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Household Economy Survey 2012
Khargone, Khandwa, Panna and Dewas District
F A C T - S H E E T
Author: Katharina Schmidt
Partner organisation: Jan Sahas
July 2012
i
Table of Contents
List of Tables .......................................................................................................................................... iv
List of Figures ......................................................................................................................................... v
Abbreviations & Acronyms .................................................................................................................... ix
Executive Summary ................................................................................................................................ 1
1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 3
2 Methodology ................................................................................................................................... 4
3 Background of the districts .............................................................................................................. 7
3.1 Background of the Blocks ........................................................................................................... 11
3.2 Characteristics of the Livelihood zones ...................................................................................... 14
4 Livelihood Zone 1: Tribal dry agricultural zone ........................................................................... 21
4.1 Background to the Food Economy Zone ..................................................................................... 21
4.1.1 Price and markets ................................................................................................................. 22
4.1.2 Seasonal calendar ................................................................................................................. 23
4.1.3 Wealth breakdown ................................................................................................................ 25
4.2 Income and expenditures ............................................................................................................. 26
4.2.1 Income .................................................................................................................................. 26
4.2.2 Expenditures ......................................................................................................................... 27
4.3 Production ................................................................................................................................... 28
4.3.1 Landholding.......................................................................................................................... 28
4.3.2 Crop production .................................................................................................................... 29
4.3.3 Livestock and animal products ............................................................................................. 30
4.3.4 Hunting, Fishing and NTFP ................................................................................................. 30
4.4 Food ............................................................................................................................................. 30
4.4.1 Food sources ......................................................................................................................... 30
4.4.2 Hunger time .......................................................................................................................... 31
4.4.3 Food patterns ........................................................................................................................ 32
4.4.4 Calorie intake ....................................................................................................................... 33
4.5 Implementation of government programmes .............................................................................. 35
4.5.1 NREGA ................................................................................................................................ 35
4.5.2 PDS ....................................................................................................................................... 37
4.5.3 ICDS ..................................................................................................................................... 37
4.6 Shocks ......................................................................................................................................... 38
5 Food Economy zone 2: Non-irrigated hilly zone .......................................................................... 39
5.1 Background to the Food Economy Zone ..................................................................................... 39
5.1.1 Seasonal calendar ................................................................................................................. 40
5.1.2 Wealth breakdown ................................................................................................................ 42
ii
5.2 Income and expenditures ............................................................................................................. 43
5.2.1 Income .................................................................................................................................. 43
5.2.2 Expenditures ......................................................................................................................... 44
5.3 Production ................................................................................................................................... 45
5.3.1 Landholding.......................................................................................................................... 45
5.3.2 Crop production .................................................................................................................... 46
5.3.3 Livestock and animal products ............................................................................................. 47
5.3.4 Hunting, Fishing and NTFP ................................................................................................. 47
5.4 Food ............................................................................................................................................. 47
5.4.1 Food sources ......................................................................................................................... 47
5.4.2 Hunger time .......................................................................................................................... 48
5.4.3 Food patterns ........................................................................................................................ 49
5.4.4 Calorie intake ....................................................................................................................... 50
5.5 Implementation of government programmes .............................................................................. 52
5.5.1 NREGA ................................................................................................................................ 52
5.5.2 PDS ....................................................................................................................................... 53
5.5.3 ICDS ..................................................................................................................................... 53
5.6 Shocks ......................................................................................................................................... 54
6 Food Economy Zone 3: Irrigated valley zone ............................................................................... 55
6.1 Background to the Food Economy Zone ..................................................................................... 55
6.1.1 Seasonal calendar ................................................................................................................. 57
6.1.2 Wealth breakdown ................................................................................................................ 59
6.2 Income and expenditures ............................................................................................................. 60
6.2.1 Income .................................................................................................................................. 60
6.2.2 Expenditures ......................................................................................................................... 61
6.3 Production ................................................................................................................................... 62
6.3.1 Landholding.......................................................................................................................... 62
6.3.2 Crop production .................................................................................................................... 62
6.3.3 Livestock and animal products ............................................................................................. 63
6.3.4 Hunting, Fishing and NTFP ................................................................................................. 63
6.4 Food ............................................................................................................................................. 63
6.4.1 Food sources ......................................................................................................................... 63
6.4.2 Hunger time .......................................................................................................................... 64
6.4.3 Food patterns ........................................................................................................................ 64
6.4.4 Calories intake ...................................................................................................................... 65
6.5 Implementation of government programmes .............................................................................. 67
iii
6.5.1 NREGA ................................................................................................................................ 67
6.5.2 PDS ....................................................................................................................................... 68
6.5.3 ICDS ..................................................................................................................................... 68
6.6 Shocks ......................................................................................................................................... 69
7 Food Economy Zone 4: Agricultural mixed communities zone .................................................... 70
7.1 Background to the Food Economy Zone ..................................................................................... 70
7.1.1 Seasonal calendar ................................................................................................................. 71
7.1.2 Wealth breakdown ................................................................................................................ 73
7.2 Income and expenditures ............................................................................................................. 74
7.2.1 Income .................................................................................................................................. 74
7.2.2 Expenditures ......................................................................................................................... 75
7.3 Production ................................................................................................................................... 76
7.3.1 Landholding.......................................................................................................................... 76
7.3.2 Crop production .................................................................................................................... 76
7.3.3 Livestock and animal products ............................................................................................. 77
7.3.4 Hunting, Fishing and NTFP ................................................................................................. 77
7.4 Food ............................................................................................................................................. 78
7.4.1 Food sources ......................................................................................................................... 78
7.4.2 Hunger time .......................................................................................................................... 78
7.4.3 Food patterns ........................................................................................................................ 79
7.4.4 Calories intake ...................................................................................................................... 80
7.5 Implementation of government programmes .............................................................................. 82
7.5.1 NREGA ................................................................................................................................ 82
7.5.2 PDS ....................................................................................................................................... 83
7.5.3 ICDS ..................................................................................................................................... 84
7.6 Shocks ......................................................................................................................................... 84
8 Comparison of Livelihood Zones .................................................................................................. 86
8.1 Income and expenditures .............................................................................................................. 86
8.2 Landholding and crops production ............................................................................................... 87
8.3 Daily calorie intake ...................................................................................................................... 88
8.4 Implementation of government programmes ............................................................................... 89
8.5 Shocks .......................................................................................................................................... 90
9 Emerging Issues that need focus in the Districts Khargone, Khandwa, Panna and Dewas........... 91
iv
List of Tables
Table 1: Population data of Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas District ........................................ 8
Table 2: Data on working population of Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas District .................... 8
Table 3: Agro-climatic data of Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas District ................................... 8
Table 4: Net and Gross District Domestic Product of Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas District 9
Table 5: Poverty in Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas District ..................................................... 9
Table 6: Health facilities and schools in Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas District .................. 10
Table 7: Characteristics of the HHs in Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas District ..................... 10
Table 8: Agro-climatic indicators of Pandhana and Jhirniya Block ...................................................... 11
Table 9: Land pattern in Jhiriniya and Pandhana Block ........................................................................ 12
Table 10: Crop production in Pandhana and Jhirniya Block ................................................................. 12
Table 11: Land use pattern and land cover in Pawai Block/Panna District (area in hectare) ................ 13
Table 12: Population data of Sonkatch Block/Dewas District .............................................................. 13
Table 13: Land use pattern and land cover in Sonkatch Block/Dewas District (area in hectare) ......... 14
Table 14: Crop production in Sonkatch Block/Dewas District ............................................................. 14
Table 15: Characteristics of the tribal dry agricultural zone ................................................................. 15
Table 16: Sample villages – tribal dry agricultural zone ....................................................................... 16
Table 17: Crop production in the irrigated valley and non-irrigated hilly zone .................................... 18
Table 18: Characteristics of the non-irrigated hilly and the irrigated valley zone ................................ 18
Table 19: Sample villages – irrigated valley zone ................................................................................. 19
Table 20: Sample villages – non-irrigated hilly zone ............................................................................ 19
Table 21: Characteristics of the agricultural mixed communities zone ................................................ 20
Table 22: Sample villages – agricultural mixed communities zone ...................................................... 20
Table 23: Seasonal calendar – Tribal dry agricultural zone .................................................................. 24
Table 24: Criteria of the Wealth Breakdowns (WBs) according to local standards (tribal dry
agricultural zone) ................................................................................................................................... 26
Table 25: Distribution of average land type (in acres) according to wealth group (tribal dry agricultural
zone) ...................................................................................................................................................... 29
Table 26: Average food consumption (in kg) per day in Normal Time (main commodities; tribal dry
agricultural zone) ................................................................................................................................... 32
Table 27: Average food consumption (in kg) per day in Hunger Time (main commodities; tribal dry
agricultural zone) ................................................................................................................................... 33
Table 28: Summary MGNREGA (group-wise, tribal dry agricultural zone) ........................................ 35
Table 29: Seasonal calendar – Non-irrigated hilly zone ........................................................................ 41
Table 30: Criteria of the WBs according to local standards (non-irrigated hilly zone)......................... 43
Table 31: Distribution of average land type (in acres) according to wealth group (non-irrigated hilly
zone) ...................................................................................................................................................... 46
v
Table 32: Average food consumption (in kg) per day per HH in Normal Time (main commodities;non-
irrig. hilly zone) ..................................................................................................................................... 49
Table 33: Average food consumption (in kg) per day per HH in Hunger Time (main commodities;non-
irrig. hilly zone) ..................................................................................................................................... 49
Table 34: Summary MGNREGA (non-irrigated hilly zone) ................................................................. 52
Table 35: General characteristics of the HHs (median, group-wise; irrigated valley zone) .................. 56
Table 36: Seasonal calendar – Irrigated valley zone ............................................................................. 58
Table 37: Criteria of the Wealth Breakdowns (WBs) according to local standards (irrigated valley
zone) ...................................................................................................................................................... 59
Table 38: Distribution of average land type (in acres) according to wealth group ............................... 62
Table 39: Average food consumption (in kg) per day per HH in Normal Time (main commodities;
irrig. valley zone) .................................................................................................................................. 65
Table 40: Average food consumption (in kg) per day per HH in Hunger Time (main commodities; irrig.
valley zone) ........................................................................................................................................... 65
Table 41: Summary MGNREGA (group-wise; irrigated valley zone) .................................................. 67
Table 42: General characteristics of the HHs (median, group-wise; agircultural mixed communities
zone) ...................................................................................................................................................... 70
Table 43: Seasonal calendar – Agricultural mixed communities zone.................................................. 72
Table 44: Criteria of the Wealth Breakdowns according to local standards (agricultural mixed comm.
zone) ...................................................................................................................................................... 74
Table 45: Distribution of land type (in acres) according to wealth group (agricultural mixed
communities zone) ................................................................................................................................ 76
Table 46: Average food consumption (in kg) per day per HH in Normal Time (agricultural mixed
communities zone) ................................................................................................................................ 79
Table 47: Average food consumption (in kg) per day per HH in Hunger Time (agricultural mixed
communities zone) ................................................................................................................................ 80
Table 48: Summary MGNREGA (group-wise, agricultural mixed communities zone) ....................... 82
Table 49: Comparison of the annual average income (all livelihood zones, group-wise)..................... 86
Table 50: Average landholding per HH (in acres) and average total quantity of crops produced per
year per HH (all livelihood zones, grou-wise) ...................................................................................... 87
Table 51: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (all HHs, all livelihood zones)
............................................................................................................................................................... 88
Table 52: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (all HHs, all livelihood zones)
............................................................................................................................................................... 88
Table 53: Summary MGNREGA (all livelihood zones) ....................................................................... 89
List of Figures
Figure 1: Location of FHFI working area, district level (above), block level (below) ................................4
vi
Figure 2: Khandwa and Khargone - Forest Density Map ................................................................................ 12
Figure 3: Livelihood Zone Map – Tribal dry agricultural zone ..................................................................... 15
Figure 4: Sample villages in Jhiranya Block/Khargone District .................................................................... 17
Figure 5: Sample villages in Pandhana Block/Khandwa District................................................................... 17
Figure 6: Livelihood Zone Map – irrigated agricultural and non-irrigated hilly zone .............................. 19
Figure 7: Livelihood Zone Map – agricultural mixed communities zone .................................................... 20
Figure 8: Population of the tribal dry agricultural zone (caste-wise) ............................................................ 21
Figure 9: Wealth breakdown according to national standard .......................................................................... 25
Figure 10: Proportional distribution of the wealth groups according to local standards (tribal dry
agricultural zone) ....................................................................................................................................................... 25
Figure 11: Graphical distribution of income (tribal dry agricultural zone) .................................................. 27
Figure 12: Average annual expenditures (tribal dry agricultural zone) ........................................................ 28
Figure 13: Comparison annual income and expenditures (tribal dry agricultural zone) ........................... 28
Figure 14: Relationship between landholding and agricultural income (tribal dry agricultural zone) .. 29
Figure 15: Dominating crops (tribal dry agricultural zone) ............................................................................. 30
Figure 16: Food sources (tribal dry agricultural zone) ..................................................................................... 31
Figure 17: Graphical distribution of Hunger Times (all HHs and group-wise; tribal dry agricultural
zone) ............................................................................................................................................................................. 32
Figure 18: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (all HHs; tribal dry
agricultural zone) ....................................................................................................................................................... 33
Figure 19: Average daily calorie intak per person during Normal Time (group-wise; tribal dry
agricultural zone) ....................................................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 20: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (all HHs; tribal dry
agricultural zone) ....................................................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 21: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (group-wise; tribal dry
agricultural zone) ....................................................................................................................................................... 35
Figure 22: Histogram - Total working days under MGNREGA (tribal dry agricultural zone) ............... 36
Figure 23: Wealth breakdown according to national standard and under the condition of a working
MGNREGA scheme (tribal dry agricultural zone) ............................................................................................ 36
Figure 24: Distribution of ration cards (tribal dry agricultural zone) ............................................................ 37
Figure 25: Service delivery in Anganwadi Centres (tribal dry agricultural zone) ...................................... 38
Figure 26: Coping mechanisms in case of external shocks (tribal dry agricultural zone) ........................ 38
Figure 27: Average education level of women and men (non-irrigated hilly zone) .................................. 40
Figure 28: Wealth breakdown according to national standard ........................................................................ 42
Figure 29: Proportional distribution of the wealth groups according to local standards (non-irrigated
hilly zone) ................................................................................................................................................................... 42
Figure 30: Main income sources (non-irrigated hilly zone) ............................................................................ 44
vii
Figure 31: Average annual expenditures (non-irrigated hilly zone) .............................................................. 45
Figure 32: Dominating crops (non-irrigated hilly zone) .................................................................................. 46
Figure 33: Main NTFPs collected in non-irrigated hilly zone ........................................................................ 47
Figure 34: Food sources (non-irrigated hilly zone) ........................................................................................... 48
Figure 35: Hunger Time (all HHs and group-wise, non-irrigated hilly zone) ............................................. 49
Figure 36: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (all HHs; non-irrigated hilly
zone) ............................................................................................................................................................................. 50
Figure 37: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (group-wiese; non-irrigated
hilly zone) ................................................................................................................................................................... 50
Figure 38: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (all HHs; non-irrigated hilly
zone) ............................................................................................................................................................................. 51
Figure 39: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (group-wise; non-irrigated
hilly zone) ................................................................................................................................................................... 51
Figure 40: Histogram - Total working days under MGNREGA (non-irrigated hilly zone) ..................... 52
Figure 41: Wealth breakdown according to national standard and under the condition of a working
MGNREGA scheme (non-irrigated hilly zone) ................................................................................................. 53
Figure 42: Distribution of ration cards (non-irrigated hilly zone) .................................................................. 53
Figure 43: Service delivery in Anganwadi Centres (non-irrigated hilly zone) ........................................... 54
Figure 44: Shocks experienced (non-irrigated hilly zone) ............................................................................... 54
Figure 45: Coping mechanisms in case of external shocks (non-irrigated hilly zone) .............................. 55
Figure 46: Population of the irrigated valley zone (caste-wise) ..................................................................... 55
Figure 47: Average education level of women and men (irrigated valley zone) ........................................ 56
Figure 48: Wealth breakdown according to national standard (irrigated valley zone) .............................. 59
Figure 49: Proportional distribution of the wealth groups according to local standards (irrigated valley
zone) ............................................................................................................................................................................. 59
Figure 50: Average annual income (irrigated valley zone).............................................................................. 60
Figure 51: Average annual expenditures (irrigated valley zone) .................................................................... 61
Figure 52: Dominating crops (irrigated valley zone) ........................................................................................ 62
Figure 53: Food sources (irrigated valley zone) ................................................................................................. 64
Figure 54: Graphical distribution of Hunger Times (all HHs and poor wealth group; irrigated valley
zone) ............................................................................................................................................................................. 64
Figure 55: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (all HHs; irrigated valley
zone) ............................................................................................................................................................................. 65
Figure 56: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (group-wise; irrigated valley
zone) ............................................................................................................................................................................. 66
Figure 57: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (all HHs; irrigated valley
zone) ............................................................................................................................................................................. 66
viii
Figure 58: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (group-wise; irrigated valley
zone) ............................................................................................................................................................................. 67
Figure 59: Histogram – Total working day under MGNREGA (irrigated valley zone) ........................... 67
Figure 60: Distribution of ration cards (irrigated valley zone) ....................................................................... 68
Figure 61: Service delivery in Anganwadi Centres (irrigated valley zone) ................................................. 68
Figure 62: Causes of shocks (irrigated valley zone) ......................................................................................... 69
Figure 63: Coping mechanisms of external shocks (irrigated valley zone) ................................................ 69
Figure 64: Population of the agricultural mixed communities zone .............................................................. 70
Figure 65: Average education level of men and women (group-wise, agircultural mixed communities
zone) ............................................................................................................................................................................. 71
Figure 66: Wealth breakdown according to national standard (agricultural mixed communities zone) 73
Figure 67: Proportional distribution of the wealth groups according to local standards ........................... 73
Figure 68: Average annual income (agricultural mixed communities zone) ............................................... 75
Figure 69: Average annual expenditures (agricultural mixed communities zone) ..................................... 75
Figure 70: Dominating crops (agricultural mixed communities zone) ......................................................... 77
Figure 71: Food souces (agricultural mixed communities zone) .................................................................. 78
Figure 72: Graphical distribution of Hunger Times (all HHs and group-wise; agricultural mixed
communites zone) ..................................................................................................................................................... 79
Figure 73: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (all HHs; agricultural mixed
comm. zone) ............................................................................................................................................................... 80
Figure 74: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (group-wise; agricultural
mixed comm. Zone) .................................................................................................................................................. 81
Figure 75: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (all HHs; agricultural mixed
comm. zone) ............................................................................................................................................................... 81
Figure 76: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (group-wise; agricultural
mixed comm. Zone) .................................................................................................................................................. 82
Figure 77: Histogram - Total working days under MGNREGA (agricultural mixed communities zone)
....................................................................................................................................................................................... 83
Figure 78: Wealth Breakdown according to national standard and under the condition of a working
MGNREGA scheme (agricultural mixed communities zone) ........................................................................ 83
Figure 79: Distribution of ration cards (agricultural mixed communities zone) ......................................... 84
Figure 80: Service delivery in Anganwadi Centres (agricultural mixed communities zone) .................. 84
Figure 81: Reasons of shocks affecting money (agricultural mixed communities zone) ......................... 85
Figure 82: Coping mechanisms in case of external shocks (agricultural mixed communities zone) ..... 85
ix
Abbreviations & Acronyms
(MG)NREGA (Mahatma Gandhi) National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
AAY Antodya
APL Above Poverty Line
BPL Below Poverty Line
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FHFI Fight Hunger First Initiative
HEA Household Economy Approach
HH(s) Household(s)
HoH Head of household
HT Hunger Time
ICDS Integrated Child Development Services
INR Indian Rupees
Kcal Kilocalories
LHZ Livelihood zone
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
NT Normal Time
NTFP(s) Non-Timber Forest Product(s)
OBC Other Backward Class
PDS Public Distribution Services
PL Poverty Line
SC(s) Scheduled Caste(s)
SHG Self-Help Group(s)
ST(s) Scheduled Tribe(s)
WB Wealth Breakdown
1
Executive Summary
This report summarizes the results of a Household Food Economy Survey conducted in four
different blocks in Madhya Pradesh, India. The Survey was carried out from February till
April 2012 by Jan Sahas staff members and an external consultant.
Jan Sahas has partnered with the German non-governmental organization (NGO)
Welthungerhilfe to implement a project, called the Fight Hunger First Initiative (FHFI). The
focus of the project is to improve food security through improving the nutritional status of
families living in rural areas, promoting livelihoods and encouraging education. The
Household Food Economy Survey was conducted to receive baseline data on the project area.
The FHFI working area of Jan Sahas is situated in Pawai Block (Panna District),
Jhiranya/Zirniya Block (Khargone District), Pandhana Block (Khandwa District), Sonkatch
Block (Dewas District).
The survey is based on the Household Economy Approach (HEA), a livelihoods-based
framework which was developed by Save the Children UK. First step is the identification of
livelihood zones, an area within which people share broadly the same patterns of livelihood.
In this survey four livelihood zones are presented: The tribal dry agricultural zone (which lies
in Jhiranya and Pandhana Block), the non-irrigated hilly zone (situated in Pawai Block), the
irrigated valley zone (also situated in Pawai Block), and the agricultural mixed communities
zone (which lies in Sonkatch Block). Main component of the HEA is the conduction of
household (HH) interviews. With the help of these interviews details about income and
expenditure patterns, production, nutritional status, implementation of government
programmes (NREGA, PDS and ICDS) and coping mechanisms after external shocks can be
collected and afterwards analyzed. Interviewees are grouped together in three wealth groups
(poor, medium, better-off) according to local definitions of wealth.
Results of the four identified livelihood zones are the following:
All in all, the situation of the HHs in the tribal dry agricultural zone is the most alarming
compared to the other three livelihood zones presented in this report. The highest share of
people living below the national PL was found here, even most of the relatively better-off
HHs in the zone fall under the national BPL-category. The education level is very low – for
both: men and women - and more than half of the children do not attend school. It is
precarious that the HHs averagely own only small fields of land and a high share of families
of the local poor group is landless. Also the food situation is alarming. In almost 60% of the
HHs family members face undernutrition because throughout the year their average daily
calorie intake lies under 2100kcal. 2100 kcal is the minimum food energy requirement to
avoid undernutrition in the long-term. Additionally, most of the HHs experience a period of
food scarcity in which the situation even worsens - three quarters of the HHs do not achieve
the 2100kcal-threshold during Hunger Time. In the tribal dry agricultural zone Hunger Time
lasts very long, for poor HHs averagely 6 months. Furthermore, there seem to be problems
concerning the public distribution system, one third of the HHs did not even own a ration card.
2
In the non-irrigated hilly zone, the share of HHs living below the national PL is very high
(90%), averagely a 6-person HH earns only INR 33779 per year. All HHs are extremely
dependent on labour income which has something to do with the fact that the agricultural
output is lower than in the other zones. The education level is low; elementary school is
finished only by few HH members. Almost one third of the children at the age of 5-10years
do not go to school. Though the food situation is not as precarious as in the tribal dry
agricultural zone, it is still alarming - 43% of the HHs do not reach the 2100kcal-threshold,
even during Normal Time, and during Hunger Time the daily calorie intake per person lies in
two-thirds of the HHs under 2100kcal. The MGNREGA scheme is not functioning properly:
Only one third of the HHs worked under the scheme last year, in average no more than 12
days.
In the irrigated valley zone the majority (71%) of HHs lives below the national PL. Important
to note is that there are wide deviations of the HH’s income between the wealth groups in this
zone. Poor families generate only one quarter of the income better-off families and half of the
income medium HHs make. The nutritional status, especially of the poor and medium wealth
group, is worrying: The average daily calorie intake of 44% of the poor and 50% of the
medium HHs lies under the 2100kcal-threshold during Normal Time. During Hunger Time
the share increases to 57% in the poor wealth group; 50% of the medium HHs do not even
achieve a daily calorie intake of 1800kcal (FAO standard). In addition, there are problems in
the education sector: The gap between male and female education level is large and one third
of the 5-10 year-old children do not attend school. Furthermore, there is a large share of HHs
affected by shocks (due to serious diseases as well as natural hazards). Coping with them is
difficult for the HHs: only few emergency assets are available (if at all), money can in most of
the cases only be borrowed by money lenders who demand high interest, extra work is hard to
find and the expenditures (especially of the poor HHs) are already at a low level and can
hardly be cut down further. Last but not least, the MGNREGA scheme is not functioning
properly: Only one quarter of the HHs worked under the scheme last year, in average no more
than 9 days.
Though there are less HHs that live under the national PL compared to the other zones, there
are also problematic issues in the agricultural mixed communities zone: It is alarming that
there were five bonded labour cases already in the sample. And there were poor HHs which
complained that better-off HHs keep their job card and therefore they cannot work under the
NREGA scheme. Consequently, the NREGA scheme is not working properly. Though 82% of
all HHs own actually a job card, only 29% of all HHs worked under the scheme last year, in
average no more than 11 days. There is in fact a need of construction labour because the
infrastructure is in a bad condition. Furthermore, the dropout rate is high, it is 44% in the age
group 5-10years. Moreover, the nutritional status, especially for the HHs in the poor wealth
group, is also in the agricultural mixed communities zone worrying. Even during Normal
Time 77% of the poor HHs do not achieve the 2100kcal-threshold; during Hunger Time,
which lasts averagely 2 months, the average calorie intake in 92% of the poor HHs lies under
1800kcal.
3
1 Introduction
According to the India State Hunger Index (2008), Madhya Pradesh has the most severe level
of hunger in India. Madhya Pradesh’s high score (30.9%) is driven by undernourishment
resulting from calorie deficient diets and high levels of child malnutrition. 60.3% of children
under three years are underweight. Causes of hunger are manifold: high vulnerability due to
low productive, small-scale farming systems, or low wages/income, respectively, and a
complex network of social discrimination, particularly against tribal communities and low
castes.
This report summarizes the results of a Household Food Economy Survey conducted in four
different blocks in Madhya Pradesh, India. The Survey was carried out from February till
April 2012 by Jan Sahas staff members and an external consultant.
Jan Sahas has partnered with Welthungerhilfe to implement a project, called the Fight Hunger
First Initiative (FHFI). The focus of the project is to improve food security through improving
the nutritional status of families living in rural areas, promoting livelihoods and encouraging
education. The Household Food Economy Survey was conducted to receive baseline data on
the project area.
The FHFI working area of Jan Sahas is situated in four different districts in Madhya Pradesh,
namely Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas. In each of the districts Jan Sahas is working
in one block:
Pawai Block (Panna District)
Jhiranya/Zirniya Block (Khargone District)
Pandhana Block (Khandwa District)
Sonkatch Block (Dewas District)
In the following maps of Madhya Pradesh the working areas are highlighted in black.
4
Figure 1: Location of FHFI working area, district level (above), block level (below)
This report is structured as follows: In the introductory part the methodology of the survey is
described and background on the survey area is given. The following four sections (4.-7.) will
analyse the four different identified livelihood zones in detail. In the last sections (8. and 9.)
findings of the different livelihood zones will be compared and concluded.
2 Methodology
The survey is based on the Household Economy Approach (HEA) which was developed in
the early 1990s by the British non-governmental organization (NGO) Save the Children. The
5
HEA is a livelihoods-based framework to analyze the way people get access to the things they
need to survive and prosper. It helps to identify people’s food and non-food needs and find
appropriate emergency assistance or longer term development programs or policy changes.
The HEA focuses on measuring absolute and relative poverty quantitatively across wealth
lines. This means, it provides absolute data about income and expenditure of households
(HHs) and also examines the relative poverty among groups of HHs.
Methodological steps
The basic steps of this Household Economy Survey were the following:
1. Livelihood Zoning: Definition of livelihood zones, an area within which people share
broadly the same patterns of livelihood, through discussion among Jan Sahas staff
members and collection of secondary data from Block offices and internet sources.
2. Baseline Assessment:
a) Village Sampling
Identification of representative villages for the previously defined food economy
zones.
b) Village interviews
Village interviews were carried out in each sample village as preparatory step for the
HH interviews.
c) Wealth Breakdown
During the wealth breakdown the people within a village
are grouped together using local definitions of wealth and
the quantification of their assets. Wealth breakdown
interviews were carried out in each surveyed village after
the village interview and the listing of all HHs with the
help of Participatory Rural Approaches (most commonly
used was the card allocation). The villagers were divided
into three wealth groups: poor, medium, better-off.
d) Data Collection
Conduction of HH interviews.
3. Auxiliary steps:
e) Seasonal calendar
Designing of a seasonal calendar for each livelihood zone, showing all key times of
the year related to food, cash and expenditure activities of the HHs.
f) Market inteviews
Visit of key markets for the sample villages and conduction of trader interviews.
4. Data Analysis: Processing of the data and final analysis.
Sample size
The assessment was based on a sample of eleven villages of which four are from the tribal dry
agricultural zone, two from the irrigated valley zone, two from the non-irrigated valley zone,
and three from the agricultural mixed communities zone. In each of the sample villages, one
village and one wealth breakdown interview took place. Simple random sampling was used
for the selection of the HHs with which interviews were conducted. An at least 10%
6
population coverage was achieved in all sample villages, except for Tighra (irrigated valley
zone).
All the interviews provided the required and sufficient data to describe the four food
economies in the four Blocks of Madhya Pradesh.
Definitions and Assumptions
In this section important definitions and assumption underlying the survey are presented.
Household: People eating from the same pot.
Hunger Time: Times in which HH members eat less than two square meals.
Food energy is measured in terms of kilocalories (kcal). In this survey, we consider 2100kcal
per person per day as minimum requirement:
Every human being requieres in the average at least 2100 kcal in order to cover the
energy requirement. Everything which is below leads at the long-term to
undernutrition (Handbook for Worldnutrition, p. 19).
The 2,100kcal-threshold is based on global population profiles rather than on specific age
groups or sexes:
The average population minimum requierements for population groups incorporate
the requirements for all age groups and both sexes.
They are therefore not specific for any single age or sex group and should not be used
as requirements for an individual. Secondly, nutritional
requierements are based on population profile (The Sphere project: Humanitarian
Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response, p. 227).
Age group Sphere average global population (%) Indian Population (%)
0-14 31 31.1 15-64 64. 2 63.6 ≥65 4.8 5.3
Additionally, it is checked in every wealth group whether persons achieve 1800kcal/day, the
threshold suggested by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).
It follows from this that the following categories of food energy apply:
<1800kcal: alarming situation, person does not get the minimum calorie requirements
1800-2100kcal: matches minimum calorie requirement according to FAO
≥2100kcal: matches calorie requirements to avoid undernutrition
Additional aspects
Starting point of the interviews in Sonkatch Bock (Dewas District) was Dewas (location of
Jan Sahas’ head office). For the interviews in Jhiranya Block (Khargone District) and
7
Pandhana Block (Khandwa District), the survey team was placed in Bhikangaon, for the
interviews in Pawai Block in Pawai Town. The survey team consisted of 10 persons.
3 Background of the districts
This section will give background information on the administrative divisions relevant for this
Household Food Economy suvey; first on District level, second on Block level.
Geographical location of the districts and physical conditions
Dewas, Khargone and Khandwa are located in the South-West of Madhya Pradesh, Panna in
the North-East (see Figure 1).
Panna District
The geographical area of Panna is mostly hilly and undulated with steep slopes. The highest
topographic elevation in Panna district is 537m above sea level in tehsil Panna and the lowest
is 341m above sea level in tehsil Ajaygarh. The most important river is the Ken river. Other
important rivers with its tributaries are the Runjg and Midashan river.
Khargone District
Khargone lies in the Narmada valley. Generally the height of this valley is around 300m
above sea level. The Narmada, the Son and their tributaries drain this region. The
geographical area of Khargone can be described as moderately undulating.
Khandwa District
Khandwa lies in the Narmada valley, too. The highest topographic elevation in Khandwa is
906m and the lowest is 180m. In total, the geographical area is gently to moderately
undulating.
Dewas District
Dewas District lies partly in Narmada valley, partly in the Malwa Plateau. Generally the
Malwa Plateau is 350-450m high with few peaks over 800 m high. There are three main rivers
in Dewas District: Narmada, Kali Sindh and Shipra.
Population data of the districts
Out of the four districts, the most populous district is Khargone. It has also the highest
population density. The least populous district is Panna, also the lowest population density is
found here. The share of the rural population is higher in Panna (87.4%) and in Khargone
(84.6%) in comparison to Khandwa (73.1%) and Dewas (72.6%). Panna (20%) and Dewas
(18.3) have a higher share of Scheduled Castes (SC) population than Khargone and Khandwa.
In contrast, a higher share of Scheduled Tribes (ST) population is found in Khargone (35.5%)
and Khandwa (29.7%) (see Table 1).
8
Table 1: Population data of Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas District
District Area
(km²)
Population
(2011)
Population
Density (2011)
Population
(2001)
Rural
population
(%, 2001)
SC
population
(%, 2001)
ST
population
(%, 2001)
Panna 7135 1016028 142persons/km² 857000 87.4 20 15.4
Khargone 8030 1872413 233persons/km² 1530000 84.6 11.4 35.5
Khandwa 6206 1309443 178persons/km² 1713000 73.1 11.1 29.7
Dewas 7020 1563107 223persons/km² 1308000 72.6 18.3 16.4
There are only marginal differences in the working participation rate between the four
districts (range 43.6 – 46.1%). The share of farmers and agricultural labour in the population
ranges from 33.1 – 37.6%. The share of the main working population ranges from 30.5% in
Panna to 38.5% in Khargone. In Khargone (7.5%) and Khandwa (7.3%) the share of the
marginal working population is smaller than in Dewas (11.6%) and Panna (13.1%).
Table 2: Data on working population of Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas District
District
Main working
population (%,
2001)
Marginal working
population (%,
2001)
Farmers and agricultural
labour in population (%,
2001)
Working
participation rate
(%, 2001)
Panna 30.5 13.1 34.4 43.6
Khargone 38.5 7.5 37.6 46.1
Khandwa 36.7 7.3 33.1 43.9
Dewas 32.8 11.6 34.1 44.4
Agro-climatic profile of the districts
Table 3: Agro-climatic data of Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas District
District Climate
Agro
climatic
region
Crop
zone
Soil
type
Rainfall
range
(m.m.)
Forest
area
(%)
Non-
forest
waste
land
(hectare,
2002-03,)
Area
sown
irrigated
(%, 2006-
07)
Panna dry sub-
humid
Kymore
Plateau
Satpura
Hills
wheat,
rice
mixed
red &
black
soil
1100-
1400 38.23 1100-1400 33.6
Khargone semi-
arid
Nimar
Plains
cotton,
jowar
deep
medium
black
soil
800-
1000 13.56 800-1000 46.9
Khandwa semi-
arid
Nimar
Plains
cotton,
jowar
deep
medium
black
soil
800-
1000 33.22 800-1000 40.6
Dewas semi-
arid
Malwa
Plateau
cotton,
jowar
deep
medium
black
soil
1000-
1200 25.68 1000-1200 45.0
9
According to the Department of Farmer Welfare and Agriculture Development, Madhya
Pradesh can be divided into 11 Agro-climatic regions and 5 crop zones. Panna is situated in
the agro-climatic zone “Kymore Plateau Satpura Hills” and the “wheat and rice crop zone”.
The rainfall ranges averagely from 1100-1400mm. Khargone and Khandwa are both located
in the Nimar Plains and the “cotton and jowar crop zone”. The rainfall ranges here from 800-
1000mm. Dewas is also part of the “cotton and jowar crop zone”, but situated in the Malwa
Plateau where rainfall ranges from 1000-1200mm. In Dewas, Khandwa and Khargone the
climate is mainly semi-arid and you find predominantly deep medium black soil. The climate
in Panna can be described as dry sub-humid, you find mixed red and black soil here. The
share of forest land is the highest in Panna (38.23%). In Khargone only 13.56% of the total
area is forest land. In contrast, the share of irrigated sown area is clearly higher in Khargone
(46.9%) than in Panna (33.6%).
Economic data of the districts
Table 4: Net and Gross District Domestic Product of Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas District
District Net District Domestic Product at constant
(1990-2000) prices (2007-08, in Lakhs)
Gross District Domestic Product at constant
(1990-2000) prices (2007-08, in Lakhs)
Panna 87,997 97,866
Khargone 1,80,899 2,03,907
Khandwa 2,48,033 2,76,828
Dewas 1,76,842 2,01,817
Clear differences can be found between the Net and Gross District Domestic Product with
Panna bringing up the rear. Khandwa has the highest Net and Gross District Domestic Product,
followed by Khargone, Dewas and the last Panna. The Net District Domestric Product of
Khandwa is 2.8times higher than the one of Panna.
Table 5: Poverty in Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas District
District Percentage of rural population below poverty line (2004-05)
Panna 78.68
Khargone 62.22
Khandwa 58.98
Dewas 31.73
According to estimations of the State Planning Commission in Madhya Pradesh, averagely
53.59% of the rural population lives below poverty line (PL) in Madhya Pradesh. Except for
Dewas District, the share of the rural population living below PL lies in all Districts relevant
for this survey above the state average. The highest share can be found in Panna (78.68%).
10
Information about health facilities and education
The share of villages with any government health facility differs widely between the districts.
It is only 18.2% in Panna, 27% in Dewas, 31% in Khargone and 40.5% in Khandwa. In
contrast, in 9.1% of the Panna villages you can find a doctor, in 8.1% of the villages in Dewas,
in 7.1% of the villages in Khargone and only in 5.4% of the villages in Khandwa. The share
of villages with ASHA services ranges from 78.4% (Khandwa and Dewas) to 88.1%
(Khargone), the share of villages with Anganwadi workers from 89.2% (Dewas) to 97.6%
(Khargone). In Dewas all villages are provided with primary or middle school. The smallest
share of villages with school you can find in Khargone (92.9%). The share of literate persons
(age 7+) differs only slightly between the four districts; it is 61.6% in Panna, 63.4% in
Khargone, 61.7% in Khandwa, and 61% in Dewas.
Table 6: Health facilities and schools in Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas District
District Villages with any
government health
facility1 (%, 2007/08)
Villages with
ASHA (%,
2007/08)
Villages with
Anganwadi
workers (%,
2007/08)
Villages with
doctor (%,
2007/08)
Villages with
primary or
middle school
(%, 2007/08)
Panna 18.2 86.4 90.9 9.1 95.5
Khargone 31 88.1 97.6 7.1 92.9
Khandwa 40.5 78.4 97.3 5.4 97.3
Dewas 27 78.4 89.2 8.1 100
Additional information
Table 7: Characteristics of the HHs in Panna, Khargone, Khandwa and Dewas District
District HH with
electricity (%,
2007-08)
HH with
drinking water
(%, 2007/08)
HH with toilet
facility (%,
2007/08)
HH living in
pucca house (%,
2007/08)
HH with BPL
Card (%,
2007/08)
Panna 58 68.8 10.6 9.2 55.6
Khargone 91.1 89.8 18.6 16.4 38.1
Khandwa 82.3 85.7 23.2 22.5 30.1
Dewas 89.6 90.3 37.7 18.9 30.3
A District Level Household and Facility Survey was conducted in Madhya Pradesh in 2007-
08 by the International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai. Several characteristics of
households were described, a selection you can find in the table above. In the four categories
HH with electricity, with drinking water, with toilet facility and living in pucca2 house, you
1 That is, sub-Centre, Primary Health Centre (including Block PHC), Community Health Centre, referral hospital,
government hospital, or government dispensary within the village.
2 There are the following housing categories: Pucca House: A pucca house is one, which has walls made of
burnt bricks, stones (packed with lime or cement), cement or concrete and a roof made of tiles, Galvanised
Corrugated Iron sheets, asbestos cement sheet, etc. Kaccha House: The walls and/or roof are made of un-burnt
11
always find the smallest share in Panna whereas the share of HH with BPL Card is here the
highest (55.6%).
3.1 Background of the Blocks
Jhiranya Block (Khargone District) and Pandhana Block (Khandwa District)
A) General profile of the blocks
Jhirniya Block covers an area of about 67980 hectare. It consists of 76 Grampanchayats, 129
villages. Around 27904 families live in the block. The total population (Census, 2011) is
151498. The share of the male population is 51%. The population density in Jhiranya block is
226persons/ km². The block is predominantly characterized by rural population. The share of
the ST population is very high (80%). Mostly they are members of the Bhil, Barela or Bhilala
tribe. Only 4% of the population belong to SCs. The male literacy rate is 54%, the female
literacy rate 47%.
The area of Pandhana Block is about 69219 hectare. There are 84 Grampanchayats and 128
villages. The total population (Census, 2001) of Pandhana block is 184608. 53% of the
population is male. The population density is slightly higher than in Jhirniya; it is 294. The
share of the SC population is also small (9.34%), the share of the ST population relatively
high (44,68%). The area is also predominantly characterized by rural population. The gap
between male and female literacy rate is higher than in Jhirniya: 68% of the males are literate,
but only 37% of the females.
B) Agro-climatic conditions
The whole area lies between 300 and 600m above sea level. The dominating soil types are
black and red, the consistency of the soil is clay or sandy.
Table 8: Agro-climatic indicators of Pandhana and Jhirniya Block
Indicators Pandhana Jhirniya
Max. temperature summer 46°C 44-46°C
Min. temperature summer 30°C 28°C
Max. temperature winter 30°C 31-32°C
Min. temperature winter 3-5°C 5°C
Rainfall (2011) 780mm 795mm
Most Rainfall (in months) July, August July, August
Topography Dry midlands Dry midlands
bricks, bamboos, mud, grass, reeds, thatch, loosely packed stones, etc. Semi-Pucca house: A house that has
fixed walls made up of pucca material but roof is made up of the material other than those used for pucca house.
12
C) Information about agriculture
9% of the total area of Jhiriniya is covered with forest (equals 6409 hectare), 69% is net sown
area (47030 hectare), 7% non-agricultural land (4999 hectare), 1% barren land (876 hectare),
4% untapped cultivable land (2446 hectare), and 9% of Jhirniya’s total area is other
uncultivable land (6155 hectare). The land pattern is similar in Pandhana (see Table below).
Figure 2 shows that there is only open or moderately dense forest in the livelihood zone.
Table 9: Land pattern in Jhiriniya and Pandhana Block
Block Total Area Forest
Land
Net sown
area
Non-
agricultur
al land
Barren
land
Other
uncultivab
le land
Untapped
cultivable
land
Pandhana 69219 5446 (8%)
51032
(74%) 5112 (7%)
747 (1%) 4221 (6%) 2661 (4%)
Jhirniya 67980 6409 (9%) 47030
(69%) 4999 (7%) 876 (1%) 6155 (9%) 2446 (4%)
Figure 2: Khandwa and Khargone - Forest Density Map
Major crops in Pandhana and Jhiranya are Maize, Wheat, Jowar, Soya beans and Cotton.
Table 10: Crop production in Pandhana and Jhirniya Block
Pandhana Jhiranya
Name of the crop Production (in kg/ha) Production (in kg/ha)
Maize 2500 2982
Wheat 4000 2776
Jowar 2000 2107
Soya beans 1200 1834
Cotton 1000 1403
13
There are differences between the levels of the agricultural outputs: in Jhiranya Block crop
yields are generally higher than in Pandhana; except for the wheat yields. A relatively high
difference exists in the Soya bean and Cotton production, but still there is no deviation higher
than 153%.
Pawai Block (Panna District)
A) General profile of the block
Pawai Block covers an area of 147000 hectare. The block consists of 82 grampanchayats.
There are 179 villages and 43101 households. The total population of the block is 165983
(2011). The region is characterized by low population density (113persons/km²). 53% of the
population is male. Compared to Jhiranya Block the share of ST population is low (15%). The
SC population share is 22%, the share of Other Backward Class (OBC) population is 63%.
There is a high gap between the male (62.5%) and female (40.1%) literacy rate.
B) Climatic conditions
In summer it is very hot, up to 40-45°C. In winter generally the temperature lies under 25°C.
Maximum rainfall is received in July, August. In 2011 rainfall was 854mm.
C) Information about agriculture
The following table shows the land use pattern and land cover in Pawai (area in hectare).
Table 11: Land use pattern and land cover in Pawai Block/Panna District (area in hectare)
Block Total
Area
Forest
Land
Waste-
land
Net sown
area
Double
cropped
Pawai 147000 59773
(41%) 5234 (4%)
58494
(40%) 7783 (5%)
Out of the 58494 hectare net sown area, 17162 hectare (which equals 30%) are fully irrigated.
From the working population (47% of the total population) a major part is engaged in
agriculture, working either on their own field or as agricultural labourers. Thus the
productivity from agriculture is a major determinant of the livelihood of the rural families.
Sonkatch Block (Dewas District)
A) General profile of the block
Sonkatch Block covers an area of about 52000 hectare. It consists of 65 Grampanchayats.
Table 12: Population data of Sonkatch Block/Dewas District
Total Population (Census, 2001) SC ST
Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total
77670 72480 150150 20652 19422 40074 1791 1687 3478
The total population (Census, 2001) is 150150. The share of the male population is 52%. The
population density in Sonkatch block is 289 persons/km². The share of the ST population is
very low (2.3%), whereas the share of SC population is relatively high (27%).
14
B) Climatic conditions
Averagely the rainfall is 1000mm per year. The wettest months are July and August. In
summer the temperature ranges between 30°C and 45°C.
C) Information about agriculture
Table 13: Land use pattern and land cover in Sonkatch Block/Dewas District (area in hectare)
Block Total Area Forest Land Barren land Cultivable land
Sonkatch 52000 7000 (13%) 3000 (6%) 42000 (81%)
13% of Sonkatch’s total area is forest land, 6% is barren land and the rest, 81% is cultivable
land.
In Sonkatch you find red, black, yellowish and grey soil. The main crops in Sonkatch are
Wheat, Jowar and Maize.
Table 14: Crop production in Sonkatch Block/Dewas District
Name of the crop Production (in kg/ha)
Soya beans 1200
Arhar Dal 900
Maize 3200
Jowar 3500
Wheat 5000
Mustard 800
Red gram 1100
3.2 Characteristics of the Livelihood zones
Overall, four livelihood zones were identified. This section gives details about the
different zones.
Tribal dry agricultural zone
In Jhiranya and Pandhana Block one livelihood zone, the tribal dry agricultural zone was
identified (see Livelihood zone map below).
15
Figure 3: Livelihood Zone Map – Tribal dry agricultural zone
The following table summarizes the characteristics of the zone:
Table 15: Characteristics of the tribal dry agricultural zone
Indicators Zone: tribal dry agricultural zone
Rainfall Less than 800mm
Soil type Black, red
Irrigation Mostly rain-fed
Dominating economic activity Agriculture
Markets Dependence on weekly small local markets, small grocery shops
Culture Mostly tribal communities (Bhil, Barela, Bhilala)
Migration Seasonal migration (e.g. to Indore)
Predominantely, people living in the tribal dry agricultural zone are (small-scale) farmers.
There is one rainy season in the region from mid-June till mid-October. The rainfall of the
year is concentrated on this season, in the rest of the year it hardly rains. Farm land is mostly
only rain-fed. That is the reason why especially Kharif crops (monsoon crops), e.g. Maize and
Jowar (Sorghum), are very important as food source. Kharif crops are sown in June, July and
harvested in October, November. The second major growing season is Rabi, crops which are
sown in winter (November, December) and harvested in spring (February, March). An
important Rabi crops in the zone is Wheat.
In each of the sample villages, village interviews were conducted as preparation of the
household interviews. Summarized the results are:
- In each village is an elementary school (Standard 1 – Standard 5); because of its size
and its highly scattered structure there are 4 elementary schools in Bedchha
- Mid Day Meals are provided in the schools
- But: Interview partners complained about the quality of the education in the school
(not all teachers come regularly)
- Anganwadi centres are also located in the villages (mostly in the school building)
- Villagers seemed to be satisfied with the quality of the Anganwadi centres
16
- Partly PDS shops are situated far away from the villages
(distance: up to 10km)
- Not all HHs have a ration card
- Some villages are hard accessible (e.g. Avliyamal, see
picture on the right), pucca roads are lacking
- Next hospital is located in Bhikangaon (up to 20km
away from the villages)
- There is no or only scarce forest coverage close to the
villages
- Farm land is mostly non-irrigated
- Access to drinking water and electricity was often described as main problem in the
village interviews.
A list of the sample villages in the tribal dry agricultural zone is provided in Table 16. In total
54 HH interviews were conducted in this livelihood zone. This equals 11% of the total
population of the sample villages.
Table 16: Sample villages – tribal dry agricultural zone
ZONE: tribal dry agricultural zone
No. Village Panchayat Block Total no. of HHs (according
to WB)
Sample no. of
HHs
1 Avliyamal Saka Jhiranya 117 12 (10%)
2
Bedchha
(Semliyamal,
Dhatapura)3
Bedchha
Jhiranya 66+76=142 16 (11%)
3 Sapatiya Sapatiya Jhiranya 146 16 (11%)
4 Rajgarh
vangram Rajgarh Pandhana 90 10 (11%)
TOTAL 4 4 2 495 54 (11%)
The following maps show the location of the sample villages within Jhiranya and Pandhana
Block.
3 Bedchha consists of 6 faliyes (small settlements within a village), the Household Economy survey was
conducted in two of them: Dhatapura and Semliyamal.
17
Figure 4: Sample villages in Jhiranya Block/Khargone District
Figure 5: Sample villages in Pandhana Block/Khandwa District
Irrigated valley zone and non-irrigated hilly zone
Within Pawai Block two livelihood zones could be identified.
These two livelihood zones are:
a) the irrigated valley zone.
b) the non-irrigated hilly zone.
Generally, the agricultural output in the irrigated agricultural zone is higher than in the non-
irrigated hilly zone. In the irrigated zone three times as much paddy can be produced per
hectare compared to the non-irrigated zone. Still, in the whole Panna district the level of
agricultural output is low.
18
Table 17: Crop production in the irrigated valley and non-irrigated hilly zone
irrigated valley zone non-irrigated hilly zone
Paddy (2100kg/ha) Paddy (705kg/ha)
Wheat (1600kg/ha) Maize (502kg/ha)
Jowar (1067kg/ha) Jowar (600kg/ha)
Soya beans (1000kg/ha) Soya beans (1000kg/ha)
Table 18: Characteristics of the non-irrigated hilly and the irrigated valley zone
Indicators Zone: non-irrigated hilly zone Zone: irrigated valley zone
Soil type Red, drained, stony Black, drained, sandy
Irrigation Rain fed Rain fed and irrigated (Ken river)
Agricultural output Very low Low
Dominating economic
activity Agriculture Agriculture
Topography hilly plain
Culture Communities characterized by
casteism
Communities characterized by
casteism
Population density Very low population density Low population density
Table 18 summarizes the features of the non-irrigated hilly and the irrigated valley zone. Like
in the tribal dry agricultural zone the main economic activity lies in the agricultural sector. In
the non-irrigated hilly zone the soil is mainly red and stony. Farm land is mostly only rain-fed.
The non-irrigated hilly zone is compared to the irrigated valley zone less populated.
The soil is black and sandy in the irrigated valley zone. The Ken river is important for the
livelihood there; farm land can be irrigated, also outside rainy season.
Results of the village interviews in the non-irrigated hilly zone were:
- Drinking water comes from tube well.
- Schools are in the villages (up to 8th standard).
- There is no facility of electricity.
- There is forest coverage close to the villages, people collect Mahua, Charwa and
Tendu leaves from the forest.
- Majority of labourers involved in mining /stone-related work.
- Many poor people have to migrate for work.
- “Untouchability” is a big issue (it is assumed as sin for other castes to touch a person
of a SC; development of SCs is seen as prohibited, so caste system is strong in the
region)
Key points of the village interviews in the irrigated valley zone were:
- Land is irrigated; sources of water are bore wells or directly the Ken river.
- Drinking water comes from hand pumps and bore wells.
- Villages have schools.
- There is an unequal distribution of irrigated land between dalits and non-dalits.
The following map shows Pawai block. It is divided into the two livelihood zones. The
sample villages are highlighted.
19
Figure 6: Livelihood Zone Map – irrigated agricultural and non-irrigated hilly zone
The sample villages for the irrigated valley and non-irrigated hilly zone are listed in Table 19
and 20 respectively.
Table 19: Sample villages – irrigated valley zone
ZONE: irrigated valley zone
No. Village Panchayat Block Total no. of HHs (according to WB) Sample no. of HHs
1 Tighra Tighra Pawai 359 16 (5%)
2 Katia Chhirraha Pawai 61 8 (13%)
TOTAL 2 2 1 420 24 (6%)
Table 20: Sample villages – non-irrigated hilly zone
ZONE: non-irrigated hilly zone
No. Village Panchayat Block Total no. of HHs (according to WB) Sample no. of HHs
1 Jaitupura Sagra Pawai 110 12 (11%)
2 Adhradi Kothi Pawai 78 9 (12%)
TOTAL 2 1 188 21 (11%)
Agricultural mixed communities zone
In Sonkatch Block one livelihood zone, the agricultural mixed communities zone, was
identified.
20
Table 21: Characteristics of the agricultural mixed communities zone
Indicators Zone:
Rainfall around 1000mm
Soil types Red, black, yellowish, grey
Irrigation Rain-fed and irrigated
Dominating economic activity Agriculture, construction labour
Agricultural output Higher compared to the other zones
Culture Mixed communities (tribals, castes),
(high discrimination against lower castes)
Infrastructure Partly no proper roads available
The average rainfall per year is around 1000mm. Rainfall is concentrated in the rainy season
which lasts from mid-June to mid-October. Important kharif crops are: Soya beans, Maize,
Black gram and Arhar Dhal; main rabi crops are: Wheat, Bengal gram, and Onions. There are
different soil types to be found in the zone: red, black, yellowish and grey. Farm land is
predominantly rain-fed, but can also be irrigated. Agriculture and construction labour count as
dominating economic activities. In comparison to the other zones, the agricultural output is
higher (see Table 14). The communities are mixed, castes and tribals live together. Caste
system is enshrined in the culture. The infrastructure is partly in poor condition which
hampers the access to markets of the people living in the villages.
Figure 7: Livelihood Zone Map – agricultural mixed communities zone
Table 22: Sample villages – agricultural mixed communities zone
ZONE: agricultural mixed communities zone
Village Panchayat Block
Households (according to
WB)
Sample no. of
houses
1 Dehri Chobara
Jagir Sonkatch 87 9 (10%)
2 Chandakhedi Mudla ana Sonkatch 129 12 (9%)
3 Jamli Mudla ana Sonkatch 127 13 (10%)
TOTAL 3 2 1 343 34 (10%)
21
Overall, 34 HH interviews were conducted in the agricultural mixed communities zone. Dehri,
Chandakhei and Jamli were chosen as representative villages (for details see Table above).
4 Livelihood Zone 1: Tribal dry agricultural zone
This section and the following three will present the results of the HH interviews.
4.1 Background to the Food Economy Zone
The characteristics of the tribal dry agricultural zone are described in section 3.2. In this
section general information about the sample HHs are given.
Of total 54 surveyed HHs, 53 of the HHs belong to ST and only one to OBC category.
Figure 8: Population of the tribal dry agricultural zone (caste-wise)
Average household size: 6.3 persons, with following variation among the wealth groups
- Poor: 6.1
- Medium: 7.0
- Better-off: 5.8
Housing: Kaccha house (median for all HHs)
- Poor: Kaccha house
- Medium: Kaccha house
- Better-off: semi-pucca house
Kaccha house in Semliyamal
98%
2%
Population (caste-wise)
ST
OBC
22
Agricultural implements4: none (median for all HHs)
- Poor: none
- Medium/Better-off: Simple
Transport5, Power Connection6, Electronic devices7, Sanitary facilities8: 0 (median for all
HHs, no difference between the three wealth groups).
Regarding education the following data was collected:
Overall, the education level is very low. The average education level of men is 1.01
(averagely men only complete Standard 1), for women it is 0.60 (in average women go only
0.6 years to school). This low average education level is driven by many adults and children
who did/do not attend school at all.
Interestingly, people in the medium wealth group have the highest average education level,
the lowest education level was found in the better-off group. The average education level of
female HH members is in all wealth groups lower than the average education level of male
HH members. The highest difference between male and female education level was found in
the poor wealth group.
All in all, the dropout rate can be described as very high. 54% of all children at the age of 5-
10 years do not attend school. The share is even higher for children at the age of 11-15 (60%).
There does not seem to be a trend that better-off families send their children more regular to
school. The dropout rates in that wealth group are even higher than the average: 73% for
children under 10 and 80% for children between 11 and 15 years old.
In 15 out of the 54 sample HHs child labour occurred. 11% of all children were working or
earning.
4.1.1 Price and markets
The biggest market to this livelihood zone is the one found in Bhikangaon town. People from
about 20km distance come to this market with different
commodities to sell and purchase. This well-organized market
takes place once in a week on Tuesday. The market is
separated in two market places.
At one market place, which has a size of approximately 4 acre,
food products like Rice, Wheat, Millets, different types of
Dhal, Potatoes, different vegetables, fruits, spices etc. are
4 Range for Agricultural implements: 0 = none; 1 = simple; 2 = better 5 Range for Transport: 0 = none 1 = bicycle 2 = motorbike 3 = better 6 Range for Power Connection: 0 = none 1 = BPL connection 2 = private connection 7 Range for Electronic devices: 0 = none or 1 mobile; 1 = several; 2 = TV or better 8 Range for Sanitary facilities: 0 = none; 1 = potable water; 2 = and toilet
23
commodities available at this market. Also clothes and shoes are sold there.
At the other market place, fish, chicken, mutton and other meat can be bought. Also other
animal products like eggs and ghee is available there.
The commodities are coming from different directions, for example from Bhikangaon itself,
but also for instance from Khandwa or Indore. Traders have to pay a fee of INR 10 per week.
Additionally, there are several small-scale markets and many small grocery shops in the
region. Villagers are mostly dependent on these markets and shops. The majority walks, or
uses bullet carts to come to the market.
Prices are subjects to seasonal fluctuations. Tomatoes for instance cost more than double as
much if their harvest season is over.
4.1.2 Seasonal calendar
The tribal dry agricultural zone has one rainy season, which lasts from mid-June till mid-
October. The months of May and June are the hottest months of the year.
The main land preparation work starts in the months before the rainy reason and most crops
are planted with the start of the rains.
Like already described in section 3.2, there are two crop seasons: Kharif and Rabi. Sowing
and harvesting periods can be read from the seasonal calendar (page 21). Demand for
agricultural labour occurs during the two harvest seasons. MGNREGA labour takes mostly
place in the summer months March, April and May. Migration for work occurs throughout the
year except for the time of land preparation, sowing and harvesting time of Kharif crops. Most
people migrate during the months February and March.
The hunger season peaks in June till September.
Main holiday periods and therefore periods in which the people spend a lot of their money are
in the months of March, April, August, September and December.
Malaria occurs throughout the year, but the highest risk of infection is during rainy season.
24
Month January February March April May June July August September October November December
Season Winter winter/summer summer summer summer summer/rainy rainy rainy rainy rainy/winter winter winter
Sowing/ Kharif
Maize
Jowar
Soya beans
Cotton
Sowing / Rabi
Wheat
Harvest/ Kharif
Maize
Jowar
Soya beans
Cotton
Harvest/ Rabi
Wheat
Agricultural Labour
MGNREGA Labour
Hunger time
Migration
Festivals
Malaria
Table 23: Seasonal calendar – Tribal dry agricultural zone
25
4.1.3 Wealth breakdown
For rural areas in India the poverty line is placed at INR 26 per day per capita. According to
this national standard the sample HHs can be categorized in HHs living below poverty line
(BPL) and HHs living above poverty line (APL). Figure 9 shows that the majority, 93% of the
sample HHs, lives below the national PL.
Figure 9: Wealth breakdown according to national standard
Like already described above, during the wealth breakdown interviews the people within a
village are grouped together using local definitions of wealth and the quantification of their
assets. According to these local criteria (details see Table 24) the people divided themselves
in a ‘poor’, a ‘medium’ and a relatively ‘better-off’ group. The proportional distribution of
these three wealth groups in the sample villages are shown in Figure 10. The wealth
breakdown interviews show how the villagers see themselves relatively to each other, but still,
considering the Indian PL, 93% of them live clearly in poverty (see Figure 9).
Figure 10: Proportional distribution of the wealth groups according to local standards (tribal dry agricultural zone)
BPL
93%
APL
7%
Wealth breakdown according to
national standard
Poor
52%Medium
36%
Better-off
12%
Proportional distribution of the wealth groups (according to WB interviews)
26
Table 24: Criteria of the Wealth Breakdowns (WBs) according to local standards (tribal dry agricultural zone)
Criteria Poor Medium Better-off
Land size 0-2 acres >2-5 acres >5 acres
No. of cattle & oxen
owned 0-2 3-4 >4
Hunger Time 4 or more months >1.5-3 months 0-1.5 months
Housing Kaccha house Kaccha or semi-pucca
house
Semi-pucca or pucca
house
Migration Seasonal migration Less migration compared
to poor group
No dependence on
migration
Irrigation of farm land Mostly non-irrigated land Partly irrigated land Partly irrigated land
Labour work Dependence on labour
work
No dependence on labour
work
4.2 Income and expenditures
4.2.1 Income
Average annual income9:
Poor: INR 22,235
Medium: INR 32,011
Better-off: INR 41,461
All HHs: INR 31,902
Main income sources are: agriculture, labour, livestock and migration. Also other income
sources were addressed during the survey, but those do not seem to be relevant for this zone.
If one compares the income sources between the three wealth groups clear differences can be
noticed. Better-off HHs earn with their crop sales more money than poor HHs earn overall.
Agriculture is the main income source for medium as well as for better-off HHs (for the
better-off group 71%, for the medium group 57% of the total income comes from crop sales).
Poor HHs are apparently dependent on migration (42% of their total income comes from
migration). Second most important income source for all wealth groups is labour income.
39% of the total income is generated through labour/employment (including MGNREGA) in
poor HHs. In HHs of the medium group that share is 20%, for better-off it is 21%. Income
generated by selling animal products or livestock plays a minor role (the share is 4% in all
groups).
9 Six interviews (3 per wealth group) are not included in the calculations of section 4.2 due to extreme high
disproportionateness between income and expenditures.
27
Figure 11: Graphical distribution of income (tribal dry agricultural zone)
4.2.2 Expenditures
Average expenditures per annum
Poor: INR 22,893
Medium: INR 31,165
Better-off: INR 40,586
All HHs: INR 31,548
Poor HHs spent 48% of their total income on food, medium HHs 27%, better-off HHs 26%.
Figure 12 shows that HHs in the better-off group spent clearly more money on agricultural
inputs, services10 and other items11 than the rest. Interestingly, families in the medium wealth
group spent slightly more money on HH items than better-off HHs. This is caused by their
higher expenditures on clothes.
10 “Services” include education, health and insurance expenditures as well as interest payments. 11 “Other” include expenditures for alcohol, tobacco, transport, festivals and village contribution/taxes.
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
40000
45000
Poor Medium Better-off
Main income sources(group-wise, in INR)
Migration
Livestock
Labour
Agriculture
28
Figure 12: Average annual expenditures (tribal dry agricultural zone)
In Figure 13 the annual average income and expenditures are directly compared. Roughly
spoken all HHs spent all money they earn. Though, the trend seems to be that the better the
wealth group the higher the probability that a HH can save money because the ratio between
annual average income and expenditures is slightly positive for the medium and the better-off
group.
Figure 13: Comparison annual income and expenditures (tribal dry agricultural zone)
4.3 Production
4.3.1 Landholding
Average landholding per HH (cultivable land only)
Poor: 0.92acres (50% of the poor HHs are landless)
Medium: 4.28acres
Better-off: 6.50acres
All HHs: 3.9acres
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
40000
45000
Poor Medium Better-off
Average annual expenditures(group-wise, in INR)
Other
Services
Inputs
HH items
Food
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000
Poor
Medium
Better-off
Comparison
Annual Income - Expenditures(group-wise, in INR)
Expenditures
Income
29
Table 25: Distribution of average land type (in acres) according to wealth group (tribal dry agricultural zone)
Irrigated Encroached Cultivable
Poor 0.08 0.00 0.92
Medium 0.19 0.00 4.28
Better Off 0.42 0.00 6.5
None of the surveyed HHs owned homestead land. Irrigated land is very rare. 6 (1 poor, 2
medium, 3 better-off families) out of the 54 surveyed HHs possess irrigated farm land (in
other words: only 6% of the total cultivated farm land is irrigated).
Like in the wealth breakdown interviews discussed land holding seems to be a wealth
criterion, also keeping in mind that agriculture determines the livelihood in the villages to a
large extent.
Figure 14: Relationship between landholding and agricultural income (tribal dry agricultural zone)
4.3.2 Crop production
Average total quantity of crops produced
Poor: 299kg
Medium: 1430kg
Better-off: 1840kg
All HHs: 1190kg
All HHs possessing land are also cultivating at least one crop. Main crops produced are: Soya
beans, Maize, Jowar (Sorghum), Cotton and Wheat. Out of those soya beans and cotton are
cash crops. Soya beans are later used for oil, biscuits or cattle feed.
R² = 0.4869
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
0 2 4 6 8 10
av
era
ge
an
nu
al
ag
ricu
ltu
ral
inco
me
average landholding (in acs)
Relationship between landholding and
agricultural income
30
Figure 15: Dominating crops (tribal dry agricultural zone)
The better the wealth group, the more crops are sold. Poor HHs sell averagely 35%, medium
HHs 46% and better-off HHs 59% of their total crop production.
4.3.3 Livestock and animal products
Average no. of animals owned per HH
Poor: 2
Medium: 8
Better-off: 7
All HHs: 6
Typical animals owned are: chickens, goats, cattle and oxen. The meat and eggs of chickens
and the milk of cattle and goats are used for own consumption (only one medium HH sold
eggs). Cow dung is used as fertilizer. Oxen are used for agricultural work (ox-cart). 24% of all
HHs sold goats last year, 11% sold chickens.
4.3.4 Hunting, Fishing and NTFP
Like already mentioned, NTFPs play a very marginal role in the tribal dry agricultural zone.
Only 13% of all HHs (with the following variation among the wealth groups: poor – 17%,
medium – 11%, better-off – 8%) collect one or two NTFPs (mostly Mahua and Char) and/or
go fishing.
4.4 Food
4.4.1 Food sources
Figure 16 shows the sources where the HHs get their food from. As you can see there are
sharp differences between the wealth groups. Poor HHs have to purchase the majority of their
food items whereas HHs in the medium and better-off group produce much of their food on
44%
27%
17%
10%
2%
Main crops produced on farm land
soya
maize
sorghum
cotton
wheat
31
their own. Food with subsidized prices from the PDS (Public Distribution services) shop plays
a more important role for poor HHs than for medium and better-off HHs. All HHs receive
food from agricultural work and mainly consume this (in exceptional cases HHs sell the
received food).
Figure 16: Food sources (tribal dry agricultural zone)
4.4.2 Hunger time
Like in the wealth breakdown interviews discussed, the duration of Hunger Time is clearly
longer for poor HHs than for HHs in the medium and better-off group (see also Figure 17).
Only 2 better-off families stated to experience a time of food scarcity. According to the HH
interviews Hunger Time lasts averagely 6.2 months (poor group), 1.9 months (medium group),
0.3 months (better-off group). Peak of Hunger Time is the rainy season (mid-June till
October). In August 67% of all HHs suffer from hunger.
The intensity of Hunger Time also differs: In average poor HHs eat 35% less in Hunger Time
compared to Normal Time, medium HHs eat 25% less.
32
Figure 17: Graphical distribution of Hunger Times (all HHs and group-wise; tribal dry agricultural zone)
4.4.3 Food patterns
The diet is dominated by Maize (mostly consumed in winter), Wheat (mostly consumed in
summer) and Jowar. Rice only plays a minor role. The following tables show which
commodities the HHs averagely consume per day (Table 26: Normal Time; Table 27: Hunger
Time).
Table 26: Average food consumption (in kg) per day in Normal Time (main commodities; tribal dry agricultural zone)
Wheat Maize Jowar Rice Pulses Vegetables Potatoes Others12 Sum
Poor 0.907 0.991 1.077 0.031 0.163 0.136 0.091 0.055 3.451
Medium 0.350 1.890 1.398 0.037 0.131 0.158 0.175 0.120 4.259
Better-off 0.511 1.492 1.290 0.139 0.363 0.225 0.225 0.131 4.375
All HHs 0.589 1.458 1.255 0.069 0.219 0.173 0.164 0.102 4.028
12 Including Oil, Milk, Fruits, Chili, Sugar, Salt.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Sh
are o
f H
Hs
Months (Jan-Dec)
Hunger Time(all HHs)
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Sh
are o
f H
Hs
Months (Jan - Dec)
Hunger Time(poor group)
0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%
100%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Sh
are o
f H
Hs
Months (Jan - Dec)
Hunger Time(medium group)
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Sh
are o
f H
Hs
Months (Jan - Dec)
Hunger Time(better-off group)
33
Table 27: Average food consumption (in kg) per day in Hunger Time (main commodities; tribal dry agricultural zone)
Wheat Maize Jowar Rice Pulses Vegetables Potatoes Others Sum
Poor 0.685 0.868 0.519 0.016 0.106 0.081 0.047 0.037 2.323
Medium 0.286 1.753 1.028 0.033 0.115 0.078 0.076 0.064 3.358
Better-off13 0.488 1.448 1.241 0.139 0.325 0.242 0.246 0.127 4.106
All HHs 0.486 1.356 0.929 0.063 0.182 0.250 0.123 0.076 3.263
4.4.4 Calorie intake
Normal Time
During Normal Time, on the one hand 40.74% of all HHs achieve a satisfactory daily calorie
intake per person of more than 2100kcal. On the other hand, in 40.74% of all HHs persons do
not even get 1800kcal/day during Normal Time. This is an alarming situation. In 18.52% of
all HHs, member achieve averagely between 1800kcal-2100kcal. Without change, this will
also lead in the long-run to undernutrition.
Figure 18: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (all HHs; tribal dry agricultural zone)
If one takes a look at the differences between the three wealth groups, one can see:
Overall, the nutrition status of poor HHs seems to be more severe than the situation of better-
off group. Only 33% of the poor HHs achieve the 2100kcal-threshold. In other words: 67% of
all poor HHs cannot – even in Normal Time – cover their daily calorific requirement. All HHs
in the better-off group achieve at least the 1800kcal-threshold during Normal Time. The
situation of the HHs in the medium wealth group is similar to the situation of the HHs in the
poor wealth group. In the medium wealth group 28% of the HHs can cover their energy
requirements (this share is a bit less than the one in the poor wealth group). 50% of the
medium HHs are in the worst situation, they do not achieve the 1800kcal-threshold, 22% lie
in the situation in between.
13 Note: Only two better-off HHs stated to experience a HT.
40.74%
18.52%
40.74%
Average daily calorie intake per person(Normal Time)
>2100 kcal
1800 - 2100 kcal
<1800 kcal
34
Figure 19: Average daily calorie intak per person during Normal Time (group-wise; tribal dry agricultural zone)
Hunger Time
Like Figure 20 shows, the situation during Hunger Time is even worse: Two thirds of all HHs
fall in the category in which the daily calorie intake per person is less than 1800kcal. Only
roughly one quarter of the HHs is able during Hunger Time to cover its calorific requirements
of 2100kcal.
Figure 20: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (all HHs; tribal dry agricultural zone)
Once more a look at the differences between the wealth groups: 96% of the poor HHs do not
achieve the necessary 2100kcal/day/capita during Hunger Time. And just to repeat: Hunger
Time lasts averagely half a year for the poor wealth group (see section 4.4.2)! And the peak of
Hunger Time coincides with the time during which most of the agricultural work has to be
done. People would actually need to take more calories in. Only one HH, out of the 24 poor
surveyed HHs, achieves the 2100kcal-threshold during Hunger Time. Also in the medium
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Poor
Medium
Better-off
Average daily calorie intake per person (Normal Time, group-wise)
>2100 kcal
1800 - 2100 kcal
<1800 kcal
24.07%
9.26%
66.67%
Average daily calorie intake per person(Hunger Time)
>2100 kcal
1800 - 2100 kcal
<1800 kcal
35
wealth group, the majority (78% of the medium HHs) takes less than 1800kcal/day in. Even in
the better-off group, one third of the HHs do not achieve the 2100kcal-threshold during
Hunger Time.
Figure 21: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (group-wise; tribal dry agricultural zone)
4.5 Implementation of government programmes
4.5.1 NREGA
The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) shall guarantee every rural
household, whose members volunteer to do unskilled manual work, 100 days of wage
employment in a financial year.
The situation of the NREGA scheme in the tribal dry agricultural zone is the following:
Table 28: Summary MGNREGA (group-wise, tribal dry agricultural zone)
Poor Medium Better-off All HHs
No. of HHs with
MGNREGA job card
19 (out of
24)
16 (out of
18)
8 (out of
12)
43 (out of
54)
No. of HHs actually
working under
MGNREGA
16 10 7 33
Days worked under
MGNREGA (average
for job-cardholders)
39 28 35 34
Out of 54 sample HHs, 43 HHs own a job card, but only 33 of the 43 HHs with job card really
worked under the NREGA scheme; averagely 34 days. If one takes a closer look at the
working days, one can say that 12 HHs worked more than 50 days under NREGA last year,
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Poor
Medium
Better-off
Average daily calorie intake per person(Hunger Time, group-wise)
>2100 kcal
1800 - 2100 kcal
<1800 kcal
36
only 2 HHs worked 100 days. 10 HHs did not work under NREGA, although they own a job
card (see figure 22).
All HHs working under NREGA received a payment of 100 INR/day.
Figure 22: Histogram - Total working days under MGNREGA (tribal dry agricultural zone)
If all HHs had a job card and worked 100days per year under the MGNREGA scheme, the
HHs would generate an additional income of INR 10,000. Considering this, the BPL/APL-
distribution (according to national standard) would improve: 17% instead of 7% of the HHs
would fall under the APL-category. Though, this makes clear that a perfectly working
MGNREGA programme alone would also not be sufficient to get all HHs out of poverty.
Figure 23: Wealth breakdown according to national standard and under the condition of a working MGNREGA
scheme (tribal dry agricultural zone)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Freq
uen
cy
Days worked under MGNREGA
BPL
83%
APL
17%
Wealth breakdown under the condition
of working MGNREGA scheme
37
4.5.2 PDS
Figure 24 shows that there are no big differences between the shares of BPL-, APL- and
AAY-cardholders in the tribal dry agricultural zone. One third of all HHs surveyed did not
own a ration card (this problem was already mentioned in the village interviews). The share of
HHs without ration card is clearly higher in the better-off and poor group (for both 42%) than
in the medium group (17%). The majority of card-holding HHs did not mention any problems
with their ration card. Four HHs complained about irregular availability of the goods at the
PDS shop.
Figure 24: Distribution of ration cards (tribal dry agricultural zone)
4.5.3 ICDS
The Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) is a governmental programme which
aims to tackle malnutrition and health problems of children below 6 years and their mothers.
Anganwadi Centres are community-based institutions integrated in ICDS.
Overall, 56% of all HHs14 take their children to Anganwadi Centres in their village. All HHs
sending their children to Anganwadi Centres stated that their children get nutrition
supplements there. Clearly less homogenous were the answers concerning the other services
children below 6 years of age shall get in the Anganwadi Centres.
14 Notice: No differentiation is made between HHs with and HHs without children below 6.
33%
22%
21%
24%
No card APL AAY BPL
38
Figure 25: Service delivery in Anganwadi Centres (tribal dry agricultural zone)
4.6 Shocks
19% of all HHs surveyed stated that they have experienced external shocks in the past. In
most of the cases, one of the HH members, the head of household or his wife, got ill for a
longer period of time. This often means a double burden: The HH has to face the cost of
treatment and the ill person cannot earn money, consequently the HH experiences an
expenditure-increasing and an income-decreasing shock at the same time.
Figure 13 shows the different coping mechanisms used in case of external shocks. The most
common reaction was doing extra work; in case of a disease the other HH members – not
suffering from the illness – do this.
Figure 26: Coping mechanisms in case of external shocks (tribal dry agricultural zone)
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
nutrition supplements
growth monitoring
pre-school education
health services
nutrition education
Service delivery in Anganwadi Centres
yes
no
12%
29%
35%
24%
Using emergency stocks/assets Cutting down expenditures
Doing extra work Borrowing money
39
5 Food Economy zone 2: Non-irrigated hilly zone
5.1 Background to the Food Economy Zone
The description of the non-irrigated hilly zone can be found in section 3.2.
Out of 21 surveyed HHs, 18 HHs were members of STs, 3 of SCs.
Average HH size: 5.8 persons, with following variation among the wealth groups
- Poor: 5.1
- Medium: 7.8
- Better-off: 5.5
Housing (median)
- Poor: Kaccha house
- Medium: Kaccha house
- Better-off: semi-pucca house
Means of transport (median):
- Poor/Medium: none
- Better-off: advanced means of transport (motorbike)
Agricultural implements: simple (median for all HHs, no difference between the three wealth
groups).
Power Connection, Electronic devices, Sanitary facilities: 0 (median for all HHs, no
difference between the three wealth groups; explantion see Footnotes 6-8).
Regarding education the following data was collected: Overall, the education level is higher
compared to the tribal dry agricultural zone, but still it is low. The average education level of
men is 4.7 (averagely men do not even complete elementary school), for women it is 3.9.
In Figure 27 it is shown that women have clearly a lower education level than men in the poor
and medium wealth group. Interestingly, the female education level in the better-off group is
higher than the male education level. All in all the education level increases according to the
wealth group.
40
Figure 27: Average education level of women and men (non-irrigated hilly zone)
There seems to be a trend that the children’s generation enjoys a higher education level than
the parent’s generation. In 76% of all HHs the maximum education level is higher than the
HoH’s education level. The trend is observed in all three wealth groups. Though, not all
children are included in that trend: The dropout rate of all children at the age of 5-10 years is
29%. The rate is similar in the poor and medium wealth group (31% and 33% respectively),
whereas in the better-off group it is 0% according to the HH surveyed. The share of the 11-
15-years-old children not attending school is surprisingly lower; it is 23%.
In 10 out of the 21 sample HHs child labour occurred. 19% of all children were working or
earning.
5.1.1 Seasonal calendar
Like in the tribal dry agricultural zone, there is one rainy season in the non-irrigated hilly
zone. It takes place from mid-June till mid-October. The two crop seasons are also Kharif and
Rabi. Important Kharif crops in the zone are Paddy, Maize and different types of pulses;
important Rabi crops are Wheat and Mustard seeds. Demand for agricultural labour occurs
during all sowing and harvest seasons. Non-timber forest products (NTFP), Mahua and Tendu
leaves, are collected in March-April.
MGNREGA work takes mostly place in January; migration for work during December-
February.
Several important festivals take place throughout the year. Most marriages take place in
May/June.
Most loans are taken in May or June and interest has to be paid back in March.
Peak of the Hunger time period is in July/August.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Poor
Medium
Better-off
class
Av. male and female education level(group-wise)
female
male
41
Month January February March April May June July August September October November December
Season Winter winter/summer summer summer summer summer/rain rain rain rain rain/winter winter winter
Sowing/ Kharif
Paddy
Maize
kodu (pulses)
kutki (pulses)
Sowing / Rabi
Wheat
Mustard seeds
Harvest/ Kharif
Paddy
Maize
kodu (pulses)
kutki (pulses)
Harvest/ Rabi
Wheat
Mustard seeds
Agricultural Labour
NTFP collection
Mahua Mahua Tendu, Charwa
MGNREGA Labour
Hunger time
Migration
Festivals Makar sankranti Holi Marriages Marriages Raksha bandhan Daserra Diwali
Loan time
Interest payment time
Table 29: Seasonal calendar – Non-irrigated hilly zone
42
5.1.2 Wealth breakdown
90% of the sample HHs in the non-irrigated hilly zone live under the national PL, 10% above
it.
Figure 28: Wealth breakdown according to national standard
According to local criteria of wealth (see Table 30), 57% of the population of the sample
villages fall into the poor category, 24% into the medium and 19% into the relatively better-
off group.
Figure 29: Proportional distribution of the wealth groups according to local standards (non-irrigated hilly zone)
BPL
90%
APL
10%
Wealth breakdown according to
national standard
Poor57%
Medium24%
Better-off19%
Proportional distribution of the wealth groups(according to WB)
43
Table 30: Criteria of the WBs according to local standards (non-irrigated hilly zone)
Criteria Poor Medium Better-off
Land size <4 acres 4-7 acres >7 acres
Labour Dependence on seasonal
work
Less dependence on
seasonal work
Less dependence on
seasonal work; permanent
employment
Housing Kaccha house Bigger Kaccha or semi-
pucca house
Semi-pucca or Pucca
house
Transport No means of transport Own means of transport
Borrowing money Loan-taker Only takes sometimes
loan Takes no loan
A special criterion mentioned was that all orphans and disabled persons belong to the poor
wealth group.
5.2 Income and expenditures
5.2.1 Income
Average annual income:
Poor: INR 18,076
Medium: INR 23,826
Better-off: INR 59,436
All HHs: INR 33,779
The difference between poor and medium wealth group on the one hand and better-off group
on the other hand is much clearer in the non-irrigated hilly zone than in the tribal dry
agricultural zone. The average income of a better-off family is more than three times higher
than the average income of a poor family in the non-irrigated hilly zone.
44
Figure 30: Main income sources (non-irrigated hilly zone)
Figure 30 shows the main income sources of the different wealth groups: Migration,
Livestock, Labour, NTFP and Agriculture. In the non-irrigated hilly zone the distribution of
the income sources is totally different compared to the tribal dry agricultural zone. Labour is
clearly the main income source for all three wealth groups (in all wealth groups at least 70%
of the total income comes from daily wages/labour/employment). Income which comes from
crop sales plays generally a less important role than in Jhiranya and Pandhana. For better-off
families only 12% of the total average income comes from agriculture, for HHs in the poor
and medium group the share is even less (6% and 8% respectively). Migration also does not
seem to be crucial. For poor and better-off HHs 8% of the total income comes from migration,
for families in the medium group the share is 3%. Selling of non-timber forest products
(NTFPs) is more import for poor and medium HHs (the share of the total income is 8%) than
for better-off HHs. Income generated by selling livestock or animal products plays a similar
minor role like in the tribal dry agricultural zone; the share is up to 5% only.
5.2.2 Expenditures
Average expenditures per annum
Poor: INR 18,788
Medium: INR 24,053
Better-off: INR 36,168
All HHs: INR 26,336
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
70000
Poor Medium Better-off
Main income sources(group-wise, in INR)
Migration
Livestock
Labour
NTFP
Agriculture
45
Figure 31: Average annual expenditures (non-irrigated hilly zone)
There are clear differences between the level of food expenditures of the poor and medium
group on the one hand and the better-off group on the other. Poor families spent 45%,
medium HHs 47% of their total income on food; better-off families only 13%. Better-off HHs
spent most of their money on services (25% of their total income). The corresponding share
for poor HHs is 22%, for medium HHs 17%. 18% of the total income of poor HHs is spent on
HH items. Families in the medium group spend 17%, better-off families 13% of their total
income on HH items. Also 18% of the poor HHs’ total income is spent on other items (e.g.
tobacco). HHs in the medium group spend 15%, better-off families 8% on other items. Since
income generated by selling agricultural and animal products plays a minor role, the
expenditures for inputs are also relatively low (up to 5% of the total expenditures in all wealth
groups).
5.3 Production
5.3.1 Landholding
Average landholding per HH (cultivable land only, homestead land included)
Poor: 2.35acres (no landless HH)
Medium: 6.00acres
Better-off: 9.38acres
All HHs: 5.91acres
57% of the surveyed HHs own homestead land. Average size of the homestead land is
0.78acre (group-wise average: poor - 0.67acr, medium - 0.83acr, better-off - 0.83acr; average
only for HHs owning homestead land). On average the HHs cultivate 3 crops on their
homestead land, mostly maize, mustard seeds and potatoes. Mustard seeds are processed into
oil by the HHs for their own consumption.
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
40000
Poor Medium Better-off
Average annual expenditures(group-wise, in INR)
Other
Services
Inputs
HH items
Food
46
Irrigated land is very rare. Only 3 (1 poor, 1 medium, 1 better-off family) out of the 21
surveyed HHs possess irrigated farm land. The soil is red.
Table 31: Distribution of average land type (in acres) according to wealth group (non-irrigated hilly zone)
Irrigated Encroached Cultivable
Poor 0.25 0.23 2.12
Medium 0.40 0 6.00
Better Off 0.38 1 8.38
5.3.2 Crop production
Average total quantity of crops produced:
Poor: 558kg
Medium: 1211kg
Better-off: 2666kg
All HHs: 1478kg
Poor HHs cultivate averagely 2.6, medium HHs 3.8, better-off HHs 5.5 crops on their farm
land. Main crops produced are: Paddy, wheat, maize and millets (see figure 32).
Figure 32: Dominating crops (non-irrigated hilly zone)
In total, HHs in the non-irrigated hilly zone mainly produce crops for their own consumption.
In average only 13% of the total crop production are sold by poor HHs. HHs of the medium
wealth group sell averagely 29%, better-off 31% of their total crop production.
37%
26%
11%
20%
6%
Main crops produced on farm land
paddy
wheat
millets
maize
pulses
47
5.3.3 Livestock and animal products
No. of animals owned per HH (median)
Poor: 4
Medium: 6
Better-off: 5
All HHs: 5
HHs own typically goats, oxen and cattle. As already seen income generated by livestock and
livestock products plays a very minor role in the non-irrigated hilly zone. The milk of cattle
and goats is used for own consumption. Two of the surveyed HHs sold goats last year.
5.3.4 Hunting, Fishing and NTFP
95% of all HHs collect NTFPs, averagely 2.35 products and mostly Tendu leaves as well as
Mahua. The majority (96%) of the collected NTFPs are sold.
Figure 33: Main NTFPs collected in non-irrigated hilly zone
5.4 Food
5.4.1 Food sources
Figure 34 shows the sources where the HHs get their food from. The distribution of food
sources is similar in the poor and medium wealth group. Around half of the food is own
produced food. 45% of the consumed food is purchased at local markets or at the PDS shop.
The share of food items bought in the PDS shop is slightly higher in the poor wealth group
(18% of the total food consumed by the poor HHs) than in the medium wealth group (15% of
the total food consumed by the medium HHs). Marginal roles play food for work (~5%) and
NTFP (1% or even less). In sharp contrast, there are only three sources of food in the better-
tendu leaves
41%
mahua
41%
char
9%
fish
9%
Main NTFPs
48
off group. Better-off families produce approximately two-third of their food on their own,
16% of the food is purchased in the market, and 6% comes from the PDS shop.
Figure 34: Food sources (non-irrigated hilly zone)
5.4.2 Hunger time
Like in the tribal dry agricultural zone the duration of Hunger Time is longer for poor HHs
than for HHs in the medium and better-off group (see Figure 35), but altogether the average
duration of the Hunger Time is shorter and the difference of the intensity between Hunger
Time and Normal Time is smaller.
According to the HH interviews Hunger Time lasts averagely 3 months for poor HHs, 1.4
months for HHs in the medium group and 0.5 months for better-off HHs. Peak of HT is the
rainy season (mid-June till October). In July and August 57% of all HHs suffer from food
scarcity. In average poor HHs eat 25% less in HT compared to Normal Time, medium HHs
eat 17% less.
49
Figure 35: Hunger Time (all HHs and group-wise, non-irrigated hilly zone)
5.4.3 Food patterns
The diet is dominated by Wheat and Rice. The following tables show which commodities and
how much the HHs averagely consume per day (Table 32: Normal Time; Table 33: Hunger
Time).
Table 32: Average food consumption (in kg) per day per HH in Normal Time (main commodities;non-irrig. hilly zone)
Wheat Rice Maize Vegetables Potatoes Pulses Others15 Sum
Poor 1.633 0.746 0.317 0.090 0.163 0.113 0.118 3.179
Medium 2.357 1.273 1.009 0.088 0.276 0.253 0.165 5.420
Better-off 2.550 1.275 0.075 0.196 0.196 0.275 0.551 5.117
All HHs 2.180 1.098 0.467 0.125 0.211 0.214 0.278 4.601
Table 33: Average food consumption (in kg) per day per HH in Hunger Time (main commodities;non-irrig. hilly zone)
Wheat Rice Maize Vegetables Potatoes Pulses Others16 Sum
Poor 1.505 0.668 0.140 0.021 0.017 0.083 0.074 2.509
Medium 2.113 1.231 0.381 0.126 0.174 0.228 0.363 4.617
Better-off 2.475 1.200 0.075 0.113 0.189 0.263 0.551 4.865
All HHs 2.031 1.033 0.199 0.086 0.126 0.191 0.330 3.997
15 Including Milk, Oil, Fruits, Fish, Chili, Sugar, Salt 16 Including Milk, Oil, Fruits, Fish, Chili, Sugar, Salt
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
Sh
are o
f H
Hs
Hunger Time(all HHs)
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
Hunger Time(poor group)
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
Sh
are o
f H
Hs
Hunger Time(medium group)
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
Sh
are o
f H
Hs
Hunger Time(better-off group)
50
5.4.4 Calorie intake
Normal Time
During Normal Time, 57% of all HHs achieve a daily calorie intake per person of 2100kcal or
more. But the average daily calorie intake of the remaining 43% of the HHs lies under this
threshold. Most alarming is that in 29% of the HHs the HH members do not even get
1800kcal/day during Normal Time.
Figure 36: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (all HHs; non-irrigated hilly zone)
As figure 37 shows there are clear differences between the three wealth groups. Members of
poor HHs are in the most severe situation: Only half of the poor HHs achieves a satisfactory
daily calorie intake per capita of 2100kcal (or more) during Normal Time. In 42% of the poor
HHs the daily calorie intake per person lies under 1800kcal. In the medium wealth group 40%
of the HHs do not cover their caloric needs of 2100kcal/day. All HHs in the better-off group
achieve at least the 1800kcal-threshold during Normal Time.
Figure 37: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (group-wiese; non-irrigated hilly zone)
57%
14%
29%
Average daily calorie intake per person(Normal Time)
>2100 kcal
1800 - 2100 kcal
<1800 kcal
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%
Poor
Medium
Better-off
Average daily calorie intake per person(Normal Time, group-wise)
>2100 kcal
1800 - 2100 kcal
<1800 kcal
51
Hunger Time
The situation is clearly worse during Hunger Time. 57% of all HHs cannot cover their
calorific requirements of 1800kcal/day/person. Only one third of the HHs achieves a
satisfactory daily calorie intake of 2100kcal during Hunger Time.
Figure 38: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (all HHs; non-irrigated hilly zone)
If one takes a look at the differences between the wealth groups, the following statement can
be made:
Again: Poor HHs have to face the most severe situation. The average daily calorie intake per
person lies under 1800kcal in two-thirds of the poor HHs during Hunger Time. Only 17% of
the poor HHs achieve the 2100kcal-threshold; in the medium group this share is 40%, in the
better-off group 75%. Even in the medium and better-off group the share of HHs in which the
daily calorie intake lies under 1800kcal, is 60% and 25% respectively.
Figure 39: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (group-wise; non-irrigated hilly zone)
33%
10%
57%
Average daily calorie intake per person(Hunger Time)
>2100 kcal
1800 - 2100 kcal
<1800 kcal
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%
Poor
Medium
Better-off
Average daily calorie intake per person(Hunger Time, group-wise)
>2100 kcal
1800 - 2100 kcal
<1800 kcal
52
5.5 Implementation of government programmes
5.5.1 NREGA
Out of 21 sample HHs 17 own definitely a job card. Though, only 7 HHs really worked under
the MGNREGA scheme; namely only 12 days in average.
Table 34: Summary MGNREGA (non-irrigated hilly zone)
Poor Medium Better-off All HHs
No. of HHs with
MGNREGA job card
10 (out of
12)
4 (out of
5)
3 (out of
4)
1717 (out
of 21)
No. of HHs actually
working under
MGNREGA
5 1 1 7
Days worked under
MGNREGA (average
for job-cardholders)
28 3 5 12
Only three of the 17 cardholding HHs worked more than 50 days under the MGNREGA
scheme. None of them got 100days to work (for details see Figure 40).
Figure 40: Histogram - Total working days under MGNREGA (non-irrigated hilly zone)
Under the condition of a perfectly working MGNREGA scheme, HHs would gain additionally
INR 10,000 and the BPL-/APL-distribution (according to national standard) would improve:
24% of the HHs (instead of 10%) would fall under the APL-category. Possibly incurring
opportunity costs are not included in this calculation.
17 Four HHs did not give an answer.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Freq
uen
cy
Days worked under MGNREGA
53
Figure 41: Wealth breakdown according to national standard and under the condition of a working MGNREGA
scheme (non-irrigated hilly zone)
5.5.2 PDS
Figure 42 shows that the majority of the HHs owns a BPL card (86%). 9% of all HHs are
AAY-cardholders, 5% of the HHs own an APL-card.
Most of the interview partners did not mention any problems with their ration card. Though,
two HHs complained about irregular availability of the goods at the PDS shop, one HH
complained that the amounts the HH receives from the PDS shop are not sufficient and two
HHs said they own a wrong card.
Figure 42: Distribution of ration cards (non-irrigated hilly zone)
5.5.3 ICDS
In total, 38% of all HHs send their children to the Anganwadi Centre of their village. All HHs
taking their children to an Anganwadi Centre stated that their children get nutrition
supplements there. According to the HHs surveyed growth monitoring and pre-school
education does not take place in the Anganwadi Centres. Heterogeneous answers were given
concerning nutrition education and health services.
BPL
76%
APL
24%
Wealth breakdown under the condition
of working MGNREGA scheme
9%
86%
5%
AAY BPL APL
54
Figure 43: Service delivery in Anganwadi Centres (non-irrigated hilly zone)
5.6 Shocks
62% of the sample HHs had to face a shock affecting money or food. Most common shocks
experienced are expenditure-increasing shocks (either due to diseases of a HH member or
death of a HH member). Second most common are crop losses. Income losses (due to diseases
or crop loss) were also experienced.
Figure 44: Shocks experienced (non-irrigated hilly zone)
The most common coping mechanism is doing extra work, but also cutting down expenditures,
borrowing money and using emergency stocks/assets were mentioned as reaction to the
experienced shock(s). The majority uses a mix of these coping mechanisms.
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
nutrition supplements
growth monotoring
pre-school education
health services
nutrition education
Service delivery in Anganwadi Centres
yes
no
Expenditure-
increasing
shock
45%
Income loss
22%
Crop loss
33%
Shocks experienced
55
Figure 45: Coping mechanisms in case of external shocks (non-irrigated hilly zone)
6 Food Economy Zone 3: Irrigated valley zone
6.1 Background to the Food Economy Zone
Please refer to section 3.2 for the general discription of the irrigatd valley zone. In the
following general characteristics of the HHs are described.
Of total 24 surveyed HHs, 14 HHs belong to SCs, 6 to the general class and 4 to OBCs.
Figure 46: Population of the irrigated valley zone (caste-wise)
Average household (HH) size: 6.2 persons, with following variation among the wealth groups
- Poor: 5.4
- Medium: 6.8
- Better-off: 6.5
21%
27%30%
22%
Using emergency stocks/assets Cutting down expenditures
Doing extra work Borrowing money
SC
58%OBC
17%
General
25%
Population (caste-wise)
56
Table 35: General characteristics of the HHs (median, group-wise; irrigated valley zone)
Wealth
group
Housing Agricultural
implements
Transport Power
connection
Electronic
devices
Sanitary
facilities
Poor Kaccha
house
None None None None or 1
mobile
None
Medium Pucca house Simple Bicycle BPL
connection
Several
devices
None
Better-off Pucca house Better Better BPL
connection
Several
devices
Potable water
Regarding education the following data was collected:
Overall, the education level of men is higher compared to the zones described before. The
average education level of men is 7.1 (averagely men complete class 7). For women it is only
3.8, the gap is consequently even higher than in the non-irrigated hilly zone.
Figure 47: Average education level of women and men (irrigated valley zone)
In Figure 47 it is shown that women have clearly a lower education level than men in the
medium and better-off group. Interestingly, the female education level in the poor wealth
group is slightly higher than the male education level. All in all the education level increases
according to the wealth group.
There seems to be a trend that the children’s generation enjoys a higher education level than
the parent’s generation. In all three wealth groups the average maximum education level is
higher than the average HoH’s education level. Though, not all children are included in that
trend: The dropout rate of all children at the age of 5-10 years is 32%. In the medium and
better-off HHs surveyed all children under 11 go to school, but the dropout rate is 43% in the
poor wealth group. The share of the 11-15-years-old children not attending school is 22%
(average for all wealth groups).
In 7 out of the 24 sample HHs child labour occurred. 13% of all children were working or
earning money.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Poor
Medium
Better-off
class
Av. male and female education level(group-wise)
female
male
57
6.1.1 Seasonal calendar
Also the irrigated valley zone has one rainy season, which lasts from mid-June till mid-
October.
The main land preparation work starts in the months before the rainy reason and most crops
are planted with the start of the rains.
Demand for agricultural labour occurs during the sowing and harvest seasons of the Kharif
and Rabi crops. MGNREGA labour takes mostly place just before rainy season, in May and
June. Migration for work is rare, it occurs mostly in July.
The hunger season peaks in December and January.
Main festivals and therefore periods in which the people spend a lot of their money are in the
months of January, March, May, June, August, October and November.
Most loans are taken in June/ July and interest has to be paid back in April/May.
58
Month January February March April May June July August September October November December
Season winter winter/summer summer summer summer summer/rain rain rain rain rain/winter winter winter
Sowing/ Kharif
Paddy
Soya beans
Sesame
Pigeon pea
Black gram
Sowing / Rabi
Wheat
Bengal gram
Mustard seeds
Harvest/ Kharif
Paddy
Soya beans
Sesame
Pigeon pea
Black gram
Harvest/ Rabi
Wheat
Bengal gram
Mustard seeds
Agricultural Labour
MGNREGA Labour
Hunger time
Migration
Major Festivals Makar sankranti Holi Marriage Marriage Raksha bandan Daserra Diwali
Loan time
Interest payment time
Table 36: Seasonal calendar – Irrigated valley zone
59
6.1.2 Wealth breakdown
71% of the HHs in the irrigated valley zone live under the poverty line set by the Indian
government. The results of the wealth breakdown interviews in the sample villages are shown
in Figure 49 and Table 37.
Figure 48: Wealth breakdown according to national standard (irrigated valley zone)
Figure 49: Proportional distribution of the wealth groups according to local standards (irrigated valley zone)
Table 37: Criteria of the Wealth Breakdowns (WBs) according to local standards (irrigated valley zone)
Criteria Poor Medium Better-off
Land size 0-3 acres >3-7 acres >7 acres
Labour Dependence on seasonal
work
Less dependence on
seasonal work
Less dependence on
seasonal work; permanent
employment
Housing Kaccha house Semi-pucca or pucca
house
Semi-pucca or Pucca
house
Migration Migration is common Less migration compared
to poor group No migration
BPL
71%
APL
29%
Wealth breakdown according to
national standard
Poor
64%
Medium
21%
Better-off
15%
Proportional distribution of the wealth groups (according to WB)
60
Transport Owns max. one cycle Owns several means of
transport
Owns advanced means of
transport (e.g.
motorcycle)
Borrowing money Loan-taker Only takes sometimes
loan Takes no loan
6.2 Income and expenditures
6.2.1 Income
Average annual income18
Poor: INR 28,360
Medium: INR 62,400
Better-off: INR 111,117
All HHs: INR 67,292
In average the annual income of all HHs in the irrigated valley zone is evidently higher than
in the zones described above. There are clear differences between the three wealth groups:
Averagely a medium HH earns more than double as much than a poor HH. The average
annual income of a better-off family is almost four times higher than the average income of a
poor family in the irrigated valley zone.
Figure 50: Average annual income (irrigated valley zone)
Figure 50 shows how the income is composed in the different wealth groups. For the poor
HHs migration and labour are the main income sources: 56% of the income comes from
migration, 37% from (occasional) labour. The medium as well as the better-off group earn
more money with crop sales than the poor group in total. Besides agriculture (46% of the 18 Five interviews (4 poor HHs, 1 better-off HH) are not included in the calculations of section 4 and 5 due to
extreme high disproportionateness between income and expenditures.
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
120000
Poor Medium Better-off
Average annual income(group-wise, in INR)
Other
Migration
Pension
Self-Employment
Labour
Agriculture
61
average annual income of a medium HH), different types of self-employment (e.g. shop
owning, carpentry) seem to play an important role for medium families. Also some members
of medium HHs migrate, the share of income generated by migration is 9%. For the better-off
group the two main income sources are labour (48% of the total annual income comes from
permanent employment) and agriculture (40% of the total annual income). ”Other income”
comes from selling livestock (products).
6.2.2 Expenditures
Average expenditures per annum
Poor: INR 27,658
Medium: INR 54,080
Better-off: INR 82,100
All HHs: INR 54,613
The level of the average expenditures is considerably smaller than the average annual income
of all HHs. Some HHs, especially those in the better-off group, seem to be able to save money.
Figure 51: Average annual expenditures (irrigated valley zone)
The absolute value of food expenditures is very similar in all wealth groups. But the relative
amount varies. The poor group spends most of their money on food (54% of the total
expenditures). For the medium group the share is 30%, for the better-off HHs it is 18%.
Families in the poor group spent 11%, medium HHs 9% and better-off families 6% of their
total income on HH items. Since agricultural income is of little importance for poor HHs, they
almost spent no money on agricultural inputs; whereas medium and better-off families spent
around INR 8,000 on agricultural inputs. Differences in the absolute and relative amount of
expenditures on services are clearly visible. Medium HHs spent three times as much for
services in comparison to poor HHs, better-off HHs nine times as much. 48% of the total
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
70000
80000
90000
Poor Medium Better-off
Average annual expenditures(group-wise, in INR)
Other
Services
Inputs
HH items
Food
62
expenditures of better-off HHs are expenditures on services. For poor HHs this share is 16%,
for medium families 25%. Better-off HHs spent more money on other items (e.g. tobacco)
than the other two wealth groups.
6.3 Production
6.3.1 Landholding
Average land holding per HH (cultivated land only, homestead land included)
Poor: 1.59acres (38% of the poor HHs are landless)
Medium: 3.80acres
Better-off: 13.00acres
All HHs: 6.13acres
21% of the HHs own homestead land. Average size of the homestead land is 0.59acre (group-
wise average: poor - 0.00acr, medium - 0.6acr, better-off - 1.17acr; average only for HHs
owning homestead land). Irrigated farm land is not as rare as in the other zones. 58% of the
total cultivated land is irrigated.
Table 38: Distribution of average land type (in acres) according to wealth group
Irrigated Encroached Cultivable
Poor 0.41 0.03 1.59
Medium 2.88 0 3.80
Better Off 7.38 2 13.00
6.3.2 Crop production
Average total quantity of crops produced
Poor: 363kg
Medium: 2675kg
Better-off: 6194kg
All HHs: 3077kg
All HHs owning land are also cultivating at least one crop. Poor HHs cultivate averagely 2.3
(landless excluded), medium HHs 4, better-off HHs 6 crops on their farm land. Main crops
produced are: wheat, pulses and soya beans (see figure 52).
Figure 52: Dominating crops (irrigated valley zone)
63
In average 32% of the total crop production are sold by land-owning HHs of the poor wealth
group. HHs of the medium wealth group sell averagely 60%, better-off 61% of their total crop
production.
6.3.3 Livestock and animal products
Average no. of animals owned per HH
Poor: 1
Medium: 5
Better-off: 3
All HHs: 3
The HHs own mostly oxen or cattle; they use the milk for own consumption and cow dung as
fertilizer. All in all, livestock and animal products do not play an important role in the
livelihood zone.
6.3.4 Hunting, Fishing and NTFP
Also NTFPs and fishing do not seem to be relevant for the livelihood. Only one poor HH
stated to go fishing.
6.4 Food
6.4.1 Food sources
Like already seen in the other two livelihood zones, food sources differ sharply between the
three wealth groups. In the irrigated valley zone better-off HHs produce almost three-quarters
of their food on their own, the rest they purchase. Also the HHs of the medium wealth group
produce the majority of their food (57%) on their own land, 37% they purchase at markets and
the remaining 6% they get from the PDS shop. Poor HHs have to buy most of their food,
27%
15%
3%
49%
3% 3%
Main crops produced on farm land
pulses
soya beans
potatoes
wheat
paddy
onions
64
namely 55% they purchase. Averagely 19% of their food they produce on their own, 10%
they buy in the PDS shop and 10% come from work for food.
Figure 53: Food sources (irrigated valley zone)
6.4.2 Hunger time
Overall the Hunger time lasts averagely 1.5 months. Poor HHs have to face a longer period of
food scarcity than the medium and better-off group, averagely 3 months. Only few medium
and better-off HHs experience a Hunger Time (therefore they are not included in Figure 54).
Peak of Hunger Time is in winter (December and January): 54% of all HHs have to face a
Hunger Time in those two months.
Figure 54: Graphical distribution of Hunger Times (all HHs and poor wealth group; irrigated valley zone)
6.4.3 Food patterns
The two tables below show in detail which food commodities and how much (in kg) an
average HH consumes daily.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
Sh
are o
f H
Hs
Hunger Time(all HHs)
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
Hunger Time(poor group)
65
Table 39: Average food consumption (in kg) per day per HH in Normal Time (main commodities; irrig. valley zone)
Wheat Rice Vegetables Potatoes Pulses Milk Others19 Sum
Poor 2.561 0.672 0.118 0.088 0.196 0.078 0.009 3.722
Medium 2.997 0.961 0.246 0.067 0.354 0.320 0.005 4.950
Better-off 2.917 1.042 1.000 0.225 0.175 1.625 0.184 7.168
All HHs 2.825 0.892 0.454 0.126 0.242 0.674 0.066 5.280
Table 40: Average food consumption (in kg) per day per HH in Hunger Time (main commodities; irrig. valley zone)
Wheat Rice Vegetables Potatoes Pulses Milk Others20 Sum
Poor 2.375 0.570 0.057 0.106 0.146 0.016 0.007 3.277
Medium 2.747 0.836 0.196 0.067 0.304 0.320 0.054 4.523
Better-off 2.667 0.979 0.696 0.225 0.125 1.250 0.270 6.211
All HHs 2.596 0.795 0.316 0.133 0.192 0.528 0.110 4.671
6.4.4 Calories intake
Normal Time
More than one third (37%) of all HHs in the irrigated valley zone do not achieve the
2100kcal-threshold during Normal Time and therefore they are facing malnutrition (in the
long-term).
Figure 55: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (all HHs; irrigated valley zone)
19 Including Fruits, Chili, Ghee, Oil, Sugar, Salt 20 Including Fruits, Chili, Ghee, Oil, Sugar, Salt
63%8%
29%
Average daily calorie intake per person(Normal Time)
>2100 kcal
1800 - 2100 kcal
<1800 kcal
66
The differences between the three wealth groups are shown in Figure 56. All better-off HHs
achieve a daily calorie intake of (more than) 2100kcal per person during Normal Time. The
highest share of HHs that do not achieve the 1800kcal-threshold is found in the poor wealth
group, though the share of HHs in which HH members do not achieve a satisfactory daily
calorie intake of 2100 is higher in the medium wealth group than in the poor group.
Figure 56: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (group-wise; irrigated valley zone)
Hunger Time
The situation of the daily calorie intake worsens during Hunger Time: Less than half (46%) of
the HHs can reach the 2100kcal-threshold during Hunger Time. 42% of the HHs do not even
reach the 1800kcal-threshold.
Figure 57: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (all HHs; irrigated valley zone)
The situation worsens in all three wealth groups. 50% of the better-off HHs do not achieve the
2100kcal-threshold during Hunger Time and half of the medium HHs take less than 1800kcal.
On the one hand in 44% of the poor HHs family members reach the 2100kcal-threshold, on
the other hand 44% of the HHs do not even achieve the 1800kcal-threshold.
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
poor
medium
better-off
Average daily calorie intake per person(Normal Time, group-wise)
>2100 kcal
1800 - 2100 kcal
<1800 kcal
46%
12%
42%
Average daily calorie intake per person(Hunger Time)
>2100 kcal
1800 - 2100 kcal
<1800 kcal
67
Figure 58: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (group-wise; irrigated valley zone)
6.5 Implementation of government programmes
6.5.1 NREGA
Table 41: Summary MGNREGA (group-wise; irrigated valley zone)
Poor Medium Better-off All HHs
No. of HHs with
MGNREGA job card
11 (out of
16)
2 (out of
4)
1 (out of
4)
14 (out of
24)
No. of HHs actually
working under
MGNREGA
4 2 0 6
Days worked under
MGNREGA (average
for job-cardholders)
10 16 0 9
Out of 24 sample HHs, 14 own a job card, but only 6 out of the 14 card-holding HHs really
worked under the NREGA scheme last year; in average 9 days. No HH worked more than 50
days under NREGA last year, only one poor HH received 50 working days.
Figure 59: Histogram – Total working day under MGNREGA (irrigated valley zone)
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
poor
medium
better-off
Average daily calorie intake per person(Hunger Time, group-wise)
>2100 kcal
1800 - 2100 kcal
<1800 kcal
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0 4 8
12
16
20
24
28
32
36
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
84
88
92
96
10
0
Freq
uen
cy
Days worked under MGNREGA
68
6.5.2 PDS
Figure 60 shows that 67% of the HHs have a BPL-card, 25% an APL-card and 8% an AAY-
card. 13% of all HHs criticized that the amount they can buy at the PDS shop is not sufficient,
21% of all HHs complained about irregularities of the availability of the rations, and 4%
stated to get harassed.
Figure 60: Distribution of ration cards (irrigated valley zone)
6.5.3 ICDS
Overall, 23% of all HHs take their children to Anganwadi Centres in their village. All HHs
sending their children to Anganwadi Centres stated that their children get nutrition
supplements there. Only one HH mentioned pre-school education.
Figure 61: Service delivery in Anganwadi Centres (irrigated valley zone)
67%
25%
8%
BPL APL AAY
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
nutrition supplements
growth monotoring
pre-school education
health services
nutrition education
Service delivery in Anganwadi Centres
yes
no
69
6.6 Shocks
83% of all HHs surveyed stated that they have experienced external shocks in the past. Often
the shock was triggered by a mixture of reasons. Most common shock affecting money was
cased by a severe disease of a HH member. Land loss and crop loss were common causes of
shocks affecting food. Tighra has been affected twice by floods recently.
Figure 62: Causes of shocks (irrigated valley zone)
Mostly the HHs have used a mix of several mechanisms to cope with the shock(s) they have
experienced. Borrowing money and doing extra work are the two most common coping
mechanisms.
Figure 63: Coping mechanisms of external shocks (irrigated valley zone)
70%
15%
15%
Shocks affecting money
Disease Death Crop loss (due to flood)
33%
33%
5%
29%
Shocks affecting food
Land loss Crop loss Death, sickness Money shortage
16%
24%
29%
31%
Using emergency stocks/assets Cutting down expenditures
Doing extra work Borrowing money
70
7 Food Economy Zone 4: Agricultural mixed communities zone
7.1 Background to the Food Economy Zone
Out of total 34 surveyed HHs, 17 HHs belong to SCs, 3 to SCs, 5 to OBCs and 9 to the
general class.
Figure 64: Population of the agricultural mixed communities zone
Average HH size: 6.1 persons, with following variation among the wealth groups
Poor: 5.5
Medium: 5.7
Better-off: 7.1
Table 42: General characteristics of the HHs (median, group-wise; agircultural mixed communities zone)
Regarding education the following data was collected:
The average education level of men is 5.7 (averagely a man finishes almost class 6), for
women it is lower (3.1). The education level increases according to the wealth group. In each
wealth group the education level of men is higher than the one of women (see Figure below).
SC
50%
ST
9%
OBC
26%
General
15%
Population (caste-wise)
Wealth
group
Housing Agricultural
implements
Transport Power
connection
Electronic
devices
Sanitary
facilities
Poor Kaccha
house
None None None None or 1
mobile
Potable water
Medium Semi-pucca
house
Simple None None Several
devices
Potable water
Better-off Semi-pucca
house
Simple Better Private
connection
TV or better Potable water
71
Figure 65: Average education level of men and women (group-wise, agircultural mixed communities zone)
There seems to be a trend that the children’s generation eonjoys a higher education level than
the partent’s generation. In 68% of all HHs the maxiumum education level of the whole HH is
higher than the HoH’s education level. The trend is stronger the better the wealth group. 44%
of all children at the age of 5-10 years do not attend school (the dropout rate in the poor group
is the highest – 59%). The share of the 11-15-years-old children not attending school is 33%
(average for all wealth groups).
In 5 out of 34 sample HHs child labour occured. 9% of all children under 18 are working or
earning money according to the HH interviews.
7.1.1 Seasonal calendar
Rainy season takes place from mid-June till mid-October. The two crop seasons are also
Kharif and Rabi. Important Kharif crops in the zone are Soya beans, Jowar, Maize and
different types of pulses; important Rabi crops are Wheat, Onions, Garlic and Bengal gram.
Demand for agricultural labour occurs during all sowing and harvest seasons.
MGNREGA work takes mostly place in May; migration for work during May-June.
Several important festivals take place throughout the year. Most marriages are celebrated in
summer.
Peak of the Hunger time period is in July/August.
0 2 4 6 8 10
Poor
Medium
Better-off
class
Av. male and female education level(group-wise)
Female
Male
72
Month January February March April May June July August September October November December
Season winter winter/summer summer summer summer summer/rain rain rain rain rain/winter winter winter
Sowing/ Kharif
Soya beans
Arhar dhal
Maize
Blackgram
Sowing / Rabi
Wheat
Bengal gram
onions
Harvest/ Kharif
Soya beans
Arhar dhal
maize
Blackgram
Harvest/ Rabi
Wheat
Bengal gram
onions
Agricultural Labour
MGNREGA Labour
Hunger time
Migration
Marriage
Major Festivals
Table 43: Seasonal calendar – Agricultural mixed communities zone
73
7.1.2 Wealth breakdown
In the agricultural mixed communities zone respectively 50% fall into the BPL- and APL-
category.
Figure 66: Wealth breakdown according to national standard (agricultural mixed communities zone)
Figure 67 shows the results of the wealth breakdown interviews - how the villagers see
themselves relatively to each other: 43% of the population of the sample villages are grouped
together in the poor, 34% in the medium and 23% in the better-off category. The wealth
criteria are summarized in Table 44.
Figure 67: Proportional distribution of the wealth groups according to local standards
(agricultural mixed communities zone)
APL
50%
BPL
50%
Wealth breakdown according to
national standard
Poor
43%
Medium
34%
Better-off
23%
Proportional distribution of the wealth groups (according to WB)
74
Table 44: Criteria of the Wealth Breakdowns according to local standards (agricultural mixed comm. zone)
Criteria Poor Medium Better-off
Land size (cultivated) 0-1 acres >1-4 acres >4 acres
No. of cattle and oxen
owned
0 1-2 >2
Housing Hut or Kaccha house Bigger Kaccha or semi-
pucca house
Semi-pucca or Pucca house
Transport No means of transport More likely to own simple
means of transport than poor
group
Owns advanced means of
transport (e.g. motorcycle)
Dependence on (occasional)
wage labour
Dependence on wage labour Less dependent on wage
labour compared to poor
group
No dependence on wage
labour
Additional characteristics Trapped in Bonded labour
Old-age HHs
Doing services (e.g.
carpentry)
Permanent employment
7.2 Income and expenditures
7.2.1 Income
Average annual income:
Poor: INR 32,091
Medium: INR 50.086
Better-off: INR 90,544
All HHs: INR 57,574
The average annual income of a medium HH is roughly 1.5 times higher than the average
annual income of a poor HH; the income of a better-off family is almost three times higher. In
average a HH earns yearly INR 57,574 in the agricultural mixed communities zone.
For better-off HHs clearly the majority (70%) of the income comes from selling crops. These
earnings generated by agricultural activities are higher than the total income of an average
medium HH. For medium HHs 30%, for poor HHs only 6% of the total income comes from
crop sales. Labour is more important for the medium and especially for the poor wealth group
– more than half (54%) of the total income of a poor HH and 40% of the total income of a
medium HH comes from labour. A minor role play NTFPs in the livelihood zone: Only 3% of
the total income of a poor HH is generated by selling collected NTFPs. Also migration does
not count to the main income sources. A poor HH earns averagely INR 5933, a medium HH
INR 2711 and a better-off HH INR 9222 by selling livestock (products). Most of all, medium
HHs seem to be self-employed: 20% of the total income of an average medium HH comes
75
from self-employment. ‘Other income’ includes in the agricultural mixed communities zone
primarily “income” from bonded labour. Five bonded labour cases were in the sample.
Figure 68: Average annual income (agricultural mixed communities zone)
7.2.2 Expenditures
Average expenditures per annum
Poor: INR 33,992
Medium: INR 52,740
Better-off: INR 90,821
All HHs: INR 59,184
Figure 69: Average annual expenditures (agricultural mixed communities zone)
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
70000
80000
90000
100000
Poor Medium Better-off
Income sources(group-wise, in INR)
Other
Migration
Self-Employment
Livestock
Labour
NTFP
Agriculture
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
70000
80000
90000
100000
Poor Medium Better-off
Average annual expenditures(group-wise, in INR)
Other
Services
Inputs
HH items
Food
76
Poor and medium HHs spent most of their income on food (43% and 33% respectively).
Better-off HHs spent 23% of their total income on food, a bit more, namely 29% of their total
income they spent on services. Expenditures on services are also relative high for the poor and
medium wealth group: 31% of the average income of a poor HH is spent on services, for
medium HHs the corresponding share is 30%. Around 20% of their income HHs of all wealth
groups spent on other items. Poor and better-off HHs spent 11% of their income on HH items,
medium HHs 15%. As described above, income generated by agricultural activities is most
relevant for better-off HHs, consequently the differences of the expenditures on agricultural
inputs between the three wealth groups are clear: Better-off HHs spent 17% of their income
on agricultural inputs, medium HHs 6% and poor HHs only 1%.
7.3 Production
7.3.1 Landholding
Average landholding (cultivable land only; per HH)
Poor: 0.27 acres (69% of poor HHs are landless)
Medium: 2.10 acres
Better-off: 12.6421 acres
Table 45: Distribution of land type (in acres) according to wealth group (agricultural mixed communities zone)
Irrigated Encroached Cultivated
Poor 0.15 0.00 0.27
Medium 1.3 0.25 2.10
Better-off 10.86 0.00 12.64
None of the surveyed HHs owns homestead land. A bit more than half of the land owned by
an average poor and medium HH is irrigated, the share for an average better-off HH is 86%.
7.3.2 Crop production
Average total quantity of crops produced per HH
Poor: 192kg
Medium: 1821kg
Better-off: 11373kg
All HHs: 4462kg
21 Average is influenced by extreme values (1 HH owns 60acres of land); median is 7 acres.
77
Figure 70: Dominating crops (agricultural mixed communities zone)
In average poor HHs cultivate 2 (landless HHs excluded from that calculation), medium HHs
2.3, and better-off HHs 4.9 crops on their farm land. Dominating crops are: Soya beans, wheat,
different types of pulses and onions.
A relatively large share of the crop production is not used for the own consumption: 44% of
the crops produced are sold by poor HHs. This share is 64% for medium HHs, and 75% for
better-off HHs
7.3.3 Livestock and animal products
Average no. of animals owned per HH
Poor: 4
Medium: 3
Better-off: 4
All HHs: 4
The HHs in the livelihood zone own typically cattle, oxen, goats and chickens. It is more
common that poor HHs own goats and chickens than medium and better-off HHs. Poor HHs
generate income with livestock by selling animals (mostly goats), medium and better-off HHs
sell milk of the cattle they own.
7.3.4 Hunting, Fishing and NTFP
32% of the HHs collect one or two NTFPs (predominantly Mahua and Tendu leaves), above
all poor families do this to make some extra money (see 7.2.1).
wheat
42%
soya beans
47%
pulses
7%
onions
4%
Main crops produced on farm land
78
7.4 Food
7.4.1 Food sources
Figure 71 shows that the food sources differ evidently between the three wealth groups.
Better-off families produce the majority of their food (83%) on their own, 17% of their food
they purchase. Whereas poor HHs purchase the majority of their food (63%), only 16% of
their food they produce on their own, 10% they receive from the PDS shop and 11% they get
directly from work. The situation of the food sources of the medium wealth group lies in
between: Medium HHs produce half of their food they consume on their own, 44% they
purchase on markets, 2% they get from the PDS shop, 3% they receive directly from work.
Figure 71: Food souces (agricultural mixed communities zone)
7.4.2 Hunger time
In average Hunger Time lasts 2 months. 44% of the sample HHs stated to have a Hunger
Time. Since none of the better-off families stated to experience a period of food scarcity,
Figure 72 shows below the average for all HHs only the graphical distribution of the Hunger
Times of the medium and poor HHs. The distribution of the Hunger Time is not as clear as in
the other livelihood zones, but most of the HH experience a period of food scarcity during
July and August.
´
79
Figure 72: Graphical distribution of Hunger Times (all HHs and group-wise; agricultural mixed communites zone)
7.4.3 Food patterns
Wheat is the main good consumed. The following tables show in more detail which
commodities and how much (in kg) the HHs averagely consume per day (Table 46: Normal
Time; Table 47: Hunger Time).
Table 46: Average food consumption (in kg) per day per HH in Normal Time (agricultural mixed communities zone)
Wheat Rice Maize Vegetables Potatoes Pulses Others22 Sum
Poor 2.080 0.029 0.022 0.055 0.124 0.097 0.256 2.664
Medium 2.634 0 0.041 0.128 0.118 0.269 0.885 4.075
Better-off 4.275 0.058 0.186 0.387 0.073 0.334 1.349 6.663
All HHs 2.996 0.029 0.083 0.190 0.105 0.233 0.830 4.467
22 Including Milk, Ghee, Eggs, Oil, Chili, Salt, Sugar, other Spices
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Sh
are o
f H
Hs
Months (Jan-Dec)
Hunger Time(all HHs)
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Sh
are o
f H
Hs
Months (Jan - Dec)
Hunger Time(poor group)
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Sh
are o
f H
Hs
Months (Jan - Dec)
Hunger Time(medium group)
80
Table 47: Average food consumption (in kg) per day per HH in Hunger Time (agricultural mixed communities zone)
Wheat Rice Maize Vegetables Potatoes Pulses Others23 Sum
Poor 1.733 0.022 0.016 0.065 0.096 0.049 0.209 2.190
Medium 2.353 0 0.034 0.122 0.108 0.251 0.798 3.665
Better-off 4.275 0.058 0.186 0.387 0.073 0.334 1.349 6.663
All HHs 2.787 0.027 0.079 0.191 0.092 0.211 0.785 4.173
7.4.4 Calories intake
Normal Time
During Normal Time, on the one hand 38% of all HHs achieve a satisfactory daily calorie
intake per person of more than 2100 kcal. On the other hand, in 38% of all HHs persons do
not even get 1800kcal/day during Normal Time. In 24% of all HHs, members achieve
averagely between 1800-2100kcal.
Figure 73: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (all HHs; agricultural mixed comm. zone)
Figure 66 shows the differences between the three wealth groups: All better-off HHs achieve
at least the 1800kcal-threshold throughout the year. In the medium wealth group the share of
HHs achieving the 1800kcal-threshold is 60%. Members of poor HHs have to face the most
severe situation: The food 77% of the poor HHs take in contains less than 2100kcal.
23 Including Milk, Ghee, Eggs, Oil, Chili, Salt, Sugar, other Spices
38%
24%
38%
Average daily calorie intake per person (Normal Time)
>2100 kcal
1800 - 2100 kcal
<1800 kcal
81
Figure 74: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (group-wise; agricultural mixed comm. Zone)
Hunger Time
In comparison to the Normal time the situation of the calorie intake during Hunger Time is of
course worse: 53% of all HHs do not achieve their calorific requirement of 2100kcal. Only
one third of all HHs achieve this threshold during Hunger Time.
Figure 75: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (all HHs; agricultural mixed comm. zone)
Since no better-off HH faces Hunger Time, the situation of this wealth group does not change
during the year. For the other wealth groups the situation worsens during Hunger Time. 40%
of the medium HHs achieve the 1800kcal-threshold (instead of 60% during Normal Time).
Except for one poor HH, all poor families take less than 1800kcal in during Hunger Time.
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Poor
Medium
Better-off
Average daily calorie intake per person(Normal Time; group-wise)
>2100 kcal
1800 - 2100 kcal
<1800 kcal
32%
15%
53%
Average daily calorie intake per person(Hunger Time)
>2100 kcal
1800 - 2100 kcal
<1800 kcal
82
Figure 76: Average daily calorie intake per person during Hunger Time (group-wise; agricultural mixed comm. Zone)
7.5 Implementation of government programmes
7.5.1 NREGA
Table 48: Summary MGNREGA (group-wise, agricultural mixed communities zone)
Poor Medium Better-off All HHs
No. of HHs with
MGNREGA job card
8 (out of
13)
9 (out of
10)
11 (out of
11)
28 (out of
34)
No. of HHs actually
working under
MGNREGA
3 5 2 10
Days worked under
MGNREGA (average
for job-cardholders)
3 13 18 11
Out of 34 sample HHs, 28 HHs own a job card, but only 10 out of the 28 HHs possessing job
card really worked under the NREGA scheme last year. Those HHs that worked under the
scheme received averagely only 11 days of work. But the distribution of working days
received is scattered which is shown in Figure 77. Only the two better-off HHs working under
the scheme last year got 100 working days.
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Poor
Medium
Better-off
Average daily calorie intake per person(Hunger Time; group-wise)
>2100 kcal
1800 - 2100 kcal
<1800 kcal
83
Figure 77: Histogram - Total working days under MGNREGA (agricultural mixed communities zone)
Would each HH work 100days, earning INR 100/day, the HHs would generate additionally
INR 10000 yearly. This would change the wealth breakdown according to national standard in
the following way: 62% (instead of 50%) of the HHs would live above PL.
Figure 78: Wealth Breakdown according to national standard and under the condition of a working MGNREGA
scheme (agricultural mixed communities zone)
7.5.2 PDS
73% of the sample HHs own an APL-, 12% a BPL-, and 6% an AAY-card. The remaining 9%
do not possess a ration card (see Figure 79). Only few HHs mentioned problems of the PDS:
Respectively 6% complained about the amount of rations and about irregularity availability of
the rations. Also criticized was the quality of the food and the limited time in which a HH can
receive the monthly ration.
0
5
10
15
20
0 4 8
12
16
20
24
28
32
36
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
84
88
92
96
10
0
Fre
qu
en
cy
Days worked under MGNREGA
APL
62%
BPL
38%
Wealth breakdown under the condition
of working MGNREGA scheme
84
Figure 79: Distribution of ration cards (agricultural mixed communities zone)
7.5.3 ICDS
Overall, 41% of the HHs send their children to the Anganwadi Centre of their village. All
HHs taking their children to the Centres stated that their children get nutrition supplements
there. The majority also said that the Anganwadi Centres supply health services. 40% of the
HHs sending children to ICDS mentioned pre-school education. Only few stated that the
Anganwadi workers do growth monitoring and nutrition education with the children.
Figure 80: Service delivery in Anganwadi Centres (agricultural mixed communities zone)
7.6 Shocks
38% of the HHs have experienced an external shock. Most of them had to cope with shocks
affecting money, most commonly with a serious disease of a HH member. But also other
reasons were mentioned (see Figure 81). Three sample HHs also had to face shocks affecting
food (due to crop loss, money shortage, sickness of the HoH).
6%
12%
73%
9%
AAY BPL APL No card
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
nutrition supplements
growth monitoring
pre-school education
health services
nutrition education
Service delivery in Anganwadi Centres
yes
no
85
Figure 81: Reasons of shocks affecting money (agricultural mixed communities zone)
Roughly all coping mechanisms (using emergency stocks/assets, cutting down expenditures,
doing extra work, borrowing money) have been equally common used.
Figure 82: Coping mechanisms in case of external shocks (agricultural mixed communities zone)
67%
13%
6%
7%7%
Shocks affecting money
Disease Death Marriage Crop loss Loss of livestock
22%
27%
24%
27%
using emergency stocks/assets cutting down expenditures
doing extra work borrowing money
86
8 Comparison of Livelihood Zones
In this section key data of the previously presented Livelihood Zones will be compared to
each other.
8.1 Income and expenditures
The Table below shows the annual average income of each livelihood zone according to the
three wealth groups. It becomes clear that the level of income varies.
The highest average annual income for all wealth groups together was found in the irrigated
valley zone, the second highest was found in the agricultural mixed communities zone. The
level of the average annual income of the tribal dry agricultural and non-irrigated hilly zone is
very similar.
Table 49: Comparison of the average annual income (all livelihood zones, group-wise)
Tribal dry
agricultural zone
(LHZ 1)
Non-irrigated hilly
zone (LHZ 2)
Irrigated valley
zone (LHZ 3)
Agricultural mixed
communities zone (LHZ4)
Poor INR 22,235 INR 18,076 INR 28,360 INR 32,091
Medium INR 32,011 INR 23,826 INR 62,400 INR 50.086
Better-
off
INR 41,461 INR 59,436 INR 111,117 INR 90,544
All HHs INR 31,902 INR 33,779 INR 67,292 INR 57,574
The deviations between the wealth groups are the smallest in LHZ 1. Also the annual average
income of the medium group fits best to the average of all wealth groups. There is only a
relatively small difference of the annual income between the poor and medium group in LHZ
2, but the better-off families earn more than three times as much as the poor group (in LHZ 1
it is not even double as much). The most heterogeneous results were found in LHZ 3. Poor
families generate only a quarter of the income better-off families make.
The poor group with the smallest average annual income was found in LHZ 2, the poor group
with the highest income in LHZ 4. The poor group in LHZ 4 earns roughly the same like the
medium group of LHZ 1, and earns even more money than the medium group of LHZ 2. The
relatively richest medium group was found in LHZ 3: An average medium family earns more
money than a better-off family in LHZ 1 and LHZ 2. Better-off families in LHZ 3 generate
the highest income compared to the better-off families of the other livelihood zones, better-off
families in LHZ 1 earn less than the better-off HHs in the other zones.
87
In all livelihood zones, except for LHZ 2, income generated by selling own produced crops is
the main income source for all better-off HHs since they own more farm land than the other
HHs. This income source is also very important for families of the medium group.
Additionally, labour is crucial for medium HHs and especially for poor HHs in all zones.
Migration for work is for poor families in almost all livelihood zones the second important
source of income. In LHZ 2 labour is the main income source for HHs of all wealth groups.
Migration does not seem to be crucial there.
The expenditures relative to the income are similar in all livelihood zones: Poor HHs of all
zones spent most of their income on food. Medium HHs spent in the majority of the cases
most of their income on food and services. Better-off HHs spent often most of their income on
services and more money on agricultural inputs and other items than the other two wealth
groups.
8.2 Landholding and crops production
In average, HHs in LHZ 1 own less land than HHs of the other livelihood zones, also the
agricultural output (quantity produced (in kg)/acre) is lower compared to the other zones. The
highest agricultural output was found in LHZ 4 (see also 3.2). Poor families in LHZ 4 own
averagely less land than all other HHs. Poor HHs in LHZ 2 own averagely more land than
families in the medium group of LHZ 4. Better-off families in LHZ 3 own averagely more
land than all other HHs.
Table 50: Average landholding per HH (in acres) and average total quantity of crops produced per year per HH (all
livelihood zones, grou-wise)
Tribal dry
agricultural zone
(LHZ 1)
Non-irrigated hilly
zone (LHZ 2)
Irrigated valley
zone (LHZ 3)
Agricultural mixed
communities zone (LHZ 4)
Poor 0.92acres
299kg
2.35acres
558kg
1.59acres
363kg
0.27acres
192kg
Medium 4.28acres
1430kg
6.00acres
1211kg
3.80acres
2675kg
2.10acres
1821kg
Better-
off
6.50acres
1840kg
9.38acres
2666kg
13.00
6194kg
12.64acres
11373kg
All HHs 3.9acres
1190kg
5.91acres
1478kg
6.13acres
3077kg
5.00
4462kg
88
8.3 Daily calorie intake
Normal Time
All in all the situation of the average daily calorie intake per capita is similar in LHZ 1 and
LHZ 4. The shares of HHs which do not achieve the 1800kcal-threshold during Normal Time
are around 40% in LHZ 4 and LHZ 1. The corresponding share is 29% in LHZ 2 and LHZ 3
respectively. The nutrition situation of LHZ 2 and LHZ 3 during Normal Time are also
similar. In all zones there is throughout the year an alarming high share of HHs which cannot
cover their calorific needs and therefore face undernutrition (at least in the long-term)!
Actually those families face food scarcity 12 months a year.
Table 51: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (all HHs, all livelihood zones)
Tribal dry agricultural
zone (LHZ 1)
Non-irrigated hilly
zone (LHZ 2)
Irrigated valley
zone (LHZ 3)
Agricultural mixed
communities zone (LHZ 4)
≤1800kcal 40.74% 29% 29% 38%
1800-
2100kcal
18.52% 14% 8% 24%
≥2100kcal 40.74% 57% 63% 38%
Hunger Time
Concerning the length of the Hunger Time, clearly poor HHs of LHZ 1 have to face the
longest period of food scarcity (averagely half a year). In LHZ 2 and LHZ 3 poor HHs
experience averagely 3 months of Hunger Time and in LHZ 4 Hunger Time lasts 2 months in
average.
Table 52: Average daily calorie intake per person during Normal Time (all HHs, all livelihood zones)
Tribal dry agricultural
zone (LHZ 1)
Non-irrigated hilly
zone (LHZ 2)
Irrigated valley
zone (LHZ 3)
Agricultural mixed
communities zone (LHZ 4)
≤1800kcal 66.67% 57% 42% 53%
1800-
2100kcal
9.26% 10% 12% 15%
≥2100kcal 24.07% 33% 46% 32%
89
The situation during Hunger Time seems to be worst in LHZ 1 (only one quarter of the HHs
achieves a satisfactory daily calorie intake of 2100kcal). The situations in LHZ 2 and LHZ 4
are similar: in about one third of the HHs family members get averagely 2100kcal/daily
through their food. The highest share of HHs which can achieve the 2100kcal-threshold
during Hunger Time is found in LHZ 3. Nevertheless, also here 42% of the HHs do not
achieve the FAO minimum standard of 1800kcal. And as already seen, Hunger Time
coincides mostly with the time of land preparation and field work and therefore people would
actually need more food energy as usual to work properly.
8.4 Implementation of government programmes
MGNREGA
Table 53 summarizes the results received by the HH interviews regarding the national
MGNREGA scheme. In all livelihood zones the majority of the HHs owns a job card: in LHZ
1, LHZ 2 and LHZ 3 around 80%, in LHZ 3 58% of the HHs are job card-holders. But, except
for LHZ 1, only one third or less of the HHs worked under the NREGA scheme last year;
averagely not more than 12 days. In LHZ 1 the scheme seems to work better than in the other
livelihood zones. 61% of all HHs worked under the NREGA scheme, in average 34 days.
In all zones it was seen that the distribution of working days was very scattered.
Table 53: Summary MGNREGA (all livelihood zones)
Tribal dry
agricultural zone
(LHZ 1)
Non-irrigated
hilly zone (LHZ
2)
Irrigated valley
zone (LHZ 3)
Agricultural mixed
communities zone (LHZ
4)
Share of HHs owning a
job card (%) 81% 81% 58% 82%
Share of HHs which
worked under NREGA
last year (%)
61% 33% 25% 29%
Days worked under
NREGA (average for job
card-holders) 34 12 9 11
90
PDS
Above all, there seem to be problems with the PDS in the tribal dry agricultural zone. One
third of the HHs there had no ration card. 22% of the HHs owned an APL-card, but actually
only 7% of the HHs had more than INR 26 per day per HH member at its disposal. In the
agricultural mixed communities zone 9% of the HHs were without ration card; 73% of the
HHS owned an APL-card, but actually 50% live above the national PL according to the HH
interviews.
Some of the interviewees mentioned problems with their PDS card or/and PDS shop. The
most stated problem was the irregular availability of the rations. In the irrigated valley zone
one fifth of the HHs complained about irregularities of the availability of the rations. Other
problems mentioned in the HH interviews concerning the PDS were: Getting harassed,
owning a wrong card, insufficient amount of the rations, concerns about the quality of the
food, limited time in which a HH can receive the monthly ration.
ICDS
In all zones the HHs which send their children to an Anganwadi Centre stated that their
children get nutrition supplements there. Other services, like health services, growth
monitoring, etc. were only mentioned by few HHs or not at all.
8.5 Shocks
The share of HHs affected by external shocks varied between the zones. In the tribal dry
agricultural zone, only 19% of HHs experienced a shock, in the agricultural mixed
communities zone the corresponding share is 38%, in the non-irrigated hilly zone 62%, and in
the irrigated valley zone 83% had to face shock. In all zones the most common cause of a
shock was a severe disease of a family member. But also other types of shocks were
mentioned, e.g. death of a family member, or crop loss (in the irrigated valley zone because of
floods).
All HHs use a mix of different coping mechanisms. Most common reaction was doing extra
work, but also borrowing money and cutting down expenditures were common coping
mechanisms. Using emergency assets seem to be of secondary importance since the majority
of the HHs do not have such assets on their disposal.
91
9 Emerging Issues that need focus in the Districts Khargone, Khandwa, Panna and
Dewas
Khargone and Khandwa (tribal dry agricultural zone)
All in all, the situation of the HHs in the tribal dry agricultural zone is the most alarming in
comparison to the other three livelihood zones presented in this report. The highest share of
people living below the national PL was found here, even most of the relatively better-off
HHs in the zone fall under the national BPL-category. The education level is very low – for
both: men and women - and more than half of the children do not attend school. It is
precarious that the HHs averagely own only small fields of land and a high share of families
of the local poor group is landless. Also the food situation is alarming. In almost 60% of the
HHs family members face undernutrition because throughout the year their average daily
calorie intake lies under 2100kcal. And as already said, 2100 kcal is the minimum food
energy requirement to avoid undernutrition in the long-term. Additionally, most of the HHs
experience a period of food scarcity in which the situation even worsens - three quarters of the
HHs do not achieve the 2100kcal-threshold during Hunger Time. In the tribal dry agricultural
zone Hunger Time lasts very long, for poor HHs averagely 6 months. Furthermore, there
seem to be problems concerning the public distribution system, one third of the HHs did
not even own a ration card.
Panna (non-irrigated hilly zone)
In the non-irrigated hilly zone, the share of HHs living below the national PL is very high
(90%), averagely a 6-person HH earns only INR 33779 per year. All HHs are extremely
dependent on labour income which has something to do with the fact that the agricultural
output is lower than in the other zones. The education level is low; elementary school is
finished only by few HH members. Almost one third of the children at the age of 5-10years
do not go to school. Though the food situation is not as precarious as in the tribal dry
agricultural zone, it is still alarming - 43% of the HHs do not reach the 2100kcal-threshold,
even during Normal Time, and during Hunger Time the daily calorie intake per person lies in
two-thirds of the HHs under 2100kcal. The MGNREGA scheme is not functioning
properly: Only one third of the HHs worked under the scheme last year, in average no more
than 12 days.
92
Panna (irrigated valley zone)
The majority (71%) of HHs lives below the national PL in the irrigated valley zone.
Important to note is that there are wide deviations of the HH’s income between the wealth
groups in this zone. Poor families generate only one quarter of the income better-off families
and half of the income medium HHs make. The nutritional status, especially of the poor
and medium wealth group, is worrying: The average daily calorie intake of 44% of the poor
and 50% of the medium HHs lies under the 2100kcal-threshold during Normal Time. During
Hunger Time the share increases to 57% in the poor wealth group; 50% of the medium HHs
do not even achieve a daily calorie intake of 1800kcal. In addition, there are problems in the
education sector: The gap between male and female education level is large and one third of
the 5-10 year-old children do not attend school. Furthermore, there is a large share of HHs
affected by shocks (due to serious diseases as well as natural hazards). Coping with them is
difficult for the HHs: only few emergency assets are available (if at all), money can in most of
the cases only be borrowed by money lenders who demand high interest, extra work is hard to
find and the expenditures of (especially the poor HHs) are already at a low level and can
hardly be cut down further. Last but not least, the MGNREGA scheme is not functioning
properly: Only one quarter of the HHs worked under the scheme last year, in average no
more than 9 days.
Dewas (agricultural mixed communities zone)
Though there are less HHs that live under the national PL compared to the other zones, there
are also problematic issues in the agricultural mixed communities zone: It is alarming that
there were five bonded labour cases already in the sample. And there were poor HHs which
complained that better-off HHs keep their job card and therefore they cannot work under the
NREGA scheme. Consequently, the NREGA scheme is not working properly. Though 82%
of all HHs own actually a job card, only 29% of all HHs worked under the scheme last year,
in average no more than 11 days. There is in fact a need of construction labour because the
infrastructure is in a bad condition. Furthermore, the dropout rate is high, it is 44% in the
age group 5-10years. Moreover, the nutritional status, especially for the HHs in the poor
wealth group, is also in the agricultural mixed communities zone worrying. Even during
Normal Time 77% of the poor HHs do not achieve the 2100kcal-threshold; during Hunger
Time, which lasts averagely 2 months, the average calorie intake in 92% of the poor HHs lies
under 1800kcal.
93
94
95
96