story.

2. Identifying the steps in a process (already taking place)A fifth grade boy is describing how steel is made. He is using a commercialfilmstrip to describe the procedures used.

3. Analyzing the organizational structure of a work (art, music, writing, etc.)A second grade child is listening to a musical record. He has been instructedto clap his hands each time the chorus is repeated.

4. Contrasting or comparing two or more objects according to intensity, parallelelements, dissimilarities, etc.A sixth grade child is trying to detect the similarities and differences betweentwo transistor radios.

5. Determining the relevance of specific, recognized scientific, ethical or aestheticprinciples to particular situationsA fifth grade girl is attempting to decide whether Newton's second law ofmotion can be used to describe the findings of her experiment.

6. Identifying the relationships among events-cause-effect, necessary pre-condition,concomitant effects, by-products, etc.A fourth grade pupil finds that his string of Christmas light bulbs gets dim-mer as he adds additional light bulbs. They also get brighter as he subtractslights.

7. Identifying differing figurai relationships among symbolsA first grader has been confusing the letters "d" and " b " . He is trying tothink of ways he can distinguish between the two letters.

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3. Judging the relevance of information to a specific purpose

Jerry's committee is preparing a report on the topography of the British Isles.They have described the mountains, plains, rivers and moors. Some of thecommittee think they should tell about ocean and sea areas off-shore becausethey described the rivers and lakes. The committee is trying to decide whetherthis information really belongs in their report.

4. Judging the adequacy of completeness of statements, ideas, or proposalsThere have been several plans offered by a committee in Mr. Ryan's room re-garding the use of accumulated class funds. Unfortunately, none of the planswhich has been offered seems to have been very thorough or finished. Eachleaves too many questions unanswered. Classmates are attempting to decidewhich plan is most adequate.

5. Judging the relative importance of information for particular purposes

Randy, a sixth grader, and his friends are planning a bicycle trip. They haveseveral booklets of information which describe different things. Some providemaps of routes, some describe interesting places to visit, and other bookletstell of animals in the region or emergency telephones and travel bureaus.They are trying to decide which two booklets would be most worthwhileto take.

6. Judging the degree to which a given phenomenon is abstract or concreteChildren in Mrs. Robert's sixth grade have been studying community affairs.They find that not all of the concepts and ideas they have encountered areequally tangible and specific. Mrs. Roberts has asked them to differentiatethose ideas and concepts which are obscure, highly theoretical and intangible(such as justice or freedom) from other concepts which are considerably morespecific.

7. Judging whether points in a story or other type of presentation follow logicallyFourth grade children have been making up their own stories and sharingthem with the class. Sometimes the ideas, as presented, are a little mixedup. The class tries to decide after each presentation whether thoughts areconfused or mixed up in the story.

SYNTHESIS

1. Building a hypothesis that may be used to explain a phenomenon or create«a solution

Children in the fifth grade have learned that moss (if present) usually growson the north side of a tree. Several of the children are speculating aboutwhy this is true. They hope to set up experiments later to test their sup-positions.

2. Explaining factors that he, as a student, would consider in conducting aprojectSeveral children in Mr. Randolph's fifth grade would like to serve as chair-man for the Midwinter Parents' Dinner to be given by the class. Each as-piring candidate for the office has been asked to describe what he considersthe important elements to be considered in arranging such an affair (decora-tions, program, menu, etc.) so the class can vote intelligently in selectingthe chairman for the event.

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3. Reproducing a concept or generalization in a different form (a concept ex-pressed in language may be translated into graphic form, for example)

Bill Dimmer's class has learned to construct graphs and charts of variouskinds. They have become so proficient that they can now draw a graph orchart to represent almost any quantitative data presented in a written passage.

4. ParaphrasingChildren in Mrs. Adolph's room have encountered several sayings of famouspeople in their studies of folklore. Since some of the wording is archaic, theyfrequently rewrite the statements to make them more understandable and,frequently, more concise.

5. Developing criteria to be used in distinguishing one event or object fromanotherTom and Jack want to purchase baseball gloves and bats. Their father saysthat he will help supply the money if they will first draw up a list of con-siderations they will use as guide lines in purchasing their equipment sothey will, hopefully, get the most for their money.

6. Explaining how he, the student, would attempt to develop a particular con-clusionThe boys in Mr. Johnson's room are fascinated by detective stories. Mr. Johnsonhas grasped the opportunity to introduce the boys to investigational techniques.Lately the boys have become so adept at ferreting out clues that they canfrequently explain how they would attempt to gather evidence and establishthe guilt of an offender, using only the descriptions of the case.

7. Suggesting new uses for already identified concepts or objectsRalph Cooper likes to generate new ideas with his pupils. He will frequentlybring in a common object like a screw driver and challenge the children tothink of a whole range of possible new uses for the tool.

8. Generating alternate courses of action or devising new procedures for carry-ing out a taskThe cafeteria has been very crowded during the cold winter months. In fact,the congestion has become so much of a problem that the Upper Grade Stu-dent Council is attempting to work out one or two different plans whichwill probably require a change in schedule.

EVALUATING

1. Judging the appropriateness of particular actions or proposals for actions invarying situations (using criteria which serve as expectations in each situation)The sixth grade class officers have been reviewing some of the classroom rules.There have been rules against bringing valuable hobbies to school becausemigrant children felt embarrassed by their poverty (which was made moreapparent by the display of elaborate hobbies). Since the migrant childrenno longer attend Mitchell School, the officers are considering a change inthe rules.

2. Judging the relationship between a particular action and a specified valueor idealThe boys and girls in Mrs. Bronson's fifth grade have been studying value

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situations. Mrs. Bronson frequently asks the children to define a term like"justice" or "equality" and then determine which of three possible ways ofhandling a situation would best reflect the concept of "justice" or "equality"to which they subscribed.

3. Judging probabilities or likely outcomesChildren in Mrs. Alexander's sixth grade have been speculating about thefuture of Asia as they have studied Thailand and Malaya. Several membersof the class believe that all of Asia will eventually be under Communist domi-nation.

4. Judging an observed object or action using pre-established criteria

The pupils in Mrs. Creen's fifth grade are giving demonstration speeches.Before the first speeches were given, Mrs. Green and the class listed the pointsto watch for in a good speech. The class now uses these guides in ratingspeeches as they are given.

5. Judging whether a given statement, generalization or theory is warrantedSeveral of the children in the upper reading group have been reading storieswhich involve social criticism. They often take different sides regarding theconclusions offered by the authors. Some children feel that the author's con-clusions are justified; others feel that there is not enough evidence to supportthe author's claims.

6. Judging or interpreting the mood, tone or general effects of a story, speechor other communicationMrs. Ryan recently read three stories to her class. One story was supposedto convey a feeling of love and affection; the second story was chosen todepict fear and anxiety; the third story was chosen because it reflected sym-pathy and kindness. The children attempted to determine what feeling eachstory was designed to convey.

References

1. Aschner, Mary Jane. "The Language of Teaching," Teachers College Record,LXI, February, 1960, 251-52.

2. Bloom, Benjamin, ed. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York, 1958.3. Gallagher, James J., Mary Jane Aschner, and William Jenne. Productive Think-

ing of Gifted Children in Classroom Interaction. CEC Research MonographSeries B, No. B-5. The Council for Exceptional Children, NEA. Washing-ton, D.C., 1967.

4. Medley, Donald M. "Coding Behavior with OScAR 4V." Mimeographed pre-publication draft. Educational Testing Service, Princeton, N.J.

5. Raths, Louis E., Selma Wasserman, Arthur Jonas, and Arnold M. Rothstein.Teaching for Thinking—Theory and Application. Columbus, Ohio, 1967.

6. Sharpe, Donald. Isolating Relevant Variables in Student Teacher Assessment.Project No. 6-1321,1969.

7. Taylor, A., as quoted in Stephen Charles Hermann, "A Scholastic Approachto the Understanding of Creativity with Implications of Education." Uni-versity Microfilms, Ann Arbor, 1969.

8. Wilson, John. Language and the Pursuit of Truth. Cambridge, England, 1960.9. Woodruff, Asahel D.Basic Concepts of Teaching. San Francisco, 1961, pp. 126-27.

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