How can sociology contribute to integrating service learning into Academic curricula?

H o w Can Soc io logy Con t r ibu te to I n t e g r a t i n g Serv ice L e a r n i n g

into A c a d e m i c Curr icu la?

HUGH F. LENA

This article argues that sociology can make a unique contribution to the integration of service experiences into the academic content of courses across the curriculum. By virtue of its theoretical, conceptual, methodological and pedagogical legacies, sociology contributes to an understanding of the potential and promise of community service for academic inquiry. The article describes a unique venture in which an interdisciplinary team of faculty and students designed a major and minor in Public and Community Service Studies using service learning pedagogy.

[E]ducation is a dialectic o f life and mind, o f body a n d spirit, in which the

two are inextr icably b o u n d together. Nei ther acknowledges h o w a w k w a r d

this m a k e s it f o r a l iberal arts univers i ty a t once to serve a n d challenge society, to s imu l taneous l y " transmit" f u n d a m e n t a l values such as toler-

ance, responsibil i ty, and love o f learning a n d to create a c l imate in which

s tudents are no t merely condi t ioned by w h a t is t ransmi t t ed ( t ransmiss ion

tends t o w a r d indoctr inat ion) . Such a univers i ty m u s t s tand apar t f r o m

society in order to give s tudents room to breathe a n d grow f ree f r o m a too-

ins is tent reality. A t the same time, it m u s t s tand w i th in the real world a n d

its l imi ts in order to prepare s tudents f o r real lives in a society that, i f they do no t mold it to their aspirations, will mold them to its convent ions .

B e n j a m i n R. Barber, An Aristocracy of Everyone 1992: pp. 2 0 8 - 9

Higher educa t i on has c o m e u n d e r fire, bo th f rom wi th in and wi thou t , for its failure to mee t the needs of s tudents and society. A raft of sca th ing a c c o u n t s of p a t h o l o g y in our col leges and universit ies has cap tu red the a t t en t ion o f Ameri-

cans (Bloom 1987, Boyer 1987, D 'Souza 1991, Hirsch 1988, Kimball 1990, Smith

Hugh F. Lena is professor and chair of sociology and an instructional faculty member of the Feinstein Institute for Public Service. Address for correspondence: Sociology Department, Providence College, Providence, Rhode Island 02918; e-mail: [email protected].

Lena 107

1990, Sykes 1990). Included in this litany of ailments are the failure of colleges and universities to properly prepare young people for careers in the twenty-first century, the rising tide of mediocrity in educational standards, the fragmentation and disintegration of academic disciplines, the irrelevance of much academic research and the flight of professors from teaching. Perhaps the most significant element in this diagnosis is the failure of American higher education to instill in students a desire to become critically engaged in ideas, in an awareness of the profound social problems of our times and to recognize the importance of civic educat ion and responsibility in a democratic society (Loeb, 1994). If institutions of higher education were to forge meaningful partnerships with communi ty agencies to address common problems and to contribute to their educational missions, some of these criticisms would be muted. Rather than dwelling on the controversies that animate many aspects of the current debate about higher education, Benjamin Barber's admonition to higher education is to pursue literacy and academic excellence in the context of civic education about democracy. In his An Aristocracy of Everyone, Barber offers an approach to reinvigo- rating society and education by a renewed commitment to communi ty service. In communi ty he sees the intersection of education and democracy for it is an indispensable condit ion for both (1992: 229.) In education-based communi ty service, Barber sees a first step toward both educational excellence and an understanding of civic responsibility in a democratic society.

As a pathway to educational and pedagogical reform, this "call of service" (Coles, 1993) has struck a responsive cord in American higher education. While service is embedded in the missions of most, if not all, colleges and universities (Cohen, 1994, Stanton, 1991), and volunteerism and service to communi ty is a rich tradition in America (Tocqueville, 1960), community service by college students has remained largely extramural (Kendall & Associates, 1990, Lieberman & Connolly, 1992.) That is, service is valued for its own sake and remains marginalized from students ' academic programs. However, as part of the movement to service in the nation, there has been renewed interest in how service to communi ty can be re-integrated into the academic learning of students. "Re- integrated" because the disjunction between education and the amelioration of social problems has not remained constant. The nexus between the academy and community, be tween learning and service, between knowledge and deeds has waxed and waned over the last century and the current rapprochement between academic learning and learning from service is another phase in this cycle of integration. In this article, I argue that sociology can make an important contribution to the integration of service into academic curricula. By virtue of its legacies--theoretical, conceptual, methodological and pedagogical--sociology contributes to an understanding of the potential and promise of communi ty service for academic inquiry. While not alone in its contributions, I argue that sociology has been modeling, perhaps uncritically, those precepts and practices of integrating service and learning which have come to be known as service learning. This article is a first step in explicating several ways in which sociology offers a model for service learning efforts.

108 The American Sociologist/Winter 1995

W h y Service Lea rn ing?

Increasing numbers of educators are calling for greater integration of service and study through courses which incorporate service learning (Barber, 1989, 1992; Stanton, 1987). The concept of "service learning," however, has taken on a jargonistic quality which may embody a potentially bewildering array of meanings. Kendall's review of the literature revealed 147 different terms and defini- tions related to service learning (1990). In addition to service learning, the terms "public service," "community service," "experiential learning," "study-service connections," "social action," "civic education" and "action research" often have similar meanings and intentions. The term "service learning" grew out of the work of Robert Sigmon and William Ramsey at the Southern Regional Education Board (Giles and Eyler, 1994). For purposes of convenience to this article, I mean by "service learning" the integration of service experiences into the academic content of a course by the addition of a reflection component in which the service becomes another "text" for that course. Reflection on the social, political, economic and cultural contexts of service is another source of data (or information) in academic courses in which "Service, combined with learning, adds value to each and transforms both" (Honnet and Poulsen, 1989: p. 1). Service learning, which may assume several forms, is a pedagogical method that connects the practice and academic content of service to the curriculum and as an educational method, provides students with "fertile ground on which to test theories acquired in the classroom and to concretize abstract thought" (Kupiec, 1993: p. 7). Students may develop their research, critical thinking and interpersonal skills not only in the traditional ways, but in the context of the larger social, ethical and environmental implications of knowledge. Service learning blurs the line be tween content and method in a most productive way for it transcends each.

W h y Socio logy?

Sociology has a distinctive role to play in the re-integration of service into academic courses, departments and the curriculum as a whole. While not alone in its contribution to this integrative process, sociology is blessed with a scope of interest, conceptual frameworks, theoretical and methodological legacies and a predisposit ion to forms of active learning that offer lessons for integrating service and learning to other academic disciplines. My argument at this point is not an empirical one, for I do not know precisely how sociology fits into the service learning movement or whether it has been on the cutting edge or has lagged behind this movement. However, I do believe that service learning is particularly relevant to sociological inquiry and that sociological inquiry offers possible models for other disciplines to integrate service experiences into academic courses and curricula. The relevance of service learning for sociology is that it permits students to test their insights about sociological phenomena in the field and to reflect on their real-life experiences in a more academically

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rigorous way. Since the subject matter of sociology can often be the very stuff of communit ies and service, these experiences can be both an opportuni ty to test out and rethink sociological generalizations and a chance to "experience" the larger social forces that affect communities and their members and that the discipline seeks to understand. In its desire to better understand the larger social issues that impinge on human behavior and experience, sociology shares common ground with service learning. More relevant to the thesis here, however, are the features of the discipline of sociology and its traditions that may inform the utilization of service learning by other disciplines. The salient features of sociology that have relevance for integrating service learning in academic curricula are its scope and content, its conceptual and theoretical foundation, its methodologies, and a disposition toward innovative pedagogical techniques for active learning.

1. The C o n t e n t a n d Scope o f Soc io logy

Since service with others, in communities and to society is inherently social, reflection components of virtually any academic course or program necessarily involve the subject matter of sociology. Whether it be a course in children's dance, educational methods, women ' s poetry, abnormal psychology or public policy, the domain of sociology is broad enough to pertain to many of those features of social settings in which service is performed. Reflection on service and the relevance of these experiences for the academic content of the course are often embedded in discourse about social forces and social relations. Indeed, many of the critical, "sensitizing" concepts that undergird the service learning movement are sociological. Notwithstanding their long and rich tradition of studying the concept of community itself, sociologists study other concepts germane to service learning such as democracy, power, justice, social change, and social problems. Moreover, sociology takes as its subject matter many of the institutional settings in which the experiences of service occur--societal institutions such as the family, education, religion, health and welfare, and the political economy. It includes, for example, the study of poverty, stratification, urban settings, social change, deviant behavior and the criminal justice system. Sociological inquiry gives primacy to many of the focal 'elements of interpersonal and interorganizational relationships, including the roles of race and ethnicity, gender, class and culture. By virtue of its breadth and conceptual framework, then, sociology has relevance for academic reflection that links cognitive learning and service insofar as service, in both experience and outcomes, is social in nature.

2. T h e o r e t i c a l Legacies o f Soc io logy

Sociology offers a wide array of theories and theoretical perspectives for understanding and explaining the social contexts that influence the behavior of


groups and individuals. Particularly in its emphasis on exercising the "sociological imagination" (Mills 1959) whereby personal t roubles are distinguished from public issues and the sources of action are seen beneath and beyond particular individuals and their own behavior, sociology offers substance to understanding service experiences. In its fascination with the "upstream," structural causes for the problems of floundering individuals and communities, sociology offers per- spective and understanding of the contexts of service within which other disciplines seek knowledge and comprehens ion about their own discipline. More generally, service learning is often an "invitation to sociology" (Berger 1963). It is an entreaty to accept a special type of consciousness and a perspect ive that is profound, unusual, critical and humanistic in its concern so that the academic learning in the course may be bet ter appreciated in the context of its service applications.

3. M e t h o d o l o g i c a l Legacies o f S o c i o l o g y

The contr ibut ion of sociology to integrating service learning into academic curricula is perhaps greatest when it comes to its methodological traditions. In their efforts to reflect upon how service may contr ibute to a richer understanding of their subject matter, other disciplines can employ the research techniques of the social sciences, including sociology. Real-world observational techniques drawn from field research, ethnographies, participant observation, interviewing and survey methodologies can play a large role in gathering and processing information about the impact of service on individuals and communities. Armed with the tools of the t rade-- interviewing and survey instruments, diaries and journals, e tc . - -and techniques for processing and analyzing that information, students and their communi ty service partners can bet ter plan, document and assess service and learning. In addition to traditions of qualitative and quantita- tive methodologies as well as its interest in measuring outcomes, sociology contr ibutes to service learning by virtue of its interest in participatory and community action research (Cancian and Armstead, 1990; Jones, 1987; Morgan, 1983) in which scientific investigation is integrated with education and political action. While there are dangers associated with "professionalized" service of this kind (McKnight, 1995), participatory researchers work with members of a community to understand and resolve community problems so that researchers and those researched coopera te in a joint process of critically understanding and changing the social situation, to improve people ' s daily lives, e m p o w e r them, and demystify research. While sociologyls interest in, and involvement with, action research has been uneven, in this type of research, sociology and other disciplines offer methodological insight to some service projects.

4. Pedagogical Dispositions of Sociology

Sociology, by virtue of its subject matter and disposition, has embraced inno-

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vative teaching techniques (Goldsmid and Wilson, 1980; Palmer, 1990). Partly out of necessity and partly due to the value the discipline places on active learning, sociologists use a variety of nontraditional teaching methods. Here again I do not make an empirical assertion but I do claim a unique role for sociology. Since it possesses not one, but many theories and theoretical perspectives, and because the subject matter is familiar to students, instruction in sociology includes discussion techniques, small-group exercises, and field experiences as well as traditional lecturing. In short, many of the techniques of service learning courses are drawn from experience with alternative teaching and learning techniques. Although active learning strategies did not originate with sociology, nor are they limited to it, its lack of definitive answers to many questions of import encourages sociologists to value differences of opinion, to be recep- tive to critical debate, and to embrace phemomenological experiences. These are qualities appropriate to service learning courses in which subjective elements of experience and the voices of various stakeholders are valued sources of information (Kendall, 1990: 20).

In addition to these salient features of sociology which may assist in the addition of service learning components to academic courses, sociology departments and sociologists can be instrumental in the planning and implementat ion of interdisciplinary initiatives to integrate service learning into the entire undergraduate curriculum. By virtue of the breadth of their own courses, sociologists are amenable to working with colleagues from other disciplines in team teaching and collaborative research. Again, while not the exclusive domain of sociology, initiatives to integrate service learning across the curriculum certainly provide a role for sociologists.

The service learning movement has largely been limited to a few courses and academic departments (Kendall, 1990). As the call to service takes hold in American higher education, the momentum is toward full integration of service into the undergraduate curriculum. To illustrate one model of how service learning can be integrated into the undergraduate curriculum and across academic disciplines, I describe the initiative at Providence College to develop a full-blown, interdisciplinary major and minor in public and community service.

Integrating Service Learning into Academic Curricula: A Demonstra t ion

Providence College is a relatively small, Catholic liberal arts college in Rhode Island run under the auspices of the Dominican Order. Its 3,700 students come from 35 states and twelve foreign countries to pursue undergraduate studies in the liberal arts and sciences. Two years ago Providence College applied for a competit ive grant from the Alan Shawn Feinstein Foundation to establish a center for public service. Providence College was poised to take up the Feinstein challenge to develop a public service degree program because it has, as is typi- cal of many Catholic colleges, a long tradition of community and social service,


and a p r o g r a m s u c h as the one e n v i s i o n e d w a s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the c o l l e g e ' s m i s s ion "to e q u i p its s tuden t s to b e c o m e p r o d u c t i v e and r e s p o n s i b l e c i t izens o f

a d e m o c r a t i c soc ie ty ." More impor t an t ly , the co l lege has a s t rong c o m m i t m e n t to t e a c h i n g and a c a d e m i c m e n t o r i n g and has, at the co re of its gene ra l cur r icu- lum, a r e q u i r e d t w o - y e a r D e v e l o p m e n t of W e s t e r n Civi l izat ion P r o g r a m w h i c h is

i n t e rd i sc ip l ina ry and t augh t by t e ams of four facu l ty m e m b e r s . T h e co l l ege re- c e i v e d a $5 mi l l ion g ran t to p h a s e in a ma jo r in pub l i c se rv ice o v e r the n e x t f ive

years , the first p h a s e of w h i c h was a r e s e a r c h and d e v e l o p m e n t year . F lushed

w i t h r e s o u r c e s , an in te rd i sc ip l ina ry r e s e a r c h and d e v e l o p m e n t t e a m w a s f o r m e d .

I t w a s c o m p r i s e d of t en facul ty and t w o s tuden t s f r o m a va r i e ty o f d isc ip l ines , inc lud ing soc io logy , pol i t ica l sc ience , marke t ing , social w o r k , ar t h is tory , educa-

t ion, t h e o l o g y and a n t h r o p o l o g y . The t e a m b e g a n a p r o c e s s of p l a n n i n g for a

s e c o n d , p i lo t year , i n w h i c h w e w o u l d tes t ou t s o m e o f the ideas for c o u r s e s

c o m p r i s i n g a m a j o r in pub l i c se rv ice and e x p e r i m e n t w i t h the d e v e l o p m e n t of

a ser ies o f se rv ice - lea rn ing cou r s e s t h r o u g h o u t the cu r r i cu lum. T h e r e s e a r c h and d e v e l o p m e n t t eam, or iginal ly c o m p r i s e d of facul ty , v e r y

qu ick ly r e a c h e d a g r e e m e n t on a n u m b e r of cr i t ical issues:

a. students should be added as voting members of the R & D team and the Institute and its courses will foster a democratic learning community in which the various stakeholders should assume ownership of the learning process;

b. our community service partners should have a role in our planning; c. the program should be academically-based, integrated into our curriculum and service

should be incorporated into the academic content of courses and not be extracur- ricular;

d. the thrust of our approach to service should be civic, not solely philanthropic and that service should not receive credit unless it has an academic component;

e. the program should be interdisciplinary, involving faculty from across all the disciplines, and insofar as possible the courses would be team-taught and faculty would engage in service alongside their students;

f. the Feinstein Institute for Public Service, which houses the academic major and coordinates service learning courses should be guided by the principles of: understanding human diversity, participative citizenship, social justice, and human soli- darity.

O v e r the c o u r s e of the n e x t t en m o n t h s , the Resea r ch and D e v e l o p m e n t

Team, in co l l abo ra t i on w i t h t h r ee r e s o u r c e g r o u p s c o m p r i s e d o f s tuden ts , faculty, and c o m m u n i t y r ep r e s en t a t i ve s , d e v e l o p e d a miss ion s t a t e m e n t fo r the Ins t i tu te , p l a n n e d an in tens ive s ix -week s emina r for facul ty and s tuden t s , de-

s igned a s e q u e n c e o f p i lo t cou r se s for the s e c o n d year , c o n d u c t e d a na t iona l s ea r ch for a d i r e c t o r and assoc ia te d i r ec t o r for the Ins t i tu te , s e l ec t ed a g r o u p of e i g h t e e n p i lo t s tuden t s , and p r o p o s e d a c o u r s e of s tudy for b o t h a m a j o r and m i n o r in Publ ic and C o m m u n i t y Service. In addi t ion, the t e a m b e g a n p l a n n i n g

for a C o m m u n i t y Service C lea r inghouse and Resou rce C e n t e r to assist in the

c o o r d i n a t i o n of co l l ege -wide c o m m u n i t y se rv ice act ivi t ies and to of fer ass i s tance

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tO communi ty organizations in managing service activities. It also par t ic ipated in the planned renovat ion of a dormitory into an academic cen te r to house the

Feinstein Institute. The Feinstein Research Team of students and faculty worked to develop the

Insti tute 's programs and staffing by reviewing and evaluating service learning programs throughout the country, assessing the college's relevant resources, and soliciting advice from communi ty experts . A number of critical decisions con- t r ibuted to the successful integration of this public service program into the curriculum. Aside from strong administrative support , ample resources and a college mission s tatement consistent with the ethos of service, the R & D Team's commi tment to academic rigor, interdisciplinary approaches to teaching and learning and a willingness to embrace the various s takeholders- -s tudents , faculty, administration, and communi ty representa t ives- - in our deliberations were critical to the early success of the program. We also believe it was critical that we built s tudent ownership and leadership into both the mission and s t ructure of our program. The designs of the summer seminar and the Public and Commu- nity Service Pilot Year reflect these commitments .

The S u m m e r Seminar. The six-week summer seminar was designed to test out ideas for what would become our gateway course - - In t roduc t ion to Service in Democrat ic Societies. The instructional faculty, drawn from the R & D Team,

included four individuals who took responsibility for the seminar por t ion and two faculty w ho led the pract icum. Eighteen students f rom a variety of majors, and selected through a compet i t ive process, received a stipend, room and board and six credits for their participation. Five faculty, who would add a service c o m p o n e n t to their own courses, also took the seminar and the pract icum. The faculty were drawn from sociology, management, philosophy, and theatre arts. In addition to seminar readings and discussions, all participants were involved in service and part icipated in reflection and training sessions associated with the practicum. Faculty assisted o n e a n o t h e r in redesigning their courses by the addition of a service c omponen t and a reflection componen t during which students could explore the relevance of their service exper iences to the academic con ten t of the course. The students gained exper ience participating in, and leading, reflec- t ion sessions so that they could serve as "teaching assistants" during the pilot year in the service learning courses and to o ther depar tments ' courses. In this capacity, students work in the communi ty as team leaders/site supervisors, and also help faculty lead reflect ion sessions in the classroom.

The Public and Communi t y Service Pilot. In the year following the summer seminar, these service-learning courses, five sections of the "gateway" course and four additional pilot courses for the core of the major were taught (see Figure 1). The summer pilot students served as TAs in one of the service-learning courses and took the four core cou r se s - - two semesters of a Practicum, an Ethics course and a course in Foundations of Organizational Service--al l of which were team-taught. In the two-semester, six-credit practicum, students work on projects and share their exper iences , problem-solve together, and gain important skills in communicat ions , conflict resolution, communi ty collaboration, and "leadership."


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In their associated roles as TAs in service learning courses, they are involved, alongside students registered for those courses, in a number of projects aimed at enhancing their communities. Projects include serving as mentors and tutors with specific skills for Providence school students and working with their teach- ers and parents helping to develop a close working relationship with the Feinstein Public High School in Providence that is combining learning with service in their own curriculum, and reaching out to serve as resources to neighborhood communi ty center and other social service agencies. In addition, there are funds in the Institute's budget for students to initiate communi ty projects, which gives them an additional degree of ownership over the program and the process. The ethics course--Ethics, Moral Leadership, and the Common Good-- is designed to connect values and practice in service and to recognize, both in content and method, the importance of values in public and community service. The Foun- dations of Organizational Service course provides an introduction to theoretical and methodological perspectives on service in, through, and with, organizations. In addition to coverage of organizational topics such as bureaucracy, motivation, leadership, power and control, the students gain experience with the methods and analysis of organizational and community action research.

As of Fall 1995, the college will offer a full-blown major and minor in Public and Community Service Studies. The design of the major includes a four-course core, including an introductory course in service in democratic studies, the organizational service course, an historical course in communi ty service and a social/cultural diversity course, a three-course track in a field of the students ' choosing; a two-semester practicum; and a one-semester internship in community service and a two-semester capstone seminar in communi ty service. The minor includes the core courses in the major, an ethics courses and an indepen- dent study course for a total of six courses. The Institute is also providing start- up grants to ten faculty across the campus to develop service learning courses in their own disciplines and participate in an interdisciplinary seminar on public and communi ty service.

C o n c l u s i o n s

In the context of growing interest in incorporating service to communi ty in academic curricula, this article is a preliminary effort to explicate the potential and promise of sociology for making a contribution to this integration. By virtue of its scope and content, its theoretical and methodological legacies, and its predisposition to pedagogical alternatives to learning, sociology and sociologists have much to contribute to the integration of service learning into academic curricula. The article describes one illustration of how both the perspectives of sociology and the involvement of sociologists may contribute to an interdiscipli. nary initiative to integrate service learning through the development of a major and minor in public and community studies.


Acknowledgment

The author appreciates helpful comments by Thomas King and Keith Morton. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 1995 Eastern Sociological Society meetings in Philadelphia, PA.

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How can sociology contribute to integrating service learning into Academic curricula?