Humanities - Universiti Putra Malaysia PAPERS/JSSH Vol. 7 (1...Pertanika Journal of Social Science and Humanities I About the Journal Pertanika, the pioneerjournal of UPM, began publication

ISSN: 0128-7702

P e r t a n i k a J o u r n a l o f

s o c i a l

Hum anitiesVOLUME 7 NO. 1

MARCH 1999

Pertanika Journal of Social Science and HumanitiesI About the Journal

Pertanika, the pioneer journal of UPM, began publication in 1978. Since then, it has established itself as one of the leading multidisciplinary journals in the tropics. In 1992, a decision was made to streamline Pertanika into three journals to meet the need for specialised journals in areas of study aligned with the strengths of the university. These are (i) Pertanikajoumal of Tropical Agricultural Science (ii) Pertanika Journal of Science & Technology (iii) Pertanika Journal of Social Science 8c Humanities.Aims and ScopePertanika Journal of Social Science and Humanities aims to develop as a flagship journal for the Social Sciences with a focus on emerging issues pertaining to the social and behavioral sciences as well as the humanities, particularly in the Asia Pacific region. It is published twice a year in March and September.

The objective of the journal is to promote advancements in the fields of anthropology, business studies, communications, economics, education, extension studies, psychology, sociology and the humanities. Previously unpublished original, theoretical or empirical papers, analytical reviews, txx)k reviews

and readers critical reactions may be submitted for consideration. Articles may be in English or Bahasa Melayu.

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Published by Unviersiti Putra Malaysia Press ISSN No.: 0128-7702

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Pertanika Journal o f Social Science & Humanities Volume 7 Number 1 (March) 1999

Contents

G e n d e r R ole O re in ta tio n o f H u sb an d s a n d W ork-Fam ily 1C o nflic t o f Wives in D ual-Earner Families - Aminah Ahmad

R e la tio n sh ip s A m o n g P a re n tin g K n ow led ge , Q u a lity o f 1 1Stim ulation in the H om e an d Child A cadem ic Perform ance- Rozumah Baharudin

T he P ercep tions o f University Instructors on T he ir Testing 21Practices: A Case Study - Mohamad Sahari

B entuk Perlakuan dan Proses Pram enulis K arangan Pelajar 31T ingkatan Em pat - Marohaini Yusoff

Influences on the Effectiveness o f the N ational Population and 43Family D evelopm ent Board's Parenting M odule - Anjli Panalal K. Doshi and Rozumah Baharudin

Kepuasan Bekerja di Kalangan Pegawai T adb ir Universiti P utra 59Malaysia Serdang, Selangor - Sidek Mohd Noah dan Mardiana Hj. Muhamad

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 7(1): 1 -9 (1999) ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press

Gender Role Orientation o f Husbands and Work-Family Conflict o f Wives in Dual-Earner Families

AMINAH AHMADWomen Studies Unit

Department of Professional Development and Continuing Education Faculty of Educational Studies

Universiti Putra Malaysia 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Key words: gender role orientation, gender role attitude, work-family conflict, working women, working husbands, dual-eamer families

ABSTRAKKajian ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji intensiti konflik antara peranan kerja dan keluarga yang dialami oleh pekerja wanita yang telah berkahwin, orientasi peranan gender bagi suami mereka, dan perkaitan antara orientasi peranan gender bagi suami dan konflik antara peranan keluarga dan kerja bagi wanita. Respons daripada 125 pasangan jururawat serta suami, daripada keluarga dwi-pekerjaan, berkenaan konflik antara peranan kerja dan keluarga dan orientasi peranan gender diperoleh melalui borarig soalselidik dan dianalisis. Hasil penyelidikan menunjukkan wanita mengalami konflik antara peranan keluarga dan kerja dengan intensiti yang berbeza. Hampir satu pertiga daripada jururawat mengalami konflik dengan intensiti yang tinggi, manakala lebih sedikit daripada satu pertiga mengalami konflik dengan intensiti yang rendah. Orientasi peranan gender bagi suami berkisar di sekitar tradisional hingga egalitarian, dengan satu per empat daripada mereka mempunyai orientasi traditional terhadap peranan gender dan lebih sedikit daripada jumlah ini mempunyai orientasi egalitarian. Di antara tiga dimensi orientasi yang dikaji, ia itu, sikap terhadap pekerjaan, pembahagian kerja dan struktur kuasa berasaskan gender, orientasi suami adalah tradisional terhadap struktur kuasa iaitu terhadap wanita memegang jawatan kepimpinan. Orientasi mereka terhadap pembahagian kerja mengikut gender adalah bukan tradisional dan bukan pula egalitarian, manakala orientasi mereka terhadap pekerjaan berasaskan gender adalah lebih egalitarian. Terdapat perkaitan negatif yang signifikan antara orientasi suami terhadap peranan gender dan konflik antara peranan kerja dan keluarga yang dialami oleh isteri.

ABSTRACTThis study examined the intensity of work-family conflict experienced by married working women, the gender role orientation of their husbands, and the relationship between husbands’ gender role orientation and wives’ work-family conflict. Responses from 125 pairs of nurses and their husbands in dual-earner families on measures of work-family conflict and gender role orientations were obtained through self-administered questionnaires and analysed. Results indicated that nurses experienced varying intensities of conflict in trying to meet the demands of work and family roles. Almost a third of the nurses experienced high intensity of conflict while slightly more than a third experienced low intensity of conflict. Husbands’ gender role orientation ranged from traditional to egalitarian with about a quarter of them holding traditional gender role orientation and slightly more than a quarter holding egalitarian orientation. Among the three dimensions of orientation studied, namely, attitude towards gender-based employment, attitude towards gender division of labour and attitude towards gender-based power structure, husbands’ orientation was traditional toward power structure or toward women occupying leadership positions. Their

Aminah Ahmad

orientation toward gender division of labour was neither egalitarian nor traditional while their orientation toward gender-based employment was more egalitarian. Significant negative relationship was found between husbands’ gender role orientation and wives’ work-family conflict.

INTRODUCTIONThe multiple role pressures experienced by women in dual-earner families render work-family conflict virtually inevitable. Work-family conflict is a form of interrole conflict in which two (or more) sets of pressures occur simultaneously such that compliance with one would make m ore difficult compliance with the other (Kahn et al., 1964). Based on the work of Kahn et al. (1964), G reen h au s an d B eu te ll (1985) conceptualized work-family conflict as a form of interrole conflict in which the role pressures from the work and family domains are mutually incompatible. The concern with regard to work- family conflict results in a growing num ber of research in recen t years that have fu rther advanced our understanding of how work affects family life and vice versa (Aminah, 1996; Aminah, 1997; Duxbury et al., 1994; Frone et al., 1992; Netemeyer et al., 1996; O ’Driscoll et al., 1992; Stephens & Sommer, 1996).

Besides studying the conflic t th a t an individual experiences in meeting the demands of multiple roles, the analysis of multiple roles has been extended by looking at how individuals allocate the responsibilities associated with work and family roles. Work/family role allocation ranges from traditional to symmetrical pattern (Voydanoff, 1989). In the most traditional pattern, the husband is the major breadwinner and the wife performs most of the family work. Symmetrical role allocation involves a relatively interchangeable division of labour in which both the husband and the wife engage in earning outside the hom e and family work.

Despite the need for symmetrical role a llo ca tio n am on g em ployed w om en, its development has been slow. Although husbands of employed women have slightly increased the am ount of time spent in family work in recent years, women still spend considerably more time than men do (Pleck, 1985; Sanchez 8c Kane, 1996; Szinovacz, 1984). According to Core (1994) even in households where both partners work, women are likely to spend about twice as much time as men on household tasks. Since women have insufficient time to perform all the tasks expected of them as mothers, wives and worker, they experience work-family conflict (Cook 8c

Rousseau, 1984; Crosby, 1987; Fox 8c Nickols,1983). Despite the work-family conflict that they experience, women try to accommodate all the traditional household tasks in their daily schedule (Aminah, 1995). Studies have also shown that many m en and some women resist major changes in the direction of symmetrical role allocation (Hood, 1983; H unt 8c Hunt, 1987).

Since work-family conflict is partially a function of time and energy (Kahn et al., 1964), there is a greater likelihood that the resistance in change toward symmetrical role allocation including equitable division of household labour will result in a greater extent of work-family conflict experienced by women in dual-earner families. This is further supported by research findings on household division of labour (Lewis 8c Cooper, 1987) which show that working women in dual-earner families continue to be primarily responsible for the household and for childcare, which is consistent with the finding by Sekaran (1988) that working women have less discretionary time. Wiersma and Van Den Berg(1991) found that domestic responsibilities, which include housework and childcare, were a significant correlate of work-family conflict. These findings suggest that the unsym m etrical or unequal division of household labour among women and m en may result in work-family conflict.

Besides the relationship between household division of labour and work-family conflict, the relationship between gender role orientation and household division of labour has been an emerging vein of research. Gender or sex role orientation refers to the beliefs individuals hold about norm al roles of men and women in meeting family and work responsibilities (Bird et al., 1984) or norm ative conceptions o f appropriate behaviour for males and females (Brogan 8c Kutner, 1966). Conceptually, gender role o rien ta tio n is seen as rang ing on a co n tin u u m from tra d itio n a l g e n d e r ro le orientation whereby the roles of men and women are seen as distinct and separate, to a focus on n o n - tra d it io n a l g e n d e r ro le o r ie n ta tio n characterized by role sharing between m en and women. Research examining m en’s gender role orientation in relation to family tasks found that

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Gender Role and Work-Family Conflict in Dual-Earner Families

men who saw their roles as interchangeable with their wives’ roles accepted more responsibility for tasks associated with ch ild care , m eal p rep a ra tio n and c lean in g th an m en who endorsed specialized roles between m en and women (Bird et al., 1984). There are also links reported between husband’s traditional gender role attitudes and participation in fewer family tasks (Perucci et al., 1978), Stafford et al., 1977), and significant correlations between husband’s gender role attitudes and the proportion of the division of labour (H uber & Spitz, 1983). R esearch find ing s have shown th a t non- traditional ideology is associated with husband’s increased solo childcare time (Baruch &Barnett, 1987). Perry-Jenkins and Krouter (1990) found that m en’s attitudes are im portant predictors of household division of labour. High levels of role sharing are also found to be related to egalitarian ideologies (Haas, 1982), and that m en are more likely to share family roles if they are ideologically committed to equity (Silberstein, 1992). The importance o f attitudes is further substantiated by a study of wom en’s economic participation in the non-formal sector and the household division of labour which found that wom en whose husband have less traditional orientations toward gender roles were less burdened with household work (Aminah & Narimah, 1991).

The notion that wom en’s or m en’s views have the greater influence on the couple’s behaviour has been frequently discussed in research (Baruch 8c Barnett, 1987; Baxter, 1992; Bird et al., 1984; Hardesty 8c Bokemeier, 1989; Huber 8c Spitz, 1983; Perryjenkins & Crouter, 1990; Pleck, 1985; Ross, 1987). Much research finds that attitudes affect only on e’s own labour, with m en’s attitudes affecting husbands’ share of family work and wom en’s attitudes affecting wives (Baxter, 1992; H uber 8c Spitz, 1983; Ross, 1987). However, some research finds that both partners’ attitudes influence wives’ and husbands’ labour (Baruch 8c Barnett, 1987; Hardesty 8c Bokemeier 1989; Kamo, 1988). Atkinson and Houston (1984) found significant correlations between both husbands’ and wives’ gender role attitudes and the proportional contribution of husbands to feminine tasks. The research findings suggest that gender role orientation bears a relationship to household division of labour among women and men in dual-earner families.

Given that gender role attitude is related to household division of labour and that household

division of labour is related to work-family conflict, it is therefore expected that gender role orientation is associated with work-family conflict. The objectives of this present study are to 1 ) to determ ine the extent of work-family conflict experienced by married working women, 2 ) to examine the gender role orientations of husbands, 3) to exam ine the re la tionsh ip between husbands’ gender role orientations and work-family conflict experienced by women.

METHODOLOGYSample and ProcedureThe sample in this present study consists of female nurses working in a governm ent hospital in the state of Selangor, Malaysia, and their husbands. Female nurses meeting the following criteria were identified: (a) married, (b) working full-time, (c) living with spouse who is fully employed, and (d) has at least one child staying with them. These criteria were established to ensure that the women as well as their husbands in the sample had quite similar responsibilities in terms of family and work roles. Using random sampling, from a list of 735 eligible nurses, 300 nurses were selected who form half of the sample size. The other half of the sample consists of the 300 husbands of these nurses.

Two sets of self-administered questionnaires (one for the nurse and another for her husband) were distributed to each nurse. The nurses were requested to have their husbands fill in the questionnaires. O ut of the 300 pairs of subjects, 242 (81%) nurses and 125 (42%) husbands returned the questionnaires. For analysis, only data from 125 matched pairs were used.

The women in the sample averaged 35.2 years of age (SD = 7.14) while their husbands 37.7 years (SD = 6.74). Sixty-two percent of the women had com pleted secondary education, while the rest had completed post secondary education with the exception of only 9% who com pleted lower secondary education. With regard to their husbands, 61% had com pleted secondary education, while the rest of the respondents had com pleted post secondary or graduate level of education with the exception of only 2 % who com pleted lower secondary education. There was an average of 2.5 (SD = 1.09) children in the family and an average of 2.4 (SD = 1.07) living at home. Fifty-nine percent of the women and 53% of the men earned an average gross income between RM1001 - RM1500

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Aminah Ahmad

per m onth (USD1 = RM3.8). Only 16% of the women and 26% of the men earned more than RM1500 per m onth. Respondents who had children below school going age constituted 6 8 .8 %. Only 26.0% reported that they had helpers, other than family members, at home. Respondents who sent their children to childcare centres or babysitters constituted 52.9%.IntrumentsWork-family conflict was measured using the interrole conflict scale by Pleck et al. (1980). This scale consists of 8 items that were developed based on the three most prevalent aspects of work-family conflict, namely excessive work time, schedule conflicts, and fatigue or irritability. The response options for these items were 5 point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The reliability coefficient (alpha) for this work-family conflict scale was .85.

Fifteen items were used to measure gender role orientation. Nine of these statements were from the attitude towards women scale developed by Spence et al. (1973). The other 6 items were from the sex-role orientation scale developed by Brogan and Kutner (1976). The items can be categorised into the following dim ensions, namely, 1 ) attitudes toward traditional and non- traditional employment of women and men, 2 ) attitudes toward the gender division of household labour, and 3) attitudes toward the gender-based power structure in the work and outside the work spheres. The wordings of one of the items were modified to simplify its meaning. The item was modified from “Even though a wife works outside the home, the husband should be the main breadwinner and the wife should have the responsibility for running the household” to “A working husband should leave the responsibility of running the household to his wife, even though the wife is working outside the hom e.” The nurses’ husbands were requested to state their level of agreem ent toward each statement using a 5 point Likert scale ranging from 5 (strongly agree) to 1 (strongly disagree). High scores in d ica te re la tively n o n - tra d it io n a l orientation or attitudes toward gender roles. O ut of the 15 items, 1 item was deleted from the scale used in this present study. This item was from the scale developed by Spence et al. (1973) and 1 from the scale developed by Brogan and Kutner (1976). The item was deleted because of

lack of variance and low item-total correlation based on the re liab ility test via in te rn a l consistency. The item deleted was, “In general, the father should have greater authority than the m other in the bringing up of children”. The scale for this present study consisted of 14 items with a reliability coefficient (alpha) of .81. The questionnaire was translated into the Malay language. To ensure that the m eaning of the questions and statements were not lost during translation, a panel of four academic staff was requested to com m ent on the translation. Based on these comments, the translated questions and statements were improved. The panel agreed that the statements in the scales were appropriate to the Malaysian context.

RESULTSForty-four (35%) o f the 125 wom en who responded reported m edium intensity of work- family conflict and another forty-four (35%) reported low intensity of conflict, while 37 (30%) reported high intensity of conflict (Table 1). The overall mean for work-family conflict on a five-point scale was 2.8 (SD = .72).

TABLE 1 Distribution of wives by intensity of

work-family conflictIntensity of Conflict Frequency PercentageLow (<2.43) 44 35.2Medium (2.43-3.18) 44 35.2High (>3.18) 37 29.6

Table 2 presents the means and standard deviations of item s m easuring work-family conflict. The most highly endorsed item was “After work, I come hom e too tired to do some of the things I would like to do” (M = 3.41; SD = 1.14). The item that was least endorsed was “On the job I have so much work to do that it takes away time for my family interest” (M = 2.45; SD = .99).

Thirty-six (28.8%) of the husbands possessed n o n -tra d itio n a l g e n d e r ro le a tt i tu d e s o r orientations which reflect egalitarian conceptions of appropriate male and female behaviours (Table 3) Thirty-two (24.8%) of them possessed traditional orientations whereby their attitudes toward gender-based em ploym ent, g en d er division of household labour and gender-based

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TABLE 2Means and standard deviations of items measuring work-family conflict

Item Mean SDMy work schedule often conflicts with my family life 2 . 8 6 1 . 1 2After work I come home too tired to do some of the things I’d like to do 3.41 1.14On the job I have so much work to do that it takes away time for my family interest 2.45 .99My family dislikes how often I am preoccupied with my work while I am at home 2.64 1 .0 1Because my work is demanding, at times I am irritable at home 2.95 1.16The demands of my job make it difficult to be relaxed all the time at home 2.48 .99My work takes up time that I’d like to spend with my family 2.90 1.13My job makes it difficult to be the kind of spouse or parent I’d like to be 2.71 1 . 2 0

TABLE 3Means and standard deviations of items

measuring gender role orientation of husbandsDimension/Item Mean SD

Attitude towards gender-based employment 3.55 .61There are many jobs in which men should be given preference over women inbeing hired and promoted 3.03 1.19It is more important for a wife to help her husband’s career than to havea career herself 2.90 1.16Women should be able to compete with men for jobs that have traditionallybelonged to men 3.64 .99There should be a strict merit system in job appointment and promotionwithout regard to sex 3.98 .87Women should assume their rightful place in business and all the professionsalong with men 3.80 .89Women should be given equal opportunity with men for apprenticeship in thevarious trades 3.92 .78Attitude towards gender division of labour 3.10 .65Under modern economic conditions with women being active outside the home,men should share in household tasks such washing dishes and doing the laundry 3.84 .99Women should be concerned with their duties of child bearing and house tending,rather than with desires for professional and business careers 2.39 1 .0 1Unless it is economically necessary, married women who have preschool-agedchildren should not work outside the home 2.55 1.13A working husband should leave the responsibility of running the household to hiswife, even though the wife works outside the home 3.62 1.41Attitude towards gender-based power structure 2.58 .75Women should take increasing responsibility for leadership in solving theintellectual and social problems of the day 3.65 .97The intellectual leadership of a community should be largely in the hands of men 2.34 1.04In groups that have both male and female members it is appropriate that topleadership positions be held by males 2.18 1 . 1 0It is generally better to have a man at the head of a department composedof both men and women employees 2.14 1.05Overall mean 3.14 .56

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power structure were traditional. The rest can be categorised u n d er the und ifferen tia ted orientation group, whereby their attitudes were neither traditional nor egalitarian.

Table 4 shows the means and standard deviations o f the gender ro le o rien ta tion dimensions and items. The mean for attitudes tow ard tra d itio n a l an d n o n - tra d it io n a l employment of women and men was the highest (M = 3.55, SD = .61). This shows that husbands have more egalitarian attitudes toward women in re la tio n to em p lo y m en t in c lu d in g appointm ent, prom otion and opportunity in participation. The mean for the attitudes toward gender-based power structure or leadership was the lowest (M = 2.58, SD = .75). This shows that husbands tend to agree to the notion that men should be in positions of authority over women in the work and outside the work spheres. Husbands’ attitudes toward gender division of household labour or the notion that a wife’s place is in the home and the husband’s at work were neither traditional nor egalitarian (M = 3.10, SD = .65). The overall mean for gender role orientation was 3.14 (SD = .56). A one-way analysis o f variance revealed a statistically s ig n ifican t d iffe ren ce betw een th e th re e dimensions (F(2122) = 131.34, p < .05).

TABLE 4Distribution of husbands by gender role

orientation scoresMean Score Frequency PercentHigh (> 3.42) 36 28.8Medium (2.86 - 3.42) 58 46.4Low (< 2.86) 31 24.8

To exam ine the re la tionsh ip betw een husbands’ gender role orientations and work- family conflict, P earson’s product m om ent correlation analysis was conducted. The result indicated that there was a significant negative relationship between the two variables (r = -.15, p < .05). Wives whose husbands held more traditional gender role orientations were more likely to experience greater work-family conflict than wives whose husbands held more egalitarian or liberal orientations. Although husbands should be active in childcare and housekeeping because the wives were pursuing their career as well, and thus reduce their levels of work-family conflict,

the research findings indicated that husbands’ tra d itio n a l g e n d e r ro le o r ie n ta tio n s o r perceptions of appropriate male and female roles would likely increase the extent of conflict that wives experienced in trying to balance the demands of work and family roles.

DISCUSSIONBefore understanding the relationship between husbands’ gender role attitudes and the extent that wives experience work-family conflict it is pertinent to understand how husbands’ attitudes or perceptions towards gender roles relate to husbands’ behaviour elicited in the sharing or n o n -sh a rin g o f h o u se h o ld la b o u r. T he socialisation model could assist in clarifying this relationship. This model posits that gender-role attitudes learned th rough the socialisation process influence the division of labour (Berardo et al., 1987; Ross, 1987). T he trad itio n a l assumption is that strong family concerns are part of the feminine role, and household tasks are wom en’s responsibilities.

A n o th e r e x p lan a tio n stem s from th e n o rm ative in te ra c tio n th eo ry . N o rm ative in teraction refers to the degree to which decisions conform to established norm s about behaviour in a family (Klien and Hill, 1979). Norms refer to personal beliefs about obligations to behave in particular ways. Spouses with traditional value orientations tend to follow more culturally defined sex roles than spouses with modernistic value orientations (Silverman 8c Hill, 1967). The findings of Wheeler and Arvey (1981) lend support to the normative interaction theory regarding division of household labour. They found that there was a positive correlation between liberal a ttitudes o f husbands and responsibility for female tasks. Husbands of wives with liberal attitudes tended to assume female tasks. Wives of husbands with liberal attitudes tended to assume male tasks. Spouses appear to assume responsibility for particular tasks through interaction between spouses on the basis of attitudes of the other spouse.

In addition, the role episode model by Katz 8c Kahn (1966) suggests that the role perceptions of an individual or role sender such as the husband, as one of the main elem ents in a role system, cou ld induce the in d iv id u a l’s o r husband’s role behaviour, besides the behaviour of the role receiver like the wife. This model explains the process of role-sending by the role

6 PertanikaJ. Soc. Sci. 8c Hum. Vol. 7 No. 1 1999


sender and role receiving by the role receiver in a social system. The theory of reasoned action (F ishbein 8c A jzen, 1975) also p rov id es explanation to the attitude-behaviour relationship. According to this theory, attitudes as deep- seated elements of a person’s psychological makeup constitutes a basic influence on his o r her behaviour.

Extending the relationship between attitude and behaviour, based on these theories, to that of the relationship between husbands’ gender role attitudes and husband’s behaviour elicited in sharing of household labour, could help one predict the behaviour of husbands from their attitudes. This attitude-behaviour relationship is also supported by Perucci et al. (1978), H uber and Spitz (1983) and Silberstein (1992) who reported that gender role attitude is related to gender division of household or domestic labour.

With regard to the relationship between gender division o f labour and work-family conflict, research conducted by Wiersma and Van Den Berg (1991) has shown that domestic responsibilities, which include housework and childcare, among women and men in dual-earner families were a significant correlate of work- family conflict. Since gender role attitude is related to household division of labour, and that household division of labour is related to work- family conflict, the preceding discussion helps to explain the association between gender role orientation or attitudes of husbands and the work-family conflict experienced by the nurses.

Several limitations are noted for the study. Subjects were nurses and their husbands, and majority of them had secondary education with only about one-third who had completed postsecondary education. As the factors associated with gender role orientation and gender division of labour are culturally specific and affected by socio-economic class and education (Oakley, 1974; Clark et al., 1978), the results of this study cannot be generalised at large to other groups. Future research should examine men and women in other cultural groups, socio-economic class, and educational levels. The next step in this line of research would be to study the division of household labour among husbands and wives as on e o f th e v ariab les an d focus on th e interrelations between gender role orientations, division of household labour and work-family conflict.

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(Received: 22 June 1999)

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. 8c Hum. Vol. 7 No. 1 1999 9

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 7(1): 11 - 19 (1999) ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press

Relationships Among Parenting Knowledge, Quality o f Stimulation in the Home and Child Academic Performance

ROZUMAH BAHARUDINDepartment of Human Development and Family Studies

Faculty of Human Ecology Universiti Putra Malaysia

43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor,Malaysia

Key words: parenting, child development knowledge, home environment, academic performance, children, family background

ABSTRAKKajian ini telah menentukan perkaitan di antara pengetahuan keibubapaan, kualiti rangsangan di rumah, dan prestasi akademik kanak-kanak. Subjek kajian terdiri daripada 60 orang ibu Melayu dengan anak mereka yang berumur di antara 8 hingga 9 tahun, yang mana telah di kenalpasti menggunakan persampelan rawak berlapis. Data dikumpulkan melalui temubual dan pemerhatian di rumah responden. Pengetahuan keibubapaan telah diukur menggunakan instrumen khas yang telah dibentuk sendiri oleh penyelidik. Kualiti persekitaran rumah telah diukur menggunakan inventori HOME oleh Caldwell dan Bradley (1984). Maklumat berkaitan pencapaian akademik anak telah diperolehi daripada laporan kad kemajuan sekolah. Hasil kajian menunjukkan terdapat perkaitan signifikan di antara variabel tumpuan. Pengetahuan keibubapaan mempunyai perkaitan yang signifikan dengan kualiti rangsangan di rumah, yang mana rfiempunyai perkaitan signifikan pula dengan prestasi akademik kanak-kanak. Analisis selanjutnya menunjukkan bahawa terdapat perkaitan signifikan di antara faktor latarbelakang keluarga (pendidikan, pendapatan keluarga, dan bilangan anak) dengan pengetahuan keibubapaan, dan kualiti rangsangan di rumah. Implikasi hasil kajian dibincangkan.

ABSTRACTThe present study determined the relationships among parenting knowledge, quality of stimulation in the home, and children’s academic performance. Subjects were 60 Malay mothers with children aged 8 to 9 years, who were identified using stratified random selection. Data were collected by interview and observation in the home of the respondents. Parenting knowledge was measured using an instrument that was specially developed by the researcher. The quality of stimulation in the home was assessed using Caldwell and Bradley’s (1984) HOME inventory. Information on the children’s academic achievement was obtained from their school report cards. Results show significant associations among the variables of interest. Parenting knowledge was significantly related to the quality of stimulation in the home, which in turn, was significantly related to the academic performance of the children. Additional analyses show significant associations between family background factors (education, family income, and number of children) and parenting knowledge, and quality of stimulation in the home environment. Implications of the findings are discussed.

iin i I i u i \ family. Most parents want to be “good” parents:Parenting is an art and a science, as well as a doing what is m ost helpful, nu rtu ring and responsibility that comes with being part of a en co u rag in g th e ir c h i ld re n ’s grow th and

Rozumah Baharudin

development. However, parenting is a complex and an intellectually challenging task. Parents need to have accurate and adequate child development and parenting knowledge in order to become com petent parents. Today’s complex and fast changing world may also demand parents to demonstrate higher levels of efficacy to ensure that their children can function effectively and cope successfully with the challenges of m odern living. Parenting today is realized as even more complicated than yesteryears, and thus possessing accurate inform ation and providing quality childrearing environment are vital for producing children with excellent capabilities.

Past research has provided evidence of the interrelationships among parenting knowledge, the quality of the home environment and child development (Stevens, 1984; Parks & Smeriglio, 1986; Stern & Alvarez, 1992). In general, these studies indicated that good understanding of childcare and development could increase a p a r e n t’s ability to p rov ide s tim u la tin g environment in the home, which subsequently, increase h is/her child’s developmental outcomes. Notwithstanding, other studies have shown that poor parenting knowledge is associated with poor parenting adjustment, dissatisfaction with parenting role, less positive child stimulation and con tact, and g rea ter use of physical punishm ent (Altman-Klein & Cordell, 1987; Culp, A pplebaum , Osofsky, 8c Levy, 1988; Chamberlain, Szumoski, 8c Zastowny, 1980). Lower acquisition of parenting information and negative caretaking behaviors have both been shown to be related to negative child outcomes (Culp, Applebaum, Osofsky, 8c Levy, 1988; Elster et al., 1983; Stevens, 1984). Siti Nor et.al.’s(1992) study provided evidence that supported the significant associations between parenting know ledge, p a ren tin g practices and child outcome. The study focused on 30 mothers with children aged 5-6 year-old. Findings from the study indicated that the level of parenting know ledge acq u ired by th e m o th e rs is significantly related to their childcare practices, and which in turn, is significantly related to the cognitive abilities of their children.

Based on available literature, the present study determ ined the relationships am ong parenting knowledge, the quality of stimulation provided in the home environment and the academic achievement of children. The study focused specifically on Malay mothers and their

8-9 year-old children. Fathers were no t included in the present study for it has been shown that mothers are traditionally more involved than fathers in the everyday activities of their children, and hold m ajor im pact on their ch ild ren’s development (Sroufe, Cooper 8c Dehart, 1996).

Besides determining the relationships among the three variables of interest, this study also determ ined the relationships between family background factors (age of m other, education, family income and num ber of children) and parenting knowledge, quality of stimulation in the home, and the child academic performance. A review of the literature indicated that there are su b s tan tia l re la tio n s be tw een fam ily background factors and the levels of parenting knowledge, quality of home stimulation and the level of achievement children possessed. In their study, Park and Smeriglio (1986) found s ig n ifican t asso c ia tio n s be tw een fam ily background and parenting knowledge, home environment and child outcome. The study showed that among low socioeconomic status families, parenting knowledge was significandy related to quality of stimulation in the home, that in turn, is related to a child’s developmental perform ance. Park and Sm eriglio (1986) observed that the m others parenting practices could be influenced by their knowledge of the relationship between childrearing practices and child outcomes.

R esearch find ing s by Tsao (1994) is consistent with Park and Smeriglio (1986) findings. In the study, Tsao exam ined the relationships between several family background factors including education, occupation and income and parenting knowledge, knowledge of child development, and childrearing involvement of 145 Taiwanese parents (55 fathers and 90 mothers). The study found that parents’ levels of education, occupation, and annual income are positively related to the parents’ level of pa ren tin g know ledge, know ledge o f child developm ent and childrearing involvement. Negative re la tionsh ip was however, fo u n d between the parents’ age and their level of p a re n tin g know ledge an d c h ild re a r in g involvement. Older parents were shown to have better information on childrearing, and are more involved in caring for their children.

A recent study by Doshi and Rozumah (1997) provided evidence that support the significant associations between family factors


Relationships in the Home and Child Academic Performance

and parent’s knowledge, attitude and childcare practices (KAP). The study sample consisted primarily of low-income parents (n = 80) from a FELDA scheme in Negri Sembilan. Although the study found small relations between selected family background factors and parenting KAP, it dem onstrated that family context do influence parenting KAP. Results of the study showed that respondents’ age and levels of parental education are significantly related to parenting knowledge. Parents who were older in age and completed m ore years of formal education showed better parenting than other parents in the study. The study also found that m ore educated parents have better parenting attitude than other parents. In addition, the findings indicated significant and positive correlation between family income and parenting practices.

The primary purpose of the present study is to determ ine the relationships among parenting knowledge, the quality of stimulation in the home, and child’s academic performance. The study expected that there are significant and positive correlations among these three variables. Also of interest to the present study is the relationships between selected family background factors and parenting knowledge, the quality of stimulation in the home, and child academic performance. The study expected the following variables to be related to the three dependent variables focused on in the present analyses: age of mother, education, family income and num ber of children. Findings from this study may create awareness among parents on the importance of acqu iring ap p ro p ria te know ledge in child development and of providing proper guidance and stimulation for children to reach their full potentials. In addition, the information obtained may help to further refine the understanding of factors tha t in fluence paren ting and child development.

METHODOLOGYSampleSample for the study consists of 60 Malay mothers and their 8-9 year-old children. The sampling tech n iq u e ad o p ted was stra tified rando m sampling, i.e.. a num ber of Third Grade male an d fem ale s tu d en ts from Sungai K apar E lem entary School, Sem anggol, Perak who fulfilled the study criteria (Malay, 8-9 year-old, and staying in two-parent families) were initially identified and selected at random . Mothers of

these children were then included as respondents for the study. Table 1 shows the dem ographic characteristics of the sample.

M others’ involved in this study could be considered as relatively young. Their age ranged from 25 to 50 years, with a mean of 37.7 years. A lm ost all o f the re sp o n d en ts had som e schooling, average educational attainm ent was 7 years, and ranged from 0 to 14 years. Quite a large p rop o rtio n o f the resp on den ts have children between 4 to 8 . Mean num ber of children was 5.

Slightly more than half of the respondents indicated they were unemployed, for those who were employed, most were in blue-collar jobs (e.g., farmers 8c laborers). The average family income for the sample was over R M 800 (median = RM600) per m onth. Total family income was determ ined by adding the husband's, wife’s and other incomes (such as from part-time jobs or contributions from older child ren who are already working). Overall, respondents in this study could be considered as coming from low- income families. Given that the respondents were no t living in urban or m etropolitan area of the country, the am ount of family income they have may be adequate.

Half (51.7%) of the children involved in the study were male, and the rest (49.3%) were female. Their age ranged from 96 months to 120, with a mean of 108.5 months.InstrumentationParenting Knowledge was assessed using a Likert- type scale that was specially developed by the researcher for the study. The instrum ent contains 2 0 items measuring the m others’ childrearing/child developm ent knowledge. These items were developed based on findings in the research literature, child developm ent theories, and experts’ opinions. This m ethod of scale development therefore, provides evidence for its content validity. Internal consistency reliability that was calculated for the scale produced a coefficient alpha of .60.

In order to avoid reponse bias, items in the scale were arranged in a mixture of positive ( 1 1 ) and negative (9) statements. Examples of positive and negative items are as follows: “Parents need to give their child opportunity to voice out h is/ her opin ion” (positive); “Children need to be treated like adults so that they m ature quickly” (negative).


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TABLE 1Demographic characteristics of sample

N % Mean SDAge (vears)

1 0 . 0Less than 30 630-40 34 56.7More than 40 2 0 33.3

37.7 6 . 8Education (vears)Less than 4 1 0 16.74-10 34 56.7More than 10 16 26.7

7.2 3.8Occupation

10.7Professional 8c Technical 6Administration 8c Management 3 5.0Clerical 1 1.7Sales 5 8.3Farmers/labourers 1 0 16.7Not working 35 58.3IncomeLess than 500 50 83.3500-1000 5 8.3More than 1000 5 8.3

228.3 358.4Familv IncomeLess than 1000 45 75.0500-1000 9 15.0More than 1000 6 1 0 . 0

850.7 650.0No. of childrenLess than 4 1 1 18.34-8 43 71.7More than 8 6 1 0 . 0

5.4 2.7Age of child (months)Less than 105 18 30.0105-115 29 48.3More than 115 13 21.7

108.5 6 . 8Sex of childGirls 29 48.3Boys 31 51.7Note. SD = Standard Deviation

Mothers’ responses for this scale ranged Quality of Stimulation in the Home wasfrom 3 (strongly agree) to 0 (strongly disagree). measured using the elementary version of theNegative items were recoded before scoring so Home Observation for M easurem ent o f thethat high scores represent high knowledge in Environment (HOME) scale (Caldwell 8c Bradley,p aren tin g . M ean score ob ta ined by the 1984). The scale consists of 59 items, which arerespondents on the parenting knowledge scale grouped into 8 categories: 1. Emotional and was 61.4 (SD = 3.3), and the range span from 56 Verbal Responsitivity, 2. E ncouragem ent of to 70. Maturity, 3. Em otional Clim ate, 4. Growth14 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. 8c Hum. Vol. 7 No. 1 1999


Fostering Materials and Experiences, 5. Provision for Active Stimulation, 6 . Family Participation in Developmentally Stim ulating Experiences, 7. Paternal Involvement, and 8 . Aspects of the Physical Environment. Inform ation for each item o f th e scale was o b ta in ed by bo th observation and interview in the home at a time when the target child is awake and can interact with the m other. Each item is scored ‘yes’ (1) or ‘no ’ (0 ), and a total score is obtained for all items in the 8 subscales. High scores indicate the availability of “high” quality stimulation in the home. The mean score on the HOME for the present sample was 42.8 (SD = 6.2).The respondents’ scores ranged-from 25 to 55.

Data on the reliability and validity of the HOME are widely published. The HOME has been used in several countries and across different cultural groups. Bradley et al.’s (1988) data revealed a coefficient alpha of .90 for the elementary HOME. For the present study, the HOME scale total score coefficient alpha was .82.

Academic Performance of the children was determ ined by adding their second-semester examination (1994) scores on 4 basic subjects (i.e., Malay L anguage, English Language, Mathematics, and Islamic Studies). The highest score attainable for each subject was 1 0 0 points, and thus, the 4 subjects totalled to 400 points. The mean score of the children on the four academic subjects used in the analyses was 248.2 (SD=81.8). Median score was 259, and ranged from 47 to 374.

RESULTSCorrelational analyses were done to determ ine the extent of associations am ong parenting knowledge, quality of stimulation in the home, and the child’s academic performance. Table 2 presents the zero-order correlations among the three variables. All of the correlations were in the expected d irections, and m oderate in magnitude.

Consistent with expectations, there were significant and positive correlations am ong parenting knowledge, quality of stimulation in the home and child’s academic performance. These findings are consistent with past studies (e.g., Steven, 1984; Park Sc Smeriglio, 1986; Doshi & Rozumah, 1997). Parenting knowledge is significantly related to the quality of stimulation

TABLE 2Zero-order correlations among parenting know ledge, quality of stimulation in the home, and

academik performance

VariablesPKr

QSr

APr

Parenting knowledge 1 . 0 0 0.53*** 0 41***Home stimulation 1 . 0 0 Q44***Academic performance 1 . 0 0

Note. PK = Parenting knowledge; QS = Quality of stim ulation in the hom e; AP = Academic perform ance of children. *p <.05, **p <.01, ***p<.001

in the hom e and the academic perform ance of children. Likewise, the quality of stimulation parents provide for their children in the home is sig n ifican tly re la te d to th e acad em ic achievem ent scores of the children. These findings tend to suggest that parents who know more about caregiving structure their home environm ent in ways that are stimulating for the children’s to excel in school.

As noted earlier, the second objective of the present study is to determ ine the relationships between selected family background variables (specifically, age of m other, education, family income and num ber of children) and parenting knowledge, quality of stimulation in the home, and child academ ic perform ance. It was expected that all of these family background variables included in the analyses will be significantly related to the three dependent variables. The data were consistent with this expectation. Table 3 shows the zero-order correlations among the variables used in the analyses: family background (age of m other, education , family incom e, and num ber of ch ild ren ), paren ting knowledge, quality of s tim u la tio n in th e ho m e, an d academ ic achievement of children. Most of the correlations coefficients were statistically significant, and small to m oderate in size.

All of the family background variables, with exception of m others’ age, were found to be significantly related to the m others’ level of parenting knowledge. Mothers who have had higher levels of education and family income tended to have higher knowledge in parenting than other mothers in the study. These m others also had fewer children at the time of the study.

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 7 No. 1 1999 15

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TABLE 3.Zero-order correlations between family

background variables and parenting knowledge, quality of stimulation in the home,

and child academic performance

VariablesPKr QSr

APr

Age of mother -0.26 0.05 0 . 1 2

Education q 4g*** 0.59*** q 4i***No. of children -0.33*** -0.36** -0.27*Note. PK = Parenting knowledge; QS = Quality of stim ulation in the home; AP = Academic perform ance of children. *p <.05, **p <.01, ***p<.001

As shown in Table 3, three out of the four family variables were significantly related to the quality of stimulation in the home. Mothers who have had more years of schooling, higher family income and fewer children seemed to provide better quality stim ulation for their children. In addition, these mothers have higher levels of parenting knowledge compared to other mothers.

With exception of the m others' age, the family background variables were found to be significantly related to the children’s academic performance. The study found that children who do well in school appeared to come from families that have higher levels of family income, and fewer children in the households. These children also tended to have m others who completed more years of education. Additionally, these mothers have higher levels of parenting knowledge and provide the children with better quality stimulation in the home.Predictors of Parenting Knowledge, Quality of Stimulation and Child's Academic Performance Several stepwise multiple regression analyses, using the forward selection procedure were also perform ed in the present study to determ ine which of the selected independent variables un iq uely p red ic t th e m o th e rs ’ p a ren tin g knowledge, the quality of stimulation the mothers provide, and the academic perform ance of the children. Results of the analyses are shown in Table 4. The F values for all the regression models were found to be highly significant (p <.001).

In the first set of the regression analyses, shown in the first column of Table 4, parenting

TABLE 4.Stepwise multiple regression analyses on

predictors of parenting knowledge, quality of stimulation in the home, and academic

performance

VariablesPKB

QSB

APB

Age of mother - 04*** -Education .28* 5 4 *** -Family Income .38** - 29**No. of children - -.30** -PK - .26* -QS NI - .29*AP NI NI -R2, .34 .55 .26F value 14.51 16.54 9.76Sig. Level . 0 0 1 . 0 0 1 . 0 0 1

Note. Betas reported are standardized beta. Betas are no t reported for variables that failed to en te r a m odel. PK = Parenting knowledge, QS=Quality o f stim ulation in the hom e, AP=Academic perform ance, NI=Not included in the model. *p <.05. **p<.01, ***p <.001

knowledge was the dependent variable and the family background variables (age of m other, years of education, family income, and num ber of children) were used as the independent variables. The four family background variables accounted for 34% of the variance in the m others’ parenting knowledge scores. O f the four variables, only m others’ education and levels of family income were significant predictors of the m others’ parenting knowledge when other factors were controlled.

In the second set of the regression analyses (see second column of Table 4), quality of stim ulation in the hom e was used as the dependent variable and the family background variables including parenting knowledge was the independent variables in the analyses. Table 4 shows that only family income did no t enter the prediction equation. The results show that m others’ age, education, levels of family income and parenting knowledge were all significantly related to the quality of stimulation m others provide for their children at hom e when other factors were statistically controlled. The predictor variables accounted for 55% of the variance in the HOME scores.



Results of the final set of the regression analyses are shown in the third column of Table 4. In this analysis, the dependent variable was the academic achievement scores of the children. Independent variables used in the analysis were family background, parenting knowledge, and HOME scores. Together the predictor variables accounted for 26% of the variance in the achievem ent scores of the children. After controlling for other factors, only two variables emerged as unique predictors of the child ren’s achievement: family income and HOME scores.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONSResults of the bivariate analyses indicated that parenting knowledge is significantly related to quality of stimulation in the home, and children’s academic attainm ent. Similarly, quality of stimulation in the hom e is significandy related to the children’s school performance. Clearly, the results suggest that acquiring appropriate and adequate child development knowledge is im portant for com petent parenting. The quality of parenting children received will subsequently determ ine how well they do in school. Lower level of knowledge in child developm ent may therefore result in poor home environm ent and poor child functioning. Thus, parenting must be regarded as a process that need preparation and learning, and not as a natural instinct. It seems advisable for those engaged in parenting education to em phasize the im portance of systematic understanding of child development and caregiving for stimulating children towards their optimum development.

The study found that several selected family backgroud factors (specifically, age of m other, education, family incom e, and num ber of children) are related to the m others’ parenting knowledge, quality of stimulation she provides in th e ho m e, an d c h i ld re n ’s acad em ic performance. Mothers who completed more years of schooling, have higher family income and fewer children to care for achieved higher scores on the parenting knowledge scale than other mothers in the study. These m others were also found to provide better quality stimulation in the home, and have children who achieved good grades in school.

When the family background factors were statistically controlled, only two factors (i.e., education and family income) were found to be significantly related to the m others’ levels of

parenting knowledge. More educated m others and m others with higher familv income were found to have higher parenting knowledge. These findings seem ed to imply that m ore educated mothers, and m others with higher family income have the means to obtain more inform ation on child-rearing. Being m ore educated these m others may have read more books related to child care and development, and attended m ore seminars, workshops or courses on children.

Four variables were found to be unique predictors of the quality of stimulation m others provide for their children in the home: age of mother, education, num ber of children, and parenting knowledge. Consistent with previous research (Ragozin et al., 1982; Stevens, 1984; Menaghan Sc Parcel, 1991) m others who were older in age, completed more years of education, had fewer children to care for, and had higher levels of parenting knowledge were found to be more able to prepare a hom e environm ent that are cognitively conducive for their children. These findings show that over the years more m ature m others may have gathered greater information and experience on ways to stimulate their children’s learning, thus, they scored higher on the HOME inventory.

It is noteworthy that mothers with more children are less able to provide stimulating environm ent for their children at home. This finding is consistent with past studies (Blake, 1989; Menaghan Sc Parcel, 1991). Perhaps for these mothers, providing the children with their basic daily needs (e.g., food and clothing) may be more im portant for the children’s survival. Moreover, caring for more children may dem and a lot of time and energy; so the m others may have very little tim e and energy left for c o n s tru c tin g a m ore s tim u la tin g ho m e environment.

The fact that family income did no t turn out as an im portant predictor may be largely due to the HOME measure, that also includes items assessing qualitative types of stimulation (i.e., aspects of parent-child interaction which do n o t re q u ire o b je c ts /m a te r ia ls to be purchased) available in the hom e environment. Another alternative explanation is that the effects of family income may have been more indirect via education or parenting knowledge.

Consistent with expectations, paren ting knowledge significantly predicts the quality of


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stimulation provided by mothers at home. Parks and Sm eriglio (1986) also foun d sim ilar relationships. This finding imply that mothers who know m ore about childrearing would structure their home environments in ways that promote positive development in their children.

After partialling out other factors in the study, only family incom e and quality of stimuladon in the home emerged as unique predictors of children’s performance. Children who came from families with higher incomes, and provided with better quality stimulation perform ed well academically. This finding may indicate that families with higher income have the ability to provide their children with resources (hum an and non-human) that are im portant for their children’s cognitive development. Hum an resources such as the m other’s education and knowledge are definitely at a higher level in high income than low income families, thus having mothers with these characteristics benefits th e c h ild re n socially an d genetica lly . Furtherm ore, higher income families generally have fewer children than lower income families. Therefore, in terms of parental time, attention, and com m unication (non-hum an resources), children with fewer siblings may be gaining more of these resources than children with larger num ber of siblings.

As expected the study found that quality simulation in the home significantly predicted the child ren’s academic achievement. This fin d in g is co n sis ten t with ea rlie r studies (Rozumah 8c Luster. 1992; Gottfried 8c Gottfried, 1984). The result shows that a home that is enriched with educational materials (e.g., games, books, etc.), and that allows children to learn and explore will encourage positive development in children. Furtherm ore, a home in which parents are always available and responsive towards th e ir c h ild re n ’s needs, will be a cognitively stimulating home for children.

Although in the multiple regression analyses mothers educational level, parenting knowledge, and num ber of children were not significant predictors of the children’s achievement scores, this does not imply that these factors have no influence on the children’s outcomes. Earlier correlational analyses showed that these factors have significant relationships with academic achievement (see Table 4). Thus, these findings may suggest th a t the effect of education, parenting knowledge, and num ber of children

may more likely to be indirect, i.e., via the quality of stimulation provided in the home.

The findings discussed so far may imply that those who work with families need to consider the contributions of num erous factors within the family ecosystem on parents ability to provide optimum care. Practioners may need to develop intervention strategies that are appropriate for fam ilies at d iffe re n t b a c k g ro u n d o r socioeconom ic status. Low socioeconom ic fam ilies, p a r ticu la r ly may n e e d am ple opportunities to learn about child care and development. Living in stressfiul life conditions (e.g., job instability, low income, large family size, poor housing) may som etim es h ind er parents ability to focus on the developmental needs of their children or the quality of parent- child interaction. Family support or intervention programs that are appropriately design can help children and families to overcome factors that underm ine their optimum functioning.

CONCLUSIONResults from the present study showed significant associations among parenting knowledge, quality of stimulation in the hom e, and ch ild ren’s academic performance. The study also revealed that at the bivariate level, family background factors including m others’ education, family income, and num ber of children are significantly related to the m others’ parenting knowledge, quality of stimulation she provides in the hom e, and children’s academic performance. However, different factors were shown to predict the three major variables focused on in the study after the effects o f o th e r fac to rs w ere statistically controlled. The significant predictors for parenting knowledge were education and family income; for quality of stimulation in the hom e were age of m other, education, num ber of children, and parenting knowledge; and for children’s perform ance were family income and quality of stimulation in the home.

Results from the present study should be viewed cautiously for it was exploratory and correlational in nature. Moreover, the sample size may have underestim ated the effects of the selected variables on the outcomes of interest. Future researchers may therefore want to further examine the effects of these variables using a larger sample. O ther parenting factors such as parental beliefs, goals and expectations may also be interesting to explore in future studies. In

18 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. 8c Hum. Vol. 7 No. 1 1999


addition, parental influence on other aspects of child outcomes such as social and emotional development may be the focus of future research. Several findings from the present study may be relevant to policy-makers and practitioners involved in programmes or activities that are related to parenting and child development.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTThe author wishes to thank Nor Azemah Azeman for her assistance in the data collection.

REFERENCESA ltman-Klein, H. and A. C ordell. 1987. The

adolescent as mother: Early risk identification. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 16: 47-58.

B lake, J. 1989. Family Size and Achievement Berkeley: University of California, Press.

B radley, R. H., B. Caldwell, S. L. Rock, H. M. Ham rick and P. H arris. 1988. Hom e observation for m easurem ent of the environm ent: D evelopm ent of a hom e inventory for use with families having children 6 to IO -years old. Contemporary Educational Psychology 13: 58-71.

Caldwell, B. M. and R. H. B radley. 1984. Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment. Little Rock, AR: University of Arkansas at Little Rock, Center for Child Development and Education.

C hamberlain, R. W. and E. K Szumowski. 1980. A follow-up study of parent education in pediatric office practices: Impact at age two and a half. American Journal of Public Health 70: 1180-1188.

C ulp, R., M. A ppelbaum, J. O sofsky, a n d J. L evy. 1988. A d o l e s c e n t a n d o ld e r m o th e r s : C o m p a r is o n b e t w e e n p r e n a t a l m a te r n a l variab les a n d n ew b o rn in te ra c t io n m ea su res. Infant Behavior and Development 11: 353-362.

D oshi, A. and B. Rozumah. 1997. Relationships between selected socioeconomic factors and parenting knowledge, attitude and practices among FELDA settlers. Paper submitted for publication to Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum., UPM.

E lster, A ., E. McA namey, M. Lamb. 1983. Parental behavior of adolescent mother. Pediatrics 71: 494-503.

Gottfried, A. W., A. E. Gottfried. 1984. Home environment and cognitive development in young children of middle-socioeconomic-status families. In Home Environment and Early Cognitive Development: Longitudinal Research, A. W. Gottfried (Ed.) Orlando, FL: Academic Press, (p. 57-115).

M e n a g h a n , E. G., and T. L. P ar c el . 1991. Determining children’s home environments: The impact of maternal characteristics and current occupational and family conditions. Journal of Marriage and the Family 53.- 41 7431.

Parks. P. L. and V. L. Smeriglio. 1986. Relationships am ong parenting knowledge, quality of stim ulation in the hom e and in fan t development. Family Relations 35: 411-416.

Ragozin, A. S., R. B. B asham, K A. C mig, M. T. G reenberg and N. M. Robinson . 1982. Effects of m aternal age on p a ren tin g role. Developmental Psychology 18: 627-634.

Rozumah B. and T. L uster. 1992. Factors related to the quality of the home environment and children’s achievement. Paper presented at the National Council of Family Relations Conference, Orlando, Florida, Nov. 4-1 1.

S iti N or Y., Rozumah B., and S uheir M.Y. 1992. Mothers’ knowledge, attitude, and practices in ch ild rearing and c h ild re n ’s cognitive development. Paper presented at the World Organization of Early Childhood Seminar (OMEP) for the Asia and Pacific Region, OMEP, Tokyo, Japan, p. 159-165.

Sroufe, L. A., R. G. C ooper and G. B. D eH art. 1996. Child Development: Its Nature and Course. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw- H ill, Inc.

Stevens, J. H. 1984. Black grandmothers and black adolescen ts m others know ledge about parenting. Developmental Psychology 20: 1017- 1025.

Stern-M. and A. A lvarez. 1992. Knowledge of child developm ent and caretaking attitudes: A comparison of pregnant, parenting, and nonpregnant adolescents. Family Relations 41: 297- 302.

T sao, L i-Yo u . (1994). Factors related to parenting knowledge, knowledge of child development, and child rearing involvement among parents. Unpublished Master’s thesis, The University of Arizona.

(Received: 8 October 1997)



The Perceptions o f University Instructors on Their Testing Practices: A Case Study

MOHAMAD SAHARIKulliyah of Education

International Islamic University Malaysia Jalan Gombak, 53100 Kuala Lumpur

Keywords: Testing, assessment, instructor-made-test, achievement test, higher education

ABSTRAK

Keupayaan pendidik dalam aspek pengujian dan penilaian telah diperakukan sebagai satu daripada petunjuk tingkat keberkesanan pengajaran. Yang demikian itu telah merangsang pelaksanaan penyelidikan ini yang secara khususnya disorotkan kepada amalan pengujian dan penilaian di peringkat pengajian tinggi. Kajian ini dilakukan dengan tujuan meninjau penggunaan prosedur penilaian yang sah dan boleh dipercayai dengan berdasarkan laporan para pensyarah di sebuah universiti awam. Sam pel kajian terdiri daripada 105 tenaga akademik yang dipilih secara sistematis. Untuk merekodkan laporan pengujian dan penilaian yang diamalkan oleh mereka, penyelidik menggunakan satu senarai semak tentang prosedur membina soalan ujian akhir semester dan prosedur pemarkahan. Analisis deskriptif dan regresi logistik digunakan untuk menemukan jawapan terhadap masalah penyelidikan. Didapati sebahagian besar daripada responden melaporkan bahawa mereka mengamalkan langkah-langkah yang sejajar dengan prosedur pengukuran dan penilaian yang sah dan boleh dipercayai, terutamanya daripada segi pemarkahan. Juga ditemukan bahawa amalan pengujian yang sah adalah lebih ketara dan signifikan di kalangan pensyarah dalam bidang pendidikan, psikologi dan sains kemanusiaan berbanding dengan pensyarah dalam bidang lain. Kajian ini secara sederhana sekali membentangkan implikasi penemuan kepada amalan pendidikan, khususnya amalan pendidikan dan pensijilan tenaga akademik di institusi pengajian tinggi.

ABSTRACTInstructors’ ability and skills in creating valid and credible tests are the prime concerns that prompted this study. The focus of the study was to investigate prevalent testing practices among lecturers in higher learning institutions. Specifically it examined the procedures followed by university instructors in the constructions of valid and reliable tests. The study sampled 105 respondents systematically selected from a pool of university instructors. To obrain responses from the respondents regarding their testing practices, a checklist containing relevant items on the creation of final examination questions and their marking schemes was constructed. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and logistic regressions. It was discovered that a majority of the respondents had applied proper procedures in creating valid and reliable tests, especially with respect to marking examination scripts. It appeared that instructors from the faculties of education, psychology and human sciences demonstrated adherence to these standards and proper procedures more significantly than those from other faculties. From the findings, the study synthesized implications on educational practices, in particular the certification of testing competency among instructors of higher learning institutions.

IN 1RO D U C1 ION tests, it would be useful to know how instructorsSince much of college and university learning is develop and use them. However, research on assessed through instructor-made achievement student assessment by and large tends to focus

Mohamad Sahari

on the testing practices of the elementary and secondary school teachers. The results of research in this area have painted a somewhat disturbing picture. Despite their importance as a means of helping students to learn, elementary and secondary school teachers are generally poorly prepared to appropriately apply testing concepts, processes, and procedures.

Over the last few decades, much attention has been given to the importance of teachers’ assessment to the degree that it has become an indicator of teacher effectiveness (Daniel 8c King,1998). Shapiro (1995) pointed out that to satisfy the requirem ents set by the American N ational Board for Professional T eaching S tan dards, teach e rs m ust have ad eq u a te know ledge o f te s tin g an d m easu rem e n t procedures. On an equal note, Popham (1995) aptly stressed th a t public p ercep tio n s of educational effectiveness and teacher evaluation rely partly on teachers’ assessment practices. One justification for this attention to teachers’ testing and m easurement competency is that proper assessment allows teachers to diagnose students’ strengths and weaknesses, monitor their students’ progress, assign grades, and determine their own instructional effectiveness (Popham, 1995). Furtherm ore, assessment has become an integral com ponent of teaching in which a substantial portion of teachers’ time is spent on assessing s tu d en ts’ learn ing (Stiggins and Conklin, 1988; Stiggins, 1991). Stiggins (1991) estimated that teachers spend about one-half of th e ir tim e on p rep a rin g and com pleting classroom tests.

Teachers’ lack of knowledge of testing and measurement, which obviously underm ines the qu ality o f th e ir assessm ent o f s tu d e n ts ’ achievement, is one dom inant recurring finding yielded from previous works (Daniel & King, 1998; Goslin, 1967; Gullickson, 1984; Schafer 8c Lissitz, 1987; Noll, 1955; Roeder, 1972). Toward graduation, a majority of teacher certification programs do not require any course at all in educational testing and m easurement (Goslin, 1967; Noll, 1955; Roeder, 1972; Wise, Lukin, 8c Roos, 1991), and this policy speaks volume for the assessment pitfall. Earlier Noll (1955) found that a course in testing and m easurement was n o t a g rad u a tio n re q u ire m e n t in public universities, and ironically two decades later, it was still not made a requirem ent in more than half o f the teacher prepara tion program s

(Roeder, 1972). It is, therefore, not surprising to find that almost one-half o f the teachers surveyed by Roeder (1972) perceived that they had had inadequate training in assessment. Within the local context, only two out of six institutions of higher learning offer a course in m easurem ent and evaluation to pre-service secondary school teachers (Ministry o f Education, 1999).

Because of inadequate formal training in assessment, teachers failed to fully capitalize on its usefulness in helping students to learn; rather the literature suggests serious flaws in assessment practices and the prevalence of misuse. Popham (1995) claimed that although teachers were concerned about the test they had constructed, they had failed to develop valid classroom measures, execute reliable scoring practices, and fairly interpret test results. Previous works related to testing practices also found that teachers tested students’ content-mastery based on half- baked instructions, assessed merely students’ recall ability, awarded zeros for incom plete answers, used inappropriate tests, did not inform students about the contents of the tests, and were un ab le to com m un ica te the resu lts effectively to th e ir s tu d en ts (C anandy 8c Hotchkiss, 1989; Daniel 8c King, 1998; Gullickson, 1985; Hills, 1991). In most likelihood, teachers rely on the ir own fossilized trial-and-error experiences on testing, instead of applying deep- seated knowledge on assessment, to make high- stakes decisions about teaching and learning. This inadequacy may create damaging effects in teach e rs’ decision-m aking ab o u t s tu d e n ts ’ achievement, placement, prom otion, remedial, and retention.

It is of particular im portance to find ou t whether similar gloomy scenario prevails in the testing practices at higher learning institutions. Unfortunately, in this respect, not much evidence about university instructors’ testing practices has been docum ented. O f the scanty literature on the testing practices at institutions of higher learning, a somewhat similar pattern of testing practices is observed. For example, instructors were found to face difficulty in constructing item s te s tin g fo r h ig h e r-o rd e r th in k in g (Diamond, 1998). Shifflett, Phibbs, and Sage (1997) found that there is a distinguishable discrepancy between students’ and instructors’ attitudes regarding the fairness of tests. In addition, Freeman and Lewis (1998) reiterated


Perceptions o f University Instructors on Their Testing Practices

the im portance of test blueprints in developing and validating instructor-m ade tests. More recen tly , P a lo m b a an d B an ta (1999) reemphasized the fact that “students need to know the overall purpose of the testing and how the information will be used” (pp. 160-161).

The purpose of the present study was to explore the use of testing and m easurem ent concepts, principles and procedures by university instructors. The study addressed the following research questions: (1) Do university instructors apply content-valid procedures in developing end-of-semester test? (2) Do they apply reliable scoring procedures? (3) Is there any relationship between instructors’ experiences in assessing students’ achievement and their application of valid and reliable testing procedures? While data on the first two questions would provide understanding about assessment as practiced at university level, the information elicited from the third question may shed light on the differing effects of knowledge in testing and m easurem ent between groups of faculty members. Overall, the study concerned two issues re la ted to instructor-m ade achievem ent tests, first, the development of content-valid test, and second, the reliability of the scoring procedure.

M ore th an any th ing , the w orth o f a classroom achievement test rests on the content- related validity of the test (Anastasi, 1988; Oosterhof, 1990). By definition, content validity is a gauge built into a test in which the validity “is evaluated by showing how well the content of the test samples the class of situations or subject matter about which conclusions are to be drawn” (Messick, 1992, p. 1489). Typically, it serves as a yardstick to estimate how well a test fulfills whatever claim (s) it makes; it docum ents the extent to which the test measures what it purports to measure. This conception of validity derived a set of testing principles that requ ire an instructor to, ( 1 ) define the purpose of the test,(2 ) describe the process of developing the test,(3) provide evidence that the test meets its intended purpose, and (4) keep all test takers equally informed about how much the test covers and the types of question form at (Code of Fair Testing Practices in Education, 1988). Thus, to establish the validity of an achievement test, in particular a high-stakes final test, instructors should effectuate these principles into workable procedures.

Contemporary textbook writers suggest that content validity should be built into a test even before the test is constructed. One procedure to create a content-valid test is by drawing up a table of specifications (Anastasi, 1988), the contents of which comprise the topics and instructional objectives to be tested, and the sam pling distribution of items that reflects the relative importance of individual topics and objectives. A n o th e r p ro c e d u re involves a listing o f perform ance objectives (O osterhof, 1990). Gagne, Briggs and Wager (1988) propounded th a t each perfo rm ance objective calls for identification of the specific capability, situation, object, action, and condition under which a student is to be tested. These procedures provide room for an expert-a person who is well-versed in the content knowledge to be tested-to judge the extent to which the test adequately samples the relevant contents, that is, whether the test covers a representative sample of concepts and skills it claims to measure. In effect, it is the opinion of an expert that validates the quality of a particular test.

The quality of a test is influenced by its reliability whose im portance comes second after validity. A test is reliable to the extent that it measures something consistendy. With respect to an achievement test, reliability manifests itself in producing consistent scores; hence systematic scoring procedures are a prerequisite to validity. Depending upon the purpose of the test, answers to essay items can be scored using either holistic or analytical procedure (Coffman, 1971); each has its own merits in educational assessment. W hile analy tical p ro c e d u re d em an d s the preparation of a scoring plan that specifies attributes to be evaluated and awarded with points (Oosterhof, 1990), holistic scoring focuses on evaluating the overall quality of particular answers. O f these two techniques, holistic scoring is less reliable unless the procedure uses a second reader to independendy examine the answers (Gronlund, 1985).

METHODOLOGYParticipantsT he p o p u la tio n o f th is study com p rised instructors at an in ternational university in Malaysia. Using a sampling frame consisting of 433 lecturers, associate professors, and professors, a systematic sampling procedure (Scheaffer,


Mohamad Sahari

Mendelhall, 8c Ott, 1996) was applied in order to draw a probability sample of 135 instructors. The sample comprised experienced instructors; the majority (90%) indicated familiarity with the university examination policy; 63% had been a course coordinator (course leader); 42.5% had attended at least one inservice educational development program which included a three- hour session on testing and measurement. In terms of demographic characteristics, 57.1% of the participants were male; 53.3% were Ph.D. holders; 37.5% specialized in areas related to psychology and education, the two areas of study closely associated with testing and measurement.

It should be noted that the sample size represents 24% of the total num ber of population under study. The background data indicated that there were no serious departures of the sample characteristics from the population. In particular, the d istribu tion of participan ts according to dem ographic characteristics is com p arab le with th a t o f th e p o p u la tio n param eters (M anagement Services Division,1999).InstrumentTo identify how the partic ipan ts practice assessment in their previous end-of-semester tests, th e re se a rch e r used a checklist fo r test development and scoring procedures. Besides seeking d em o g rap h ic data , the check list attem pted to elicit information about whether or not the instructors applied valid and reliable procedures in developing and scoring the tests. More precisely, one section listed 12 items related to procedures used to develop a content-valid test, and another section contained eight items on scoring technique; each item required the participants to record whether they had applied the procedure. These 20 items were adapted from O osterhofs (1990) criteria for evaluating achievement test. To estimate the reliability of the data, a test-retest correlation procedure was applied on the responses collected from a sample of 2 0 instructors who were not included in the study. Cramer’s V coefficient correlation formula indicates that the reliability for each item ranges between .577 and 1.00 (Table 1 and Table 2).

To administer the instrument, eight graduate students undergoing a research methodology course visited the 135 randomly identified faculty members. They approached the participants individually to explain the purpose of the study,

emphasize the principles of anonymity and confidentiality, and to solicit their cooperation. Each participant was allowed to self-administer the instrum ent and return it immediately to the assistant researcher. It was found that 30 of the instruments were either incomplete or could not be used at all, resulting with 77.8% rate of response (N = 105).

The sample size of 105 was adequate in terms of providing dependable estimates of the population characteristics. Using Scheaffer et al., (1996) a p p ro a c h to sam ple size determ ination, the error of estimation for the present study was ± 8.4%. In addition, a post hoc power analysis was conducted using Kraemer and Thiem ann (1987) procedure. The purpose of the analysis was to identify the minimum level of statistical pow er, given the com p le ted responses, at .05 alpha level and an effect size of C = .151; it is the smallest effect that would be of practical significance. The analysis detected the minimum power of 33.4% to correcdy reject a no-difference hypothesis. This level of power corresponds to statistical power for most studies in hum an and social sciences (Sedlemeyer & Gigerenzer, 1989).AnalysisOne interest of the study was to establish a relationship between instructors’ assessment practices and their dem ographic characteristics in terms of the experience that they had had in testing-their participation in the staff educational development program, experience as a course leader, areas of studies, and age. To address this concern, a logistic regression technique was applied on each of the three fundam ental practices in assessing students’ achievement; the three criterion variables being the participants’ use of table of specifications, perform ance objectives, and scoring plan. Each of criterion variable measures a dichotomous outcome, which is whether the participant had applied the assessment procedure, as they perceived it. The predictors com prised the e lem en ts o f the instructors’ experiences in student assessment. For practical reasons, instructors’ areas of studies were collapsed in to th ree categories, ( 1 ) psychology and e d u c a tio n , ( 2 ) o th e r specialization in hum an sciences, and (3) other discipline of knowledge, which consisted of law, economics and m anagement, and engineering and technology.

24 PertanikaJ. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 7 No. 1 1999


RESULTSApplication of Valid Procedures in the Test Development Descriptive analysis of the data produced several noteworthy results (Table 1). First, more than two-thirds of the participants reported that they specified the in tended con ten t of the test (71.2%), and they made it a point to convey the information to the students (80.8%). Second, the data indicated that a large majority of the instructors attem pted to build a validation mechanism, a test b lueprin t into their test construction. The results showed that while 40 participants (38.5%) perceived that they had created table o f specifications, 62 o f them (59.6%) reported that they had defined the perform ance objectives. However, it should be noted that information regarding the nature and quality of the instructors’ test blueprints is not available, and therefore the results should be interpreted cautiously.

Third, in terms of the construction of test items, most participants reported the using valid procedures. The data showed that the instructors ranked the relative importance of the contents to be tested (60.6%), determ ined the num ber of items according to the relative importance of

the contents (55.8%), estimated the am ount of time spent on each item (76%), and assessed the difficulty level of each item (65.4%). Finally, the application of procedures to validate the test was done by a limited num ber of instructors. O f participants who reported that they had used perform ance objectives as their test blueprints, less than one-half (47.1%) com pared the test questions that they had constructed with the specified perform ance objectives. Also, only 17 instructors (13.5%) reported that they sought expert opinion-the opinion of other instructors- to evaluate the test blueprint. Simply stated, although the majority of the faculty members applied valid procedures to develop end-of- semester test, they failed to establish the validity.Application of Reliable Scoring Procedures O f the 105 participants, 83 (79%) reported that they used analytical scoring procedures to evaluate students’ perform ance on tests (Table 2). With the exception of awarding points for presentation style and use of language, more than two-thirds of the 83 participants applied procedures that contributes to reliable scoring. A majority of the participants indicated that they

TABLE 1Application of valid procedures in the development of end-of-semester test as reported by the

instructors (N = 105)Procedures % r*

Specify the intended contents of the end-of-semester test. 71.2 1 . 0 0 0

Consider the students’ inputs in deciding the contents of the test. 39.4 .903Define the performance objectives to be tested. 59.6 .577Rank the relative importance of the contents. 60.6 .601Determine the number of questions according to the relative

importance of the topics to be tested. 55.8 .787Create a table of specifications to plan for the test. 38.5 .816Have other instructors evaluate the table of test specifications. 13.5 .793Inform the students about the format of question. 80.8 . 6 8 8

Ascertain that the reading skills required by each question below that of students’ ability. 31.7 . 6 8 8

Assess the level of difficulty for each item. 65.4 .724Estimate the amount of time spent on each question. 76.0 1 . 0 0 0

Compare the test questions to the specified performance objectives 47.1 .612

Reliability Index.PertanikaJ. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 7 No. 1 1999 25

Mohamad Sahari

had developed a scoring plan when the test was written (77.1%). Accordingly, they specified the total num ber of points each item was worthy of (81.9%), listed the attributes to be evaluated for each question (70.0%), determ ined that the points associated with each question were proportional to the relative importance of the content being tested (75.9%), and specified guidelines for awarding points to studen t’s answers (79.5% ). Interestingly alm ost all instructors (96.4%) sought the judgm ent of their colleagues on the accuracy of the scoring plan. Thus, the data indicated that relatively more instructors had used procedures related to reliability than they did the procedures for developing valid tests.

Although the participants generally had adhered with the requirem ents o f reliable scoring, the data yielded one discomforting finding. The results indicated that while only 47 o f the 83 in structo rs aw arded po in ts for presentation style and use of language, almost all of them (95.2%) penalized students for grammatical and spelling errors. This finding suggests the likelihood of lecturers awarding points and penalizing students’ achievement on the basis of their language skills, rather than the mastery of content-knowledge. Such a practice, if continuously exercised, would underscore the reliability, and thereby the validity of student assessment.

Assessment Practices and Instructors' Experiences in Testing and MeasurementT able 3 sum m arizes th e fre q u e n c y an d percentage d istribu tion o f the in struc to rs’ application o f th ree im p o rtan t assessm ent procedures, which were w hether they had constructed ( 1 ) table of test specifications, (2 ) perform ance objectives, and (3) scoring plans across categories of the participants’ experiences in testing and measurement. This study included three elem ents of instructors’ experience in student assessment; the elem ents were their participation in staff educational developm ent program (SEDP), experience as a course leader, and areas of study. The variable age was used as a covariate. To explore the likelihood of a relationship between instructors’ assessment practices and p ertin en t a ttribu tes of th e ir experiences, the study analyzed three separate logistic regression models, each of which tested one of the three assessment procedures.

The results of logistic regression analyses indicated that only the instructor’s assessment p rac tic e in te rm s o f c re a tin g tab le o f specifications was reliably re la ted to th e ir experiences in testing and m easurement. Using the likelihood ratio to exam ine the overall relationship, the value of 21nLH containing only a constant was 102.76 while that of the full model was 85.72. Thus, an addition of the predictors into the model yielded a reduction in

TABLE 2Application of analytical scoring procedures in the

end-of-semester test as reported by the instructors (N = 83)Procedures % r*

Develop a scoring plan when the test question is written. 77.1 1 . 0 0 0

List the attributes to be evaluated for each question. 70.0 1 . 0 0 0

Specify the total number of points each item is worth. 81.9 . 6 8 8

Determine that the points associated with each question areproportional to the relative importance of the content being tested. 75.9 .787

Specify guidelines for awarding points to student’s answers. 79.5 .577Seek other instructor judgement on the accuracy of the

scoring plan. 96.4 .630Award points for presentation style and use of language. 56.6 .798Penalize students for spelling and grammatical error 95.2 . 6 8 8

* Reliability index.



TABLE 3Application of assessment procedures according to participants’ attributes of testing experiences

Table of Test Performancespecifications objectives Scoring planYES NO YES NO YES NO n

Educational Development ProgramAttended 46.6 53.4 67.2 32.8 70.7 29.3 58Never Attended 32.4 67.6 50.0 50.0 67.6 32.4 34

Course LeadershipYes 32.8 67.2 59.0 41.0 6 6 . 1 33.9 61No 47.2 52.8 61.1 38.9 72.2 27.8 36

Area of StudiesPsychology and Education 58.3 41.7 75.0 25.0 72.2 27.8 36Human Sciences 52.6 47.4 63.2 36.8 57.9 42.1 19Other Disciplines 17.5 82.5 40.0 60.0 68.3 31.7 40

N 38 57 37 60 38 54

the lack of fit, resulting in a statistically overall relationship; %2(4f = 5) = 17.05, fe = .004.

The logit equation for the model was g =- 2.645 + .023(A ge) + (-.022) (SEDP) + (.509) (L ead er) + (1.773) (Psychology and E d u ca tio n ) + (7.401) (H u m an S cien ces). However, of the four independent variables, only the instructors’ area of study was found to be significantly associated with the likelihood of they creating a table of specifications to plan for the end-of-semester test. Partialling out the effects o f o th e r p red ic to rs , th e odds o f constructing a table of test specifications by those who specialized in psychology and education were about six times the odds for those in other disciplines of knowledge. Also, the odds of applying the assessment procedure

among those who were in other area of hum an sciences were about seven times the odds of those who specialized in other disciplines of knowledge. Therefore, it can be inferred that it is more likely for an instructor who specialized in psychology, education, and other areas of hum an sciences to create a table o f test specifications com p ared to those in law, economics and management, and engineering and technology.

CONCLUSIONThe study found that a majority of the university instructors applied content-valid procedures in developing end-of-sem ester tests, and they adhered to reliable scoring procedures. By and large the participants conformed to the standards

TABLE 4Summaries of the results of logisitic regression

on the instructors’ application of table of test specificationsElements of Experiences in Testing and Measurement Effect S.E. p-value Estim

Age .023 .027 .402 1 . 0 2SEDP - . 0 0 2 .573 .969 .98Course Leader .509 .557 .361 1 . 6 6Area of Sudies

Psychology and Education 1.773 .656 .006* 5.89Other Human Sciences 2 . 0 0 2 .831 .016* 7.40* Significant at alpha = .05.


Mohamad Sahari

that were deem ed important, for example by the Code of Fair Testing Practices in Education (1988). In particular, the instructors generally defined the purpose of end-of-semester tests, and they did inform their students about the contents to be covered in the tests and the types of question format. The study also found that although university instructors made an effort to set up validation mechanism by using table of test specifications and performance objectives, they failed to substantiate the validity of their tests. Finally, m ore of the instructors of psychology, education, and other human sciences reportedly constructed table of test specifications than did the instructors of other disciplines of knowledge.

As clearly indicated in the literature, the variability in teachers’ use of procedures for stu den t assessm ent is a function o f th e ir knowledge about testing and m easurem ent (Daniel & King, 1998; Schafer & Lissitz, 1987; Wolf, 1995). Thus, the participants’ inadequate knowledge about testing and measurement could have been the single most im portant contributor to their failure to develop valid tests. That it is m ore likely for an instructor of psychology, education, and other hum an sciences to develop table of specifications for their tests lends weight to the a rg u m e n t fo r the im p o rtan ce o f procedural knowledge in assessment. It is a common belief that these areas of studies are relatively more concerned about testing and m ea su re m e n t in co m p ariso n w ith o th e r d isciplines o f knowledge. T herefo re , the instructors of psychology, education, and other areas of hum an sciences are more knowledgeable about student assessment, and accordingly they are m ore likely to apply the fundam ental procedure of creating the test blueprint.

It is also in teresting to note that the participants used more of the procedures for reliable scoring than they did the procedures for developing valid achievement tests. In short, university instructors seem to be concerned more about the reliability of their tests. However, this finding is no t surprising. The fact is that it is the university policy to emphasize and regulate certain examination procedures, among which the procedures require instructors to submit their tests along with the scoring plan to their respective departm ent for vetting purposes. Such a policy, presum ably, increases instructors’ awareness and knowledge about testing and

m easurement procedures, and thus their use of reliable scoring procedures. If the argum ent is valid, then it is reasonable to suggest that administrative intervention is useful as a means to prom ote instructors’ procedural knowledge and practices in student assessment.

S urp ris in g ly , how ever, in s tru c to rs ’ p a rtic ip a tio n in ed u ca tio n a l d ev e lo p m en t program did not produce corresponding impact on th e ir p rac tices in assessing s tu d e n ts ’ achievement. It is equally likely for an instructor to create table of specifications, perform ance objectives, and scoring plan regardless of whether or not he or she had attended the program. One possible explanation for this outcome is that the educational development program was in a d e q u a te to e n h a n c e th e in s t r u c to r ’s know ledge on s tu d en t assessm ent. M ore precisely, a three-hour session to discuss issues related to classroom testing and m easurem ent is insuffic ient to m ake an im pact on o n e ’s understanding about student assessment, let alone to positively change on e’s practices. This finding is in fact consistent with the results of earlier works on teachers’ testing practices (Daniel 8c King, 1998; Schafer & Lissitz, 1987; Roeder, 1972). Roeder (1972), for example, claimed that teachers were still incom petent in assessing students’ achievement, in spite of having received some training in classroom testing and measurement. It is imperative, therefore, for future studies to shed some light on this issue, especially with respect to the structure, the contents, and the du ra tion o f tra in ing in assessment to cater to the professional needs of teachers and university instructors.

In co n c lu s io n , c o n fin e d w ith in the limitations of the present study, the results add information to the body of knowledge pertaining to an integral com ponent of effective teaching- student assessment as practiced by university instructors. In light of this m inor contribution, more efforts are needed to help school and university teachers to master the knowledge and skills of testing and measurement.

REFERENCESA nastasi, A. 1988. Psychological testing (sixth ed.).

New York: Macmillan.Canandy, R.L., 8c H o tch k iss , P.R. 1989. It’s a good

score! Just a bad grade. Phi Delta Kappan 71:68-71.



Coffman, W.E. 1971. Essay examination. In Educational Measurement 2nd ed. R.L. Thorndike (Ed.), Washington, D.C. .American Council on Education.

D aniel, L.G., 8c King, D.A. 1998. Knowledge and use of testing and measurement literacy of elementary and secondary teachers. The Journal of Educational Research, 91(6): 331-344.

D iamond, R.M. 1998. Designing and Assessing Courses and Curricular: A Practical Guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Freeman, R., 8c Lewis, R. 1998. Planning and Implementing Assessment. London: Kogan Page.

Gagne, R.M., B riggs, L.J., 8c W ager, W. W. 1988. Principles of Instructional Design. New York: Holt, Rinehart, 8c Winston.

Goslin , D.A. 1967. Teachers and Testing. Hartford, CT: Connecticut Printers.

G ronlund , N.E. 1985. Measurement and Evaluation in classroom. 5th ed. New York: Macmillan.

G ullickson, A.R. 1984. Teacher perspective of their instructional use of tests. The Journal of Educational Research 77(4): 244-248.

G u llic k so n , A.R. 1985. S tudent evaluation techniques and their relationship to grade and curriculum. The Journal for Educational Research 79 (2): 96-100.

H ills, J.R. 1991. Apathy concerning grading and testing. Phi Delta Kappan 72: 540-545.

In te rna tion a l Islamic University Malaysia. Management Services Division. 1999. Statistics on academic staff, International Islamic University Malaysia. Unpublished data.

Joint Committee on Testing Practices. 1988. Code of Fair Testing Practices in Education. Washington, D.C.

Kraemer, H.C., 8c T hiemann, S. 1987. How many subjects? Statistical Power Analysis in Research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Ministry of Education. 1999. Diploma in Education/ Post-Graduate Pre-service Teacher Program: A guide for 1999/200 academic session. [Buku panduan Diploma Pendidikan/Kursus Perguruan Lerpas Ijazah sesi akademik 1999/2000]. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Division of Higher Learning, Ministry of Education.

O osterhof, A.C. 1990. Classroom Application of Educational Measurement. Columbus, Ohio: Merrill.

Popham , W.J. 1995. Classroom Assessment: What Teachers Need to Know. Boston: Allyn-Bacon.

M essick, S. 1992. Validity of test interpretation and use. In Encyclopedia of Educational Research. M.C. Alkin (Ed.) 6 th ed. p.1487-1495. New York: Macmillan.

N oll, V.H. 1955. Requirements in educational measurements for prospective teachers. School and Society 82: 88-90.

Palomba, C.A., 8c Banta, T.W. 1999. Assessment Essentials: Planning, Implementing and Improving Assessment in Higher Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Roeder, H.H. 1972. Are today’s teachers prepared to use tests? Peabody Journal of Education 49: 239-240.

Schafer, W.d., & L issitz, R.W. 1987. Measurement tra in ing for school personnel: Recommendation and reality. Journal of Teacher Education 38(3): 57-63.

Sedlem eyer, P ., 8c G igeren zer, G. 1989. Do studies of statistical-power have an effect on the power studies? Psychological Bulletin 105: 309-316.

S hapiro, B.C. 1995. The NBPTS sets standards for accomplished teaching. Educational Leadership 52 (2): 55-57.

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S h if f le t t , B ., Phibbs, K., 8c Sage, M. 1997. Attitudes toward collegiate classroom testing. Educational Research Quarterly 21: 15-26.

Stiggins, R.J. 1991. Relevant classroom assessment training for teachers. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice 11(2): 35-39.

Stiggins, R.J., 8c Conklin, N.F. 1988. Teacher Training in Assessment. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory.

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W olf, K.P. 1995. Assessment quotes. Reading Today 12(4): 4.

(Received: 15 July 1999)



Bentuk Perlakuan dan Proses Pramenulis Karangan Pelajar Tingkatan EmpatMAROHAINI YUSOFF

Jabatan Pendidikan Bahasa Fakulti Pendidikan Universiti Malaya

50603 Kuala LumpurKata Kunci: perlakuan mengarang, proses mengarang, pengajaran kemahiran menulis, pramenulis Karangan, dan pramenulis

ABSTRAKPenyelidikan dalam bidang penulisan karangan telah memperlihatkan perubahan dari segi fokusnya, iaitu daripada penyelidikan yang berpusatkan hasil karangan kepada yang berpusatkan proses menulis karangan. Makalah ini membentangkan satu kajian tentang proses mengarang yang dilalui oleh pelajar pada peringkat pramenulis semasa menghadapi tugasan penulisan karangan di kelas. Secara khususnya, kajian ini meneliti bentuk perlakuan dan proses pramenulis karangan yang ditunjukkan oleh pelajar tingkatan empat semasa menulis dalam konteks kelas yang sebenar. Pengutipan dan pengumpulan data dijalankan dengan menggunakan kaedah pemerhatian, temu bual dan bukti dokumen di sebuah sekolah selama satu tahun. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa bentuk perlakuan dan proses pramenulis karangan para pelajar dipengaruhi oleh konteks pengajaran dan pembelajaran serta guru yang mengajar. Susulan kepada penemuan tersebut, beberapa cadangan tentang bentuk kegiatan pengajaran dan pembelajaran pramenulis karangan dibincangkan.

ABSTRACTResearch in writing has shifted from product-oriented to process-oriented. This article reports a study on secondary school student-writers prewriting processes when they write in the classroom. Specifically, this study looked into the prewriting behaviour and processes displayed while writing in the classroom. Data was gathered through classroom observation, interviews and document analysis. The study spanned over a period a one-year period. The results of the study showed that the students’ prewriting behaviour and processes were influenced by the teaching and learning contexts as well as the teacher. Based on the findings, suggestions on prewriting activities are discussed.

LATAR BELAKANG KAJIANPengenalanKajian menulis karangan m erupakan salah satu kemahiran asas bahasa yang diperlukan oleh pe la jar pada se tiap p e rin g k a t pen ga jian . Um pam anya, pada peringkat pengajian di sekolah, banyak kegiatan pembelajaran yang m enghendaki pelajar menulis, iaitu menulis tugasan mengarang, menulis untuk melapor, m enulis un tuk m em buat latihan, dan ju ga m enulis un tuk menjawab soalan ujian dan peperiksaan. Malahan boleh dikatakan bahawa kemahiran menulis ini bukan sahaja diperlukan

semasa pengajian tetapi juga apabila bekerja. Dalam situasi pekeijaan sehari-harian, kemahiran m enulis d iperluk an dalam surat-m enyurat, m en u lis m in it m esyu ara t, teks u cap an , pengum um an laporan projek atau laporan tahunan syarikat. Kesimpulannya, kemahiran m enulis boleh dianggap sebagai salah satu sumber penting bagi pem erolehan pengetahuan, p e n g u k u ra n te rh a d a p p e n c a p a ia n , dan pelaksanaan tugas profesional.

Namun begitu, Laporan Prestasi Peperiksaan (LPP) Sijil Peperiksaan Malaysia / Malaysian Certificate of Education [SPM / MCE] (1985,

Marohaini Yusoff

1988, 1990, 1992) melaporkan bahawa masih ramai pelajar yang lemah dari segi bahasa, struktur ayat, ejaan, panjang pendek karangan, penggunaan perkataan, dan tanda bacaan. LPPSPM (1985, 1988, 1992) bagi mata pelajaran bahasa Melayu m enunjukkan bahawa pelajar lem ah un tuk m endapatkan isi yang sesuai, menyusun isi, merancang, dan menyampaikan idea dengan jelas. Pelajar juga menghadapi masalah untuk m engembangkan idea dalam penulisan karangan mereka. Kelemahan ini mungkin berkait dengan kelemahan pelajar yang kurang memahami kehendak tajuk karangan yang mengakibatkan pengolahan isi yang tidak seim bang dan m endalam (LPPSPM, 1988). Keseluruhannya, kelem ahan pelajar menulis karangan sebagaimana yang dilaporkan mungkin boleh dikaitkan dengan pengetahuan dan latihan yang tidak mencukupi tentang kerangka konsep yang dapat m em beri fokus, hala tuju, dan kesatuan kepada penulisan mereka dari segi perancangan dan penyampaian isi.

Melihat pada keperluan kemahiran menulis karangan dalam kehidupan sehari-harian dan kelemahan yang ditunjukkan oleh pelajar pada peringkat sekolah, adalah wajar aspek pengajaran kem ahiran tersebut diberi penekanan yang secukupnya dan bermatlamat untuk melahirkan pelajar yang berkem am puan menyampaikan pemikiran mereka dengan berkesan. Perlu d iteg ask an di sini bahaw a k eb erk esan an pengajaran kemahiran menulis karangan terletak pada kesesuaian perancangan pengajaran dengan keperluan pelajar untuk menulis karangan di dalam kelas. Ju s te ru , bagi m em bolehkan perancangan yang sedemikian, pengetahuan dan pem ahaman tentang bentuk perlakuan dan proses mengarang atau proses menulis karangan yang dilalui oleh pelajar diperlukan (Hairston, 1982; C arro ll, 1984). Sebagaim ana yang dinyatakan oleh Zamel (1983):

. . . by studying what it is our students do in the ir writing, we can learn methods based on students real need rather than hypothetical predictions about their writing behavior, (him. 182)Dalam penulisan makalah ini, satu gambaran

tentang bentuk perlakuan dan proses pramenulis karangan yang dilalui semasa mereka menulis karangan di dalam kelas akan dipaparkan. Untuk pengetahuan para pembaca, dapatan kajian

tentang pramenulis karangan ini m erupakan sebahagian dapatan daripada kajian kes yang m elihat keseluruhan perlakuan dan proses m engarang pelajar Melayu dalam bilik darjah Tingkatan Empat (M arohaini Yusoff, 1996). Susulan kepada bentuk dan proses pramenulis karangan tersebut, m akalah ini ju g a akan m embincangkan beberapa cadangan tentang perancangan pengajaran kem ahiran menulis karangan, khususnya pengajaran pram enulis karangan.

KAJIAN YANG BERKAIT ANMemandangkan tidak banyak kajian tentang proses menulis karangan dalam bahasa Melayu didapati, rangka konsep kajian ini didasarkan kepada dapatan kajian proses menulis karangan dalam bahasa Inggeris sebagai bahasa pertam a dan kedua. Sejak kajian klasik Emig (1971) dijalankan, peralihan tum puan penyelidikan telah berlaku. Banyak kajian (Mischell, 1974; S tallard , 1974; Perl, 1979; P ianko, 1979; B irnbaum , 1982; Flow er Sc Hayes, 1980; C h an d ra seg a ran , 1991) yang d ija lan k an menunjukkan peralihan tum puan kajian, iaitu daripada memberi fokus kepada hasil mengarang kepada proses menulis karangan. Dalam kajian tersebut, penyelidik m enghuraikan bentuk dan proses menulis karangan yang ditunjukkan oleh p enu lis dalam usaha m ereka m eng aran g . Berikutan dengan pertum buhan kajian tentang proses m enu lis k a ran g an , b e n tu k proses m engarang atau proses menulis karangan dapat dilihat daripada tiga perspektif, iaitu linear, kognitif, dan sosial.

Sebelum tah u n 1971, proses m enu lis karangan disifatkan sebagai sebuah proses yang linear atau lurus. Rohman dan Wlecke (1964) te lah m en g u ta rak an m od el lin e a r yang mempunyai tiga peringkat utama, iaitu sebelum menulis, menulis, dan menulis semula. Daripada p e rsp e k tif lin ea r in i, p en u lis d ik a tak an m em ikirkan isi teks yang akan d ikarang , menuliskan patah-patah perkataan di atas kertas, dan akhirnya membaiki dan m em perindahkan serta mengedit penulisan mereka. Proses menulis karangan yang berlaku dalam m odel linear adalah berbentuk lurus dan berurutan, iaitu pergerakan dari satu langkah ke satu langkah. Berikutan dengan kajian Emig (1971), model linear tersebut disangkal. Kajian Emig (1971), Mischell (1974), Stallard (1974), Birnbaum (1982), dan Flower dan Hayes (1980, 1981)


Bentuk Perlakuan dan Proses Pramenulis Karangan Pelajar Tingkatan Empat

m elihat proses m enulis karangan daripada perspektif kognitif, iaitu apa yang berlaku dalam pemikiran penulis semasa menulis karangan. Kajian tersebut m enekankan bahawa proses menulis karangan tidak berlaku secara linear tetapi secara rekursif. Proses menulis karangan disifatkan sebagai satu proses yang m eliputi beberapa operasi proses dan subproses yang berlaku secara berulangan dan bertindanan antara satu sama lain.

Walau bagaimanapun, pandangan kognitivist ini kemudiannya dikritik oleh Bizzell (1982) yang m em pelopori perspektif sosial. Bizzell (1982) dan pelopor lain seperti Faigley (1986), Rafoth (1988), Cooper dan Holzman (1989), B ran d t (199 2), d an T rim b u r (1994) mempersoalkan nilai teoritikal dan pedagogi penyelidikan ten tang bidang penulisan dan pengajaran yang bersandarkan perspektif kognitif sem ata-m ata. Bizzell (1982) um pam anya, mengkritik model proses m engarang Flower dan Hayes (1981) yang d ik a tak an hanya m enghuraikan aspek bagaimana tentang proses mengarang dan tidak m enyentuh aspek mengapa p roses m en g aran g itu b erlak u . D engan perkataan lain, model Flower dan Hayes (1981) tidak m em pertim bangkan peranan konteks dalam penulisan karangan. Perspektif sosial melihat proses menulis karangan sebagai suatu perlakuan individu daripada sebuah komuniti dan tidak sebagai suatu proses individu semata- mata. Hal ini adalah kerana seseorang penulis m erupakan sebahagian d a rip ad a sesebuah budaya yang d id o k o n g i o leh seseb u ah masyarakat. Justeru , dalam proses m enulis ka rang an seseo ran g p en u lis , cara b e liau m enggunakan bahasa, iaitu memilih perkataan, m em bina ayat, dan gaya penyam paiannya dipengaruhi oleh budaya sesebuah komuniti yang menggunakannya - tujuan yang dibawa oleh bahasa yang digunakan dan situasi serta makna yang dapat dibayangkan. D aripada sudut perspektif sosial, penghasilan penulisan karangan seseorang penulis melibatkan interaksi penulis dengan pembaca atau penerim a yang telahpun mempunyai takrifan tujuan tertentu.

Kesimpulannya, dalam perbincangan tentang proses menulis karangan terdapat tiga teori yang bersaingan yang dilihat daripada perspektif linear, kognitif, dan sosial. Berbeza daripada perspektif linear (Rohman 8c Wlecke; 1964), proses menulis karangan dianggap sebagai suatu proses yang dinam ik yang bergerak secara

rekursif, dan tidak lurus dan statik. Pelopor sosial seperti Bizzell (1982), Rafoth (1988), dan Trim bur (1994) pula, melihat proses menulis karangan sebagai suatu perlakuan sosial yang dijalankan o leh seseorang individu dalam sesebuah komunid. Ketiga-tiga perspektif tentang proses menulis karangan walaupun berbeza dapat m em b eri satu h u ra ia n yang leb ih je la s . Berlandaskan tiga perspektif ini, huraian tentang b en tu k p erlak u an dan proses p ram enu lis karangan akan dihurai dan dibincangkan.

PELAKSANAAN KAJIANKajian kes ini dijalankan dengan menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif. Hal ini adalah bertujuan u n tu k m e m p e ro le h m ak lu m at d a r ip a d a perspektif pelajar dengan mengekalkan situasi pengajaran dan pem belajaran yang sebenar. Berdasarkan rasional ini juga, sebuah sekolah m enengah di Petaling Jaya, dan em pat orang pelajar dari T ingkatan Em pat telah dipilih sebagai tem pat dan peserta kajian utama. Di samping itu, dua orang guru bahasa Melayu yang mengajar em pat buah kelas Tingkatan Empat dan juga pelajar lain yang m erupakan pelajar dalam kelas Tingkatan Empat tersebut, tu ru t d ilib a tk a n sebagai p e se r ta kajian sam pingan. M em andangkan kajian kualitatif seperti ini lazimnya, m em entingkan m akna tentang sesebuah fenom ena daripada perspektif peserta kajian dan bukan pada bilangan atau kekerapan sesebuah fenomena itu berlaku, empat orang peserta kajian adalah m encukupi bagi tujuan pengutipan dan penganalisisan data. K eem p at-em p at p e se rta ka jian te rse b u t m erupakan pelajar dari em pat kelas Tingkatan Empat yang berlainan dan diajar oleh dua orang guru. Pemilihan peserta kajian didasarkan pada pencapaian m ereka dalam peperiksaan Sijil Rendah Peperiksaan (SRP), kebolehan bahasa dan mengarang, dan kesanggupan mereka untuk melibatkan diri dalam kajian.

Bagi tujuan m engutip, m engum pul, dan menganalisis data, pengkaji telah berada di sekolah tersebut selama kira-kira setahun, iaitu meliputi dua semester persekolahan. Melalui pendekatan kualitatif ini, penyelidik m em buat pem erhatian , tem u bual, dan m enganalisis dokum en un tuk m endapatkan data tentang perlakuan dan proses pramenulis karangan yang berlaku semasa peserta kajian menulis karangan di dalam kelas. Pem erhatian kelas dijalankan semasa pelajaran kem ahiran menulis karangan


Marohaini Yusoff

dijalankan. Menyusuli pemerhatian kelas tersebut, penyelidik menemu bual peserta kajian tentang perlakuan mengarang yang ditunjukkan semasa pemerhatian. Untuk memantapkan pemahaman penyelidik tentang perlakuan pra menulis karangan yang ditunjukkan, temu bual juga dilakukan dengan guru yang terlibat dan rakan sekelas. Seterusnya, dokumen seperti draf karangan, karangan siap, dan rangka isi dianalisis untuk memperkukuhkan pemahaman penyelidik tentang perlakuan dan proses pramenulis karangan peserta kajian.

Dengan menggunakan teknik penganalisisan data yang dicadangkan oleh Mile dan Huberman(1984), iaitu teknik membuat catatan refleksif, membuat catatan memo, membuat saringan data, membentuk kesimpulan, dan membuat verifikasi, penganalisisan data dijalankan pada dua peringkat. Kedua-dua peringkat tersebut adalah penganalisisan semasa mengutip data dan penganalisisan selepas mengutip data.

Dalam penyelidikan kualitatif, tempoh penyelidikan yang lama yang memerlukan pengkaji berada di tempat kajian (prolonged engagement), triangulasi yang wujud di antara teknik dan dalam teknik (Van Maanen, 1983) yang digunakan, teknik memeriksa kesan penyelidik serta bertaklimat dengan rakan sejawat (Bogdan & Biklen, 1999; Miles & Huberman,1984), dapat memberi kesahan dan kebolehpercayaan terhadap data yang diperoleh. Dalam kajian ini, keempat-empat perkara tersebut didapati. Dalam pelaksanaan kajian ini, pengkaji berada di sekolah kira-kira setahun untuk tujuan mengenali dan memilih tempat dan peserta kajian, dan juga mengutip dan mengumpul data. Selain itu, penggunaan tiga teknik pengutipan data, membolehkan pengkaji membeza-bandingkan dan memperkukuhkan perolehan data daripada teknik pemerhatian dengan teknik temu bual dan seterusnya dengan merujuk bukti dokumen yang berkait. Di samping itu, pengukuhan dan pengesahan data juga didapati daripada data yang dikumpulkan melalui sesebuah teknik pengutipan data seperti teknik temu bual atau pemerhatian. Sesuatu data yang diperoleh daripada pemerhatian pertama dapat dibeza-bandingkan dan diperkukuhkan dengan data daripada pemerhatian kedua dan seterusnya. Sebagai langkah pengesahan yang selanjutnya, pengkaji juga sering bertaklimat dengan rakan setempat kerja yang mempunyai kepakaran dalam bidang penyelidikan yang sama.

Oleh sebab tujuan kajian adalah untuk mengkaji bentuk perlakuan dan proses pramenulis karangan dalam konteks kelas yang sebenar, bentuk dan tajuk karangan ditentukan oleh guru yang mengajar. Dengan itu, bahan kajian meliputi kesemua jenis karangan yang diajarkan kepada empat buah kelas Tingkatan Empat tersebut bagi tempoh satu tahun sesi persekolahan. Keseluruhannya, jenis karangan yang diberi oleh guru meliputi karangan naratif, deskriptif, ceramah, laporan, wawancara, surat kiriman, syarahan, pidato dan perbincangan yang berjumlah 39 tajuk.

PERBINCANGAN DAPATAN KAJIANBagi tujuan pelaksanaan kajian ini, peringkat pramenulis karangan ditafsirkan sebagai peringkat antara tajuk karangan diperkenalkan hingga penulisan karangan sebenar dimulakan, iaitu dengan bermulanya penulisan perkataan, frasa, atau ayat pertama tentang sesebuah tajuk karangan yang diberikan oleh seseorang guru (Marohaini Yusoff, 1996). Kajian ini mendapati tiga bentuk perlakuan dan proses pramenulis karangan. Dua bentuk pramenulis karangan didapati pada semester 1 dan satu lagi bentuk pramenulis karangan didapati pada semester 2. Pada semester 1, bentuk pramenulis karangan pada peringkat awal dan pramenulis karangan lanjutan ditunjukkan oleh peserta kajian.

Dalam bentuk pramenulis karangan pada peringkat awal, peserta kajian menunjukkan perlakuan mendengar penerangan guru, berbincang dalam kumpulan, dan membentangkan dan berbincang secara keseluruhan kelas (sila lihat Rajah 1).

Pada keseluruhannya, kegiatan pramenulis karangan adalah untuk membuat perancangan mendapatkan isi. Perlakuan pramenulis karangan tersebut berlaku dalam urutan, iaitu langkah demi langkah mengikut penerangan dan arahan guru. Dalam kegiatan pramenulis karangan pada peringkat awal, peserta kajian tidak menunjukkan penglibatan kognitif yang banyak kecuali semasa perbincangan dalam kumpulan. Hal ini ditunjukkan dengan jelas melalui perlakuan mendengar penerangan guru dan perlakuan membentangkan dan berbincang secara keseluiuhan kelas. Dalam kegiatan tersebut, pelajar hanya memperlihatkan perlakuan menerima apa yang diterangkan oleh guru. Sebaliknya, guru memainkan peranan utama dalam membuat keputusan yang berhubung



Mendengar Penerangan Guru

iBerbincang Dalam

Kum pulan / Pasangan

iMembaca Tajuk Karangan

Secara Nyaring 8c Berulang-ulan^

iMencatat Isi

iMembentangkan & Berbincang

Keseluruhan Kelas

Rajah 1: Perlakuan dan proses pramenulis karangan awal

dengan penghasilan isi, iaitu mendapatkan isi, memilih, dan menyusun isi. Penglibatan guru yang tinggi didapati kerana mengikut guru yang mengajar, pada semester 1 para pelajar perlu diberi bimbingan untuk menulis karangan.

Selain penghasilan isi, bimbingan juga diberi dalam bentuk penerangan tentang kehendak tajuk karangan dan format atau bentuk karangan yang akan dikarang oleh peserta kajian. Penerangan guru tersebut menyentuh tentang isi yang diperlukan berdasarkan kata kunci yang terdapat dalam pernyataan tajuk karangan yang diberikan. Penerangan tentang bentuk karangan pula, diberi secara ringkas seolah-olah peserta kajian telahpun diberitahu sebelum pelajaran menulis karangan ini. Contohnya, penerangan guru tentang bentuk karangan imaginasi dan syarahan adalah seperti yang berikut:

Bentuk Karangan Imaginasi

Bolehlah tulis apa saja, mesti ada logik. Inilah perkara (merujuk kepada catatan isi karangan di papan hitam) yang boleh kamu isikan. Masukkan diri anda dalam imaginasi. Guna aku atau saya.

Kita tengok bagaimana hendak menulis. Seperti biasa karangan terbahagi kepada

pengenalan, isi, dan penutup. Isi telahpun diberi. Beri gambaran yang teliti tentang apa yang dilihat, rasa, dan dengar.

Bentuk karangan syarahan

...hujah-hujah mestilah kuat, konkrit, dan berasas yang boleh diterima. Jangan kita cuba bangkang dengan tajuk ini. Lebih baik kita setuju.

Saya lupa memberitahu bahawa satu isi dengan satu perenggan dan sebut para hadirin sekalian.

Semasa penerangan ini, peserta kajian tidak membuat catatan. Kebanyakan peserta kajian duduk di tempat mereka dan memandang guru di hadapan seolah-olah mendengar penerangan yang diberi oleh guru. Hal ini berbeza semasa mereka berbincang secara kumpulan. Semasa perbincangan kumpulan, peserta kajian menunjukkan penglibatan dalam membuat keputusan berhubung dengan penghasilan dan pemilihan isi. Proses tersebut ditunjukkan melalui perlakuan pramenulis karangan, iaitu mencatatkan isi dan membaca tajuk karangan. Proses perancangan untuk mendapat dan memilih isi tersebut berlaku secara bertindanan dan berulangan antara perlakuan mencatat isi karangan dengan membaca tajuk karangan. Namun begitu, dalam proses perancangan tersebut, rujukan utama peserta kajian ialah tajuk karangan dan penerangan guru. Rujukan kepada tajuk karangan juga dijalankan semasa perbincangan secara keseluruhan kelas untuk menyenaraikan, memilih, dan menyusun isi karangan. Penilaian dan perancangan isi karangan tersebut dibuat berdasarkan kesesuaian isi dengan maklumat dalam tajuk karangan. Ini menunjukkan bahawa perancangan tentang kehendak tajuk karangan tidak melampaui apa yang diberi oleh tajuk karangan. Justeru, pertimbangan terhadap aspek tujuan penulisan dan jenis pembaca tidak dilakukan. Perlakuan ini, lazimnya ditemui dalam perlakuan mengarang penulis kurang mahir seperti yang didapati dalam kajian Flower dan Hayes (1988).

Pada semester 1, peserta kajian juga didapati menjalankan kegiatan pramenulis karangan lanjutan. Pramenulis karangan lanjutan ini merujuk kepada kegiatan pelajar mem-


Marohaini Yusoff

bincangkan isi dan penyampaian isi bagi bahagian pengenalan karangan setelah perbincangan isi bagi bahagian isi karangan dibincangkan dalam kegiatan pramenulis karangan awal. Hal ini beralaku berikutan dengan keperluan peserta kajian membuat perancangan untuk mendapatkan isi karangan bagi memulakan penulisan bahagian pengenalan karangan. Bagi kebanyakan peserta kajian, penerangan yang diberi oleh guru terutamanya, dari segi isi yang diperlukan dan format bentuk karangan tidak mencukupi untuk mereka memulakan penulisan karangan. Dengan itu, sebaik sahaja mereka diarah oleh guru supaya mula menulis karangan, mereka tidak menulis karangan tetapi sebaliknya membuat perancangan untuk mendapatkan isi bagi memulakan penulisan karangan bagi bahagian pengenalan karangan.

Dalam bentuk pramenulis karangan lanjutan, peserta kajian menunjukkan perlakuan dan proses pramenulis karangan seperti yang ditunjukkan dalam Rajah 2. Berbeza daripada kegiatan pramenulis karangan pada peringkat awal, kegiatan pramenulis karangan lanjutan dijalankan oleh peserta kajian secara individu atau bersama rakan sekelas tanpa mendapat bimbingan daripada guru. Bentuk perlakuan dan proses pramenulis karangan peserta kajian memperlihatkan proses yang berulangan dan bertindanan antara perlakuan membaca tajuk karangan secara berulang-ulang, bercakap

Menyalin Tajuk Sc Isi

iMembaca Tajuk

Karangan Berulang-ulang

Merujuk Bercakap

dengan kawan, merangka isi, dan merujuk buku sebaik sahaja mereka menyalin tajuk karangan yang diberi oleh guru. Dalam kegiatan pramenulis karangan lanjutan, peserta kajian memperlihatkan penglibatan yang aktif dari segi membuat keputusan berkait dengan mencari- mendapatkan isi dan cara menyampaikan isi pengenalan tersebut.

Bentuk ketiga pramenulis karangan ialah bentuk pramenulis karangan yang dijalankan pada semester 2. Keseluruhannya, terdapat tiga perlakuan pramenulis karangan, iaitu mendengar penerangan guru, menyalin tajuk karangan, dan merangka isi (sila rujuk Rajah 3).

Mendengar Menyalin MerangkaPenerangan — ► Tajuk — ► Isi/Terus

Guru Karangan Menulis

Rajah 2: Perlakuan pramenulis karangan lanjutan

Rajah 3: Perlakuan dan Proses Pramenulis Karangan Semester 2

Berbeza daripada bentuk pramenulis karangan awal pada semester 1, bentuk perlakuan dan proses pramenulis karangan yang ditunjukkan adalah bertindanan dan berulangan antara satu perlakuan dan proses dengan satu perlakuan dan proses yang lain. Hal ini diperlihatkan melalui penglibatan pelajar yang tinggi berbandingkan penglibatan guru. Ini adalah kerana rasional pengajaran kemahiran menulis karangan pada semester 2 adalah untuk memberi latihan. Dengan itu, penerangan yang diberi oleh guru adalah ringkas dan keseluruhannya menyentuh tentang peringatan berhubung dengan tempoh menulis karangan, dan jumlah perkataan sesebuah karangan yang ditugaskan. Berbeza daripada kegiatan pra menulis karangan pada semester 1, pada semester2, para pelajar diarahkan supaya menulis dan menyiapkan tugasan mengarang yang diberikan di dalam kelas. Penulisan karangan ini perlu dijalankan oleh peserta kajian secara individu dan mereka dilarang untuk berkongsi atau berbincang dengan rakan sekelas. Hal ini ditegaskan oleh guru sebelum pelajar memulakan penulisan karangan mereka seperti yang berikut:

Sekarang saya ingin kamu menulis sebuah karangan secara individu. Maknanya kamu tidak perlu berkongsi meja. Mulakan sekarang. Jangan bercakap.



Justeru, dalam bentuk pramenulis karangan pada Semester 2, peserta kajian membuat keputusan untuk mendapatkan isi, memilih, dan menyusun isi. Walau bagaimanapun, sama dengan apa yang berlaku dalam perancangan isi karangan pada Semester 1, rujukan utama peserta kajian untuk mendapatkan isi, memilih dan menyusun isi ialah tajuk karangan semata-mata.

Dapatan kajian juga mendapati bahawa keseluruhan perancangan pramenulis karangan kurang dilakukan pada Semester 2 terutamanya, di kalangan peserta kajian yang lemah bahasa dan kebolehan mengarang. Kedua-dua peserta kajian yang lemah bahasa dan kebolehan mengarang, memperlihatkan perlakuan terns menulis dan apabila menghadapi masalah untuk meneruskan penulisan, mereka akan membuat hentian dan mula membuat rangka isi. Hal ini jelas dalam penulisan tajuk karangan yang berbentuk syarahan dan perbincangan. Contohnya dalam penulisan syarahan yang bertajuk, “Kaum wanita patut tinggal di rumah daripada bekerja.” Sama seperd peserta kajian yang lemah kebolehan mengarang dan bahasa, kedua-dua peserta kajian yang tinggi kebolehan mengarang dan bahasa juga menggunakan strategi yang sama. Bagi tajuk karangan yang mereka tidak mempunyai banyak isi dan bentuk karangan tidak diketahui, mereka akan membuat perancangan pramenulis karangan terlebih dahulu. Sekiranya tajuk karangan itu diketahui isinya, mereka akan terus menulis karangan tanpa membuat rangka isi. Perkara ini dinyatakan oleh dua orang peserta kajian yang berikut:

. . wawancara ni rasa tak payah tulis rangka. Sebab, ini dialog kan? Dialog kita boleh tambah aje apa kita nak . . . kita tanya, kitajawab, boleh reka soalan.”

“Tengok keadaanlah. Jika tajuk susah, tak faham, saya tidak dapat tulis secaraterus, saya tulis rangka dulu......... Jikatajuk senang, saya tulis terus.”

Berdasarkan ketiga-tiga bentuk perlakuan dan proses pramenulis karangan tersebut, beberapa kesimpulan dapat dibuat. Pertamanya, bentuk perlakuan dan proses pramenulis karangan peserta kajian merupakan gabungan dua proses, iaitu proses linear (Rohman 8c Wlecke, 1964) dan proses rekursif (Emig, 1971; Mischel, 1974; Stallard, 1974; Birnbaum, 1982;

Pianko, 1979; Perl, 1979; Flower 8c Hayes, 1981). Berdasarkan bentuk pengajaran guru dan konteks penulisan karangan di dalam kelas, peserta kajian menyesuaikan proses mengarang mereka dengan keperluan mengikut arahan dan penerangan guru. Dalam situasi kegiatan pramenulis karangan terbimbing (seperti yang berlaku semasa pramenulis karangan pada peringkat awal), perlakuan dan proses pramenulis karangan peserta kajian berlaku dalam bentuk linear, iaitu langkah demi langkah mengikut arahan dan penerangan guru dan juga kurang melibatkan pelajar dari segi kognitifnya. Dalam situasi kegiatan pramenulis karangan tanpa bimbingan guru (seperti yang didapati semasa kegiatan perbincangan dalam kumpulan, pramenulis karangan lanjutan, dan pramenulis karangan pada semester 2), perlakuan dan proses mengarang berlaku dalam bentuk yang berulangan dan bertindanan, serta memperlihatkan penglibatan pelajar dari segi kognitif. Hal ini, pastinya akan memberi pelajar lebih tanggungjawab terhadap pembelajaran mereka, dan akan dapat menghasilkan pembelajaran aktif yang diperlukan dalam pembelajaran kemahiran menulis karangan.

Keduanya, ketiga-tiga proses pramenulis karangan tersebut, (iaitu pramenulis karangan peringkat awal, pramenulis karangan lanjutan, dan pramenulis karangan pada semester 2) berlaku dalam lingkungan satu situasi kelas, iaitu kelas tingkatan empat. Daripada bentuk pengajaran dan pembelajaran kemahiran mengarang tersebut dapat dikatakan bahawa perlakuan dan proses pramenulis karangan lahir bukan daripada peserta kajian sebagai individu tetapi sebagai individu daripada satu komuniti sekolah sebagaimana yang disarankan oleh Bizzell(1982) dan pelopor perspektif sosial yang lain.

Dalam konteks kajian ini, sekolah boleh disamakan dengan sebuah masyarakat kecil memandangkan sekolah merupakan sebuah komuniti dalam masyarakat. Berdasarkan penekanan pengajaran guru yang disalurkan melalui penerangan dan arahan, dapat dikatakan bahawa budaya pengajaran dan pembelajaran kemahiran mengarang dipancangkan ke dalam penghasilan sebuah karangan. Kajian mendapati bahawa budaya penulisan karangan di dalam kelas lebih merupakan penulisan karangan untuk memenuhi kriteria penulisan karangan dalam peperiksaan. Di sini dapat dikatakan bahawa peserta kajian tidak menulis karangan untuk w...

Pertanika }. Soc. Sci. 8c Hum. Vol. 7 No. 1 1999 37

Marohaini Yusoff

a mythical audience in isolation; rather the wrtier (peserta kajian) belongs to and writes for a community” (Ackerman, 1990 dalam Hillyard, 1992). Dalam konteks kajian ini, peserta kajian menulis untuk guru dan juga untuk memenuhi keperluan latihan menulis karangan yang diperlukan untuk menulis karangan di dalam peperiksaan. Senario penulisan karangan seperti ini tidak unik kepada peserta kajian dalam kajian ini sahaja. Malahan, kajian Britton et al. (1975) dan Applebee (1984) mendapati perkara yang sama berlaku. Britton et al. (1975) melaporkan bahawa 90 peratus penulisan karangan pelajar sekolah menengah di Britain ditujukan kepada guru, dan hampir 50 peratus daripada keseluruhan penulisan karangan ditujukan kepada guru sebagai penilai.

Keadaan ini dapat dilihat pada situasi penulisan karangan yang mirip kepada penulisan dalam peperiksaan dan juga penumpuan yang diberi oleh guru dalam pengajaran, dan penumpuan yang diberi oleh peserta kajian dalam perancangan pramenulis karangan di dalam kelas. Dalam pelajaran kemahiran menulis karangan di dalam kelas, peserta kajian diarah menulis karangan yang panjangnya 350 patah perkataan dan tajuk karangannya ditentukan oleh guru. Pada semester 2, peserta kajian diminta supaya menulis dan menyiapkan penulisan karangan dalam tempoh yang diberi oleh guru. Semasa menulis karangan, mereka tidak digalakkan berkongsi pendapat atau berbincang tentang penulisan mereka.

Selain itu, pengajaran guru lebih memberi tumpuan kepada aspek isi atau apa yang dapat dituliskan daripada bagaimana isi boleh dituliskan untuk menghasilkan sebuah karangan. Penerangan dan perbincangan yang dijalankan berkisar pada bilangan isi yang perlu dimuatkan dan tidak kepada bagaimana mendapatkan isi karangan. Bentuk pengajaran ini menunjukkan bahawa arah tujuan pengajaran guru adalah untuk menyediakan pelajar menghadapi peperiksaan. Pengajaran guru yang membekalkan pelajar dengan input isi seperti ini adalah mencukupi untuk mereka menjawab soalan peperiksaan tetapi tidak mencukupi untuk membekalkan pelajar dengan kemahiran menulis karangan bagi memenuhi fungsi komunikasi dalam penulisan. Kekurangan input prosedural dalam pengajaran kemahiran mengarang seperti ini, kurang mampu untuk melahirkan penulis yang mahir dalam penulisan karangan.

Lagipun, bentuk pengajaran yang sedemikian adalah tidak selaras dengan tujuan utama pengajaran kemahiran mengarang sebagaimana yang ditegaskan oleh David et al. (1995). Beliau menegaskan bahawa . . at the heart o f teaching a writing course is not the transmission o f content but the process o f intervening in students” efforts to produce meaning! (him. 528). Oleh itu, dalam perancangan pengajaran kemahiran mengarang, penekanan terhadap aspek strategi yang dapat digunakan oleh pelajar dalam penulisan perlu diberikan. Hal ini adalah kerana berbeza daripada pengajaran dan pembelajaran mata pelajaran bukan bahasa seperti Sejarah dan Geografi, aspek isi merupakan perkara kedua. Yang utama dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran kemahiran mengarang adalah bagaimana isi boleh didapati, dipilih dan disusun untuk dikarang dalam bentuk sebuah karangan yang dapat memenuhi keperluan peperiksaan dan juga fungsi berkomunikasi dalam penulisan.

Oleh itu, bentuk pengajaran dan konteks penulisan karangan di dalam kelas menjadikan kegiatan pramenulis karangan sebagai suatu kegiatan yang tidak boleh lari daripada memenuhi keperluan sosial yang disertai dengan nilai, hasrat, dan harapan masyarakat, iaitu keperluan belajar menulis karangan untuk mengikut arahan guru dan mendapat markah yang baik dalam ujian dan peperiksaan. Dalam proses mencapai nilai, hasrat, dan harapan tersebut, gabungan dua proses mengarang, iaitu proses linear dan proses rekursif ditunjukkan oleh peserta kajian bagi tujuan menyesuaikan keperluan mereka untuk menyiapkan tugasan mengarang dan keperluan guru menyediakan pelajar untuk peperiksaan. Dalam proses itu juga, bentuk pengajaran guru telah menyimpang daripada tujuan utama pengajaran kemahiran menulis karangan.

Bagaimanakah pengetahuan tentang bentuk perlakuan dan proses pramenulis karangan ini dapat membantu guru dalam perancangan kegiatan pramenulis karangan di dalam kelas? Yang berikuniya adalah beberapa cadangan yang dapat difikirkan bagi membantu perancangan pengajaran dan pembelajaran pramenulis karangan di dalam kelas.

IMPLIKASI KAJIANBerdasarkan dapatan kajian, bentuk proses perlakuan pramenulis karangan merupakan



gabungan linear dan rekursif. Ini bermakna dalam pengajaran kemahiran mengarang, penggunaan pendekatan proses atau bukan proses tidak menjadi persoalan. Apa yang perlu dipersoalkan adalah kesesuaian perancangan pengajaran dengan keperluan pelajar mempelajari kemahiran menulis karangan di dalam kelas. Dalam konteks kajian ini, pengajaran guru secara langsung dan eksplisit pada peringkat pramenulis karangan diperlukan untuk memberi pengetahuan dan latihan bagi membantu pelajar membuat perancangan untuk persediaan menulis karangan di dalam kelas. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa bentuk pengajaran guru tidak mencukupi untuk memberi kesediaan kepada pelajar menulis karangan yang ditugaskan di dalam kelas. Dengan yang demikian, pengajaran kemahiran menulis karangan hendaklah memberi perhadan kepada keperluan pelajar mempelajari kemahiran atau strategi yang dapat digunakan dalam penulisan karangan di dalam kelas. Yang berikutnya adalah beberapa cadangan tentang kegiatan pramenulis karangan yang akan dikemukakan dalam beberapa tajuk.

Analisis Tajuk Kajian

Selaras dengan dapatan kajian ini, kegiatan menganalisis tajuk karangan (Chandrasegaran,1991) perlu diutamakan dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran kemahiran mengarang. Dalam konteks kajian ini, kegiatan analisis tajuk karangan boleh dijadikan sebagai kegiatan pertama dalam kegiatan pramenulis karangan. Umpamanya, perbincangan tentang kehendak tajuk karangan hendaklah melampaui apa yang terkandung dalam tajuk karangan. Perbincangan tentang kehendak tajuk karangan hendaklah meliputi bukan sahaja kata kunci yang didapati dalam tajuk karangan tetapi juga meliputi aspek retorik penulisan, iaitu mengenal pasti dan membentuk tujuan dan jenis pembaca yang dituju. Pembentukan situasi retorik ini akan dapat membolehkan pelajar mempunyai kerangka konsep tentang penulisan karangan yang bukan sahaja dapat memberi fokus dan hala tuju dalam perancangan isi tetapi juga dalam penyampaian isi. Strategi ini terbukti berkesan bagi membantu pelajar menulis karangan yang bermutu (Flower 8c Hayes, 1988; Chandrasegaran, 1991).

Dengan itu, pada peringkat pramenulis karangan, pelajar boleh didedahkan dan diladh dengan strategi mengenal pasti dan memahami tujuan penulisan, strategi mengenal pasti dan

mengenali pembaca yang ditujukan, dan strategi mencari dan mendapat isi karangan. Dalam pembentukan tujuan penulisan, bimbingan dan masa hendaklah diberi kepada pelajar untuk mempertimbangkan dan membentuk tujuan yang autentik bagi mewujudkan fokus dan perasaan keterlibatan serta keyakinan. Begitu juga dengan latihan yang berkait dengan jenis pembaca yang ditujukan dalam penulisan karangan. Memandangkan aspek pembaca adalah kompleks, latihan untuk menulis karangan kepada pelbagai jenis penulis, iaitu pembaca sebenar yang berada dalam lingkungan sekolah dan di luar sekolah dapat diberikan. Dengan cara ini, pelajar akan dapat melihat bagaimana persembahan isi disesuaikan dengan keperluan pelbagai tujuan dan jenis pembaca yang ditujukan. Hal ini pendng kerana walaupun penulisan karangan di sekolah dijalankan untuk memenuhi keperluan latihan untuk persediaan peperiksaan, tidak bermakna latihan dari segi strategi mengenal pasti tujuan dan jenis pembaca tidak diperlukan. Ini adalah kerana di dalam situasi penulisan karangan untuk peperiksaan, aspek keperluan pemeriksa perlu diberi pertimbangan untuk mendapat sambutan yang baik (Chandrasegaran, 1991).

Mencari dan Mendapatkan Isi

Di samping itu, walaupun keperluan untuk mendapat isi berlaku pada bila-bila masa semasa menulis karangan, mengumpul isi atau maklumat sebelum menulis karangan dapat membekalkan penulis dengan kawalan terhadap isi karangan. Dalam hal ini, pelajar boleh dibantu dengan strategi untuk mendapatkan isi seperti membuat pemetaan isi dan menulis secara bebas. Di samping itu, Openyediaan sumber bagi membolehkan pelajar membuat rujukan untuk mendapatkan isi adalah sangat penting. Bahan- bahan dalam bentuk audio (seperti rakaman dialog dan pita kaset tentang persembahan tertentu yang berkait dengan tajuk karangan), visual (seperti gambar, keratan akhbar, dan kertas edaran) serta pita video boleh disediakan oleh pelajar dan guru sebelum sesebuah pelajaran pramenulis karangan bagi sesebuah tajuk karangan dijalankan.

Format Bentuk Karangan

Selain itu, pada peringkat pramenulis karangan, penerangan dan perbincangan yang lebih terperinci tentang format bentuk karangan akan


Marohaini Yusoff

dapat memberi panduan dan bantuan untuk pelajar membentuk fokus dalam perancangan isi karangan dan persembahan isi karangan. Hal ini adalah kerana dalam penulisan karangan, sesebuah penulisan tidak boleh lari daripada menulis sesebuah isi dalam bentuk karangan tertentu seperti bentuk surat kiriman atau syarahan. Oleh itu, dalam kegiatan pramenulis karangan di dalam kelas, pelajar hendaklah mengetahui dan faham tentang rangka bentuk karangan dan cirinya. Penggunaan model karangan siap dan gambar rajah dapat memberi gambaran visual tentang konsep organisasi dan ciri sesebuah bentuk karangan yang akan dituliskan.

KESIMPULANKeseluruhannya, perlakuan dan proses pramenulis karangan peserta kajian yang memberi banyak perhatian kepada penghasilan isi karangan dan tidak mempunyai strategi untuk menghasilkan, membentuk dan menyampaikan isi karangan, menunjukkan bahawa pendedahan dan latihan yang diberikan adalah tidak mencukupi bagi membantu pelajar menulis karangan di dalam kelas. Dalam pengajaran kemahiran menulis karangan, di samping isi karangan, pengajaran tentang aspek prosedural atau strategi menulis karangan yang cukup adalah sangat penting untuk menghasilkan penulis yang mahir. Strategi pengajaran seperti analisis tajuk karangan yang dapat membawa pelajar membentuk kerangka konsep dalam penulisan, akan memberi fokus dan hala tuju dalam penghasilan isi karangan. Pembekalan pengetahuan dan strategi menulis karangan juga akan dapat menjadikan pelajaran kemahiran menulis karangan lebih mencabar dan bermakna kepada pelajar. Ini bererti, fokus pengajaran kemahiran menulis karangan perlu beralih daripada hanya memberi perhatian kepada aspek luaran seperti isi dan tajuk karangan kepada aspek proses, iaitu strategi menulis karangan. Dengan itu, secara tidak langsung pelajar akan dapat ditunjukkan bahawa penulisan karangan melibatkan kedua-dua aspek, iaitu isi dan proses. Peralihan fokus pengajaran dan pembelajaran ini juga penting untuk melahirkan penulis yang mahir dalam penulisan karangan.

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(Received: 21 May 1998)



Influences on the Effectiveness of the National Population and Family Development Board’s Parenting Module

ANJLI PANALAL K DOSHI and ROZUMAH BAHARUDIN1National Population and Family Development Board

Ministry of National Unity and Development Kuala Lumpur

faculty of Human Ecology Universiti Putra Malaysia

Key words: parenting module effectiveness, parenting knowledge, parenting attitudes, parenting practices, parenting skills, individual differences

ABSTRAK

Secara umumnya kajian ini bertujuan untuk menentukan pengaruh keberkesanan Modul Keibubapaan Lembaga Penduduk dan Pembangunan Keluarga Negara (LPPKN) dengan meneliti kesan perbezaan individu (persediaan untuk perubahan caragaya keibubapaan dan perspesi keberkesanan keibubapaan) dan pendedahan kepada modul terhadap KAPS (pengetahuan, sikap, amalan, dan kemahiran keibubapaan) keibubapaan dan persepsi terhadap modul. Rangka bentuk penyelidikan Pra-uji dan Pos-uji dengan Kumpulan Kawalan telah digunakan untuk menilai modul keibubapaan LPPKN. Sejumlah 80 responden telah dibahagikan secara rawak kepada dua kumpulan, eksperimental dan kawalan. Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa AAPSbagi kumpulan eksperimental meningkat dengan signifikan selepas pendedahan kepada modul. Secara umum, didapati bahawa peserta mempunyai persepsi yang tinggi terhadap struktur modul dan kegunaannya. Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa perbezaan individu mempunyai korelasi signifikan dengan pengetahuan keibubapaan (r=0.56, p<0.05) dan sikap keibubapaan (r=0.46, p<0.05). Walau bagaimanapun tidak terdapat korelasi signifikan antara perbezaan individu dengan amalan dan kemahiran keibubapaan. Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa pendedahan kepada modul mempunyai korelasi yang positif dan signifikan dengan pengetahuan keibubapaan (r=0.57, p<0.05), sikap keibubapaan (r=0.56, p<0.05), amalan keibubapaan (r=0.34, p<0.05) dan kemahiran keibubapaan (r=0.26, p<0.05). Pendedahan peserta kepada modul dan perbezaan individu didapati mempunyai kesan langsung terhadap pengetahuan, sikap dan amalan keibubapaan. Walaubagaimanapun tidak terdapat bukti untuk menyokong kesimpulan bahawa pendedahan kepada modul dan perbezaan individu mempunyai kesan terhadap kemahiran keibubapaan peserta. Secara keseluruhannya, kajian ini membuat kesimpulan bahawa modul keibubapaan adalah berkesan dalam mengubah pengetahuan, sikap, amalan, dan kemahiran keibubapaan ibu bapa.

ABSTRACT

The general purpose of this study was to determine the influences on the effectiveness of the National Population and Family Development Board’s (NPFDB) parenting module among parents by examining the effects of individual differences (expressed readiness for parenting change and perceptions of parenting self-efficacy) and exposure to the module on parenting knowledge, attitudes, practices, and skills (KAPS) and perceptions of the module. The Pre-test- Post-test Control Group Design was used for evaluating the parenting module. A total of 80

Anjli Panalal K Doshi and Rozumah Baharudin1

respondents were randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups. Results of the study showed that parenting KAPS improved significantly for the experimental group after exposure to the module. Generally, it was found that the participants had high perceptions of the module structure and its usefulness. Results also showed that individual differences was significantly related to parenting knowledge (r=0.56, p<0.05) and parenting attitudes (r= 0.46, p<0.05). However, there was no significant correlation between individual differences and parenting practices and skills. Results obtained suggested that exposure to the module was significantly and positively correlated with parenting knowledge (r=0.57, p<0.05), parenting attitudes (r=0.56, p<0.05), parenting practices (r=0.34, p<0.05) and parenting skills (r=0.26, p<0.05). The participants’ exposure to the parenting module and individual differences were found to have direct effect on their parenting KAP. The study however, found no evidence to conclude that exposure to the module and individual differences had an effect on the parenting skills of the participants. Nevertheless, on the whole the study concluded that the parenting module was effective inchanging the parenting KAPS of parents.

INTRODUCTIONThe National Population and Family Development Board’s (NPFDB) parenting module that was evaluated in this study attempts to accomplish the long term goal o f ‘developing happy families’ through the enhancement of parenting knowledge and skills among parents. The parenting module is an innovative approach that has been developed and used since 1994. The NPFDB has expended a lot o f resources on the formulation, production and implementation of this module. A team of experts in the field of family development and communication from the Universiti Putra Malaysia and the NPFDB were involved in the development o f the parenting module. To-date, the NPFDB has trained a few hundred master trainers from various related government departments and non-governmental organisations in the utilisation of the module. These master trainers have in turn been involved in the training o f their respective clientele.

The specific goals o f the module are to enhance parenting knowledge, attitudes, practices and skills (parenting KAPS). The parenting module consists o f five units: introduction to family life, husband-wife communication, pre-parenting, increasing child’s self-esteem and building a happy family. The parenting module utilises various methodologies in imparting knowledge and developing the parenting skills o f parents. Role playing, group discussions, individual assignments and videotapes observation and analysis are some of the techniques used. The module emphasises on experiential learning and interactive approach that are very suitable for topics such as

communication, self-esteem, problem-solving and family values.

This is the first study that has been conducted to evaluate the effectiveness o f the NPFDB parenting module. The findings from this study have important implications as it will enable the module to be further refined, improved or expanded in terms o f approach or contents so as to increase its effectiveness. The study findings are also important as they can contribute to the formulation of future modules on parenting. A review o f the literature indicates that parenting programmes have been effective in terms of their specific objectives. Eastman (1983) reviewed almost 60 published evaluations of family life education programmes and found that almost all o f them showed positive gains. Research have shown that various factors such as the families in which one grew up, education, income, social networks, beliefs, values and media may influence one’s parenting behaviour (Belsky, 1984; Luster & Kain, 1987). It could therefore be assumed that family life programmes would not be able to significantly alter parent’s knowledge, attitudes and practices. However, the evaluations o f various programmes have shown them to be effective. Numerous research have shown that parenting programmes have been able to increase parenting knowledge, change attitudes, enhance skills as well as change tendency to behave (e.g. Pfannensteil 8c Honig, 1995; Spoth et al., 1995; Thompson et al., 1993; Anderson 8c Nutall, 1987; Kramer 8c Washo, 1993; Witkin et al., 1983; Cleaver, 1987; McBride, 1991; Owen 8c Mulvihill, 1994; Devlin et al.,1992). Findings from these studies indicate that family life education should be developed further


National Population and Family Development Board’s Parenting Module

and its coverage expanded to encompass a wider cross-section o f society. Various types o f family life education programmes have provided evidence that it is possible to increase knowledge, change attitudes, and teach skills through relatively simple and short programmes. The results o f the Common Sense Parenting Programme that was carried out among parents of both middle and low income indicated that parental reports o f child behaviour problems, parent attitudes and parent-problem solving skills improved significandy from before to after parent training (Thompson et al.; 1993).

The effectiveness o f parent behaviour training for reducing child behaviour problems and enhancing parents’ knowledge, skills and attitudes regarding child-rearing has been consistently documented (Kramer 8c Washo, 1993; Pfannenstiel 8c Honig, 1995; Thompson et al., 1993). Similarly, the ability o f parent communication training to enhance parents’ relationship skills such as reflection and expression o f feelings, empathy, and to alter children’s self-esteem and behaviour also has been empirically supported (Buetler, Bueder, 8c Mitchell, 1979).

The methodology used in presenting a training module may influence the effectiveness of the module. Research has shown that a combination o f various methodologies such as role playing, skills practice, watching videotapes and group discussions are superior to didactic group training or written materials alone (Anderson 8c Nuttall, 1987; Cleaver, 1987; Warmbrod, 1982; Owen 8c Mulvihill, 1994; Devlin et al., 1992).

Giblin, Sprenkle and Sheehann (1985) concluded that programmes which emphasise skills and behavioural practice yielded much better outcomes than those which did not. Cleaver (1987) found that videotaped skill instruction helped marital couples maintain communication skills. Warmbrod (1982) found support for the hypothesis that the generation of alternatives in problem-solving came from specific training more than a generic communications skills approach.

In general, performance oriented teaching methods (role playing, behavioural rehearsal) have been rated as more useful than written materials. Parents’ ratings o f the value o f performance oriented components were found to be significant predictors of parents’ reported

positive changes in parenting skills following the training experience (Anderson & Nuttall, 1987). Previous research in parent-training has provided evidence that experiential approaches add to treatment effectiveness in the general population (Eastman, 1983; Anderson 8c Nuttall, 1987).

A review o f past evaluations o f parent education programmes reveals that there is inadequate research on the relationship between individual differences and parenting outcomes in parenting programme evaluation literature (Spoth et al., 1995). Examination of such effects has been recommended in previous intervention literature (e.g. Buetler, 1991; Shoham-Salomon 8c Hannah, 1991). There has been limited study of the relationship of readiness for parenting change with skills training outcomes (Spoth et al., 1995). Expressed readiness for parenting change is defined as a commitment or willingness to change or may be interpreted as personal readiness to profit from particular treatment situations (Snow, 1991).

Another variable that can be predictive o f changes in parenting behaviour is parenting self-efficacy (Spoth et al., 1995). Bandura (1977, 1989a) defined self-efficacy as a perception o f one’s ability to successfully perform behaviours required to produce given outcomes or one’s ability to perform a desired behaviour. Self- efficacy has been significant in accounting for initiation and maintenance o f behaviour in studies evaluating a wide range o f domains (Bandura, 1977, 1982; Gecas, 1989; Teti 8c Gelfand, 1991; Berry 8c West, 1993; Pajares 8c Kranzler, 1995). This positive effect occurs due to increased motivation for and perseverance in behavioural change driven by self-efficacy. A number o f studies have shown that self-efficacy can play an important role in parenting (Spoth et al., 1995; Teti 8c Gelfand, 1991; Luster, 1985; Luster 8c Kain, 1987; Jan, 1995).

A controlled parenting skills outcome study examining individual differences (expressed readiness for parenting change and parenting self-efficacy) and intervention exposure found that both fathers’ and mothers’ level o f intervention attendance and expressed readiness for parenting change were sufficient predictors o f the targeted parenting outcome, as was parental efficacy among mothers (Spoth et al., 1995). Luster and Kain (1987) found that parents with little education and/or low incomes are less likely than better educated parents to believe


that parents have a great deal of control over developmental outcomes. The study also found that high efficacy and low efficacy parents differ in how they view the parenting role. High efficacy parents emphasise the importance o f providing their children with love and affection and good examples unlike low efficacy parents who stress on disciplinary actions (Luster 8c Kain, 1987).

Parents’ attitudes and perceptions about child-rearing affect parental behaviour and, as a result, this influences the developmental outcomes o f the child (Belsky, 1984; Luster, 1985; Luster 8c Kain, 1987; Teti 8c Gelfand, 1991). Teti and Gelfand (1991) found that maternal self-efficacy beliefs related significantly to behavioural competence among mothers on infants in the first year. Results suggested that maternal self-efficacy mediates relations between maternal competence and other psychosocial variables and may play a crucial role in determining parenting behaviour. This finding is consistent with Bandura’s (1982, 1989a) view that self-efficacy is the mediating link between knowledge and behaviour. Mothers who feel efficacious in the parenting role would be successful in establishing a warm and harmonious relationship with their infants (Teti 8c Gelfand, 1991).

The general objective of the current study was to evaluate the influences on the effectiveness of the NPFDB’s parenting module among parents by examining the effects o f individual differences (expressed readiness for parenting change and perceptions o f parenting self-efficacy) and exposure to the module on parenting KAPS and perceptions o f the module. Specifically, the objectives o f the study are as follows:

To determ ine the changes in the respondent’s KAPS after exposure to the NPFDB parenting module.To determine the respondent’s perceptions of the parenting module.To determine the relationship between exposure to the parenting module and parenting KAPS.To determine the relationship between respondent’ s individual differences (experessed readiness for parenting change and/or perceptions o f parenting self- efficacy) and parenting KAPS.

5. To determine whether individual differences mediate the relationship between exposure to the module and parenting KAPS.

METHODOLOGYResearch Design

The research design employed in the present study was the Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design. The greatest virtue o f this design is that, when it has been properly implemented, it will be possible to draw strong conclusions about the effect o f the intervention (parenting module) on posttest scores (Fitz-Gibbon 8c Morris, 1978). A prerequisite for a true group experimental design is that there be both control and experimental groups that are equivalent (Miller, 1986). The study design (Fisher et al., 1991) is represented in Figure 1. This Pretest-Posttest Control Group design was used for evaluating the module. This design randomly assigned subjects (RA) from a single population to the experimental group and the control group. Both the experimental and control groups received an initial measurement observation (the pretests O l and 03). However, the experimental group


1.

2.

3.

4.

Time----------------------- ►

RA v ----------Experimental Group Oj X 0 2

Control Group Os 0 4

Note:RA = Random assignment o f subjects to the experimental and control group Time = The passage o f time. The extreme left o f the design is the beginning o f the course

(pretest) and the extreme right is the end (posttest).X = Programme intervention (parenting m odule).O = An observation measurement. The subscript is used to distinguish one observation

measurement from another. For example O,, 0 2, 0 3, 0 4.

Figure 1 : Pretest-posttest control group design



then further received the intervention o f parenting module (X ).

Finally, a second set o f observations were made (0 2 and 0 4). Since the experimental group received the intervention (X ), 0 2 is expected to be greater than O r Also, since both the experimental and control group cases were randomly assigned, we would expect that Oj would be equal to 0 3 on such key variables as parenting knowledge, attitudes, practice and skills (Fisher et al., 1991). These design have been noted to be the strongest in terms o f controlling (or accounting for) threats to validity (Fisher et al., 1991). The intervention effects were assessed by comparing the average group scores on dependent variables o f the subjects in the experimental and control groups. Experiments are designed to allow an investigator to infer functional or causal relationships between independent and dependent variables (Miller, 1986).

The FELDA Serting scheme in the state o f Negeri Sembilan was purposively selected as the study site. The population for the study was the FELDA setders and their spouses. Initially, based on the study’s criteria, about 150 setders or their spouses were short-listed for the experimental study with the help o f the FELDA personnel in Serting. Random sampling procedures were then employed to select 80 respondents for the experimental study and to assign them to one o f two groups, 41 were assigned to the control group and 39 to the experimental group.

Procedure

The parenting module (treatm ent) was conducted by two facilitators from the NPFDB over a period o f three days, from 21nd to 24th April 1996, for the experimental group. The module which comprised 5 units was conducted over a period o f 15 hours. The post-test was conducted about a week later, that is, from 3rd to 6th o f May, 1996. The timing o f the post-test was consistent with past research (Thompson et al., 1993; Pfannensteil 8c Honig, 1995; Kramer 8c Washo, 1993; Devlin et al., 1992; Mcbride, 1991).

Measures

Parenting Knowledge (PK) was assessed using a Likert scale adapted from Gilbert and Hanson’s(1983) Perception of Parental Role Scale (PPRS) and Rozumah’s (1995) Parenting Knowledge Scale. The knowledge scale consisted o f 15 (12

positive and 3 negative) items. An example o f a positive statement is: A person’s self-concept influences his behaviour. An example o f a negative statement is: Playing with a child (e.g., by tossing or shaking his body roughly) will not harm the child. The responses appeared on a 4- point Likert format ranging from 4 (strongly agree), 3 (agree), 2 (disagree) and 1 (strongly disagree). Reliability assessment of the Parenting Knowledge Scale in the present study yielded an alpha coefficient of 0.7.

Parenting Attitudes was measured using an attitude scale consisting o f 15 (8 positive and 7 negative) Likert-type items. The scale was adapted from the Schludermann and Schludermann (1979) Parent Attitude Research Instrument (PARI Q4). The attitude scale assessed parents’ attitudes about child-rearing, parent-child relationships, communication, importance of self-esteem and roles o f family members. An example o f a positive statement is: Parents must earn the repect o f their children through their own action. An example o f a negative statements is: Parents do not have to respect their children’s opinions. The response format consisted o f a 4-point Likert scale on which respondents indicated whether they, agree, disagree or strongly disagree with each attitude statement. Reliability assessment of the Attitude Scale yielded an alpha coefficient o f 0.5.

Parenting Practices was assessed using a Likert-type scale consisting o f 10 items constructed by the researcher. The Cronbach alpha coefficien t for the scale was 0.4. Respondents were asked to indicate how frequently they practised ten parenting behaviours on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from never, seldom, sometimes, often and very often.

Parenting Skills was measured using a scale consisting o f 20 items developed by the researcher. The alpha coefficient for this scale was 0.59. The response format consisted o f two sub-formats. Respondents were first asked whether they have 10 specific parenting skills (they had to answer yes or no). Subsequently, they were asked how effective they perceived themselves to be in using the parenting skills on a 5-point Likert scale. The responses ranged from never, seldom ( 1-2 times out o f 10), sometimes (3-5 times out o f 10), often (6-8 times out o f 10) and very often (9-10 times).



The General Perceptions o f the Module Scale which consisted o f 2 sub-scales was adapted from the scale used by Kramer and Washo (1993) to evaluate the respondents’ perceptions of the parenting module. The alpha coefficient for the overall scale (General Perceptions o f Module Scale) was 0.74. The Perceptions o f Module Structure Sub-scale alpha coefficient was 0.67 while the alpha coefficient for the Perceptions o f Usefulness o f Module Sub-scale was 0.75. In the first sub-scale (Perceptions o f Module Structure) which consisted o f six items, respondents indicated on a 4-point Likert scale (l=strongly disagree to 4=strongly agree) their perceptions of the parenting module. In the second sub-scale (Perceptions o f Usefulness o f Module) consisting o f 6 items, respondents indicated on a 4-point Likert scale (l=strongly disagree to 4=strongly agree) their general perceptions o f whether the parenting module had been helpful/useful to them.

The Perceptions of Methodologies Scale (8 items) was developed by the researcher based on the methodologies used in the module. Respondents were asked to rate their perceptions of the effectiveness o f the methodologies used on a four-point Likert scale (4=very effective, 3=effective, 2=not effective and l=not at all effective. The alpha reliability coefficient for this scale was 0.72.

The Individual Differences Scale consisted o f two sub-scales: Expressed Readiness for Parenting Change Sub-scale and Perceptions o f Parenting Self-efficacy Sub-scale. The scale which was based on the contents o f the module was measured on a 4-point Likert scale (1= strongly disagree to 4=strongly agree). The Expressed Readiness for Parenting Change sub-scale which consisted o f five items was adapted from the scale used by Spoth et al. (1995). Reliability assessment of this sub-scale yielded an alpha coefficient o f 0.69. The Perceptions of Parenting Self-Efficacy Sub-scale was adapted from Luster’s(1985) Perception o f Parental Self-Efficacy Scale (POPE) and Simons’s et al. (1993) three-item Parental Influence Scale. The Perception of Parenting Self-Efficacy Sub-scale used in the present study consisted of 7 items concerning parents’ beliefs about their ability to perform the specific type o f behaviours targeted by the intervention. Reliability assessment o f this scale yielded an alpha coefficient o f 0.54.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSSample Characteristics

Table 1 and 2 present the background characteristics and differences between the experimental and control groups. The experimental group consisted o f nine (23%) males and 30 (77%) females. As shown in Table1, the respondents’ ages ranged from 26 to 45 years with a mean age o f 36.7. The respondents had an average level o f education with a majority (44%) of the respondents having completed at least primary or lower secondary level (33%) o f education. The control group consisted o f 16 (39%) males and 25 (61%) females. As shown in Table 1, the respondents’ ages ranged from 26 to 46 years with a mean age o f 38.3 for the control group. Independent t-test analyses contrasting the background characteristics o f the experimental and control groups revealed no significant differences in age, level o f education, household income, number o f children, _ and years o f marriage among the respondents (see Table 1).

The first objective o f the study was to determine the changes in the participant’s KAPS after exposure to the module. The results as shown in Table 2, indicate that parenting KAPS improved significandy after exposure for the experimental group participants. The fact that these changes were consistent across all the four parenting measures suggests that the parenting module was effective in enhancing the parenting KAPS of the respondents.

Results o f the analysis o f variance for repeated measures on parenting KAPS showed that the time by group effect is significant (see Table 3). A statistically significant F-ratio for the parenting KAPS indicates that the pre-test-posttest score o f one group is significandy greater than that o f the other group. This was followed by the paired t-test and independent t-test to identify which group had significant gains in knowledge scores. The detailed findings from the paired t-test and independent t-test support that the module was effective in increasing the parenting KAPS score o f the respondents exposure to the module (see Table 2, 3 and 4).

This finding is consistent with the findings o f other evaluations o f family life education programmes which have shown that it is possible to increase knowledge, change attitudes and teach skills through relatively simple and short



TABLE 1Background characteristics and differences groups (n=80)

Variables

Control (n=41) Experimental (n=39) t-test (p)

n % n %

Age t=1.49 (0.14)26-30 years 4 9.8 2 5.131-35 years 5 12.2 13 33.336-40 years 16 39.0 16 41.041-45 years 15 36.6 8 20.5>46 years 1 2.4 - -Mean 38.30 36.74SD 5.10 3.97

Education (Respondent) t=1.40 (0.16)(years of

education)No formal education 2 4.9 1 2.6Primary 23 56.1 17 43.6Lower Secondary 10 24.4 13 33.3Upper Secondary 6 14.6 7 17.9Others 1 2.6

Years of Marriage t=1.29 (0.20)<10 years 6 14.6 4 10.311-15 years 12 29.3 21 58.816-20 years 14 34.2 9 23.121-25 years 8 19.5 5 12.8>25 years 1 2.4 - -

Mean 15.90 14.80SD 6.20 4.32

Number of children *=1.10 (2.70)< 2 4 9.8 3 7.63 - 5 22 53.7 29 74.46 - 8 12 29.3 6 15.4> 8 3 7.2 1 2.6

Mean 4.85 4.41SD 1.98 1.58

Monthly Fam. Income t=1.10 (0.28)< than RM400 2 4.9 8 20.5RM401 - RM800 25 61.0 18 46.2RM801 - 1200 6 14.6 7 17.9RM1201 - 1600 4 9.8 6 15.4> RM1600 4 9.8 - -

Mean RM800 RM748SD RM415 RM376

programmes (Eastman, 1983; Pfannensteil 8c Honig, 1995; Spoth et al., 1995; Owen 8c Mulvihill, 1994; Kramer 8c Washo; 1993, Thompson et al., 1993).

Fang’s (1992) study demonstrated that participants’ child development knowledge increased after having attended the Parent Education Programme During the Transition to



TABLE 2Independent t-tests comparisons of for parenting KAPS variables (n=80)

Scales Pre-test Post-test

mean (sd) t-value (p) mean (sd) t-value (p)

Parenting Knowledge Control Group 44.63 (3.21) 0.45 (0.65) 43.88 (2.51) 6.11 (0.00)Experimental Group 44.37 (2.71) 48.46 (3.99)

Parenting Attitudes Control Group 42.93 (2.34) 1.01 (0.32) 43.37 (2.17) 5.96 (0.00)Experimental Group 43.51 (2.83) 47.31 (3.55)

Parenting Practices Control Group 27.10 (3.25) 2.36 (0.02) 26.61 (2.59) 3.18 (0.00)Experimental Group 25.51 (2.71) 28.56 (2.91)

Parenting Skills Control Group 25.05 (3.87) 1.71 (0.09) 25.15 (3.83) 1.53 (0.13)Experimental Group 23.39 (4.82) « 26.44 (3.70)

Note: sd = standard deviation: p = level o f significance

TABLE 3Means, Standard deviations and repeated measures analysis of variance for parenting KAPS (n=80)

Variable Control (n=41) Experimental (n=39) Interaction

Pre (sd) Post (sd) Pre (sd) Post (sd) F P

Parenting 44.63 43.88 44.37 48.46 37.27 0.00

Knowledge (3.21) (2.51) (2.71) (3.99)

Parenting 42.93 43.37 43.51 47.31 18.32 0.00

Attitudes (2.34) (2.17) (2.83) (3.55)

Parenting 27.10 26.6 25.51 28.56 23.87 0.00

Practices (3.25) (2.6) (2.71) (2.91)

Parenting 25.05 25.15 23.39 26.44 7.12 0.01Skills (3.87) (3.83) (4.82) (3.70)

Note: sd = standard deviation; p = level o f significance

Parenthood. The increase in knowledge can be considered as a positive effect o f the module because changes in knowledge affects attitudes, which in turn have an impact upon behaviour (Pfannensteil 8c Honig, 1995). Parks and Smeriglio (1986) found that parents with high level o f child development knowledge know and are sensitive towards the needs o f the child. Thus, they are able to carry out their parental role more confidendy. Knowledge on child development is vital because it will enable parents to understand and interpret their child’s needs and demands (Chiam, 1994). Parenting knowledge is also important because the family serves as the children’s first context for learning

the language, cognitive skills, and social and moral values o f their culture (Berk, 1994).

Thompson et al. (1993) found that parent attitudes improved significandy from before to after parent training. However, Owen and Mulvihill (1994) who evaluated the attitudes o f parents towards child-rearing issues found no significant effects o f the programme on parents attitudes, probably because they were already practising healthy and appropriate parenting. First and Way (1995) who used the phenomenological approach to investigate the nature o f outcomes o f a parent education programme found that participants changed their thinking and patterns o f behaviour.



Table 4

Scales Control Group (n=41) Experimental Group (n=39)

mean (sd) t-value(p) mean (sd) t-value (p)

Parenting KnowledgePre-testPost-test

44.63 (3.21) 1.60 (0.12) 43.88 (2.51)

44.37 (2.71) 48.46 (3.99)

6.34 (0.00)

Parenting AttitudesPre-testPost-test

42.93 (2.34) 1.04 (0.31) 43.37 (2.17)

43.51 (2.83) 47.31 (3.55)

5.67 (0.00)

Parenting PracticesPre-testPost-test

27.10 (3.25) 1.00 (0.32) 26.61 (2.59)

25.51 (2.71) 28.56 (2.91)

5.68 (0.00)

Parenting SkillsPre-testPost-test

25.05 (3.87) 1.4 (0.89) 25.15 (3.83)

23.39 (4.82) 26.44 (3.70)

3.50 (0.01)


Effective parenting skills can help parents and further enhanced their learning (see Table face the challenges o f parenting as well as avoid 5). This is one probable reason why the mean negative parenting (Spoth et al., 1995). The for these two items is relatively lower than the findings on the increase in parenting skills after mean score for the other two items on theexposure to the intervention is consistent with the findings o f previous studies (Thompson et al., 1993; Witkin et al., 1983; Cleaver, 1987, Devlin et al., 1992).

The second objective o f the study was to determine the repondents’ perceptions of the parenting module. Results obtained indicate that the respondents had high perceptions o f the module structure with almost all the parents agreeing that the module contents were well- structured, easy to understand and was relevant to their needs as parents (see Table 5). This perception is important because although most of the participants had less than nine years o f formal education and were already parents with an average o f three to five children, they could understand the contents o f the module as well as finding it relevant to their needs. Parents could identify with what was taught in the module. These findings are consistent with past research (Cleaver, 1987; Kramer & Washo, 1993) which also found that the programmes evaluated were perceived as organised and understandable and would be useful to other parents.

The participants who disagreed (36%) with the time allocated for module sessions and disagreed (42%) with the time allocated for discussions felt that more time would have enabled them to have more in-depth discussions

Perceptions of Module Structure Sub-scale. This finding supports past research that has shown that longer programmes (over 12 hours) tend to yield better results than shorter programmes (Guerney 8c Maxson, 1990; Eastman, 1983).

The positive perceptions o f the module structure may have enhanced the process o f experiential learning among the participants. The findings on the participants’ perceptions of the module are consistent with the findings o f an evaluation workshop by Devlin et al. (1992) and the PAT programme by Owen and Mulvihill (1994). They found that a majority o f the participants expressed high levels of satisfaction with the programme and would recommend the programme to others.

Overall, the participants’ high scores indicate that parenting knowledge and specific skills such as active listening to assist parents can be taught efficiently and effectively through the modular or experiential learning approach. The participants’ high levels o f satisfaction and their perceptions o f the helpfulness o f the module is consistent with past research (Owen 8c Mulvihill, 1994; Devlin et al., 1992).

As shown in Table 6, the participants’ perceived that the three most effective methodologies were large group discussions (mean=3.31), role-playing (mean=3.28), and



TABLE 5Participants’ general perceptions of the parenting module (n=39)

Scale item strongly agree disagree strongly mean (sd)agree % % % disagree %

Perceptions of Module Structure Sub-scale1. The module contents were 33.3

presented in an organised andeasily understandable manner

2. The contents of the module were 41.0 relevant to the needs of parents

3. The time allocated for units 10.3 was sufficient

4. There was sufficient time for 10.3 discussions

Mean Score of Sub-scale = 12.10 Std Deviation = 1.73

Perceptions of Usefulness of the Module Sub-scale5. The module helped you to be 43.6

more sensitive to your6. The module did not give you

many ideas on how to talk effectively to your children

7. The module gave you new ideas 30.8 on what to do and not do withyour children

8. The module gave you new ideas 33.3 on how to communicateeffectively with your spouse

9. The module did not give you 2.6 new ideas on how to enhancethe self-esteem of your child

10. This module would be useful 51.3 for other parents

Mean Score of Sub-scale = 19.41 Std. Deviation = 1.92

64.1 2.6 - 3.31 (0.52)

59.0 - - 3.41 (0.51)

53.8 33.3 2.6 2.72 (0.70)

48.6 38.5 2.6 2.67 (0.70)

4

53.8 2.6 - 3.41 (0.55)

2.6 92.3 5.1 3.03 (0.28)

69.2 - - 3.31 (0.47)

66.7 - - 3.33 (0.48)

17.9 74.4 5.1 2.82 (0.56)

48.7 - - 3.51 (0.51)

Total Mean Score of General Perceptions Scale = 31.51 Std Deviation = 2.93

individual assignments and watching videotapes (mean=3.26). Past research has demonstrated that a combination o f methodologies is effective in disseminating parenting knowledge and skills (Anderson & Nuttall, 1987; Duncan, Box, 8c Silliman, 1996; Cleaver, 1987).

The third objective was to determine the relationship between exposure to the parenting module and parenting KAPS. Results obtained in the study indicate that exposure to the module

52

was positively and significantly correlated with parenting knowledge (r=0.57, p<0.05), parenting attitudes (r=0.56, p<0.05), parenting practices (r=0.34, p<0.05) and parenting skills (r=0.26, p<0.05) (see Table 7). The findings imply that those who were exposed to the module were also more likely to have more parenting knowledge, more favourable parenting attitudes and better parenting practices and skills.

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 7 No. 1 1999


TABLE 6Participants’ perceptions of the effectiveness of the methodologies used (n-39)

Methodology very effective not not effective mean (sd) effective effective at all

1 . Lectures 28.2 61.5 10.3 - 3.18 (0.60)2. Role-play 33.3 61.5 5.2 - 3.28 (0.56)3. Small-Group Discussions 23.1 69.2 7.7 - 3.15 (0.49)4. Large-Group Discussions 23.1 66.6 10.3 - 3.31 (0.57)5. Slides 17.9 82.1 - - 3.18 (0.39)6. Individual Exercise 12.8 66.7 20.5 - 3.26 (0.50)7. Video 28.2 69.2 2.6 - 3.26 (0.50)8. Additional Readings

Mean Score = 26.46 Std Deviation = 2. 95

23.1 71.8 5.1 3.18 (0.51)


Table 7Correlation between the independent and dependent variables for the experimental

group after exposure (n=39)

Knowledge r (p)

Attitudes r (p)

Practices r (p)

Skillsr (p)

1. Exposure to Module 0.57 (0.00) 0.56 (0.00) 0.34 (0.00) 0.26 (0.05)2. Total Perceptions of Module

(general perceptions and relevance of content areas)

0.46 (0.00) 0.44 (0.01) 0.17 (0.31) 0.06 (0.70)

3. General Perceptions of Module (perceptions of structure and perceptions of usefulness of module)

0.43 (0.01) 0.65 (0.00) -0.09 (0.58) -0.19 (0.24)

4. Perceptions of Module Structure

0.2 (0.23) 0.43 (0.01) -0.36 (0.02) -0.31 (0.06)

5. Perceptions of Usefulness of Module

0.47 (0.00) 0.60 (0.00) 0.19 (0.25) -0.02 (0.93)

6. Relevance of Content Areas 0.37 (0.02) 0.22 (0.17) 0.27 (0.10) 0.19 (0.26)

7. Perceptions of Methodologies Used

0.22 (0.19) 0.31 (0.06) -0.13 (0.94) -0.22 (0.91)

Note.: r = correlation value; p = level o f significance

The fourth objective was to determine the significantly and positively correlated withrelationship between participants’ individual differences (expressed readiness for parenting change and/or perceptions o f parenting self- efficacy) and parenting KAPS. Results obtained in the study indicate that individual differences, expressed readiness for parenting change and perceptions o f parenting self-efficacy are

parenting knowledge and parenting attitudes (see Table 8). There was low correlation with a definite but small relationship between the individual differences and parenting practices. The relationships did not reach the accepted level o f significance. However, there was a positive and significant correlation between the



perceptions o f parenting self-efficacy and parenting practices (r=0.33, p<0.05). The findings failed to demonstrate a significant relationship between individual differences and parenting skills. Based on the results, it was found that the participants’ individual differences (expressed readiness for parenting change and/ or perceptions o f parenting self-efficacy) influenced their parenting KAP but not their parenting skills.

Multiple regression analysis using the ‘forced- entry procedure’ was used to determine whether the hypothesis that individual differences mediate the relationship between exposure to the module (dummy-coded measure) and parenting KAPS is tenable. The study examined whether the data are consistent with the following causal sequence: exposure to the module -► individual differences -> parenting KAPS. Three sets o f analyses were done for each of the parenting KAPS after examining the correlation data on each o f the links in the chain or causal sequence.

The percentage o f variance accounted for by each o f the three models for parenting KAPS is presented in Table 9. The data is inconsistent with the assumption that the relation between exposure to the module and parenting KAPS is indirect, via individual differences or that the individual differences mediate the relation between exposure and parenting KAP. Based on the results, the null hypothesis that there is no significant effect of the participants’ individual differences (expressed readiness for parenting change and/or perceptions of parenting self- efficacy) and exposure to the parenting module on parenting KAP is rejected. There is significant effect o f exposure and individual differences as shown by the increase in R square when both variables are entered together. This implies that both exposure to the module and individual differences have a direct effect on parenting KAP. There is no mediating effect because there is low correlation (r=0.36) between individual differences and exposure to the

TABLE 8Correlation between the individual differences and dependent variables for the

experimental group after exposure to the module (n=39)

Variables Knowledge r (p)

Attitudes r (p)

Practices r (p)

Skills r (p)

Individual Differences 0.56 (0.00) 0.57 (0.00) 0.31 (0.06) -0.04 (0.83

Expressed Readiness for Parenting Change

0.49 (0.00) 0.46 (0.00) 0.27 (0.10) -0.01 (0.97)

Perception of Parenting Self-Efficacy

0.49 (0.00) 0.49 (0.00) 0.33 (0.04) -0.04 (0.79)

Note: r = correlation value; p = level o f significance

TABLE 9Multiple regression analysis on the effect of exposure to module and individual differences (n=80)

Exposure (entered alone)

Individual differences

(entered alone)

(Exposure and individual differences

entered together)R2 F (p) R2 F (p) R2 F (p)

1. Parenting Knowledge 0.33 38.17 0.31 16.80 0.53 42.48(0.00) (0.00) (0.00)

2. Parenting Attitudes 0.32 36.38 0.33 18.07 0.52 41.57(0.00) (0.00) (0.00)

3. Parenting Practices 0.11 10.10 0.09 3.80 0.17 7.95(0.10) (0.10) (0.00)

4. Parenting Skills 0.03 2.34 0.00 0.07 0.03 1.31(0.13) (0.79) (0.28)



parenting module. As suggested by Baron and Kenny (1986), to demonstrate mediation, there must be strong relations between the mediating variable (individual differences) and the predictor variable (exposure to the module).

For parenting skills, based on the findings, the null hypothesis that there would be no significant effect o f the participants’ individual differences (expressed readiness for parenting change and/or perceptions o f parenting self- efficacy) and exposure to the parenting module on parenting skills failed to be rejected (see Table 9). There is no evidence to conclude that exposure to the module and individual differences explain the variation in parenting skills.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONSFindings from the present study suggest that parenting programmes such as the one assessed may be an effective means o f increasing the parenting KAPS of parents. These results support previous research suggesting that parent education can have positive effect on various aspects o f parenting. Based on the findings it can be concluded that the participants had high perceptions o f the module’s structure, usefulness, and methodologies used. These findings have important implications on the module since according to Bandura (1989b) people are able to increase their knowledge and skills on the basis o f information conveyed by modelling influences.

It can be concluded that the individual differences were able to significantly influence the parenting knowledge and attitude but not the parenting practices and skills outcomes focused on in the study. These findings lend support to the work o f previous researchers who have reported significant relationships between self-efficacy and related parenting KAPS. In general, the study found that individual differences, exposure to the parenting module and perceptions o f the module were found to have positive relations with the parenting KAPS of the respondents in the study. Based on the findings, the study concluded that an exposure to parenting module could directly affect parent’s KAPS in parenting. However, data from the study failed to support the hypothesis that individual differences functioned as a mediating variable between exposure to the module and parenting KAPS.

Results from this study may have some major implications for family life educators and parenting programme developers. The findings illustrated the effectiveness o f the parenting module in terms of increasing the parenting KAPS o f parents. The results suggest that the parenting module should be disseminated more widely and efforts to reach out to a greater number of parents, especially those in need o f such interventions should be intensified.

Parenting programme developers and implementers should also pay attention to parents’ individual differences such as perceptions o f parenting self-efficacy and expressed readiness for parenting change as they are important in predicting parenting behaviours and skills. Efficacy training should also be considered in future interventions as parents who value parenting but lack parenting skills may benefit greatly from such training in that their skills and confidence about performing their parenting role would well increase.

Findings from the current study hold implications for future research on the impact o f parenting programmes on the child, parents and the family. The current study collected data from a homogeneous group o f respondents; therefore the generalisability o f the findings are limited to parents having similar characteristics to those who participated in the study. Future studies should focus on the effectiveness o f the parenting module with a more diverse, heterogeneous and representative sample o f parents. The majority o f respondents in this sample were women. Thus, the findings reported here may better reflect the effectiveness o f the parenting module on the parenting KAPS o f women than of men. Future research with samples including higher proportions o f fathers should enable an examination of differences associated with parents’ gender.

It is important to note that although no mediating effects o f individual differences on parenting KAPS were found in the current study, the direct effects o f individual differences and exposure to the parenting module on parenting KAPS are interesting enough to guide future research in this area. The possible interaction effects o f perceptions o f parenting self-efficacy and parenting behaviour should be assessed in future studies. The study o f parenting change processes, including variables mediating parent training outcomes is recommended.



The study was conducted within a very short time. Thus, the two-week time lapse between pre-test and post-test may not be adequate to assess a longer term impact of the parenting module. Future research is needed to study module effects at the child and family levels as the findings do not provide any insights on these aspects. The present study utilised the interview schedule as the main tool for gathering data. Future research may wish to focus on both quantitative and qualitative evidence regarding the effectiveness o f the parenting module so as to overcome the weaknesses associated with one methodology.

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(Received: 9 November 1998)



Kepuasan Bekeija di Kalangan Pegawai Tadbir Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor

SIDEK MOHD NOAH dan MARDIANA HJ. MUHAMADFakulti Pengajian Pendidikan

Universiti Putra Malaysia 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Kata kunci: Kepuasan bekeija, suasana kerja, kenaikan pangkat, gaji, penyeliaan, teman seketja

ABSTRAKKajian ini dijalankan untuk menentukan sama ada wujud hubungan antara aspek kepuasan kerja seperti suasana bekerja, peluang kenaikan pangkat, gaji, penyeliaan, dan teman sekerja dengan kepuasan kerja di kalangan Pegawai Tadbir UPM. Subjek kajian terdiri daripada 55 Pegawai Tadbir yang bertugas di UPM sehingga Januari 1998 menggunakan pensampelan rawak mudah. Alat kajian yang digunakan ialah Job Descriptive Index (JDI) yang telah diterjemahkan ke dalam Bahasa Melayu oleh Arifin Haji Zainal (1980) menggunakan kaedah back translation. Data-data yang diperoleh dianalisis menggunakan statistik deskriptif, regresi mudah dan regresi pelbagai dengan aras keertian ditetapkan pada .05. Keputusan kajian menunjukkan wujudnya hubungan saling pengaruh mempengaruhi antara suasana bekerja, peluang kenaikan pangkat, gaji, penyeliaan dan teman sekerja dengan kepuasan bekerja. Keputusan kajian juga menunjukkan bahawa setiap aspek iaitu suasana bekerja, peluang kenaikan pangkat, gaji, penyeliaan dan teman sekerja mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap kepuasan kerja. Sehubungan dengan keputusan kajian yang telah diperolehi, beberapa implikasi dan cadangan telah dikemukakan.

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this study was to identify the existence of correlation between job satisfaction aspects such as working environment, promotion, salary, supervision and colleagues with job satisfaction amongst UPM’s Administration Officers. The subjects of this study who consisted of 55 Administration Officers, who worked with UPM until January 1998 were selected using simple random sampling. The instrument used in this study was the Job Descriptive Index (JDI) which was translated into Bahasa Melayu by Arifin Haji Zainal (1980) using back translation technique. The data obtained were then analysed using the descriptive statistic, simple regression and multiple regression at .05 level of significance. The results of the study revealed that there was a correlation between working environment, promotion, salary, supervision and colleagues with job satisfaction. The result also revealed that each of the aspects namely the working environment, promotion, salary, supervision and colleagues had a significant influence on job satisfaction. Based on the implications of the research findings, several recommendations were put forward.

LATAR BELAKANG KAJIANPekerjaan merupakan satu wasilah untuk mendapatkan ganjaran demi meneruskan kehidupan. Ini bermakna berusaha gigih untuk melakukan sesuatu pekerjaan menjadi tuntutan fitrah kepada manusia.

Dalam sesebuah organisasi, wawasan yang ingin dicapai tentulah ke arah keuntungan yang maksimum. Namun terdapat banyak faktor yang mempengaruhi hasrat tersebut antaranya ialah

aspek kepuasan bekeija di kalangan para pekerja. Oleh itu, aspek kepuasan bekerja menjadi topik penting dalam Psikologi Industri dan Organisasi. Dengan kata lain, faktor utama sesebuah organisasi dan industri di samping teknologi, peralatan, kewangan dan masa ialah faktor manusia itu sendiri. Jadi, demi mencapai madamat utama sesebuah organisasi, individu sebagai pekerja mestilah mengalami dan memperolehi kepuasan bekerja agar dapat

Sidek Mohd Noah dan Mardiana Hj. Muhamad

mempertingkatkan semangat, motivasi, dan prestasi keija ke arah produktiviti yang optimum.

Gordon (1991 dim. Mardiana 1998) mentakrifkan kepuasan bekeija sebagai sikap dan tanggapan seseorang pekerja terhadap pengalaman bekeija. Ia juga merupakan hasil daripada pelaksanaan sesuatu kerja, ciri-ciri organisasi di mana individu itu bekerja dan perbezaan nilai yang didapati dan diharapkan dengan keperluan personal pekerja tersebut. Sementara itu menurut Fleishman dan Bass (1974 dim. Mardiana 1998), kepuasan bekeija sebagai suatu undak balas objektif terhadap pekerjaan yang disandang. Kepuasan bekeija juga adalah hasil daripada pengalaman pekerja dalam hubungan keijanya dengan nilai diri iaitu apa yang diharap atau dikehendaki dari pekeijaannya.

Schnider dan Synder (1975) melaporkan bahawa kepuasan bekerja adalah suatu penilaian personel mengenai keadaan-keadaan yang wujud di tempat kerja. Sementara itu pengkaji awal seperti Argyris (1957), Herzberg (1959), McGregor (1960) dan Maslow (1970) telah menekankan bahawa aspek kepuasan bekeija merupakan keperluan manusia yang bertindak sebagai pekerja dan ianya harus dipenuhi untuk mencapai tahap kesempurnaan kendiri. Herzberg (1959) melaporkan dalam kajian awalnya bahawa satisfiers ataupun perkara-perkara yang mendatangkan kepuasan bekerja adalah motivators oleh kerana ianya mempunyai kesan positif yang dapat dikesan melalui peningkatan produktiviti. Beliau juga menegaskan bahawa faktor yang paling memotivasikan pekeija adalah pencapaian seterusnya penghargaan terhadap pencapaian tersebut. Kenyataan ini bertepatan dengan Teori Keperluan Maslow (1970). Selain mengaitkan pemenuhan keperluan asas, kepuasan juga datangnya daripada penghargaan diri dan seterusnya penyempurnaan diri.

McGregor (1960) melalui Teori Yyang telah diutarakannya mencadangkan agar diwujudkan integrasi antara madamat seseorang individu dan juga matlamat pekeijaan dengan mengutamakan penerapan nilai-nilai kemanusiaan. Beliau juga mendapati bahawa dengan adanya nilai-nilai kemanusiaan, individu akan dapat mengekalkan keupayaan yang baik pada masa bekerja di samping mendapat kepuasan bekerja.

PENDEKATAN TEORIMenurut Gawel (1997), antara teori-teori tingkah laku yang dipegang kukuh oleh masyarakat di

Amerika Syarikat ialah teori yang diperkenalkan oleh Frederick Hezberg dan Abraham Maslow. Herzberg mencadangkan teori mengenai faktor- faktor kerja yang memotivasikan pekerja dan Maslow mengembangkan teori mengenai pangkatan dan kepuasan keperluan-keperluan manusia dan bagaimana manusia mencapai keperluan-keperluan tersebut (Gawel, 1997).

Banyak kajian mengenai kepuasan bekeija terutama di Amerika Syarikat telah menggunakan teori Hezberg dan Maslow. Antaranya ialah kajian oleh Bellott dan Tutor (1990); Truell, Price dan Joyner (1998); Lacy dan Sheehan (1997); Klecker dan Loadman (1997); Bergstrom dan Lunz (1998); Volkwein dan Parmley (1998) dan Hochwarter, Perrewe, Ferris dan Brymer (1999). Oleh itu adalah wajar kedua-dua teori ini dijadikan g.sas kepada kajian ini kerana selain memberi penekanan kepada perbincangan kepuasan bekerja, kedua-duanya adalah teori yang popular.

Teori Keperluan Maslow

Menurut Maslow (1954; 1970), manusia tidak pernah puas dengan apa sahaja yang diperolehi kerana selepas satu-satu keperluan itu dipuaskan, akan wujud pula keperluan lain yang lebih tinggi yang perlu juga dipuaskan. Ini menjadikan proses untuk mencapai kepuasan ini sebagai satu proses yang berterusan.

Keperluan manusia terdiri daripada lima keperluan utama iaitu keperluan fisiologi, keperluan keselamatan, keperluan kasih sayang, keperluan penghomatan kendiri, dan penyempurnaan kendiri.1. Keperluan Fisiologi

Ini merupakan peringkat pertama yang perlu dicapai oleh individu. Keperluan asas ini perlu dipenuhi oleh individu yang merangkumi keperluan terhadap makanan dan minuman, pakaian, oksigen, seks dan riadah.

2. Keperluan KeselamatanApabila keperluan peringkat pertama dipenuhi, wujud pula keperluan peringkat kedua iaitu keperluan kepada keselamatan. Pada tahap ini ianya merangkumi aspek kestabilan, bebas dari ketakutan dan juga kebimbangan sama ada dari segi peraturan atau undang-undang ataupun struktur. Di peringkat ini juga timbul keinginan untuk mempunyai kerjaya yang terjamin, dilayan dengan adil, dan mendapat gaji yang berpatutan.


Kepuasan Bekerja di Kalangan Pegawai Tadbir Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor

3. Keperluan Kasih SayangKeperluan ini menekankan bahawa manusia perlukan kawan dan juga perhatian. Dalam konteks kajian ini keperluan yang dimaksudkan ialah yang berhubung dengan teman sekerja, berinteraksi dengan masyarakat sekeliling dan sebagainya.

4. Keperluan Penghormatan KendiriDi peringkat ini individu akan cuba mendapatkan pengiktirafan, penghargaan, prestij, status dan juga perhatian. Bagi pekeija dalam sesebuah organisasi, mereka cuba untuk mendapatkan perhatian dan penghargaan dari hasil kerja yang dilakukan.

5. Keperluan Kesempurnaan KendiriIni merupakan tahap yang paling tinggi di mana individu menyedari potensi yang ada pada diri sendiri dan menimbulkan keinginan untuk menjadi individu yang sempurna dalam semua aspek. Dalam dunia pekerjaan, tahap ini sama seperti kenaikan pangkat atau mendapat peluang untuk meningkat ke tahap yang lebih tinggi.

Lima keperluan dalam teori Hierarki Keperluan Maslow diperlukan setiap masa, cuma pada masa-masa tertentu sahaja membezakan yang mana satu menjadi lebih utama daripada keperluan lain. Misalnya jika keperluan fisiologi hanya 20%, keperluan keselamatan tidak akan muncul tetapi sekiranya keperluan fisiologi telah mencapai tahap 80%, keperluan keselamatan akan muncul. Begitulah secara berterusan sehingga keperluan fisiologi secara relatifnya telah dipuaskan dan pada masa yang sama keperluan keselamatan menjadi lebih penting.

Teori Dua Faktor Herzberg

Teori ini menekankan kepada faktor-faktor persekitaran sebagai penggerak kepada manusia untuk menjalankan sesuatu kegiatan. Pemusatannya lebih tertumpu kepada persekitaran tempat kerja dalam aspek penentuan kepuasan kerja. Dua faktor yang menjadi asas kepada teori ini ialah:i. Faktor Hygiene

Ianya merupakan keinginan individu untuk mendapatkan komponan yang bersifat luaran umpamanya gaji, keadaan kerja, hubungan sesama pekerja dan majikan, kerja yang terjamin dan juga penyeliaan serta polisi syarikat.

ii. Faktor MotivatorIanya merupakan faktor yang bersifat dalaman atau intrinsik seperti faktor pencapaian, tanggungjawab, penghargaan dan kemajuan diri.

Menurut Herzberg et al. (1959) kedua-dua faktor hygiene dan faktor motivator penggerak seseorang menentukan tingkat kepuasan bekerja individu. Ini adalah kerana tercapai atau tidaknya keinginan terhadap faktor-faktor tersebut akan menentukan tinggi atau rendahnya tingkat kepuasan bekerja yang akan dirasai oleh pekeija berkenaan.

Umumnya kedua-dua teori ini memberi penekanan bahawa apabila individu dan organisasi berkembang, keperluan mereka juga akan turut berubah. Inilah yang menggerakkan individu untuk terus berusaha mencapai keperluan dan kepuasan. Perbandingan antara teori Hierarki Keperluan Maslow dan teori Dua Faktor Herzberg adalah seperti pada Rajah 1.

PERNYATAAN MASALAHKejayaan sesebuah organisasi atau institusi terletak di tangan pekerja yang menganggotai organisasi tersebut. Dengan kata lain, mereka bertanggungjawab untuk mencapai matlamat dan wawasan organisasi berkenaan. Dari itu pihak majikan tidak boleh memandang ringan terhadap golongan pekerja sebaliknya mereka seboleh mungkin, cuba memahami dan menghayati peranan golongan tersebut sewajarnya.

Ishikawa (1988) melaporkan bahawa kepuasan dan pembabitan pekerja akan menghasilkan hal-hal berikut:1. Jaminan mutu dan mengekalkan

pengeluaran pada tahap 100% bebas cacat.2. Membenarkan pihak syarikat mengesan

kegagalan sebelum berlakunya keadaan yang serius.

3. Memungkinkan bahagian reka bentuk barangan dan pengilangan untuk mengikuti perubahan cita rasa dan juga sikap pelanggan dengan cekap dan tepat. Dengan itu akan dapat memenuhi kehendak pelanggan secara tetap.

4. Terjalin penerokaan fikiran yang boleh mengesan data yang palsu. Hal ini dapat menjaga prestasi kilang dari semasa ke semasa.



Teori Hierarki Keperluan Maslow Teori Dua Faktor Herzberg

Kesempurnaan Kendiri Pekerjaan itu sendiri Pencapaian

Penghargaan Kendiri Kemungkinan berkembang Tanggungjawab

Kasih Sayang PeningkatanPengiktirafan

Keselamatan Status

Fisiologikal seperti makanan, air, pakaian, tempat tinggal, oksigen dan keperluan seks.

Hubungan-hubungan interpersonalTeman-temanKedudukanPenyeliaanPentadbiranDasar syarikatJamirian kerjaKeadaan pekerjaanGajiKehidupan personel

Rajah 1: Model Hierarki Keperluan Maslow berbanding model Herzberg Dua FaktorSumber: Dale & Beach, 1995

Laporan Ishikawa (1988) dapat dikaitkan dengan kepuasan bekeija yang tinggi yang dapat menghasilkan keluaran dengan baik hasil gabungan kerjasama antara pekerja. Pihak majikan juga memainkan peranan penting dalam memberi semangat dan perangsang bekerja seperti kemudahan kesihatan, pengangkutan, percutian, gaji yang lumayan dan sebagainya. Sementara itu Taylor (dim. Mardiana, 1998) yang dikenali sebagai ‘Bapa Pengurusan Saintifik’ menegaskan bahawa terdapat tiga prinsip asas untuk meningkatkan produktiviti pekeija iaitu:1. Pihak pekerja akan diberi tugas dengan jelas

untuk dilaksanakan. Dalam masa yang sama, mereka juga ditetapkan tempoh serta cara menjalankan tugasan tersebut.

2. Pihak majikan mesti memastikan hanya pekeija yang paling sesuai dengan tugas berkenaan sahaja yang akan diambil untuk bekerja.

3. Memotivasikan pekerja merupakan satu lagi cara untuk mencapai hasil yang maksimum.

Herzberg (1959) dalam teori yang diutarakannya menyatakan bahawa kepuasan bekerja ialah sikap dan perasaan positif yang ada pada para pekerja terhadap kerja-kerja yang mereka lakukan. Kepuasan bekerja ini

bergantung pada beberapa faktor dan amat berbeza antara seorang pekerja dengan pekeija yang lain. Antara faktor dalam organisasi yang berkaitan dengan kepuasan bekerja seseorang itu adalah seperti suasana bekerja, peluang kenaikan pangkat, gaji, penyeliaan, dan rakan sekerja.

Di Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) terdapat berbagai-bagai usaha yang dilakukan oleh pihak yang bertanggungjawab bertujuan memaksimumkan tahap kepuasan bekerja di kalangan pekerjanya. Antaranya ialah peluang mengikuti program latihan dan kursus, peluang melanjutkan pelajaran ke peringkat lebih tinggi sama ada di dalam atau di luar negera, peluang kenaikan pangkat serta kemudahan-kemudahan lain yang diberikan seperti kemudahan perubatan dan pinjaman kenderaan. Namun begitu sama ada insentif ini memberi kesan terhadap kepuasan bekerja di kalangan Pegawai Tadbir masih menjadi persoalan.

Selain itu persoalan mengenai faktor manakah yang paling mempengaruhi kepuasan kerja khasnya di kalangan Pegawai Tadbir UPM tidak harus diketepikan kerana maklumat mengenainya boleh digunakan oleh pihak bertanggungjawab universiti untuk merangka program bagi meningkatkan motivasi, kepuasan


dan produktiviti pegawai-pegawainya. Sehubungan itu persoalan-persoalan kajian berikut dikemukakan:1. Adakah wujud hubungan yang saling

mempengaruhi antara faktor suasana bekerja, peluang kenaikan pangkat, gaji, penyeliaan, dan teman sekerja dengan kepuasan bekerja?

2. Adakah faktor suasana bekerja mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap kepuasan bekerja?

3. Adakah faktor peluang kenaikan pangkat mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap kepuasan bekerja?

4. Adakah faktor gaji mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap kepuasan bekerja?

5. Adakah faktor penyeliaan mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap kepuasan bekerja?

6. Adakah faktor rakan sekerja mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap kepuasan bekerja?

TUJUAN KAJIANKajian kepuasan bekerja di kalangan Pegawai Tadbir UPM belum pernah dilakukan sebelum ini. Adalah diharapkan kajian ini akan menjadi perintis untuk mendapatkan maklumat secara terperinci berkaitan lima aspek utama yang berkaitan dengan kepuasan bekeija iaitu suasana bekerja, peluang kenaikan pangkat, gaji, penyeliaan serta rakan sekeija dan hubungannya dengan kepuasan bekerja. Kajian ini dijalankan bertujuan untuk menentukan tahap kepuasan bekeija di kalangan Pegawai Tadbir yang bertugas di kampus induk Universiti Putra Malaysia. Secara lebih khusus kajian ini bertujuan untuk:• menentukan sama ada wujud hubungan yang

saling mempengaruhi antara faktor seperti suasana bekerja, peluang kenaikan pangkat, gaji, penyeliaan dan rakan sekeija terhadap kepuasan bekeija;

• menentukan sama ada faktor peluang kenaikan pangkat mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap kepuasan bekerja;

• menentukan sama ada faktor peluang kenaikan pangkat mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap kepuasan bekerja.

• menentukan sama ada faktor gaji mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap kepuasan bekerja;

• menentukan sama ada faktor penyeliaan mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan

Kepuasan Bekerja di Kalangan

terhadap kepuasan bekerja; menentukan sama ada faktor rakan sekeija mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap kepuasan bekerja.

HIPOTESIS KAJIANHipotesis yang akan diuji dalam kajian ini dibentuk berdasarkan permasalahan dan objektif kajian. Hipotesis-hipotesis yang dikemukakan adalah seperti berikut:

Hipotesis Umum

Hj Wujud hubungan yang saling mempengaruhi antara faktor suasana bekerja, peluang kenaikan pangkat, gaji, penyeliaan, dan rakan sekeija terhadap kepuasan bekerja.

Hipotesis Khusus

H2 Faktor suasana bekerja mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap kepuasan bekerja Pegawai Tadbir UPM.

H3 Faktor peluang kenaikan pangkat mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap kepuasan bekeija Pegawai Tadbir UPM.

H4 Faktor gaji mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap kepuasan bekerja Pegawai Tadbir UPM.

Hr> Faktor penyeliaan mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap kepuasan bekeija Pegawai Tadbir UPM.

H6 Faktor rakan sekerja mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap kepuasan bekeija Pegawai Tadbir UPM.

METODE KAJIANKajian ini adalah untuk mengenal pasti faktor- faktor yang mempengaruhi aspek kepuasan bekeija di kalangan Pegawai tadbir, UPM. Untuk tujuan itu reka bentuk kajian ex̂ post facto jenis korelasi (Tuckman 1978; 1988) telah digunakan. Kajian berbentuk korelasi selalu dijalankan bertujuan untuk menentukan keteguhan hubungan antara pembolehubah-pembolehubah dalam kajian dan tidak semestinya berimplikasi sebab musabab (Issac & Micheal 1984). Kajian ex-post facto seringkali digunakan dalam keadaan di mana penyelidik tidak dapat mengolah beberapa pembolehubah yang terlibat di dalam kajian Mohd. Majid Konting (1990). Apa yang dilakukan oleh penyelidik ialah mengukur sesuatu pengaruh yang telah terjadi secara semulajadi tanpa mengenakan apa-apa rawatan

63Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 7 No. 1 1999

Pegawai Tadbir Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor


kepada sampel. Antara pembolehubah penting yang terlibat dalam kajian ini ialah faktor-faktor yang membentuk kepuasan bekerja iaitu suasana bekerja, peluang kenaikan pangkat, gaji, penyeliaan dan rakan sekerja.

Subjek Kajian

Subjek kajian terdiri daripada Pegawai Tadbir, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), lelaki dan perempuan yang bertugas sehingga bulan Januari 1998. Jumlah populasi ialah seramai 65 orang. Sampel kajian sebanyak 55 orang ditentukan menggunakan formula Krejcie dan Morgan (Isaac & Micheal, 1984). Dengan saiz sampel ini aras keyakinan dikekalkan pada tahap 95%. Pemilihan sampel pula dibuat secara persampelan rawak mudah untuk memastikan semua ahli dalam populasi mempunyai peluang yang sama untuk dipilih.

Alat Kajian

Alat kajian yang digunakan dalam kajian ini ialah satu set soal selidik yang mengandungi dua bahagian iaitu Bahagian A dan Bahagian B. Bahagian A mengandungi item yang berkaitan dengan biodata responden dan bahagian B pula ialah alat ukuran Job Descriptive Index (JDI) yang digunakan untuk mengukur kepuasan bekerja. Alat ukuran JDI telah dibentuk oleh Smith et al (1975) dan telah diteijemah ke dalam bahasa Melayu oleh Arifin Haji Zainal (1980; 1981) dengan menggunakan kaedah back translation. Alat ukuran JDI mengandungi lima subskala iaitu suasana bekerja, kenaikan pangkat, gaji, penyeliaan dan teman sekerja. Terdapat 18 item bagi setiap subskala melainkan subskala kenaikan pangkat dan gaji yang hanya mempunyai 9 item. JDI menggunakan format jawapan skala likert 3 mata. Alat ini digunakan dalam kajian ini kerana ianya ringkas, mudah difahami dan tidak menggunakan perkataan yang banyak (Hamzah Said,1994).

Kesahan dan Kebolehpercayaan Alat Ukur JDI

Dalam konteks Malaysia, kesesuaian alat ukuran JDI telah dikaji oleh beberapa pengkaji antaranya ialah Arifin Haji Zainal (1980; 1981), Mohd. Majid Konting (1991), Mustafa Salem (1991) dan Hamzah Saad (1994). Mohd. Majid Konting (1991) telah menyemak kesahan item alat ukuran ini dengan bantuan panel penyemak yang terdiri daripada empat pensyarah Universiti Putra Malaysia dan mendapati alat ukuran ini sesuai

digunakan. Smith et a l (1975) telah menjalankan kajian terhadap alat ukuran ini dan memperoleh pekali kebolehpercayaan berbahagi-dua antara .80 hingga .88. Kajian yang dijalankan oleh Mohd. Majid Konting (1991) mendapati bahawa indeks ketekalan dalaman alat ukuran JDI ialah antara .79 hingga .87. Sementara kajian yang dijalankan oleh Hamzah Saad (1994) memperoleh pekali kebolehpercayaan alpha Cronbach antara .78 hingga .93. Dengan ini dapatlah dirumuskan bahawa alat ukuran JDI mempunyai kesahan dan kebolehpercayaan yang tinggi dan sesuai digunakan untuk kajian ini.

Penganalisisan Data

Data yang diperolehi daripada soal selidik dianalisis dengan menggunakan alat statistik regresi pelbagai metode enter dan stepwise. Pemilihan alat statistik ini adalah berdasarkan kepada jadual kaedah memilih alat statistik yang dikemukakan oleh Tuckman (1978). Regresi pelbagai metode enter digunakan untuk menentukan sama ada wujud hubungan yang saling mempengaruhi antara faktor suasana bekerja, peluang kenaikan pangkat, gaji, penyeliaan dan rakan sekerja terhadap kepuasan bekerja. Regresi pelbagai metode stepwise digunakan untuk menentukan sama ada setiap satu aspek iaitu suasana bekerja, kenaikan pangkat, gaji, penyeliaan dan teman sekerja mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap kepuasan bekerja Pegawai Tadbir UPM. Nilai pekali penentuan r2juga telah ditentukan untuk mengenal pasti kekuatan hubungan antara pembolehubah sama ada lemah, sederhana kuat atau kuat. N ilai r2 kurang daripada .10 menunjukkan hubungan yang lemah; nilai r2 antara .10 hingga .25 menunjukkan hubungan yang sederhana kuat dan nilai r2 lebih daripada .25 menunjukkan hubungan yang kuat (Jaccard 8c Backer 1990). Secara keseluruhannya data- data telah diproses dengan menggunakan bantuan program komputer Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS/PC+) (Norusis 8c SPSS,1993) .

DAPATAN KAJIANAlat statistik regresi pelbagai telah digunakan untuk menguji hipotesis-hipotesis kajian yang telah dibentuk. Regresi pelbagai metode enter digunakan untuk menguji hipotesis pertama dan metode stepwise digunakan untuk menguji hipotesis kedua hingga hipotesis keenam.



Jadual 1 memaparkan keputusan yang berkaitan dengan pengujian hipotesis pertama. Keputusan yang diperolehi ialah [F (5,50) = 164.15, p ( .05]. Nilai bagi pekali korelasi (r) bersamaan dengan .971. Dengan keputusan ini, hipotesis pertama yang menyatakan wujud hubungan yang saling mempengaruhi antara faktor-faktor suasana bekerja, peluang kenaikan pangkat, gaji, penyeliaan dan rakan sekerja terhadap kepuasan bekerja adalah diterima. Dengan perkataan lain faktor suasana bekerja, peluang kenaikan pangkat, gaji, penyeliaan dan rakan sekerja mempengaruhi kepuasan bekerja Pegawai Tadbir UPM.

Nilai r2 yang diperolehi ialah .943 (rujuk Jadual 5) menjelaskan bahawa 94.3% varians

yang berkaitan dengan kepuasan bekerja adalah disumbangkan secara bersama oleh faktor suasana bekerja, peluang kenaikan pangkat, gaji, penyeliaan dan rakan sekeija. Dengan kata lain dapatlah dirumuskan bahawa wujud hubungan yang sangat kuat antara faktor-faktor tersebut dengan kepuasan bekerja.

Hipotesis H 2 hingga hipotesis H 6 dikemukakan untuk menentukan sama ada setiap aspek yang berkaitan dengan kepuasan bekeija iaitu suasana bekeija, peluang kenaikan pangkat, gaji, penyeliaan dan rakan sekerja mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap kepuasan kerja para Pegawai Tadbir UPM. Keputusan pengujian hipotesis yang diperolehi adalah seperti dalam Jadual 2.

Jadual 1Keputusan analisis regresi pelbagai menggunakan metode enter antara aspek-aspek

kepuasan bekerja dengan kepuasan bekerja

Model SS dk MS F P r r2

Regresi 11016.99 5 2203.40 164.15 .000* .971 .943Residual 671.14 50 13.42Jumlah 11688.13 55

Nota: * Signifikan pada ak = .05

Jadual 2Keputusan analisis regresi pelbagai menggunakan metode stepwise antara aspek-aspek

kepuasan bekerja dengan kepuasan bekerja

AspekKepuasan Model SS dk MS F p r2

Suasana Regresi 4185.08 1 4185.08 30.12 .000* .358Kerja Residual 7503.04 54 138.95

Jumlah 11688.13 55

Peluang Regresi 1417.98 1 1417.98 7.46 .009* .121Kenaikan Residual 10270.14 54 190.19Pangkat Jumlah 11688.13 55

Gaji Regresi 943.82 1 934.82 4.69 .035* .080Residual 10753.30 54 199.14Jumlah 11688.13 55

Penyeliaan Regresi 1682.56 1 1682.56 9.08 .004* .144Residual 10005.56 54 185.29Jumlah 11688.13 55

Rakan Regresi 2691.40 1 2691.40 16.15 .000* .230Sekerja Residual 8996.73 54 166.61

Jumlah 11688.13 55

Nota: * Signifikan pada ak = .05



Keputusan pengujian hipotesis H2 yang diperolehi ialah [F (1,54) = 30.12, p < .05] menunjukkan hipotesis yang menyatakan aspek suasana kerja mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap kepuasan bekerja Pegawai Tadbir UPM adalah diterima. Nilai r2 yang diperolehi ialah .358 menjelaskan bahawa 35.8% varians yang berkaitan dengan kepuasan bekeija disumbangkan oleh faktor atau aspek suasana bekerja. Dengan keputusan ini dapatlah dirumuskan bahawa wujud hubungan yang kuat antara faktor suasana bekerja dengan kepuasan bekerja.

Keputusan pengujian hipotesis H3 untuk aspek peluang kenaikan pangkat ialah [F (1,54) = 7.46, p < .05]; hipotesis H4 untuk aspek gaji ialah [F (1,54) = 4.69, p < .05]; hipotesis H5 untuk aspek penyeliaan ialah [F (1,54) = 9.08, p < .05]; dan hipotesis H6 untuk aspek rakan sekerja ialah [F (1,54) = 16.15, p < .05] (sila rujuk Jadual 2). Dengan keputusan yang diperolehi, maka dapadah disimpulkan bahawa kesemua hipotesis alternatif yang telah dibentuk diterima pada aras keertian .05. Dengan itu faktor peluang kenaikan pangkat, gaji, penyeliaan dan rakan sekerja masing-masing mempunyai pengaruh yang signifikan kepada kepuasan bekerja Pegawai Tadbir UPM. Nilai r2 untuk peluang kenaikan pangkat ialah .121 menjelaskan bahawa 12.1% varians yang berkaitan dengan kepuasan bekerja adalah disumbangkan oleh peluang kenaikan pangkat. Dengan keputusan ini dapatlah dirumuskan bahawa wujud hubungan yang sederhana kuat antara faktor suasana bekerja dengan kepuasan bekerja. Nilai r2 untuk aspek gaji, penyeliaan dan rakan sekerja masing-masing ialah .080, .144 dan .230. Ini bermakna 8% kepuasan bekeija disumbangkan oleh gaji, 14.4% oleh penyeliaan dan 23% oleh rakan sekerja.

PERBINCANGAN KAJIANHasil kajian telah mendapati bahawa hipotesis pertama iaitu wujud hubungan yang saling mempengaruhi antara faktor seperti suasana bekerja, peluang kenaikan pangkat, gaji, penyeliaan, dan rakan sekeija terhadap kepuasan bekerja dapat diterima. Keputusan analisis regresi pelbagai telah menghasilkan keputusan [F (5,50) = 164.145, p < .05]. Keputusan ini menunjukkan bahawa Pegawai Tadbir UPM yang merupakan respondan kajian ini telah mendapat kepuasan dalam bekeija. Mereka nampaknya merasa puas

dengan suasana di tempat kerja, peluang kenaikan pangkat, gaji bulanan yang diterima, penyeliaan dari pihak atasan serta hubungan dengan rakan sekeija. Ini amat jelas apabila nilai r2 yang diperolehi ialah .943 yang membawa pengertian bahawa 94.3% kepuasan bekerja adalah disumbangkan secara bersama oleh faktor suasana bekerja, peluang kenaikan pangkat, gaji, penyeliaan dan rakan sekerja.

Keputusan kajian juga menunjukkan bahawa aspek suasana bekerja mempunyai pengaruh yang paling kuat dalam mempengaruhi kepuasan bekerja iaitu sebanyak 35.8%. Ini bermakna suasana kerja seperti tempat kerja dan susun atur pejabat yang selesa mempengaruhi tahap kepuasan bekerja mereka. Dapatan ini selari dengan kajian Heid dan Leak (1991) dan Kim dan Loadman (1994) yang mendapati bahawa pekeija lebih gembira dan memberi komitmen dalam kerja apabila mereka sendiri yang mewujudkan keadaan kerja tersebut dan terlibat dalam pembentukan program di tempat keija mereka.

Keputusan kajian seterusnyamemperlihatkan bahawa aspek rakan sekerja menduduki tempat yang kedua dalam mempengaruhi kepuasan bekeija para pegawai iaitu sebanyak 23%. Dapatan ini selaras dengan dapatan oleh Nash (1985), Kim dan Loadman (1994), Ruhl dan Smith (1993), Putaijin (1993), Blow dan Ralph (1992), Trendall (1989) dan Galloway et a l (1984). Sementara itu Aizan Mohd Yusof (1988) menyatakan bahawa terdapat beberapa ciri etika keija di kalangan organisasi yang mengaitkan soal hubungan antara pekeija seperti:1. Komitmen yang kukuh di kalangan para

pekerja. Kepercayaan pekerja terhadap syarikat terutama jaminan keselamatan pekerjaan seumur hidup membuat pekeija merasa terjamin dan memberikan komitmen tinggi.

2. Konsep berpasukan yang praktis untuk membentuk rasa bangga diri di kalangan pekeija syarikat. Pihak pekerja melibatkan diri dengan membuat keputusan, cadangan dan juga menyumbangkan idea untuk menyelesaikan masalah yang timbul di dalam syarikat.

3. Menitikberatkan kebajikan dan kemajuan prestasi para pekerja syarikat. Dengan mengurangkan perbezaan yang wujud antara peringkat-peringkat pekerja dengan



mengadakan tempat makan yang sama danmemakai pakaian seragam yang sama.

Faktor ketiga yang mempengaruhi kepuasan bekerja para Pegawai Tadbir UPM ialah aspek penyeliaan. Hasil kajian ini memperlihatkan bahawa aspek penyeliaan menyumbangkan sebanyak 14.4% kepuasan keija. Sehubungan dengan keputusan ini dapatlah dirumuskan bahawa Pegawai Tadbir UPM nampaknya bersetuju bahawa aspek penyeliaan yang diterima daripada pihak atasan memberi kesan kepada kepuasan bekerja mereka. Dapatan ini selari dengan dapatan kajian oleh Nash (1985), Pinder(1984), Blakely (1993), Smylie (1992) dan Clarke dan Keating (1995).

Faktor keempat yang mempengaruhi kepuasan bekeija para Pegawai Tadbir UPM ialah aspek peluang kenaikan pangkat. Hasil kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa aspek peluang kenaikan pangkat menyumbangkan sebanyak 12.14% kepuasan bekerja. Daripada keputusan ini dapatlah dirumuskan bahawa Pegawai Tadbir UPM juga bersetuju bahawa peluang kenaikan pangkat secara komparatif memberi kesan kepada kepuasan bekerja. Dapatan ini nampaknya selaras dengan dapatan kajian oleh Tan Wat Jin (1997), Nash (1985), Welsch dan Lavan (1981) dan Khaleque dan Rahman (1987).

Faktor terakhir yang mempengaruhi kepuasan bekeija para Pegawai Tadbir UPM ialah aspek gaji. Hasil kajian ini memperlihatkan bahawa aspek gaji menyumbangkan hanya 8% kepuasan bekerja keseluruhan. Dapatan ini menunjukkan bahawa aspek gaji bukanlah satu- satunya syarat utama untuk mendapat kepuasan bekerja. Dapatan ini selaras dengan dapatan kajian oleh Ahmad Hassan (1982), Tan Wat Jin (1997), Nash (1985), Kim dan Loadman (1994) dan Marlow (1996).

Secara umumnya dapatlah dirumuskan bahawa faktor suasana bekerja, peluang kenaikan pangkat, gaji, penyeliaan dan rakan sekeija saling pengaruh mempengaruhi kepuasan bekeija para Pegawai Tadbir UPM. Mengikut susunan, faktor yang paling banyak mempengaruhi kepuasan kerja ialah suasana bekerja diikuti oleh rakan sekerja, penyeliaan, peluang kenaikan pangkat dan gaji. Umumnya dapatan kajian ini adalah selari dengan dapatan kajian oleh Bellott dan Tutor (1990); Truell, Price dan Joyner (1998); Lacy dan Sheehan (1997); Klecker dan Loadman

(1997); Bergstrom dan Lunz (1998); Volkwein dan Parmley (1998) dan Hochwarter etal. (1999).

IMPLIKASI KAJIANDari segi implikasi teoretikal, hasil dari kajian ini telah memberikan sokongan kuat kepada kesesuaian teori Keperluan Maslow dan teori Dua Faktor Herzberg dalam menghuraikan aspek kepuasan kerja di dalam organisasi terutama di Institut Pengajian Tinggi. Secara lebih khusus keputusan kajian yang diperolehi memberikan kefahaman yang lebih mendalam mengenai aspek kepuasan bekerja di kalangan para pekerja. Ternyata faktor suasana bekeija, rakan sekerja, penyeliaan, peluang kenaikan pangkat dan gaji telah dikenal pasti mempengaruhi kepuasan bekerja para Pegawai Tadbir UPM.

Suatu dapatan yang sangat menarik daripada kajian ini ialah tiga penyumbang utama yang mempengaruhi kepuasan bekeija di kalangan Pegawai Tadbir UPM iaitu suasana bekeija, rakan sekerja dan penyeliaan adalah faktor-faktor yang tidak berkaitan dengan ganjaran material. Kenyataan ini diperkukuhkan dengan faktor peluang kenaikan pangkat dan gaji iaitu faktor yang berkaitan dengan ganjaran material menduduki tempat keempat dan terakhir di kalangan Pegawai Tadbir UPM.

Umumnya dapatan-dapatan yang diperolahi boleh diaplikasikan terus oleh pihak pengurusan tertinggi universiti dalam merancang dasar dan strategi untuk mempertingkatkan kepuasan bekerja di kalangan para pekerjanya. Ini adalah kerana kepuasan bekerja adalah sesuatu yang sangat diutamakan oleh para pekerja dan tanpanya kerja adalah suatu tekanan dan bebanan kepada para pekeija.

Antara perkara yang perlu diambil perhatian oleh pihak pengurusan dalam merangka dasar, strategi dan program organisasi ialah: 1) Menyediakan suasana bekerja yang kondusif kerana ia mempengaruhi prestasi dan semangat serta minat pekerja terhadap kerja mereka; 2) Menggalakkan hubungan yang baik sesama pekerja melalui aktiviti-aktiviti dan program- program yang dilaksanakan; 3) Membuat penyeliaan profesional yang berterusan terhadap pekerja; 4) Mewujudkan peluang kenaikan pangkat yang lebih luas kepada pekerja dan 5) Memberi peluang kenaikan gaji yang lebih adil, bersesuaian dengan sumbangan pekeija.



CADANGAN-CADANGANFaktor suasana bekerja mempunyai pengaruh terhadap kepuasan bekerja para pekerja dalam sesebuah organisasi. Dalam usaha untuk mempertingkat suasana bekerja yang lebih baik, dicadangkan agar tumpuan diberikan kepada aspek-aspek yang boleh mempertingkatkan suasana di tempat kerja yang lebih selesa dan nyaman. Aspek kerjasama, saling memahami antara sesama pekerja dan memahami tugas serta bebanan kerja masing-masing akan mengeratkan hubungan antara pihak majikan dengan para pekerja. Jika suasana bekerja sebegini dapat dilaksanakan, matlamat untuk meningkatkan tahap kepuasan bekerja di kalangan para pekerja mungkin dapat direalisasikan dan ini memungkinkan organisasi mencapai matlamatnya.

Rakan sekerja merupakan salah satu faktor penting dalam membentuk budaya keija di dalam sesebuah organisasi. Dengan perkataan lain, para pekeija yang gagal menyesuaikan diri dengan rakan sekerja serta budaya yang ada akan menyebabkan mereka terasing. Apabila keadaan ini berlaku, madamat organisasi akan terjejas kerana kerjasama antara pekerja gagal diwujudkan. Dalam hal ini organisasi pekerjaan mestilah merancang dan melaksanakan program- program yang dapat mengeratkan hubungan sesama rakan sekerja agar mereka saling faham memahami dan sanggup bantu membantu dalam mencapai matlamat organisasi.

Mengenai penyeliaan, adalah dicadangkan agar pihak majikan atau pengurusan menggalakkan pekerja bawahannya agar lebih bersemangat dalam menjalankan tugas masing- masing. Hal ini akan dapat dijayakan sekiranya pihak pengurusan faham dan prihatin terhadap keperluan pekerja bawahannya. Selain itu penyelia harus sentiasa peka terhadap aspek yang mendatangkan ketidakpuasan bekerja di kalangan pekerja. Jika ketidakpuasan dapat diatasi di peringkat awal, pihak pengurusan tidak memerlukan masa dan belanja yang banyak untuk memulihkan situasi yang berlaku. Selain itu, pihak pengurusan juga haruslah memainkan peranan sebagai kaunselor yang sentiasa peka terhadap aspek-aspek yang membawa kemudaratan kepada para pekerja. Kepekaan pihak pengurusan terhadap keadaan pekerja akan membawa kepada rasa hormat dan saling memahami yang akhirnya akan membuahkan rasa tanggungjawab sesama sendiri. Justeru akan

terjalin persahabatan antara penyelia dan pekerja dalam usaha membentuk organisasi yang berjaya serta cemerlang.

Berasaskan keputusan kajian, peluang kenaikan pangkat jelas mempengaruhi kepuasan bekerja para pekerja. Oleh itu adalah sangat wajar dibangunkan satu sistem kenaikan pangkat yang lebih menarik yang lebih berasaskan prestasi kerja. Walaupun pada dasarnya pencapaian akademik, pengalaman bekerja dan prestasi kerja telah dikenal pasti sebagai teras untuk kenaikan pangkat, realitinya ialah seringkali aspek-aspek yang tidak berkaitan diberikan keutamaan oleh sesetengah majikan. Dalam hal ini, organisasi perlu memikirkan serta mencari mekanisma yang terbaik agar pekerja yang berpengalaman dan berpotensi cemerlang berpeluang menikmati kenaikan pangkat sewajarnya.

Mengenai gaji pula, walaupun pengaruhnya kepada kepuasan bekerja diletakkan sebagai faktor terakhir, namun ia masih dianggap penting sebagai sebahagian daripada syarat untuk mendapatkan kepuasan bekerja. Keputusan ini mungkin berpunca daripada rasa simpati dan bertanggungjawab para pekerja kerana semasa kajian dilaksanakan negara sedang berada dalam keadaan kegawatan ekonomi. Sehubungan itu adalah dicadangkan agar satu kajian susulan dibuat apabila keadaan ekonomi kembali pulih. Sebagai tambahan adalah dicadangkan juga agar kajian susulan itu mengambil kira pembolehubah jantina dan senioriti. Namun begitu adalah wajar dikaji semula kadar kenaikan gaji tahunan dengan mengambil kira prestasi keija mereka. Bagi pekerja yang mencapai tahap prestasi yang cemerlang, akan mendapat ganjaran yang setimpal seperti menikmati kadar kenaikan gaji tertentu di samping kenaikan pangkat. Secara tidak langsung keadaan ini akan membentuk sikap pekeija ke arah yang lebih kompetitif dalam usaha memupuk kepuasan bekerja yang lebih tinggi.

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(Received: 2 7 May 1998)


Preparation of Manuscript

Typing and PaperThe manuscript should be typed double spaced on A4 paper with 4cm margins on all sides, it should be limited to 25 pages including tables, illustrations and references.

Title pageThe title o f the paper, name o f author and full address

o f the institution where the work was carried out should appear on this page. A short title not exceeding 60 characters should be provided for the running headlines.

AbstractEnglish and Bahasa Melayu abstracts o f 200 words each should follow the title page. Papers from outside Malaysia may be submitted with an English abstract only.

KeywordsAbout six to ten keywords are required and these should

be placed directly above the abstract.

TablesTables should be typed on separate pages and num bered using Arabic numerals. Each table should be referred to

in the text, has a brief title and include explanatory notes, if necessary, below it. Vertical rules should not be used. Footnotes in tables should be designated by symbols or superscript small italic letters. Tables should

conform to page size.

EquationsThese must be clearly typed, triple-spaced. They should

be identified by numbers in square brackets placed flush with the right margin.

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be supplied with appropriate scales.

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captions should be provided on a separate sheet.

Spelling Cit MeasurementsThe Oxford English Dictionary’ should be consulted for spelling. Metric units must be used for em pirical measurements.

Citations and ReferencesCitations to the literature in the text should to be indicated by the auth or’s name and year o f publication in parentheses, e.g. (Barnett and Lewis 1982). If an author is quoted in the text, the year o f publication should

immediately follow in parentheses, e.g. Barnett and

Lewis (1982) state that “...........” Citation o f a particularpage follows the date and is preceded by a comma, e.g. Hum phrey 1990, p. 26-27.

For works with multiple authors, the first author’s surname is used followed by et al. The full form o f

citation is used for two authors.

If two or more works by the same author are cited

together, the author’s name is followed by the various

years o f publication arranged in chronological order e.g. (Sulaiman 1979, 1980, 1981). In case o f citing an

author with several works published in the same year, the works should be distinguished by the addition o f a

small letter e.g. Choa (1979a); Choa (1979b).

W hen several authors are cited, they are to be arranged

in chronological order and separated by semicolons, e.g. Zaharah 1960; Yong 1980; Lewis 1990.

Serials are to be abbreviated as in the World List of Scientific Periodicals. The abbreviation for Pertanika

Journal o f Social Science and Humanities is Pertanika

J. Soc. Sci. Hum.

The following reference style is to be observed:

BookShamsher M oham ed, Shamsuddin Ismail & Annuar

M ohd. Nassir. 1989. Asas Belanjawan Modal. 197p. Serdang: Universiti Pertanian Malaysia Press.

Chapter in Edited BookZahid Emby. 1990. The O rang Asli Regrouping Scheme- converting sw iddeners to com m erical farm ers. In

Margins and Minorities - The Peripheral Areas and Peoples

of Malaysia, ed. V. T King 8c M.J.G. Parnwell, p. 94- 109. Hull: Hull University Press.

Unpublished Materials (e.g. theses, reports, documents) Shahwahid, H .O . 1989. Price competitiveness and

dem and behaviour o f Malaysia Meranti lumber and

hardwood plywood in the United States’ import market. Ph.D. Dissertation, State University o f N ew York. Syracuse.

Ministry o f National Unity. 1973. A socio-economic

survey on the new villages in Perak and Melaka. 67p. Malaysia.

SerialsNoran Fauziah Yaakub. 1990. A multivariate analysis o f attitude towards teaching. Pertanika 13(2): 267-273.

Conference ProceedingsA m ir Aw ang. 1992. C oun se lling , hum an resorces

development and counseling services. In Proceeding of Asia Pacific Conference on Human Resource Development, ed. Sulaiman M. Yassin, Yahya Mat Hassan Kamariah Abu

Bakar, Esah Munji anda Sabariah M ohd Rashid, p. 243- 246. Serdang: Universiti Pertanian Malaysia.

Pertanika Journal of Social Science 8c Humanities

Volume 7 Number 1 (March) 1999

Contents

Gender Role Orientation o f Husbands and Work-Family Conflict o f Wives in Dual-Earner Families - Aminah Ahmad

Relationships Among Parenting Knowledge, Quality o f Stimulation in the Home and Child Academic Performance - Rozumah Baharudin

11

The Perceptions o f University Instructors on Their Testing Practices: A Case Studv - Mohamad Sahari

21

Bentuk Perlakuan dan Proses Pramenulis Karangan Pelajar Tingkatan Empat - Marohaini Yusofj

Influences on the Effectiveness o f the National Population and Family Development Board’s Parenting Module - Anjti Panalal K Doshi and Rozumah Baharudin

Kepuasan Bekerja di Kalangan Pegawai Tadbir Universiti Putra Malaysia, . ' Serdang, Selangor - Sidek Mohd Noah dan Mardiana Hj. Muhamad

.31

ISSN 0128-7702

Documents

Humanities - Universiti Putra Malaysia PAPERS/JSSH Vol. 7 (1...Pertanika Journal of Social Science and Humanities I About the Journal Pertanika, the pioneerjournal of UPM, began publication