History-Our Pasts II

xi

1. Tracing Changes Through A Thousand Years 1

2. New Kings And Kingdoms 16

3. The Delhi Sultans 30

4. The Mughal Empire 45

5. Rulers And Buildings 60

6. Towns, Traders And Craftspersons 75

7. Tribes, Nomads And Settled Communities 91

8. Devotional Paths To The Divine 104

9. The Making Of Regional Cultures 122

10. Eighteenth-Century Political Formations 138

Foreword vIn this book xii

Contents

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Take a look at Maps 1 and 2. Map 1 was made in1154 CE. by the Arab geographer al-Idrisi. The

section reproduced here is a detail of the Indiansubcontinent from his larger map of the world. Map 2was made in the 1720s by a French cartographercartographercartographercartographercartographer. Thetwo maps are quite different even though they are ofthe same area. In al-Idrisi’s map, south India is wherewe would expect to find north India and Sri Lanka isthe island at the top. Place-names are marked in Arabic,

CartographerCartographerCartographerCartographerCartographerA person whomakes maps.

1TRACING CHANGES THROUGHA THOUSAND YEARS

Map 1Map 1Map 1Map 1Map 1A section of the worldmap drawn by thegeographer al-Idrisi inthe twelfth centuryshowing the Indiansubcontinent.

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and there are some well-known names like Kanauj inUttar Pradesh (spelt in the map as Qanauj). Map 2 wasmade nearly 600 years after the first, during which timeinformation about the subcontinent had changedconsiderably. This map seems more familiar to us andthe coastal areas in particular are surprisingly detailed.This map was used by European sailors and merchantson their voyages (see Chapter 6). But look at the areasinland.

Are they as detailed as those on the coast? Follow thecourse of the River Ganga and see how it is shown. Whydo you think there is a difference in the level of detailand accuracy between the coastal and inland areas inthis map?

Map 2Map 2Map 2Map 2Map 2The subcontinent, fromthe early-eighteenthcentury Atlas Nouveauof Guillaume de l’Isle.

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Equally important is the fact that the science ofcartography differed in the two periods. When historiansread documents, maps and texts from the past theyhave to be sensitive to the different historicalbackgrounds – the contexts – in which informationabout the past was produced.

New and old terminologiesIf the context in which information is producedchanges with time, what about language andmeanings? Historical records exist in a variety oflanguages which have changed considerably over theyears. Medieval Persian, for example, is different frommodern Persian. The difference is not just with regardto grammar and vocabulary; the meanings of wordsalso change over time.

Take the term “Hindustan”, for example. Today weunderstand it as “India”, the modern nation state. Whenthe term was used in the thirteenth century by Minhaj-iSiraj, a chronicler who wrote in Persian, he meant theareas of Punjab, Haryana and the lands between theGanga and Yamuna. He used the term in a politicalsense for lands that were a part of the dominions of theDelhi Sultan. The areas included in this term shiftedwith the extent of the Sultanate but the term neverincluded south India within it. By contrast, in the earlysixteenth century Babur used Hindustan to describethe geography, the fauna and the culture of theinhabitants of the subcontinent. As we will see later inthe chapter, this was somewhat similar to the way thefourteenth-century poet Amir Khusrau used the word“Hind”. While the idea of a geographical and culturalentity like “India” did exist, the term Hindustan didnot carry the political and national meanings which weassociate with it today.

Historians have to be careful about the terms theyuse because they meant different things in the past.Take, for example, a simple term like “foreigner”. It isused today to mean someone who is not an Indian. In

Can you think ofany other wordswhose meaningschange in differentcontexts?

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the medieval period a “foreigner” was any stranger whoappeared say in a given village, someone who was nota part of that society or culture. (In Hindi the termpardesi might be used to describe such a person andin Persian, ajnabi.) A city-dweller, therefore, might haveregarded a forest-dweller as a “foreigner”, but twopeasants living in the same village were not foreignersto each other, even though they may have had differentreligious or caste backgrounds.

Historians and their sourcesHistorians use different types of sources to learn aboutthe past depending upon the period of their study andthe nature of their investigation. Last year, for example,you read about rulers of the Gupta dynasty andHarshavardhana. In this book we will read about thefollowing thousand years, from roughly 700 to 1750 CE.

You will notice some continuity in the sources usedby historians for the study of this period. They still relyupon coins, inscriptions, architecture and textual recordsfor information. But there is also considerablediscontinuity. The number and variety of textual recordsincreased dramatically during this period. They slowlydisplaced other types of available information. Throughthis period paper gradually became cheaper and more

The value of paperCompare the following

(1) In the middle of the thirteenth century a scholarwanted to copy a book. He did not have enough paper.So he washed the writing off a manuscript he did notwant, dried the paper and used it.

(2) A century later, if you bought some food in themarket you could be lucky and have the shopkeeperwrap it for you in some paper.

When was paper more expensive and easily available— in the thirteenth or the fourteenth century??

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widely available. People used it to write holy texts,chronicles of rulers, letters and teachings of saints,petitions and judicial records, and for registers ofaccounts and taxes. Manuscripts were collected bywealthy people, rulers, monasteries and temples. Theywere placed in libraries and archivesarchivesarchivesarchivesarchives. These manuscriptsand documents provide a lot of detailed information tohistorians but they are also difficult to use.

There was no printing press in those days so scribescopied manuscripts by hand. If you have ever copied afriend’s homework you would know that this is not asimple exercise. Sometimes you cannot read yourfriend’s handwriting and are forced to guess what iswritten. As a result there are small but significantdifferences in your copy of your friend’s work.Manuscript copying is somewhat similar. As scribescopied manuscripts, they also introduced small changes— a word here, a sentence there. These small differencesgrew over centuries of copying until manuscripts of the

ArchiveArchiveArchiveArchiveArchiveA place wheredocuments andmanuscripts arestored. Today allnational and stategovernments havearchives wherethey keep all theirold official recordsand transactions.

Fig. 1A painting of a scribemaking a copy of amanuscript. Thispainting is only10.5 cm by 7.1 cm insize. Because of itssize it is called aminiature. Miniaturepaintings weresometimes used toillustrate the texts ofmanuscripts. Theywere so beautiful thatlater collectors oftentook the manuscriptsapart and sold just theminiatures.

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same text became substantially different from oneanother. This is a serious problem because we rarelyfind the original manuscript of the author today. Weare totally dependent upon the copies made by laterscribes. As a result historians have to read differentmanuscript versions of the same text to guess what theauthor had originally written.

On occasion authors revised their chronicles atdifferent times. The fourteenth-century chroniclerZiyauddin Barani wrote his chronicle first in 1356 andanother version two years later. The two differ from eachother but historians did not know about the existenceof the first version until 1971. It remained lost in largelibrary collections.

New social and political groupsThe study of the thousand years between 700 and 1750is a huge challenge to historians largely because of thescale and variety of developments that occurred overthe period. At different moments in this period newtechnologies made their appearance — like the Persian

Fig. 2Different kinds ofhandwriting couldmake the reading ofPersian and Arabicdifficult. The nastaliqstyle (on the left) iscursive and easy toread, the shikaste (onthe right) is denser andmore difficult.

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wheel in irrigation, the spinning wheel in weaving, andfirearms in combat. New foods and beverages arrivedin the subcontinent: potatoes, corn, chillies, tea andcoffee. Remember that all these innovations – newtechnologies and crops – came along with people, whobrought other ideas with them as well. As a result, thiswas a period of economic, political, social and culturalchanges. You will learn about some of these changesin Chapters 5, 6 and 7.

This was also a period of great mobility. Groups ofpeople travelled long distances in search of opportunity.The subcontinent held immense wealth and thepossibilities for people to carve a fortune. One group ofpeople who became important in this period were theRajputs, a name derived from “Rajaputra”, the son of aruler. Between the eighth and fourteenth centuries theterm was applied more generally to a body of warriorswho claimed Kshatriya caste status. The term included Fig. 3

The Persian wheel.

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not just rulers and chieftains but also soldiers andcommanders who served in the armies of differentmonarchs all over the subcontinent. A chivalric code ofconduct – extreme valour and a great sense of loyalty –were the qualities attributed to Rajputs by their poetsand bards. Other groups of people such as theMarathas, Sikhs, Jats, Ahoms and Kayasthas (a casteof scribes and secretaries) also used the opportunitiesof the age to become politically important.

Throughout this period there was a gradual clearingof forests and the extension of agriculture, a changefaster and more complete in some areas than in others.Changes in their habitathabitathabitathabitathabitat forced many forest-dwellersto migrate. Others started tilling the land and becamepeasants. These new peasant groups gradually beganto be influenced by regional markets, chieftains, priests,monasteries and temples. They became part of largecomplex societies, and were required to pay taxes andoffer goods and services to local lords. As a result,significant economic and social differences emergedamongst peasants. Some possessed more productiveland, others also kept cattle, and some combinedartisanal work with agricultural activity during the leanseason. As society became more differentiated, peoplewere grouped into jatis or sub-castes and ranked onthe basis of their backgrounds and their occupations.Ranks were not fixed permanently, and varied accordingto the power, influence and resources controlled bymembers of the jati. The status of the same jati couldvary from area to area.

Jatis framed their own rules and regulations tomanage the conduct of their members. These regulationswere enforced by an assembly of elders, described insome areas as the jati panchayat. But jatis were alsorequired to follow the rules of their villages. Severalvillages were governed by a chieftain. Together they wereonly one small unit of a state.

Of thetechnological,economic, socialand culturalchangesdescribed in thissection, which doyou think weremost significant inthe town or villagein which you live?

HabitatHabitatHabitatHabitatHabitatRefers to theenvironment of aregion and thesocial andeconomic lifestyleof its residents.

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Region and empireLarge states like those of the Cholas (Chapter 2),Tughluqs (Chapter 3) or Mughals (Chapter 4)encompassed many regions. A Sanskrit prashasti (seeChapter 2 for an example of a prashasti) praising theDelhi Sultan Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-87) explainedthat he was the ruler of a vast empire that stretchedfrom Bengal (Gauda) in the east to Ghazni (Gajjana) inAfghanistan in the west and included all of south India(Dravida). People of different regions – Gauda, Andhra,Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Gujarat – apparentlyfled before his armies. Historians regard these as

Map 3Map 3Map 3Map 3Map 3Provinces of the DelhiSultanate duringMuhammad Tughluq’sreign according to theEgyptian sourceMasalik al-Absar fiMamalik al-Amsar ofShihabuddin Umari.

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? exaggerated claims of conquests. At the same time, theytry to understand why rulers kept claiming to havecontrol over different parts of the subcontinent.

Language and regionIn 1318 the poet Amir Khusrau noted that there was

“a different language in every region of this land: Sindhi,Lahori, Kashmiri, Dvarsamudri (in southern Karnataka),Telangani (in Andhra Pradesh), Gujari (in Gujarat), Ma‘bari(in Tamil Nadu), Gauri, (in Bengal) … Awadhi (in easternUttar Pradesh) and Hindawi (in the area around Delhi)”.

Amir Khusrau went on to explain that in contrast to theselanguages there was Sanskrit which did not belong toany region. It was an old language and “common peopledo not know it, only the Brahmanas do”.

Make a list of the languages mentioned by Amir Khusrau.Prepare another list of the names of languages spokentoday in the regions he mentioned: underline names thatare similar and circle those that are different.

Did you notice that the names by which languagesare known have changed over time?

By 700 many regions already possessed distinctgeographical dimensions and their own language andcultural characteristics. You will learn more about thesein Chapter 9. They were also associated with specificruling dynasties. There was considerable conflictbetween these states. Occasionally dynasties like theCholas, Khaljis, Tughluqs and Mughals were able tobuild an empire that was pan-regional – spanningdiverse regions. Not all these empires were equallystable or successful. Compare, for example, Tables 1in Chapters 3 and 4. What was the duration of rule ofthe Khalji and Mughal dynasties?

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Why do you thinkrulers made suchclaims?

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When the Mughal Empire declined in the eighteenthcentury, it led to the re-emergence of regional states(Chapter 10). But years of imperial, pan-regional rulehad altered the character of the regions. Across mostof the subcontinent the regions were left with the legaciesof the big and small states that ruled over them. Thiswas apparent in the emergence of many distinct andshared traditions: in the realms of governance, themanagement of the economy, elite cultures, andlanguage. Through the thousand years between 700and 1750 the character of the different regions did notgrow in isolation. They felt the impact of largerpan-regional forces of integration without ever quitelosing their distinctiveness.

Old and new religionsThe thousand years of history that we are exploringwitnessed major developments in religious traditions.People’s belief in the divine was sometimes deeplypersonal, but more usually it was collective. Collectivebelief in a supernatural agency – religion – was oftenclosely connected with the social and economicorganisation of local communities. As the social worldsof these groups altered so too did their beliefs.

It was during this period that important changesoccurred in what we call Hinduism today. Theseincluded the worship of new deities, the constructionof temples by royalty and the growing importance ofBrahmanas, the priests, as dominant groups in society.

Their knowledge of Sanskrit texts earned theBrahmanas a lot of respect in society. Their dominantposition was consolidated by the support of theirpatronspatronspatronspatronspatrons — new rulers searching for prestige.

One of the major developments was the emergenceof the idea of bhakti — of a loving, personal deity thatdevotees could reach without the aid of priests orelaborate rituals. You will be learning about this, andother traditions, in Chapter 8.

Find out whetherand for how longyour state waspart of these pan-regional empires.

Do you rememberwhat Amir Khusrauhad to sayregarding Sanskrit,knowledge andBrahmanas ?

PatronPatronPatronPatronPatronAn influential,wealthy individualwho supportsanother person –an artiste,a craftsperson,a learned man, ora noble.

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This was also the period when new religionsappeared in the subcontinent. Merchants and migrantsfirst brought the teachings of the holy Quran to Indiain the seventh century. Muslims regard the Quran astheir holy book and accept the sovereignty of the oneGod, Allah, whose love, mercy and beauty embrace allthose who believe in Him, without regard to socialbackground.

Many rulers were patrons of Islam and the ulama –learned theologians and jurists. And like Hinduism,Islam was interpreted in a variety of ways by itsfollowers. There were the Shia Muslims who believedthat the Prophet’s son-in-law, Ali, was the legitimateleader of the Muslim community and the Sunni Muslimswho accepted the authority of the early leaders (khalifas)of the community, and the succeeding Khalifas. Therewere other important differences between the variousschools of law (Hanafi and Shafi’i mainly in India), andin theology and mystic traditions.

Thinking about time and historicalperiodsHistorians do not see time just as a passing of hours,days or years – as a clock or a calendar. Time alsoreflects changes in social and economic organisation,in the persistence and transformation of ideas andbeliefs. The study of time is made somewhat easier bydividing the past into large segments – periods – thatpossess shared characteristics.

In the middle of the nineteenth century Britishhistorians divided the history of India into three periods:“Hindu”, “Muslim” and “British”. This division wasbased on the idea that the religion of rulers was theonly important historical change, and that there wereno other significant developments – in the economy,society or culture. Such a division also ignored the richdiversity of the subcontinent.

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Few historians follow this periodisation today. Mostlook to economic and social factors to characterise themajor elements of different moments of the past. Thehistories you read last year included a wide range ofearly societies – hunter-gatherers, early farmers, peopleliving in towns and villages, and early empires andkingdoms. The histories you will be studying this yearare often described as “medieval”. You will find out moreabout the spread of peasant societies, the rise of regionaland imperial state formations — sometimes at the costof pastoral and forest people — the development ofHinduism and Islam as major religions and the arrivalof European trading companies.

These thousand years of Indian history witnessedconsiderable change. After all, the sixteenth andeighteenth centuries were quite different from the eighthor the eleventh. Therefore, describing the entire periodas one historical unit is not without its problems.Moreover, the “medieval” period is often contrasted withthe “modern” period. “Modernity” carries with it a senseof material progress and intellectual advancement. Thisseems to suggest that the medieval period was lackingin any change whatsoever. But of course we know thiswas not the case.

During these thousand years the societies of thesubcontinent were transformed often and economiesin several regions reached a level of prosperity thatattracted the interest of European trading companies.As you read this book, look out for signs of change andthe historical processes at work. Also, whenever youcan, try and compare what you read in this book withwhat you read last year. Look out for changes andcontinuities wherever you can, and look at the worldaround you to see what else has changed or remainedthe same.

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ImagineImagineImagineImagineImagine

You are a historian. Choose one of thethemes mentioned in this chapter,such as economic, social or politicalhistory, and discuss why you think it

would be interesting to find out thehistory of that theme.

Let’s recallLet’s recallLet’s recallLet’s recallLet’s recall

1. Who was considered a “foreigner” in the past?

2. State whether true or false

(a) We do not find inscriptions for the period after700.

(b) The Marathas asserted their political importanceduring this period.

(c) Forest-dwellers were sometimes pushed out oftheir lands with the spread of agriculturalsettlements.

(d) Sultan Ghiyasuddin Balban controlled Assam,Manipur and Kashmir.

3. Fill in the blanks

(a) Archives are places where ——————— arekept.

(b) ——————was a fourteenth-century chronicler.

(c) ——, ———, ———, ——— and ——— weresome of the new crops introduced into thesubcontinent during this period.

4. List some of the technological changes associated withthis period.

KEYWORDS

manuscript

jati

region

periodisation

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5. What were some of the major religious developmentsduring this period?

Let’s understandLet’s understandLet’s understandLet’s understandLet’s understand

6. In what ways has the meaning of the term “Hindustan”changed over the centuries?

7. How were the affairs of jatis regulated?

8. What does the term pan-regional empire mean?

Let’s discussLet’s discussLet’s discussLet’s discussLet’s discuss

9. What are the difficulties historians face in usingmanuscripts?

10. How do historians divide the past into periods? Dothey face any problems in doing so?

Let’s doLet’s doLet’s doLet’s doLet’s do

11. Compare either Map 1 or Map 2 with the present-daymap of the subcontinent, listing as many similaritiesand differences you can find.

12. Find out where records are kept in your village orcity. Who writes these records? Is there an archive?Who manages it? What kinds of documents are storedthere? Who are the people who use it?

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Many new dynasties emerged after the seventh century. Map 1 shows the major ruling

dynasties in different parts of the subcontinent betweenthe seventh and twelfth centuries.

2NEW KINGS AND KINGDOMS

Map 1Map 1Map 1Map 1Map 1Major kingdoms,seventh-twelfthcenturies

Locate theGurjara-Pratiharas,Rashtrakutas,Palas, Cholasand Chahamanas(Chauhans).Can you identifythe present-daystates over whichthey exercisedcontrol?

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The emergence of new dynastiesBy the seventh century there were big landlords orwarrior chiefs in different regions of the subcontinent.Existing kings often acknowledged them as theirsubordinates or samantas. They wereexpected to bring gifts for their kingsor overlords, be present at their courtsand provide them with militarysupport. As samantas gained powerand wealth, they declared themselvesto be maha-samanta, maha-mandaleshvara (the great lord of a“circle” or region) and so on. Sometimesthey asserted their independence fromtheir overlords.

One such instance was that of theRashtrakutas in the Deccan. Initiallythey were subordinate to the Chalukyasof Karnataka. In the mid-eighth century,Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief,overthrew his Chalukya overlord and performed a ritualcalled hiranya-garbha (literally, the golden womb). Whenthis ritual was performed with the help of Brahmanas,it was thought to lead to the “rebirth” of the sacrificer asa Kshatriya, even if he was not one by birth.

In other cases, men from enterprising families usedtheir military skills to carve out kingdoms. For instance,the Kadamba Mayurasharman and the Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra were Brahmanas who gave uptheir traditional professions and took to arms,successfully establishing kingdoms in Karnataka andRajasthan respectively.

Administration in the kingdomsMany of these new kings adopted high-sounding titlessuch as maharaja-adhiraja (great king, overlord ofkings), tribhuvana-chakravartin (lord of the threeworlds) and so on. However, in spite of such claims,

NEW KINGS ANDKINGDOMS

Do you thinkbeing born as aKshatriya wasimportant in orderto become a rulerduring this period?

Fig. 1Wall relief from Cave15, Ellora, showingVishnu as Narasimha,the man-lion.It is a work of theRashtrakuta period.

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they often shared power with their samantas as well aswith associations of peasants, traders and Brahmanas.

In each of these states, resources were obtained fromthe producers, that is, peasants, cattle-keepers,artisans, who were often persuaded or compelled tosurrender part of what they produced. Sometimesthese were claimed as “rent” due to a lord who assertedthat he owned the land. Revenue was also collectedfrom traders.

Four hundred taxes!The inscriptions of the Cholas who ruled in Tamil Nadurefer to more than 400 terms for different kinds of taxes.The most frequently mentioned tax is vetti, taken not incash but in the form of forced labour, and kadamai, orland revenue. There were also taxes on thatching thehouse, the use of a ladder to climb palm trees, a cess onsuccession to family property, etc.

Are any such taxes collected today?

These resources were used to finance the king’sestablishment, as well as for the construction of templesand forts. They were also used to fight wars, which werein turn expected to lead to the acquisition of wealth in theform of plunder, and access to land as well as trade routes.

The functionaries for collecting revenue weregenerally recruited from influential families, andpositions were often hereditary. This was true aboutthe army as well. In many cases, close relatives of theking held these positions.

Prashastis and land grantsPrashastis contain details that may not be literally true.But they tell us how rulers wanted to depict themselves– as valiant, victorious warriors, for example. These werecomposed by learned Brahmanas, who occasionallyhelped in the administration.

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In what ways wasthis form ofadministrationdifferent from thepresent-daysystem?

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The “achievements” of NagabhataMany rulers described their achievements in prashastis(you read about the prashasti of the Gupta rulerSamudragupta last year).

One prashasti, written in Sanskrit and found inGwalior, Madhya Pradesh, describes the exploits ofNagabhata, a Pratihara king, as follows:

The kings of Andhra, Saindhava (Sind), Vidarbha (part ofMaharashtra) and Kalinga (part of Orissa) fell before him evenas he was a prince …He won a victory over Chakrayudha (the ruler of Kanauj) …He defeated the king of Vanga (part of Bengal), Anarta (partof Gujarat), Malava (part of Madhya Pradesh), Kirata (forestpeoples), Turushka (Turks), Vatsa, Matsya (both kingdoms innorth India) …

Kings often rewarded Brahmanas by grants of land.These were recorded on copper plates, which were givento those who received the land.

Fig. 2This is a set of copperplates recording agrant of land made bya ruler in the ninthcentury, written partlyin Sanskrit and partlyin Tamil. The ringholding the platestogether is securedwith the royal seal, toindicate that this is anauthentic document.

See if you can findsome of the areasmentioned in theinscription onMap 1. Other rulersmade similarclaims as well.Why do you thinkthey made theseclaims?

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What was given with the landThis is part of the Tamil section of a land grant given bythe Cholas:

We have demarcated the boundaries of the land by makingearthen embankments, as well as by planting thorny bushes.This is what the land contains: fruit-bearing trees, water,land, gardens and orchards, trees, wells, open spaces, pasture-land, a village, anthills, platforms, canals, ditches, rivers,silt-laden land, tanks, granaries, fish ponds, bee hives, anddeep lakes.He who receives the land can collect taxes from it. He cancollect the taxes imposed by judicial officers as fines, the taxon betel-leaves, that on woven cloth, as well as on vehicles.He can build large rooms, with upper stories made of bakedbricks, he can get large and small wells dug, he can planttrees and thorny bushes, if necessary, he can get canalsconstructed for irrigation. He should ensure that water is notwasted, and that embankments are built.

List all the possible sources of irrigation mentionedin the inscription, and discuss how these might have

been used.

Unusual for the twelfth century was a long Sanskritpoem containing the history of kings who ruled overKashmir. It was composed by an author namedKalhana. He used a variety of sources, includinginscriptions, documents, eyewitness accounts andearlier histories, to write his account. Unlike the writersof prashastis, he was often critical about rulers andtheir policies.

Warfare for wealthYou may have noticed that each of these rulingdynasties was based in a specific region. At the sametime, they tried to control other areas. One particularlyprized area was the city of Kanauj in the Ganga valley.

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?For centuries, rulers belonging to the Gurjara-Pratihara,Rashtrakuta and Pala dynasties fought for control overKanauj. Because there were three “parties” in this long-drawn conflict, historians often describe it as the“tripartite struggle”.

As we will see (pp. 62-66), rulers also tried todemonstrate their power and resources by buildinglarge temples. So, when they attacked one another’skingdoms, they often chose to target temples, whichwere sometimes extremely rich. You will read moreabout this in Chapter 5.

One of the best known of such rulers is SultanSultanSultanSultanSultanMahmud of Ghazni, Afghanistan. He ruled from 997 to1030, and extended control over parts of Central Asia,Iran and the north-western part of the subcontinent.He raided the subcontinent almost every year – histargets were wealthy temples, including that ofSomnath, Gujarat.

Much of the wealth Mahmud carried away was usedto create a splendid capital city at Ghazni. He wasinterested in finding out more about the people heconquered, and entrusted a scholar named al-Birunito write an account of the subcontinent. This Arabicwork, known as the Kitab-al Hind, remains an importantsource for historians. He consulted Sanskrit scholarsto prepare this account.

Other kings who engaged in warfare include theChahamanas, later known as the Chauhans, who ruledover the region around Delhi and Ajmer. Theyattempted to expand their control to the west and theeast, where they were opposed by the Chalukyas ofGujarat and the Gahadavalas of western UttarPradesh. The best-known Chahamana ruler wasPrithviraja III (1168-1192), who defeated an Afghanruler named Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191, butlost to him the very next year, in 1192.

SultanSultanSultanSultanSultan is anArabic termmeaning ruler.

Look at Map 1again and discusswhy theChahamanas mayhave wanted toexpand theirterritories.

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Look at Map 1 andsuggest reasonswhy these rulerswanted to controlKanauj and theGanga valley.


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A closer look–The Cholas

From Uraiyur to ThanjavurFrom Uraiyur to ThanjavurFrom Uraiyur to ThanjavurFrom Uraiyur to ThanjavurFrom Uraiyur to Thanjavur

How did the Cholas rise to power? A minor chiefly familyknown as the Muttaraiyar held power in the Kaveridelta. They were subordinate to the Pallava kings ofKanchipuram. Vijayalaya, who belonged to the ancientchiefly family of the Cholas from Uraiyur, captured thedelta from the Muttaraiyar in the middle of the ninthcentury. He built the town of Thanjavur and a templefor goddess Nishumbhasudini there.

The successors of Vijayalaya conqueredneighbouring regions and the kingdom grew in size andpower. The Pandyan and the Pallava territories to thesouth and north were made part of this kingdom.

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Rajaraja I, considered the most powerful Chola ruler,became king in 985 and expanded control over mostof these areas. He also reorganised the administrationof the empire. Rajaraja’s son Rajendra I continued hispolicies and even raided the Ganga valley, Sri Lankaand countries of Southeast Asia, developing a navy forthese expeditions.

Splendid temples and bronze sculptureSplendid temples and bronze sculptureSplendid temples and bronze sculptureSplendid temples and bronze sculptureSplendid temples and bronze sculpture

The big temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikonda-cholapuram, built by Rajaraja and Rajendra, arearchitectural and sculptural marvels.

Chola temples often became the nuclei of settlementswhich grew around them. These were centres of craftproduction. Temples were also endowed with land byrulers as well as by others. The produce of this land

Fig. 3The temple atGangaikondacholapuram.Notice the way inwhich the roof tapers.Also look at theelaborate stonesculptures used todecorate the outerwalls.


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went to maintain all the specialists who worked atthe temple and very often lived near it – priests,garland makers, cooks, sweepers, musicians,dancers, etc. In other words, temples were notonly places of worship; they were the hub ofeconomic, social and cultural life as well.

Amongst the crafts associated with temples,the making of bronze images was the mostdistinctive. Chola bronze images areconsidered amongst the finest in the world.

While most images were of deities,sometimes images were made ofdevotees as well.

Agriculture and irrigationAgriculture and irrigationAgriculture and irrigationAgriculture and irrigationAgriculture and irrigation

Many of the achievements of theCholas were made possible through

new developments in agriculture. Lookat Map 2 again. Notice that the river Kaveri

branches off into several small channels beforeemptying into the Bay of Bengal. Thesechannels overflow frequently, depositingfertile soil on their banks. Water from thechannels also provides the necessarymoisture for agriculture, particularly thecultivation of rice.

Although agriculture had developedearlier in other parts of Tamil Nadu, it wasonly from the fifth or sixth century that thisarea was opened up for large-scalecultivation. Forests had to be cleared insome regions; land had to be levelled inother areas. In the delta regionembankments had to be built to prevent

Fig. 4A Chola Bronze Sculpture.Notice how carefully it is decorated.To find out how these images were made, see Chapter 6.

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flooding and canals had to be constructed to carrywater to the fields. In many areas two crops were grownin a year.

In many cases it was necessary to water cropsartificially. A variety of methods were used for irrigation.In some areas wells were dug. In other places hugetanks were constructed to collect rainwater. Rememberthat irrigation works require planning – organisinglabour and resources, maintaining these works anddeciding on how water is to be shared. Most of the newrulers, as well as people living in villages, took an activeinterest in these activities.

The administration of the empireThe administration of the empireThe administration of the empireThe administration of the empireThe administration of the empire

How was the administration organised? Settlementsof peasants, known as ur, became prosperouswith the spread of irrigation agriculture. Groupsof such villages formed larger units called nadu.The village council and the nadu had severaladministrative functions including dispensingjustice and collecting taxes.

Rich peasants of the Vellala caste exercisedconsiderable control over the affairs of the nadu underthe supervision of the central Chola government. TheChola kings gave some rich landowners titles likemuvendavelan (a velan or peasant serving three kings),araiyar (chief), etc. as markers of respect, and entrustedthem with important offices of the state at the centre.

Fig. 5A ninth century sluice-gate in Tamil Nadu.It regulated the outflowof water from a tankinto the channels thatirrigated the fields.


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Types of landChola inscriptions mention several categories of land.

vellanvagailand of non-Brahmana peasant proprietors

brahmadeyaland gifted to Brahmanas

shalabhogaland for the maintenance of a school

devadana, tirunamattukkaniland gifted to temples

pallichchhandamland donated to Jaina institutions

We have seen that Brahmanas often received landgrants or brahmadeya. As a result, a large number ofBrahmana settlements emerged in the Kaveri valley asin other parts of south India.

Each brahmadeya was looked after by an assemblyor sabha of prominent Brahmana landholders. Theseassemblies worked very efficiently. Their decisions wererecorded in detail in inscriptions, often on the stonewalls of temples. Associations of traders known asnagarams also occasionally performed administrativefunctions in towns.

Inscriptions from Uttaramerur in Chingleputdistrict, Tamil Nadu, provide details of the way inwhich the sabha was organised. The sabha hadseparate committees to look after irrigation works,gardens, temples, etc. Names of those eligible to bemembers of these committees were written on smalltickets of palm leaf and kept in an earthenware pot,from which a young boy was asked to pick the tickets,one by one for each committee.

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Do you thinkwomenparticipated inthese assemblies?In your view arelotteries useful inchoosing membersof committees?

Were there anyBrahmanas in thishamlet?Describe all theactivities that weretaking placein the village?Why do youthink templeinscriptions ignorethese activities?

Inscriptions and textsThe working of a sabha according to the Uttaramerurinscription:

All those who wish to become members of the sabha should beowners of land from which land revenue is collected.They should have their own homes.They should be between 35 and 70 years of age.They should have knowledge of the Vedas.They should be well-versed in administrative mattersand honest.If anyone has been a member of any committee in the lastthree years, he cannot become a member of another committee.Anyone who has not submitted his accounts, as well as thoseof his relatives, cannot contest the elections.

While inscriptions tell us about kings and powerful men,here is an excerpt from the Periyapuranam, a twelfth-century Tamil work, which informs us about the lives ofordinary men and women.

On the outskirts of Adanur was a small hamlet of Pulaiyas(a name used for a social group considered “outcastes” byBrahmanas and Vellalas), studded with small huts under oldthatches and inhabited by agrarian labourers engaged inmenial occupations. In the thresholds of the huts covered withstrips of leather, little chickens moved about in groups; darkchildren who wore bracelets of black iron were prancingabout, carrying little puppies … In the shade of the marudu(arjuna) trees, a female labourer put her baby to sleep on asheet of leather; there were mango trees from whose branchesdrums were hanging; and under the coconut palms, in littlehollows on the ground, tiny-headed bitches lay after whelping.The red-crested cocks crowed before dawn calling the brawnyPulaiyar (plural) to their day’s work; and by day, under theshade of the kanji tree spread the voice of the wavy-hairedPulaiya women singing as they were husking paddy …

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You are present in an election for a sabha.Describe what you see and hear.


1. Match the following

Gurjara-Pratiharas Western Deccan

Rashtrakutas Bengal

Palas Gujarat and Rajasthan

Cholas Tamil Nadu

2. Who were the parties involved in the “tripartitestruggle”?

3. What were the qualifications necessary to becomea member of a committee of the sabha in theChola Empire?

In China, an empire was established under the Tang dynasty, whichremained in power for about 300 years (from the seventh to thetenth centuries). Its capital, Xi’an, was one of the largest cities inthe world, visited by Turks, Iranians, Indians, Japanese and Koreans.

The Tang empire was administered by a bureaucracy recruitedthrough an examination, which was open to all who wished toappear for it. This system of selecting officials remained in place,with some changes, till 1911.

In what ways was this system different from those prevalent inthe Indian subcontinent?

China under the Tang dynasty

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4. What were the two major cities under the control ofthe Chahamanas?


5. How did the Rashtrakutas become powerful?

6. What did the new dynasties do to gain acceptance?

7. What kind of irrigation works were developed in theTamil region?

8. What were the activities associated with Chola temples?


9. Look at Map 1 once more and find out whether therewere any kingdoms in the state in which you live.

10. Contrast the “elections” in Uttaramerur with present-day panchayat elections.


11. Compare the temple shown in this chapter with anypresent-day temple in your neighbourhood,highlighting any similarities and differences thatyou notice.

12. Find out more about taxes that are collected at present.Are these in cash, kind, or labour services?

KEYWORDS

samanta

temple

nadu

sabha


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In Chapter 2 we saw that regions like the Kaveri delta became the centre of large kingdoms. Did you notice

that there was no mention of a kingdom with Delhi asits capital? That was because Delhi became animportant city only in the twelfth century.

Take a look at Table 1. Delhi first became the capitalof a kingdom under the Tomara Rajputs, who weredefeated in the middle of the twelfth century by theChauhans (also referred to as Chahamanas) of Ajmer. Itwas under the Tomaras and Chauhans that Delhibecame an important commercial centre. Many rich Jainamerchants lived in the city and constructed several

temples. Coins minted here, calleddehliwal, had a wide circulation.

The transformation of Delhi intoa capital that controlled vast areasof the subcontinent started withthe foundation of the DelhiSultanate in the beginning of thethirteenth century. Take a look atTable 1 again and identify the fivedynasties that together made theDelhi Sultanate.

The Delhi Sultans built manycities in the area that we nowknow as Delhi. Look at Map 1and locate Dehli-i Kuhna, Siriand Jahanpanah.

3 THE DELHI SULTANS

Map 1Map 1Map 1Map 1Map 1Selected Sultanatecities of Delhi,thirteenth-fourteenthcenturies.

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RAJPUT DYNASTIESRAJPUT DYNASTIESRAJPUT DYNASTIESRAJPUT DYNASTIESRAJPUT DYNASTIES

Tomaras early twelfth century - 1165

Ananga Pala 1130 -1145

Chauhans 1165 -1192

Prithviraj Chauhan 1175 -1192

EARLY TURKISH RULERSEARLY TURKISH RULERSEARLY TURKISH RULERSEARLY TURKISH RULERSEARLY TURKISH RULERS 1206-12901206-12901206-12901206-12901206-1290

Qutbuddin Aybak 1206 -1210

Shamsuddin Iltutmish 1210 -1236

Raziyya 1236 -1240

Ghiyasuddin Balban 1266 -1287

KHALJI DYNASTYKHALJI DYNASTYKHALJI DYNASTYKHALJI DYNASTYKHALJI DYNASTY 1290 - 13201290 - 13201290 - 13201290 - 13201290 - 1320

Jalaluddin Khalji 1290 - 1296

Alauddin Khalji 1296 -1316

TUGHLUQ DYNASTYTUGHLUQ DYNASTYTUGHLUQ DYNASTYTUGHLUQ DYNASTYTUGHLUQ DYNASTY 1320 - 14141320 - 14141320 - 14141320 - 14141320 - 1414

Ghiyasuddin Tughluq 1320 -1324

Muhammad Tughluq 1324 -1351

Firuz Shah Tughluq 1351 -1388

SAYYID DYNASTYSAYYID DYNASTYSAYYID DYNASTYSAYYID DYNASTYSAYYID DYNASTY 1414 - 14511414 - 14511414 - 14511414 - 14511414 - 1451

Khizr Khan 1414 -1421

LODI DYNASTYLODI DYNASTYLODI DYNASTYLODI DYNASTYLODI DYNASTY 1451 - 15261451 - 15261451 - 15261451 - 15261451 - 1526

Bahlul Lodi 1451 -1489

The rulers of DelhiTable 1

Iltutmish’s tomb

Alai Darwaza

Firuz Shah Tughluq’s tomb

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Finding out about the Delhi SultansAlthough inscriptions, coins and architecture providea lot of information, especially valuable are “histories”,tarikh (singular) / tawarikh (plural), written in Persian,the language of administration under the Delhi Sultans.

The authors of tawarikh were learned men:secretaries, administrators, poets and courtiers, whoboth recounted events and advised rulers ongovernance, emphasising the importance of just rule.

The Circle of JusticeFakhr-i Mudabbir wrote in the thirteenth century:

A king cannot survive without soldiers. And soldiers cannotlive without salaries. Salaries come from the revenue collectedfrom peasants. But peasants can pay revenue only when theyare prosperous and happy. This happens when the kingpromotes justice and honest governance.

Fig.1Four stages in thepreparation of amanuscript.1. Preparing the paper.2. Writing the text.3. Melting gold tohighlight importantwords and passages.4. Preparing thebinding.

Do you think thecircle of justice isan appropriateterm to describethe relationshipbetween the kingand his subjects?

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Express Minhaj’sideas in your ownwords. Do youthink Raziyyashared theseideas? Why doyou think it was sodifficult for awoman to be aruler?

Keep the following additional details in mind: (1) theauthors of tawarikh lived in cities (mainly Delhi) andhardly ever in villages. (2) They often wrote their historiesfor Sultans in the hope of rich rewards. (3) These authorsadvised rulers on the need to preserve an “ideal” socialorder based on birthrightbirthrightbirthrightbirthrightbirthright and gender distinctionsgender distinctionsgender distinctionsgender distinctionsgender distinctions.Their ideas were not shared by everybody.

In 1236 Sultan Iltutmish’s daughter, Raziyya,became Sultan. The chronicler of the age, Minhaj-i Siraj,recognised that she was more able and qualified thanall her brothers. But he was not comfortable at havinga queen as ruler. Nor were the nobles happy at herattempts to rule independently. She was removed fromthe throne in 1240.

What Minhaj-i Siraj thought about RaziyyaMinhaj-i Siraj thought that the queen’s rule went againstthe ideal social order created by God, in which womenwere supposed to be subordinate to men. He thereforeasked: “In the register of God’s creation, since her accountdid not fall under the column of men, how did she gainfrom all of her excellent qualities?”

On her inscriptions and coins Raziyya mentioned thatshe was the daughter of Sultan Iltutmish. This was incontrast to the queen Rudramadevi (1262-1289), of theKakatiya dynasty of Warangal, part of modern AndhraPradesh. Rudramadevi changed her name on herinscriptions and pretended she was a man. Anotherqueen, Didda, ruled in Kashmir (980-1003). Her title isinteresting: it comes from “didi” or “elder sister”, anobviously affectionate term given to a loved ruler byher subjects.

BirthrightBirthrightBirthrightBirthrightBirthrightPrivileges claimedon account ofbirth. For example,people believedthat noblesinherited theirrights to govern,because theywere born incertain families.

GenderGenderGenderGenderGenderdistinctionsdistinctionsdistinctionsdistinctionsdistinctionsSocial and biologicaldifferences betweenwomen and men.Usually, thesedifferences are usedto argue that menare superior towomen.

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From garrison town to empireThe expansion of the Delhi Sultanate

In the early thirteenth century the control of the DelhiSultans rarely went beyond heavily fortified townsoccupied by garrisons. The Sultans seldom controlledthe hinterlandhinterlandhinterlandhinterlandhinterland of the cities and were thereforedependent upon trade, tribute or plunder for supplies.

Controlling garrison townsgarrison townsgarrison townsgarrison townsgarrison towns in distant Bengal andSind from Delhi was extremely difficult. Rebellion, war,even bad weather could snap fragile communicationroutes. The state was also challenged by Mongolinvasions from Afghanistan and by governors whorebelled at any sign of the Sultan’s weakness. TheSultanate barely survived these challenges. Itsexpansion occurred during the reigns of GhiyasuddinBalban, Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq.

The first set of campaigns along the “internal frontier”of the Sultanate aimed at consolidating the hinterlandsof the garrison towns. During these campaigns forestswere cleared in the Ganga-Yamuna doab and hunter-gatherers and pastoralists expelled from their habitat.

Garrison townGarrison townGarrison townGarrison townGarrison townA fortifiedsettlement, withsoldiers.

HinterlandHinterlandHinterlandHinterlandHinterlandThe landsadjacent to a cityor port that supplyit with goods andservices.

Map 2Map 2Map 2Map 2Map 2Major cities capturedby ShamsuddinIltutmish.

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Map 3Map 3Map 3Map 3Map 3Alauddin Khalji’scampaign intoSouth India.

These lands were given to peasants and agriculture wasencouraged. New fortresses and towns were establishedto protect trade routes and to promote regional trade.

The second expansion occurred along the “externalfrontier” of the Sultanate. Military expeditions intosouthern India started during the reign of AlauddinKhalji (see Map 3) and culminated with MuhammadTughluq. In their campaigns, Sultanate armiescaptured elephants, horses and slaves and carried awayprecious metals.

By the end of Muhammad Tughluq’s reign, 150 yearsafter somewhat humble beginnings, the armies of theDelhi Sultanate had marched across a large part of thesubcontinent. They had defeated rival armies and seizedcities. The Sultanate collected taxes from the peasantryand dispensed justice in its realm. But how completeand effective was its control over such a vast territory?

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The The The The The MasjidMasjidMasjidMasjidMasjid

A mosque is called a masjid in Arabic, literally aplace where a Muslim prostrates in reverence toAllah. In a “congregational mosque” (masjid-i jami orjama masjid) Muslims read their prayers (namaz)together. Members of the congregation choose themost respected, learned male as their leader (imam)for the rituals of prayer. He also delivers the sermon(khutba) during the Friday prayer.

During prayer, Muslims stand facing Mecca. InIndia this is to the west. This is called the qibla.

Fig. 2Quwwat al-Islammosque and minaretbuilt during the lastdecade of the twelfthcentury. This was thecongregational mosqueof the first city built bythe Delhi Sultans,described in thechronicles as Dehli-ikuhna (the old city).The mosque wasenlarged by Iltutmishand Alauddin Khalji.The minar was built bythree Sultans–Qutbuddin Aybak,Iltutmish and FiruzShah Tughluq.

Fig. 3Begumpuri mosque,built in the reign ofMuhammad Tughluq,was the main mosqueof Jahanpanah, the“Sanctuary of theWorld”, his new capitalin Delhi. See Map 1.

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A closer look: Administration andConsolidation under the Khaljis andTughluqsThe consolidation of a kingdom as vast as the DelhiSultanate needed reliable governors andadministrators. Rather than appointing aristocrats andlanded chieftains as governors, the early Delhi Sultans,especially Iltutmish, favoured their special slavespurchased for military service, called bandagan inPersian. They were carefully trained to man some ofthe most important political offices in the kingdom.Since they were totally dependent upon their master,the Sultan could trust and rely upon them.

Fig. 4Moth ki Masjid, builtin the reign ofSikandar Lodi by hisminister.

The Delhi Sultans built severalmosques in cities all overthe subcontinent. Thesedemonstrated theirclaims to be protectorsof Islam and Muslims.Mosques also helpedto create the sense of acommunity of believers

who shared a beliefsystem and a code ofconduct. It wasnecessary to reinforcethis idea of acommunity becauseMuslims came from avariety ofbackgrounds.

Fig. 5Mosque of JamaliKamali, built in thelate 1520s.

Compare Figures 2,3,4 and 5. What similarities and differences doyou note amongst the mosques? The mosques in Figures 3, 4 and 5show an evolution in architectural tradition that culminates in ShahJahan’s mosque in Delhi (see fig 7 in Chapter 5).

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A clientclientclientclientclient issomeone who isunder theprotection ofanother, adependent orhanger-on.

Slaves rather than sonsThe Sultans were advised: “A slave, whom one hasbrought up and promoted, must be looked after for itneeds a whole lifetime and good luck to find a worthyand experienced slave. Wise men have said that a worthyand experienced slave is better than a son …”

Can you think of any reason why a slave would bebetter than a son?

The Khaljis and Tughluqs continued to usebandagan and also raised people of humble birth, whowere often their clients, to high political positions. Theywere appointed as generals and governors. However,this also introduced an element of political instability.

Slaves and clientsclientsclientsclientsclients were loyal to their masters andpatrons, but not to their heirs. New Sultans had theirown servants. As a result the accession of a newmonarch often saw conflict between the old and thenew nobility. The patronage of these humble people bythe Delhi Sultans also shocked many elites and theauthors of Persian tawarikh criticised the Delhi Sultansfor appointing the “low and base-born” to high offices.

Officials of Sultan Muhammad TughluqSultan Muhammad Tughluq appointed Aziz Khummar,a wine distiller, Firuz Hajjam, a barber, Mank a Tabbakh,a cook, and two gardeners, Ladha and Pira, tohigh administrative posts. Ziyauddin Barani, a mid-fourteenth-century-chronicler, reported theirappointments as a sign of the Sultan’s loss of politicaljudgement and his incapacity to rule.

Why do you think Barani criticised the Sultan?

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Like the earlier Sultans, the Khalji and Tughluqmonarchs appointed military commanders asgovernors of territories of varying sizes. These landswere called iqta and their holder was called iqtadar ormuqti. The duty of the muqtis was to lead militarycampaigns and maintain law and order in their iqtas.In exchange for their military services, the muqtiscollected the revenues of their assignments as salary.They also paid their soldiers from these revenues.Control over muqtis was most effective if their officewas not inheritable and if they were assigned iqtas fora short period of time before being shifted. These harshconditions of service were rigorously imposed duringthe reigns of Alauddin Khalji and MuhammadTughluq. Accountants were appointed by the state tocheck the amount of revenue collected by the muqtis.Care was taken that the muqti collected only the taxesprescribed by the state and that he kept the requirednumber of soldiers.

As the Delhi Sultans brought the hinterland of thecities under their control, they forced the landedchieftains — the samanta aristocrats — and richlandlords to accept their authority. Under AlauddinKhalji the state brought the assessment and collectionof land revenue under its own control. The rights ofthe local chieftains to levy taxes were cancelled andthey were also forced to pay taxes. The Sultan’sadministrators measured the land and kept carefulaccounts. Some of the old chieftains and landlordsserved the Sultanate as revenue collectors andassessors. There were three types of taxes – (1) oncultivation called kharaj and amounting to about 50per cent of the peasant’s produce, (2) on cattle and(3) on houses.

It is important to remember that large parts of thesubcontinent remained outside the control of the DelhiSultans. It was difficult to control distant provinceslike Bengal from Delhi and soon after annexingsouthern India, the entire region became independent.Even in the Gangetic plain there were forested areas

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that Sultanate forces could not penetrate. Localchieftains established their rule in these regions.Sometimes rulers like Alauddin Khalji andMuhammad Tughluq could force their control in theseareas but only for a short duration.

Chieftains and their fortificationsIbn Battuta, a fourteenth-century traveller from Morocco,Africa, explained that chieftains sometimes “fortifiedthemselves in mountains, in rocky, uneven and ruggedplaces as well as in bamboo groves. In India the bamboois not hollow; it is big. Its several parts are so intertwinedthat even fire cannot affect them, and they are on thewhole very strong. The chieftains live in these forestswhich serve them as ramparts, inside which are theircattle and their crops. There is also water for them within,that is, rain water which collects there. Hence they cannotbe subdued except by powerful armies, who enteringthese forests, cut down the bamboos with speciallyprepared instruments.”

Describe the ways in which the chieftains arrangedfor their defence.

The Mongols under Genghis Khan invadedTransoxiana in north-east Iran in 1219 and the DelhiSultanate faced their onslaught soon after. Mongolattacks on the Delhi Sultanate increased during thereign of Alauddin Khalji and in the early years ofMuhammad Tughluq’s rule. This forced the two rulersto mobilise a large standing army in Delhi which poseda huge administrative challenge. Let us see how thetwo Sultans dealt with this.

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Delhi was attackedattackedattackedattackedattacked twice, in1299/1300 and 1302-03.As a de f ens i ve measure ,Alauddin Khalji raised a largestanding army.

Alauddin constructedconstructedconstructedconstructedconstructed a newgarrison town named Siri forhis soldiers. See Map 1.

The soldiers had to be fedfedfedfedfed. Thiswas done through the producecollected as tax from landsbetween the Ganga and Yamuna.Tax was fixed at 50 per cent ofthe peasant’s yield.

The soldiers had to be paidpaidpaidpaidpaid.Alauddin chose to pay hissoldiers salaries in cash ratherthan iqtas. The soldiers wouldbuy their supplies frommerchants in Delhi and it wasthus feared that merchantswould raise their prices. To stopthis, Alauddin controlled theprices of goods in Delhi. Priceswere carefully surveyed byofficers, and merchants who didnot sell at the prescribed rateswere punished.

Alauddin’s administrativeadministrativeadministrativeadministrativeadministrativemeasuresmeasuresmeasuresmeasuresmeasures were quite successfuland chroniclers praised his reignfor its cheap prices and efficientsupplies of goods in the market.He successfully withstood thethreat of Mongol invasions.

The Sultanate was attackedattackedattackedattackedattacked in the early years ofMuhammad Tughluq’s reign. The Mongol army wasdefeated. Muhammad Tughluq was confident aboutthe strength of his army and his resources to plan anattack on Transoxiana. He therefore raised a largestanding army.

Rather than constructingconstructingconstructingconstructingconstructing a new garrison town, theoldest of the four cities of Delhi (Dehli-i Kuhna) wasemptied of its residents and the soldiers garrisonedthere. The residents of the old city were sent to thenew capital of Daulatabad in the south.

Produce from the same area was collected as tax tofeedfeedfeedfeedfeed the army. But to meet the need of the largenumber of soldiers the Sultan levied additional taxes.This coincided with famine in the area.

Muhammad Tughluq also paidpaidpaidpaidpaid his soldiers cashsalaries. But instead of controlling prices, he used a“token” currency, somewhat like present-day papercurrency, but made out of cheap metals, not gold andsilver. People in the fourteenth century did not trustthese coins. They were very smart: they saved theirgold and silver coins and paid all their taxes to thestate with this token currency. This cheap currencycould also be counterfeited easily.

Muhammad Tughluq’s administrative measuresadministrative measuresadministrative measuresadministrative measuresadministrative measureswere a failure. His campaign into Kashmir was adisaster. He then gave up his plans to invadeTransoxiana and disbanded his large army.Meanwhile, his administrative measures createdcomplications. The shifting of people to Daulatabadwas resented. The raising of taxes and famine in theGanga-Yamuna belt led to widespread rebellion. Andfinally, the “token” currency had to be recalled.

Alauddin KhaljiAlauddin KhaljiAlauddin KhaljiAlauddin KhaljiAlauddin Khalji Muhammad TughluqMuhammad TughluqMuhammad TughluqMuhammad TughluqMuhammad Tughluq

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In this list of Muhammad Tughluq’s failures wesometimes forget that for the first time in the history of theSultanate, a Delhi Sultan planned a campaign to captureMongol territory. Unlike Alauddin’s defensive measures,Muhammad Tughluq’s measures were conceived as apart of a military offensive against the Mongols.

The Sultanate in the fifteenth andsixteenth centuriesTake a look at Table 1 again. You will notice that afterthe Tughluqs, the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties ruled fromDelhi and Agra until 1526. By then, Jaunpur, Bengal,Malwa, Gujarat, Rajasthan and the entire south Indiahad independent rulers who established flourishingstates and prosperous capitals. This was also the periodwhich saw the emergence of new ruling groups like theAfghans and the Rajputs.

Some of the states established in this period weresmall but powerful and extremely well administered.Sher Shah Sur (1540-1545) started his career as themanager of a small territory for his uncle in Bihar andeventually challenged and defeated the Mughal emperorHumayun (1530-1540, 1555-1556). Sher Shahcaptured Delhi and established his own dynasty.Although the Suri dynasty ruled for only fifteen years(1540-1555), it introduced an administration thatborrowed elements from Alauddin Khalji and madethem more efficient. Sher Shah’s administration becamethe model followed by the great emperor Akbar(1556-1605) when he consolidated the Mughal Empire.

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You are a peasant in Alauddin Khalji ’sor Muhammad Tughluq’s reign and youcannot pay the taxes demanded by theSultan. What will you do?


1. Which ruler first established his or her capital at Delhi?

2. What was the language of administration under theDelhi Sultans?

3. In whose reign did the Sultanate reach its farthestextent?

4. From which country did Ibn Battuta travel to India?

The “Three Orders”, the “Peace of God”,Knights and the Crusades

The idea of the “Three Orders” was first formulated in France in theearly eleventh century. It divided society into three classes: thosewho prayed, those who fought, and those who tilled the land. Thisdivision of society into “Three Orders” was supported by the Churchto consolidate its dominant role in society. This helped theemergence of a new warrior group called knights.

The Church patronised this group and used them to propagatetheir idea of “Peace of God”. The attempt was to direct warriorsaway from conflict amongst themselves and send them instead ona campaign against the Muslims who had captured the city ofJerusalem. This led to a series of campaigns called the Crusades.These campaigns in the service of God and the Church completelyaltered the status of knights. Originally, these knights did not belongto the class of nobles. But by the end of the eleventh century inFrance, and a century later in Germany, the humble origins of thesewarriors were forgotten. By the twelfth century, nobles also wantedto be known as knights.

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5. According to the “Circle of Justice”, why was itimportant for military commanders to keep theinterests of the peasantry in mind?

6. What is meant by the “internal” and “external” frontiersof the Sultanate?

7. What were the steps taken to ensure that muqtisperformed their duties? Why do you think they mayhave wanted to defy the orders of the Sultans?

8. What was the impact of the Mongol invasions on theDelhi Sultanate?


9. Do you think the authors of tawarikh would provideinformation about the lives of ordinary men andwomen?

10. Raziyya Sultan was unique in the history of the DelhiSultanate. Do you think women leaders are acceptedmore readily today?

11. Why were the Delhi Sultans interested in cutting downforests? Does deforestation occur for the same reasonstoday?


12. Find out whether there are any buildings built by theDelhi Sultans in your area. Are there any otherbuildings in your area that were built between thetwelfth and fifteenth centuries? Describe some of thesebuildings, and draw sketches of them.

KEYWORDS

iqta

tarikh

garrison

Mongols

gender

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Ruling as large a territory as the Indian subcontinent with such a diversity of people and cultures was

an extremely difficult task for any ruler to accomplishin the Middle Ages. Quite in contrast to theirpredecessors, the Mughals created an empire andaccomplished what had hitherto seemed possible foronly short periods of time. From the latter half of thesixteenth century they expanded their kingdom fromAgra and Delhi until in the seventeenth century theycontrolled nearly all of the subcontinent. They imposedstructures of administration and ideas of governancethat outlasted their rule, leaving a political legacy thatsucceeding rulers of the subcontinent could not ignore.Today the Prime Minister of India addresses the nationfrom the ramparts of the Red Fort in Delhi, the residenceof the Mughal emperors, on Independence Day.

4 THE CREATION OF AN EMPIRE:The Mughal Dynasty

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Fig. 1The Red Fort.

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Who were the Mughals?The Mughals were descendants of two great lineages ofrulers. From their mother’s side they were descendantsof Genghis Khan (died 1227), ruler of the Mongol tribes,China and Central Asia. From their father’s side theywere the successors of Timur (died 1404), the ruler ofIran, Iraq and modern-day Turkey. However, theMughals did not like to be called Mughal or Mongol.This was because Genghis Khan’s memory wasassociated with the massacre of innumerable people.It was also linked with the Uzbegs, their Mongolcompetitors. On the other hand, the Mughals were

Fig. 2A miniature painting (dated 1702-1712) of Timur, his descendantsand the Mughal emperors. Timur is in the centre and on his right ishis son Miran Shah (the first Mughal emperor Babur’s great-great-grandfather) and then Abu Said (Babur’s grandfather). To the left ofTimur are Sultan Muhammad Mirza (Babur’s great-grandfather) andUmar Shaikh (Babur’s father). The Mughal emperors Babur, Akbarand Shah Jahan are the third, fourth and fifth individuals onTimur’s right and on his left, in the same order, are Humayun,Jahangir and Aurangzeb.

Do you think thispainting suggeststhat the Mughalsclaimed kingshipas a birthright?

?

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proud of their Timurid ancestry, not least of all becausetheir great ancestor had captured Delhi in 1398.

They celebrated their genealogy pictorially, each rulergetting a picture made of Timur and himself. Take alook at Figure 1, which is somewhat like a “groupphotograph”.

Mughal militarycampaignsBabur, the first Mughal emperor (1526-1530), succeeded to the throne ofFerghana in 1494 when he was only12 years old. He was forced to leavehis ancestral throne due to the invasionof another Mongol group, the Uzbegs.After years of wandering he seizedKabul in 1504. In 1526 he defeated theSultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, atPanipat and captured Delhi and Agra.

Table 1 charts some of the majorcampaigns of the Mughals. Study it carefully and see ifyou can notice any long-term patterns. You will notice,

for example, that theAfghans were animmediate threat toMughal authority. Notethe relationship betweenthe Mughals and theAhoms (see also Chapter7), the Sikhs (see alsoChapters 8 and 10), andMewar and Marwar (seealso Chapter 9). Howwas Humayun’srelationship with SafavidIran different fromAkbar’s? Did theannexation of Golcondaand Bijapur inAurangzeb’s reign end

hostilities in the Deccan?

Fig. 3Mughal army oncampaign.

Fig. 4Cannons were animportant addition insixteenth centurywarfare. Babur usedthem effectively at thefirst battle of Panipat.

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Table 1Table 1Table 1Table 1Table 1

mughal emperorsMajor campaigns and events

1526 – defeated Ibrahim Lodi and his Afghan supporters atPanipat.1527 – defeated Rana Sanga, Rajput rulers and allies atKhanua.1528 – defeated the Rajputs at Chanderi.Established control over Agra and Delhi before his death.

BABURBABURBABURBABURBABUR 1526-1530 1526-1530 1526-1530 1526-1530 1526-1530

AKBAR AKBAR AKBAR AKBAR AKBAR1556-16051556-16051556-16051556-16051556-1605

Akbar was 13 years old when he became emperor. Hisreign can be divided into three periods.(1) 1556-1570 – Akbar became independent of the regentBairam Khan and other members of his domestic staff.Military campaigns were launched against the Suris andother Afghans, against the neighbouring kingdoms ofMalwa and Gondwana, and to suppress the revolt of hishalf-brother Mirza Hakim and the Uzbegs. In 1568 theSisodiya capital of Chittor was seized and in 1569Ranthambhor.(2) 1570-1585 – military campaigns in Gujarat werefollowed by campaigns in the east in Bihar, Bengal andOrissa. These campaigns were complicated by the1579-1580 revolt in support of Mirza Hakim.(3) 1585-1605 – expansion of Akbar’s empire. Campaigns inthe north-west. Qandahar was seized from the Safavids,Kashmir was annexed, as also Kabul, after the death ofMirza Hakim. Campaigns in the Deccan started and Berar,Khandesh and parts of Ahmadnagar were annexed.In the last years of his reign Akbar was distracted by therebellion of Prince Salim, the future Emperor Jahangir.

HUMAYUNHUMAYUNHUMAYUNHUMAYUNHUMAYUN 1530-1540, 1555-1556 1530-1540, 1555-1556 1530-1540, 1555-1556 1530-1540, 1555-1556 1530-1540, 1555-1556(1) Humayun divided his inheritance according to the willof his father. His brothers were each given a province.The ambitions of his brother Mirza Kamran weakenedHumayun’s cause against Afghan competitors. Sher Khandefeated Humayun at Chausa (1539) and Kanauj (1540),forcing him to flee to Iran.(2) In Iran Humayun received help from the Safavid Shah.He recaptured Delhi in 1555 but died in an accident thefollowing year.

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Jahangir 1605-1627Jahangir 1605-1627Jahangir 1605-1627Jahangir 1605-1627Jahangir 1605-1627Military campaigns started by Akbar continued.The Sisodiya ruler of Mewar, Amar Singh, acceptedMughal service. Less successful campaigns againstthe Sikhs, the Ahoms and Ahmadnagar followed.Prince Khurram, the future Emperor Shah Jahan,rebelled in the last years of his reign. The efforts ofNur Jahan, Jahangir’s wife, to marginalise him wereunsuccessful.

Shah Jahan 1627-1658Shah Jahan 1627-1658Shah Jahan 1627-1658Shah Jahan 1627-1658Shah Jahan 1627-1658Mughal campaigns continued in the Deccan underShah Jahan. The Afghan noble Khan Jahan Lodirebelled and was defeated. Campaigns were launchedagainst Ahmadnagar; the Bundelas were defeated andOrchha seized. In the north-west, the campaign to seizeBalkh from the Uzbegs was unsuccessful andQandahar was lost to the Safavids. In 1632Ahmadnagar was finally annexed and the Bijapurforces sued for peace. In 1657-1658, there was conflictover succession amongst Shah Jahan’s sons.Aurangzeb was victorious and his three brothers,including Dara Shukoh, were killed. Shah Jahan wasimprisoned for the rest of his life in Agra.

Aurangzeb 1658-1707Aurangzeb 1658-1707Aurangzeb 1658-1707Aurangzeb 1658-1707Aurangzeb 1658-1707(1) In the north-east, the Ahoms were defeated in 1663, but rebelled again inthe 1680s. Campaigns in the north-west against the Yusufzai and the Sikhs

were temporarily successful. Mughal intervention in thesuccession and internal politics of the Rathor Rajputs of

Marwar led to their rebellion. Campaigns against theMaratha chieftain Shivaji were initially successful. ButAurangzeb insulted Shivaji who escaped from Agra,declared himself an independent king and resumed hiscampaigns against the Mughals. Prince Akbar rebelledagainst Aurangzeb and received support from theMarathas and Deccan Sultanate. He finally fled toSafavid Iran.(2) After Akbar’s rebellion Aurangzeb sent armies againstthe Deccan Sultanates. Bijapur was annexed in 1685 andGolcunda in 1687. From 1698 Aurangzeb personally

managed campaigns in the Deccan against the Marathaswho started guerrilla warfare. Aurangzeb also had to face the

rebellion in north India of the Sikhs, Jats and Satnamis, in the north-eastof the Ahoms and in the Deccan of the Marathas. His death was followedby a succession conflict amongst his sons.

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Mughal traditions of successionThe Mughals did not believe in the rule of primogeniture,where the eldest son inherited his father’s estate. Insteadthey followed the Mughal and Timurid custom ofcoparcenary inheritance, or a division of the inheritanceamongst all the sons. Follow the highlighted passagesin Table 1, and note the evidence for rebellionsby Mughal princes. Which do you think is a fairerdivision of inheritance: primogeniture or coparcenary ?

Mughal relations with other rulersTake a look at Table 1 once again. You will notice thatthe Mughal rulers campaigned constantly againstrulers who refused to accept their authority. But asthe Mughals became powerful many other rulers alsojoined them voluntarily. The Rajputs are a goodexample of this. Many of them married their daughtersinto Mughal families and received high positions. Butmany resisted as well.

Mughal marriageswith the RajputsThe mother ofJahangir wasa Kachhwahaprincess, daughterof the Rajput rulerof Amber (modernday Jaipur). Themother of ShahJahan was a Rathorprincess, daughterof the Rajput rulerof Marwar (Jodhpur).

Map 1Map 1Map 1Map 1Map 1Akbar’s reign 1605

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Zat rankingNobles with a zatof 5,000 wereranked higher thanthose of 1,000.In Akbar’s reignthere were 29mansabdars with arank of 5,000 zat;by Aurangzeb’sreign the numberof mansabdarshad increased to79. Would thishave meant moreexpenditure forthe state?

The Sisodiya Rajputs refused to accept Mughalauthority for a long time. Once defeated, however, theywere honourably treated by the Mughals, given theirlands (watan) back as assignments (watan jagir). Thecareful balance between defeating but not humiliatingtheir opponents enabled the Mughals to extend theirinfluence over many kings and chieftains. But it wasdifficult to keep this balance all the time. Look at Table1 again – note that Aurangzeb insulted Shivaji when hecame to accept Mughal authority. What was theconsequence of this insult?

Mansabdars and jagirdarsAs the empire expanded to encompass different regionsthe Mughals recruited diverse bodies of people. Froma small nucleus of Turkish nobles (Turanis) theyexpanded to include Iranians, Indian Muslims,Afghans, Rajputs, Marathas and other groups. Thosewho joined Mughal service were enrolled asmansabdars.

The term mansabdar refers to an individual whoholds a mansab, meaning a position or rank. It was agrading system used by the Mughals to fix (1) rank,(2) salary and (3) military responsibilities. Rank andsalary were determined by a numerical value called zat.The higher the zat, the more prestigious was the noble’sposition in court and the larger his salary.

The mansabdar’s military responsibilities requiredhim to maintain a specified number of sawar orcavalrymen. The mansabdar brought his cavalrymenfor review, got them registered, their horses brandedand then received money to pay them as salary.

Mansabdars received their salaries as revenueassignments called jagirs which were somewhat likeiqtas. But unlike muqtis, most mansabdars did notactually reside in or administer their jagirs. They onlyhad rights to the revenue of their assignments whichwas collected for them by their servants while the

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mansabdars themselvesserved in some other part ofthe country.

In Akbar’s reign thesejagirs were carefullyassessed so that theirrevenues were roughlyequal to the salary of themansadar. By Aurangzeb’sreign this was no longer thecase and the actual revenue

collected was often less than the granted sum. Therewas also a huge increase in the number of mansabdarswhich meant a long wait before they received a jagir.These and other factors created a shortage in thenumber of jagirs. As a result, many jagirdars triedto extract as much revenue as possible while they hada jagir. Aurangzeb was unable to control thesedevelopments in the last years of his reign and thepeasantry therefore suffered tremendously.

Zabt and zamindarsThe main source of income available to Mughal rulerswas tax on the produce of the peasantry. In most places,

peasants paid taxes through the rural elites, that is,the headman or the local chieftain. The Mughalsused one term – zamindars – to describe all

intermediaries, whether they were local headmenof villages or powerful chieftains.

Akbar’s revenue minister, Todar Mal, carriedout a careful survey of crop yields, pricesand areas cultivated for a ten-year period,1570-1580. On the basis of this data, tax wasfixed on each crop in cash. Each provincewas divided into revenue circles with its ownschedule of revenue rates for individualcrops. This revenue system was known aszabt. It was prevalent in those areas whereMughal administrators could survey the land

Fig. 5A mansabdar onmarch with hissawars.

Fig. 6Details from aminiature from ShahJahan’s reign depictingcorruption in hisfather’s administration.(1) A corrupt officerrecieves a bribe and(2) a tax-collectorpunishes poorpeasants. ©NCERT

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and keep very careful accounts. This was not possiblein provinces such as Gujarat and Bengal.

In some areas the zamindars exercised a great dealof power. The exploitation by Mughal administratorscould drive them to rebellion. Sometimes zamindarsand peasants of the same caste allied in rebelling againstMughal authority. These peasant revolts challenged thestability of the Mughal Empire from the end of theseventeenth century.

Akbar Nama and Ain-i AkbariAkbar ordered one of his close friends andcourtiers, Abul Fazl, to write a history of hisreign. Abul Fazl wrote a three volume historyof Akbar’s reign titled, Akbar Nama. The firstvolume dealt with Akbar’s ancestors and thesecond volume recorded the events ofAkbar’s reign. The third volume is the Ain-iAkbari. It deals with Akbar’s administration,household, army, the revenues and geographyof his empire. It also provides rich detailsabout the traditions and culture of the peopleliving in India. The most interesting aspectabout the Ain-i Akbari is its rich statisticaldetails about things as diverse as crops,yields, prices, wages and revenues.

A closer look–Akbar’s policiesThe broad features of administration were laid downby Akbar and were elaborately discussed by Abul Fazlin his book the Akbar Nama, in particular in its lastvolume, the Ain-i Akbari.

Abul Fazl explained that the empire was divided intoprovinces called subas, governed by a subadar whocarried out both political and military functions. Eachprovince also had a financial officer or diwan. For themaintenance of peace and order in his province, thesubadar was supported by other officers such as the

Fig. 7Akbar recieving the Akbar Namafrom Abul Fazl.

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military paymaster (bakhshi), the minister in charge ofreligious and charitable patronage (sadr), militarycommanders (faujdars) and the town police commander(kotwal).

Nur Jahan’s influence in Jahangir’s courtMehrunnisa, married the Emperor Jahangirin 1611 and received the title Nur Jahan.She remained extremely loyal andsupportive to the monarch. As a mark ofhonour, Jahangir struck silver coins bearinghis own titles on one side and on the otherthe inscription “struck in the name of theQueen Begum, Nur Jahan”.

The adjoining document is an order(farman) of Nur Jahan. The square seal states,“Command of her most Sublime andElevated Majesty Nur Jahan Padshah Begum”.The round seal states, “by the sun of Shah

Jahangir she became as brilliant as the moon; mayNur Jahan Padshah be the lady of the age”.

Akbar’s nobles commanded large armies and hadaccess to large amounts of revenue. While they wereloyal the empire functioned efficiently but by the end ofthe seventeenth century many nobles had builtindependent networks of their own. Their loyalties tothe empire were weakened by their own self-interest.

While Akbar was at Fatehpur Sikri during the 1570she started discussions on religion with the ulama,Brahmanas, Jesuit priests who were Roman Catholics,and Zoroastrians. These discussions took place in theibadat khana. He was interested in the religion andsocial customs of different people. It made him realisethat religious scholars who emphasised ritual anddogmadogmadogmadogmadogma were often bigotsbigotsbigotsbigotsbigots. Their teachings createddivisions and disharmony amongst his subjects. Thiseventually led Akbar to the idea of sulh-i kul or

DogmaDogmaDogmaDogmaDogmaA statement or aninterpretationdeclared asauthoritative withthe expectationthat it would befollowed withoutquestion

BigotBigotBigotBigotBigotAn individual whois intolerant ofanother person’sreligious beliefs orculture

Fig. 8Nur Jahan’s farman.

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?

“universal peace”. This idea of tolerance did notdiscriminate between people of different religions inhis realm. Instead it focused on a system of ethics –honesty, justice, peace – that was universallyapplicable. Abul Fazl helped Akbar in framing a visionof governance around this idea of sulh-i kul. Thisprinciple of governance was followed by Jahangir andShah Jahan as well.

sulh-i kulJahangir, Akbar’s son, described his father’s policy ofsulh-i kul in the following words:

“As in the wide expanse of the divine compassion there is roomfor all classes and the followers of all creeds, so … in hisImperial dominions, which on all sides were limited only thesea, there was room for the professors of opposite religions,and for beliefs, good and bad, and the road to intolerance wasclosed. Sunnis and Shias met in one mosque and Christiansand Jews in one church to pray. He consistently followed theprinciple of ‘universal peace’ (sulh-i kul).”

Fig. 9Akbar holdingdiscussions withlearned individuals ofdifferent faiths in theibadat khana.

Can you identifythe Jesuit priestsin this picture?

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The mughal empire in theseventeenth century and afterThe administrative and military efficiency of the MughalEmpire led to great economic and commercialprosperity. International travellers described it as thefabled land of wealth. But these same visitors were alsoappalled at the state of poverty that existed side byside with the greatest opulence. The inequalities wereglaring. Documents from the twentieth year of ShahJahan’s reign inform us that the highest rankingmansabdars were only 445 in number out of a total of8,000. This small number – a mere 5.6 per cent of thetotal number of mansabdars – received 61.5 per centof the total estimated revenue of the empire as salariesfor themselves and their troopers.

The Mughal emperors and their mansabdars spenta great deal of their income on salaries and goods.This expenditure benefited the artisans and peasantrywho supplied them with goods and produce. But thescale of revenue collection left very little for investmentin the hands of the primary producers – the peasantand the artisan. The poorest amongst them livedfrom hand to mouth and they could hardly considerinvesting in additional resources – tools and supplies– to increase productivity. The wealthier peasantry andartisanal groups, the merchants and bankers profitedin this economic world.

The enormous wealth and resources commandedby the Mughal elite made them an extremely powerfulgroup of people in the late seventeenth century. As theauthority of the Mughal emperor slowly declined, hisservants emerged as powerful centres of power in theregions. They constituted new dynasties and heldcommand of provinces like Hyderabad and Awadh.Although they continued to recognise the Mughalemperor in Delhi as their master, by the eighteenthcentury the provinces of the empire had consolidatedtheir independent political identities. We will read moreabout them in Chapter 10.

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Babur and Akbar were about your age whenthey became rulers. Imagine you haveinherited a kingdom. How would you make

your kingdom stable and prosperous?

Queens and kings

There were several great monarchs – all near contemporaries — indifferent parts of the world in the sixteenth century.

These included Queen Elizabeth I (1558-1603) of England. Elizabethwas the last ruler of a dynasty known as the Tudors. Elizabeth’s rulewas marked by several conflicts – foremost amongst these wereconflicts between the Roman Catholic Church and the Protestants,who were attempting to reform the Church. Elizabeth sided with thelatter, and tried to establish the independence of the Church of Englandfrom Roman control, even as she adopted several practices of theRoman Church. She came into conflict with Philip II, the powerfulruler of Spain, and defeated a Spanish effort to attack England. Underher patronage English sailors harassed the Spanish fleet and made itdifficult for them to control the wealth of the Americas. She was agreat patron of the arts and supported the famous English playwrightWilliam Shakespeare. A poet named Edmund Spenser wrote a longepic poem called The Faerie Queene in her praise.

Find out more about Akbar’s other contemporaries – the ruler ofOttoman Turkey, Sultan Suleyman, also known as “al-Qanuni” or thelawgiver (1520-1566); the Safavid ruler of Iran, Shah Abbas (1588-1629); and the more controversial Russian ruler, Czar Ivan IVVasilyevich, also called “Ivan the terrible” (1530-1584).


1. Match the following

mansab Marwar

Mongol governor

Sisodiya Rajput Uzbeg

Rathor Rajput Mewar

Nur Jahan Babur

subadar rank

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2. Fill in the blanks

(a) The capital of Mirza Hakim, Akbar’s half-brother,was____________.

(b) The five Deccan Sultanates were Berar, Khandesh,Ahmadnagar, _____________ and_________________.

(c) If zat determined a mansabdar’s rank and salary,sawar indicated his ____________ .

(d) Abul Fazl, Akbar’s friend and counsellor, helpedhim frame the idea of ____________________so that he could govern a society composed ofmany religions, cultures and castes.

3. What were the central provinces under the control ofthe Mughals?

4. What was the relationship between the mansabdarand the jagir?


5. What was the role of the zamindar in Mughaladministration?

6. How were the debates with religious scholars importantin the formation of Akbar’s ideas on governance?

7. Why did the Mughals emphasise their Timurid andnot their Mughal descent?

KEYWORDS

Mughal

mansab

jagir

zat

sawar

sulh-i kul

primogeniture

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8. How important was the income from land revenue tothe stability of the Mughal Empire?

9. Why was it important for the Mughals to recruitmansabdars from diverse backgrounds and not justTuranis and Iranis?

10. Like the Mughal Empire, India today is also made upof many social and cultural units. Does this pose achallenge to national integration?

11. Peasants were vital for the economy of the MughalEmpire. Do you think that they are as important today?Has the gap in the income between the rich and thepoor in India changed a great deal from the period ofthe Mughals?


12. The Mughal Empire left its impact on the differentregions of the subcontinent in a variety of ways. Findout if it had any impact in the city/village/region inwhich you live.

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8. How important was the income from land revenue tothe stability of the Mughal Empire?

9. Why was it important for the Mughals to recruitmansabdars from diverse backgrounds and not justTuranis and Iranis?

10. Like the Mughal Empire, India today is also made upof many social and cultural units. Does this pose achallenge to national integration?

11. Peasants were vital for the economy of the MughalEmpire. Do you think that they are as important today?Has the gap in the income between the rich and thepoor in India changed a great deal from the period ofthe Mughals?


12. The Mughal Empire left its impact on the differentregions of the subcontinent in a variety of ways. Findout if it had any impact in the city/village/region inwhich you live.

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Figure 1 shows the first balcony of the Qutb Minar.Qutbuddin Aybak had this constructed around

1199. Notice the pattern created under the balconyby the small arches and geometrical designs. Can youfind two bands of inscriptions under the balcony?These are in Arabic. Notice that the surface of the minaris curved and angular. Placing an inscription on sucha surface required great precision. Only the mostskilled craftsperson could perform this task.Remember that very few buildings were made of stoneor brick 800 years ago. What would have been theimpact of a building like the Qutb Minar on observersin the thirteenth century?

Between the eighth and the eighteenth centurieskings and their officers built two kinds of structures:

5 RULERS AND BUILDINGS

inar is five. The bandns youer itsy.or wasbyAybak andtutmish9. Over thedamagedand

s andAlauddinammaduz Shah

di.

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the first were forts, palaces and tombs – safe, protectedand grandiose places of rest in this world and the next;the second were structures meant for public activityincluding temples, mosques, tanks, wells, caravanserais and bazaars. Kings were expected to care for theirsubjects, and by making structures for their use andcomfort, rulers hoped to win their praise. Constructionactivity was also carried out by others, includingmerchants. They built temples, mosques and wells.However, domestic architecture – large mansions(havelis) of merchants – has survived only from theeighteenth century.

Engineering Skills and ConstructionMonuments provide an insight into the technologiesused for construction. Take something like a roof forexample. We can make this by placing wooden beamsor a slab of stone across four walls. But the taskbecomes difficult if we want to make a large room withan elaborate superstructuresuperstructuresuperstructuresuperstructuresuperstructure. This requires moresophisticated skills.

Between the seventh and tenth centuries architectsstarted adding more rooms, doors and windows tobuildings. Roofs, doors and windows were still madeby placing a horizontal beam across two verticalcolumns, a style of architecture called “trabeate” or“corbelled”. Between the eighth and thirteenth centuriesthe trabeate style was used in the construction oftemples, mosques, tombs and in buildings attached tolarge stepped-wells (baolis).

Labour for theAgra FortBuilt by Akbar, theAgra Fort required2,000 stone-cutters,2,000 cement andlime-makers and8,000 labourers.

Fig. 2aScreen in the Quwwatal-Islam mosque, Delhi(late twelfth century).

Fig. 2bCorbelled techniqueused in theconstruction of an arch.

SuperstructureSuperstructureSuperstructureSuperstructureSuperstructureThe part of abuilding above theground floor.

RULERS AND BUILDINGS

Fig. 2a Fig. 2b

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rencesticeheof thees? Canout thatra of thevaratwice asat of the

?

Fig. 4The Rajarajeshvara temple at Thanjavur had the tallest shikharaamongst temples of its time. Constructing it was not easybecause there were no cranes in those days andthe 90 tonne stone for the top of the shikharawas too heavy to lift manually. So the architectsbuilt an inclined path to the top of the temple,placed the boulder on rollers and rolled it allthe way to the top. The path started morethan four kilometres away so that itwould not be too steep. This wasdismantled after the temple wasconstructed. But the residentsof the area remembered theexperience of theconstruction of thetemple for a long time.Even now a village nearthe temple is calledCharupallam, the“Village of the Incline”.

Temple Construction in the Early Eleventh CenturyTemple Construction in the Early Eleventh CenturyTemple Construction in the Early Eleventh CenturyTemple Construction in the Early Eleventh CenturyTemple Construction in the Early Eleventh Century

Fig. 3a

The Kandariya Mahadeva templededicated to Shiva was

constructed in 999 by KingDhangadevaof the Chandela dynasty.Fig. 3b is the plan of thetemple. An ornamentedgateway led to anentrance, and the mainhall (mahamandapa)where dances wereperformed. The imageof the chief deitywas kept in themain shrine

(garbhagriha). This wasthe place for ritualworship where only theking, his immediatefamily and priestsgathered. TheKhajuraho complexcontained royal temples where commoners were not allowed entry.The temples were decorated with elaborately carved sculptures.

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Two technological andstylistic developments arenoticeable from the twelfthcentury. (1) The weight ofthe superstructure abovethe doors and windowswas sometimes carried byarches. This architecturalform was called “arcuate”.

Compare Figures 2a and2b with 5a and 5b.

(2) Limestone cementwas increasingly used inconstruction. This was veryhigh quality cement,which, when mixed withstone chips hardenedinto concrete. This madeconstruction of largestructures easier andfaster. Take a look at theconstruction site in Figure 6.

Describe what thelabourers are doing, thetools shown, and themeans of carrying stones.

Building Temples, Mosques andTanksTemples and mosques were beautifully constructedbecause they were places of worship. They were alsomeant to demonstrate the power, wealth anddevotion of the patron. Take the example of theRajarajeshvara temple. An inscription mentions thatit was built by King Rajarajadeva for the worship of

Fig. 5bTrue arch; detail fromthe Alai Darwaza(early fourteenthcentury). Quwwat al-Islam mosque, Delhi.

Fig. 6A painting from theAkbar Nama (dated1590-1595), showingthe constructionof the water-gateat the Agra Fort.


KEYSTONE

Fig. 5aA “true” arch. The “keystone” atthe centre of the arch transferredthe weight of the superstructureto the base of the arch.

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his god, Rajarajeshvaram. Notice how the name ofthe ruler and the god are very similar. The king tookthe god’s name because it was auspicious and hewanted to appear like a god. Through the rituals ofworship in the temple one god (Rajarajadeva)honoured another (Rajarajeshvaram).

The largest temples were all constructed by kings.The other, lesser deities in the temple were gods andgoddesses of the allies and subordinates of the ruler.The temple was a miniature model of the world ruledby the king and his allies. As they worshipped theirdeities together in the royal temples, it seemed as ifthey brought the just rule of the gods on earth.

Muslim Sultans and Padshahs did not claim to beincarnations of god but Persian court chroniclesdescribed the Sultan as the “Shadow of God”. Aninscription in the Delhi mosque explained that Godchose Alauddin as a king because he had the qualitiesof Moses and Solomon, the great law-givers of thepast. The greatest law-giver and architect was GodHimself. He created the world out of chaos and

ctl emperorn’s chro-ared thatwas thet of theof empireon”.

mi masjidh Jahan intal atbad,

Qibla(Direction towards Mecca)

W

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introduced order and symmetry.

As each new dynasty came to power, kings wantedto emphasise their moral right to be rulers. Constructingplaces of worship provided rulers with the chance toproclaim their close relationship with God, especiallyimportant in an age of rapid political change. Rulersalso offered patronage to the learned and pious, andtried to transform their capitals and cities into greatcultural centres that brought fame to their rule andtheir realm.

It was widely believed thatthe rule of a just king would bean age of plenty when theheavens would not withholdrain. At the same time, makingprecious water available byconstructing tanks andreservoirs was highly praised.Sultan Iltutmish won universalrespect for constructing alarge reservoir just outsideDehli-i kuhna. It was called thehauz-i Sultani or the “King’sReservoir”. Can you find it onMap 1 in Chapter 3? Rulersoften constructed tanks andreservoirs – big and small – for use by ordinary people.Sometimes these tanks and reservoirs were part of atemple, mosque (note the small tank in the jami masjidin Fig. 7) or a gurudwara (a place of worship andcongregation for Sikhs, Fig. 8).

Why were Temples Destroyed?Because kings built temples to demonstrate theirdevotion to God and their power and wealth, it is notsurprising that when they attacked one another’skingdoms, they often targeted these buildings. In theearly ninth century when the Pandyan king ShrimaraShrivallabha invaded Sri Lanka and defeated the

Importance ofwaterThe Persian termsabad, populated,prosperous, andabadi, flourishing,are both derivedfrom the word ab,meaning water.

Fig. 8Golden Temple withthe holy sarovar (tank)in Amritsar.


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king, Sena I (831-851), the Buddhist monk andchronicler Dhammakitti noted: “he removed all thevaluables ... The statue of the Buddha made entirelyof gold in the Jewel Palace ... and the golden images inthe various monasteries – all these he seized.” The blowto the pride of the Sinhalese ruler had to be avengedand the next Sinhalese ruler, Sena II, ordered hisgeneral to invade Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas.The Buddhist chronicler noted that the expeditionmade a special effort to find and restore the gold statueof the Buddha.

Similarly in the early eleventh century, when theChola king Rajendra I built a Shiva temple in his capitalhe filled it with prized statues seized from defeatedrulers. An incomplete list included: a Sun-pedestal fromthe Chalukyas, a Ganesha statue and several statuesof Durga; a Nandi statue from the eastern Chalukyas;an image of Bhairava (a form of Shiva) and Bhairavifrom the Kalingas of Orissa; and a Kali statue from thePalas of Bengal.

Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni was a contemporary ofRajendra I. During his campaigns in the subcontinenthe also attacked the temples of defeated kings andlooted their wealth and idols. Sultan Mahmud was nota very important ruler at that time. But by destroyingtemples – especially the one at Somnath – he tried towin credit as a great hero of Islam. In the politicalculture of the Middle Ages most rulers displayed theirpolitical might and military success by attacking andlooting the places of worship of defeated rulers.

In what ways do you think the policies of Rajendra I andMahmud of Ghazni were a product of their times? Howwere the actions of the two rulers different?

Gardens, Tombs and FortsUnder the Mughals, architecture became more complex.Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, and especially

ar baghaarden atari, 1637.

har baghn’s tomb,1571.

chaharlimarhmir,

634.

har baghs

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Shah Jahan were personallyinterested in literature, art andarchitecture. In hisautobiography, Babur describedhis interest in planning and layingout formal gardens, placed withinrectangular walled enclosuresand divided into four quartersby artificial channels.

These gardens were calledchahar bagh, four gardens,because of their symmetricaldivision into quarters. Beginningwith Akbar, some of the mostbeautiful chahar baghs wereconstructed by Jahangir andShah Jahan in Kashmir, Agraand Delhi (see Fig. 9).

There were several importantarchitectural innovations duringAkbar’s reign. For inspiration,Akbar’s architects turned to thetombs of his Central Asianancestor, Timur. The central towering dome and thetall gateway (pishtaq) became important aspects ofMughal architecture, first visible in Humayun’s tomb.It was placed in the centre of a huge formal chahar

Fig. 10A 1590 painting ofBabur laying out achahar bagh inKabul. Note how theintersecting channelson the path create thecharacteristic chaharbagh design.

Fig.11Tomb of Humayun,constructed between1562 and 1571.Can you see the waterchannels?


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bagh and built in the tradition known as “eightparadises” or hasht bihisht – a central hall surroundedby eight rooms. The building was constructed with redsandstone, edged with white marble.

It was during Shah Jahan’s reign that the differentelements of Mughal architecture were fused together ina grand harmonious synthesis. His reign witnessed ahuge amount of construction activity especially in Agraand Delhi. The ceremonial halls of public and privateaudience (diwan-i khas or am) were carefully planned.These courts were also described as chihil sutun orforty-pillared halls, placed within a large courtyard.

Shah Jahan’s audience halls were speciallyconstructed to resemble a mosque. The pedestal onwhich his throne was placed was frequently describedas the qibla, the direction faced by Muslims at prayer,since everybody faced that direction when court was insession. The idea of the king as a representative of Godon earth was suggested by these architectural features.

The connection between royal justice and theimperial court was emphasised by Shah Jahan in hisnewly constructed court in the Red Fort at Delhi. Behind

balcony-i am ineted

uraraurararahard

aced innso marbleoneeautiful,tterns.

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the emperor’s throne were a series of pietra durapietra durapietra durapietra durapietra dura inlaysthat depicted the legendary Greek god Orpheus playingthe lute. It was believed that Orpheus’s music couldcalm ferocious beasts until they resided togetherpeaceably. The construction of Shah Jahan’s audiencehall aimed to communicate that the king’s justice wouldtreat the high and the low as equals where all couldlive together in harmony.

In the early years of his reign, Shah Jahan’s capitalwas at Agra, a city where the nobility had constructedtheir homes on the banks of the river Yamuna. Thesewere set in the midst of formal gardens constructed inthe chahar bagh format. The chahar bagh garden alsohad a variation that historians describe as the “river-front garden”. In this the dwelling was not located inthe middle of the chahar bagh but at its edge, close tothe bank of the river.

Shah Jahan adapted the river-front garden in thelayout of the Taj Mahal, the grandest architecturalaccomplishment of his reign. Here the white marblemausoleum was placed on a terrace by the edge ofthe river and the garden was to its south. Shah Jahan

Fig. 13The Taj Mahal at Agra,completed in 1643.


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ction from a map of the river-front garden city of Agra. Note how the garden palaces ofre placed on both banks of the Yamuna. The Taj Mahal is on the left.e layout of Agra with Shahjahanabad in Delhi in Figure15.

f Shahjahanabad. Where is the emperor’s residence?ears to be very crowded, but did you notice the many large gardens as well?

d the main street and the jami masjid?

Yamuna River

Yamuna River

eahal

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developed this architectural form as a means tocontrol the access that nobles had to the river. In thenew city of Shahjahanabad that he constructed inDelhi, the imperial palace commanded the river-front.Only specially favoured nobles – like his eldest sonDara Shukoh – were given access to the river. Allothers had to construct their homes in the city awayfrom the River Yamuna.

Region and EmpireAs construction activity increased between the eighthand eighteenth centuries there was also a considerablesharing of ideas across regions: the traditions of oneregion were adopted by another. In Vijayanagara, forexample, the elephant stables of the rulers were

strongly influenced by the style of architecture foundin the adjoining Sultanates of Bijapur and Golcunda(see Chapter 6). In Vrindavan, near Mathura, templeswere constructed in architectural styles that were verysimilar to the Mughal palaces in Fatehpur Sikri.

The creation of large empires that brought differentregions under their rule helped in this cross-fertilisation of artistic forms and architectural styles.

Fig. 16Interior of temple ofGovind Deva inVrindavan, 1590.The temple wasconstructed out of redsandstone. Notice thetwo (out of four)intersecting archesthat made the high-ceiling roof. This styleof architecture is fromnorth-west Iran(Khurasan) and wasused in FatehpurSikri.


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Mughal rulers were particularly skilled inadapting regional architectural styles in theconstruction of their own buildings. In Bengal,for example, the local rulers had developed aroof that was designed to resemble a thatchedhut. The Mughals liked this “Bangla dome” (seeFig. ... in Chapter 9) so much that they used itin their architecture. The impact of otherregions was also evident. In Akbar’s capital atFatehpur Sikri many of the buildings bear theimpact of the architectural styles of Gujarat andMalwa.

Even though the authority of the Mughalrulers waned in the eighteenth century, thearchitectural styles developed under theirpatronage were constantly used and adaptedby other rulers whenever they tried to establishtheir own kingdoms.Fig. 17Decorated pillars and struts holding the extension ofthe roof in Jodh Bai palace in Fatehpur Sikri.These follow architectural traditions of the Gujarat region.

Churches that touched the skies

From the twelfth century onwards, attemptsbegan in France to build churches that weretaller and lighter than earlier buildings. Thisarchitectural style, known as Gothic, wasdistinguished by high pointed arches, theuse of stained glass, often painted withscenes drawn from the Bible, and flyingbuttresses. Tall spires and bell towers whichwere visible from a distance were added tothe church.

One of the best-known examples of thisarchitectural style is the church of NotreDame in Paris, which was constructedthrough several decades in the twelfth andthirteenth centuries.

Look at the illustration and try and identifythe bell towers.

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KEYWORDS

Go through the

chapter and make

your own list of

six keywords.

For each of these,

write a sentence

indicating

why you chose

the word.


You are an artisan standing on a tinywooden platform held together bybamboo and rope fifty metres abovethe ground. You have to place an

inscription under the first balcony of theQutb Minar. How would you do this?


1. How is the “trabeate” principle of architecture differentfrom “arcuate”?

2. What is a shikhara?

3. What is pietra-dura?

4. What are the elements of a Mughal chahar bagh garden?


5. How did a temple communicate the importanceof a king?

6. An inscription in Shah Jahan’s diwan-i khas in Delhistated: “If there is Paradise on Earth, it is here, it ishere, it is here.” How was this image created?

7. How did the Mughal court suggest that everyone – therich and the poor, the powerful and the weak – receivedjustice equally from the emperor?

8. What role did the Yamuna play in the layout of thenew Mughal city at Shahjahanabad?


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9. The rich and powerful construct large houses today.In what ways were the constructions of kings andtheir courtiers different in the past?

10. Look at Figure 4. How could that building beconstructed faster today?

Let’s DoLet’s DoLet’s DoLet’s DoLet’s Do

11. Find out whether there is a statue of or a memorialto a great person in your village or town. Why was itplaced there? What purpose does it serve?

12. Visit and describe any park or garden in yourneighbourhood. In what ways is it similar to ordifferent from the gardens of the Mughals?

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What would a traveller visiting a medieval townexpect to find? This would depend on what kind

of a town it was – a temple town, an administrativecentre, a commercial town or a port town to name justsome possibilities. In fact, many towns combinedseveral functions – they were administrative centres,temple towns, as well as centres of commercialactivities and craft production.

TOWNS, TRADERS ANDTOWNS, TRADERS ANDTOWNS, TRADERS ANDTOWNS, TRADERS ANDTOWNS, TRADERS ANDCRAFTSPERSONSCRAFTSPERSONSCRAFTSPERSONSCRAFTSPERSONSCRAFTSPERSONS6

Map 1Some importantcentres of tradeand artisanalproduction in centraland south India.

TOWNS, TRADERS ANDCRAFTSPERSONS

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Administrative CentresAdministrative CentresAdministrative CentresAdministrative CentresAdministrative Centres

You read about the Chola dynasty in Chapter 2. Let’stravel in our imagination to Thanjavur, the capital ofthe Cholas, as it was a thousand years ago.

The perennial river Kaveri flows near this beautifultown. One hears the bells of the Rajarajeshvara templebuilt by King Rajaraja Chola. The townspeople are allpraise for its architect Kunjaramallan RajarajaPerunthachchan who has proudly carved his nameon the temple wall. Inside is a massive Shiva linga.

Besides the temple, there are palaces withmandapas or pavilions. Kings hold court in thesemandapas, issuing orders to their subordinates. Thereare also barracks for the army.

The town is bustling with markets selling grain,spices, cloth and jewellery. Water supply for thetown comes from wells and tanks. The Saliyaweavers of Thanjavur and the nearby town ofUraiyur are busy producing cloth for flags to beused in the temple festival, fine cottons for the kingand nobility and coarse cotton for the masses. Somedistance away at Svamimalai, the sthapatis orsculptors are making exquisite bronze idols and tall,ornamental bell metal lamps.

Temple Towns and Pilgrimage CentresTemple Towns and Pilgrimage CentresTemple Towns and Pilgrimage CentresTemple Towns and Pilgrimage CentresTemple Towns and Pilgrimage Centres

Thanjavur is also an example of a temple town. Templetowns represent a very important pattern ofurbanisation, the process by which cities develop.Temples were often central to the economy and society.Rulers built temples to demonstrate their devotion tovarious deities. They also endowed temples with grantsof land and money to carry out elaborate rituals, feedpilgrims and priests and celebrate festivals. Pilgrimswho flocked to the temples also made donations.

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Bronze, bell metal and theBronze, bell metal and theBronze, bell metal and theBronze, bell metal and theBronze, bell metal and the“lost wax” technique“lost wax” technique“lost wax” technique“lost wax” technique“lost wax” technique

Bronze is an alloy containing copper andtin. Bell metal contains a greater proportionof tin than other kinds of bronze. Thisproduces a bell-like sound.

Chola bronze statues (see Chapter 2)were made using the “lost wax” technique.

First, an image was made of wax. This wascovered with clay and allowed to dry. Next itwas heated, and a tiny hole was made in theclay cover. The molten wax was drained outthrough this hole. Then molten metal waspoured into the clay mould through the hole.Once the metal cooled and solidified, theclay cover was carefully removed, and theimage was cleaned and polished.

What do you think were the advantagesof using this technique?

Temple authorities used their wealth to financetrade and banking. Gradually a large number ofpriests, workers, artisans, traders, etc. settled nearthe temple to cater to its needs and those of thepilgrims. Thus grew temple towns. Towns emergedaround temples such as those of Bhillasvamin (Bhilsaor Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh), and Somnath inGujarat. Other important temple towns includedKanchipuram and Madurai in Tamil Nadu, andTirupati in Andhra Pradesh.

Pilgrimage centres also slowly developed intotownships. Vrindavan (Uttar Pradesh) andTiruvannamalai (Tamil Nadu) are examples of twosuch towns. Ajmer (Rajasthan) was the capital of theChauhan kings in the twelfth century and laterbecame the suba headquarters under the Mughals.It provides an excellent example of religiouscoexistence. Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti, the

?Fig. 1A bronze statue ofKrishna subduingthe serpent demonKaliya.


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celebrated Sufi saint (see also Chapter 8) who settledthere in the twelfth century, attracted devotees fromall creeds. Near Ajmer is a lake, Pushkar, which hasattracted pilgrims from ancient times.

A Network of Small TownsA Network of Small TownsA Network of Small TownsA Network of Small TownsA Network of Small Towns

From the eighth century onwards the subcontinent wasdotted with several small towns. These probablyemerged from large villages. They usually had amandapika (or mandi of later times) to which nearbyvillagers brought their produce to sell. They also hadmarket streets called hatta (haat of later times) linedwith shops. Besides, there were streets for differentkinds of artisans such as potters, oil pressers, sugarmakers, toddy makers, smiths, stonemasons, etc. Whilesome traders lived in the town, others travelled fromtown to town. Many came from far and near to thesetowns to buy local articles and sell products of distantplaces like horses, salt, camphor, saffron, betel nut andspices like pepper.

?Make a list oftowns in yourdistrict and try toclassify these asadministrativecentres or astemple/pilgrimcentres.

Fig. 2A city market.

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Fig. 3A wood carver.


Usually a samanta or, in later times, a zamindarbuilt a fortified palace in or near these towns. Theylevied taxes on traders, artisans and articles of tradeand sometimes “donated” the “right” to collect thesetaxes to local temples, which had been built bythemselves or by rich merchants. These “rights” wererecorded in inscriptions that have survived to this day.

Taxes on marketsTaxes on marketsTaxes on marketsTaxes on marketsTaxes on markets

The following is a summary from a tenth-centuryinscription from Rajasthan, which lists the dues thatwere to be collected by temple authorities:

There were taxes in kind on:

Sugar and jaggery, dyes, thread, and cotton,On coconuts, salt, areca nuts, butter, sesame oil,On cloth.

Besides, there were taxes on traders, on those whosold metal goods, on distillers, on oil, on cattle fodder,and on loads of grain.

Some of these taxes were collected in kind, whileothers were collected in cash.

Find out more about present-day taxes on markets:who collects these, how are they collected and what

are they used for.

Traders Big and SmallTraders Big and SmallTraders Big and SmallTraders Big and SmallTraders Big and Small

There were many kinds of traders. These includedthe Banjaras (see also Chapter 7). Several traders,especially horse traders, formed associations, withheadmen who negotiated on their behalf with warriorswho bought horses.

Since traders had to pass through many kingdomsand forests, they usually travelled in caravans andformed guilds to protect their interests. There wereseveral such guilds in south India from the eighth

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century onwards – the most famous being theManigramam and Nanadesi. These guilds tradedextensively both within the peninsula and withSoutheast Asia and China.

There were also communities like the Chettiars andthe Marwari Oswal who went on to become theprincipal trading groups of the country. Gujaratitraders, including the communities of Hindu Baniyasand Muslim Bohras, traded extensively with the portsof the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, East Africa, SoutheastAsia and China. They sold textiles and spices in theseports and, in exchange, brought gold and ivory fromAfrica; and spices, tin, Chinese blue pottery and silverfrom Southeast Asia and China.

The towns on the west coast were home to Arab,Persian, Chinese, Jewish and Syrian Christian traders.Indian spices and cloth sold in the Red Sea ports werepurchased by Italian traders and eventually reachedEuropean markets, fetching very high profits. Spicesgrown in tropical climates (pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg,dried ginger, etc.) became an important part ofEuropean cooking, and cotton cloth was very attractive.This eventually drew European traders to India. Wewill shortly read about how this changed the face oftrading and towns.

KabulKabulKabulKabulKabul

With its rugged, mountainous landscape, Kabul (inpresent-day Afghanistan) became politically andcommercially important from the sixteenth centuryonwards. Kabul and Qandahar were linked to thecelebrated Silk Route. Besides, trade in horses wasprimarily carried on through this route. In theseventeenth century Jean Baptiste Tavernier, a diamondmerchant, estimated that the horse trade at Kabulamounted to Rs 30,000 annually, which was a huge sumin those days. Camels carried dried fruits, dates, carpets,silks and even fresh fruits from Kabul to the subcontinentand elsewhere. Slaves were also brought here for sale.

As you can see,during this periodthere was a greatcirculation ofpeople and goods.What impact doyou think thiswould have hadon the lives ofpeople in townsand villages?Make a list ofartisans living intowns.

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Crafts in TownsCrafts in TownsCrafts in TownsCrafts in TownsCrafts in Towns

The craftspersons of Bidar were so famed fortheir inlay work in copper and silver that it came tobe called Bidri. The Panchalas or Vishwakarmacommunity, consisting of goldsmiths, bronzesmiths,blacksmiths, masons and carpenters, were essentialto the building of temples. They also played animportant role in the construction of palaces, bigbuildings, tanks and reservoirs. Similarly, weaverssuch as the Saliyar or Kaikkolars emerged asprosperous communities, making donations totemples. Some aspects of cloth making like cottoncleaning, spinning and dyeing became specialisedand independent crafts.

Fig. 5A seventeenth-century candlestand;brass with blackoverlay.


Fig. 4A shawl border.

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The changing fortunes of townsThe changing fortunes of townsThe changing fortunes of townsThe changing fortunes of townsThe changing fortunes of towns

Some towns like Ahmedabad (Gujarat) went on to becomemajor commercial cities but others like Thanjavur shrankin size and importance over the centuries. Murshidabad(West Bengal) on the banks of the Bhagirathi, which roseto prominence as a centre for silks and became the capitalof Bengal in 1704, declined in the course of the centuryas the weavers faced competition from cheap mill-madecloth from England.

A Closer Look: Hampi, MasulipatnamA Closer Look: Hampi, MasulipatnamA Closer Look: Hampi, MasulipatnamA Closer Look: Hampi, MasulipatnamA Closer Look: Hampi, Masulipatnamand Suratand Suratand Suratand Suratand Surat

The Architectural Splendour of Hampi

Hampi is located in the Krishna-Tungabhadra basin,which formed the nucleus of the VijayanagaraEmpire, founded in 1336. The magnificent ruins atHampi reveal a well-fortified city. No mortar orcementing agent was used in the construction ofthese walls and the technique followed was to wedgethem together by interlocking.

Fig. 6A view of the watch-tower through abroken wall of theenclosure of Hampi.

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A fortified cityA fortified cityA fortified cityA fortified cityA fortified city

This is how a Portuguese traveller, Domingo Paes,described Hampi in the sixteenth century:

… at the entrance of the gate where those pass who comefrom Goa, this king has made within it a very strong cityfortified with walls and towers; these walls are not like thoseof other cities, but are made of very strong masonry such aswould be found in few other parts, and inside very beautifulrows of buildings made after their manner with flat roofs.

Why do you think the city was fortified?

The architecture of Hampi was distinctive. Thebuildings in the royal complex had splendid arches,domes and pillared halls with niches for holdingsculptures. They also had well-planned orchards andpleasure gardens with sculptural motifs such as thelotus and corbels. In its heyday in the fifteenth-sixteenth centuries, Hampi bustled with commercialand cultural activities. Moors (a name used collectivelyfor Muslim merchants), Chettis and agents ofEuropean traders such as thePortuguese, thronged themarkets of Hampi.

Temples were the hub ofcultural activities anddevadasis (temple dancers)performed before the deity,royalty and masses in themany-pillared halls in theVirupaksha (a form of Shiva)temple. The Mahanavamifestival, known today asNavaratri in the south, wasone of the most importantfestivals celebrated atHampi. Archaeologists have

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Fig. 7Stone chariot,Vitthala temple,

Hampi.TOWNS, TRADERS ANDCRAFTSPERSONS

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found the Mahanavami platform where the king receivedguests and accepted tribute from subordinate chiefs.From here he also watched dance and musicperformances as well as wrestling bouts.

Hampi fell into ruin following the defeat ofVijayanagara in 1565 by the Deccani Sultans – the rulersof Golconda, Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Berar and Bidar.

A Gateway to the West: SuratA Gateway to the West: SuratA Gateway to the West: SuratA Gateway to the West: SuratA Gateway to the West: Surat

Surat in Gujarat was the emporium of western tradeduring the Mughal period along with Cambay (present-day Khambat) and somewhat later, Ahmedabad. Suratwas the gateway for trade with West Asia via the Gulfof Ormuz. Surat has also been called the gate to Meccabecause many pilgrim ships set sail from here.

The city was cosmopolitan and people of all castesand creeds lived there. In the seventeenth century thePortuguese, Dutch and English had their factories andwarehouses at Surat. According to the Englishchronicler Ovington who wrote an account of the portin 1689, on average a hundred ships of differentcountries could be found anchored at the port at anygiven time.

There were also several retail and wholesale shopsselling cotton textiles. The textiles of Surat were famousfor their gold lace borders (zari) and had a market inWest Asia, Africa and Europe. The state built numerousrest-houses to take care of the needs of people fromall over the world who came to the city. There weremagnificent buildings and innumerable pleasureparks. The Kathiawad seths or mahajans(moneychangers) had huge banking houses at Surat.It is noteworthy that the Surat hundis were honouredin the far-off markets of Cairo in Egypt, Basra in Iraqand Antwerp in Belgium.

However, Surat began to decline towards the end ofthe seventeenth century. This was because of manyfactors: the loss of markets and productivity because

Hundiis a note recordinga deposit made bya person. Theamount depositedcan be claimed inanother place bypresenting therecord of thedeposit.

EmporiumA place wheregoods from diverseproductioncentres arebought and sold.

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FactorOfficial merchantof the East IndiaCompany.


of the decline of the Mughal Empire, control of the searoutes by the Portuguese and competition fromBombay (present-day Mumbai) where the English EastIndia Company shifted its headquarters in 1668.Today, Surat is a bustling commercial centre.

Fishing in Troubled Waters:Fishing in Troubled Waters:Fishing in Troubled Waters:Fishing in Troubled Waters:Fishing in Troubled Waters:MasulipatnamMasulipatnamMasulipatnamMasulipatnamMasulipatnam

The town of Masulipatnam or Machlipatnam (literally,fish port town) lay on the delta of the Krishna river. Inthe seventeenth century it was a centre of intense activity.

Both the Dutch and English East India Companiesattempted to control Masulipatnam as it became themost important port on the Andhra coast. The fort atMasulipatnam was built by the Dutch.

A poor fisher townA poor fisher townA poor fisher townA poor fisher townA poor fisher town

This is a description of Masulipatnam by WilliamMethwold, a FactorFactorFactorFactorFactor of the English East India Company,in 1620:

This is the chief port of Golconda, where the RightWorshipfull East India Company have their Agent. It is asmall town but populous, unwalled, ill built and worsesituated; within all the springs are brackish. It was first apoor fisher town … afterwards, the convenience of the road(a place where ships can anchor) made it a residence formerchants and so continues since our and the Dutch nationfrequented this coast.

Why did the English and the Dutch decide toestablish settlements in Masulipatnam?

The Qutb Shahi rulers of Golconda imposed royalmonopolies on the sale of textiles, spices and otheritems to prevent the trade passing completely into thehands of the various East India Companies. Fierce

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competition among various trading groups – theGolconda nobles, Persian merchants, Telugu KomatiChettis, and European traders – made the citypopulous and prosperous. As the Mughals began toextend their power to Golconda their representative,the governor Mir Jumla who was also a merchant,began to play off the Dutch and the English againsteach other. In 1686-1687 Mughal Emperor Aurangzebannexed Golconda.

This caused the European Companies to look foralternatives. It was a part of the new policy of theEnglish East India Company that it was not enough ifa port had connections with the production centres ofthe hinterland. The new Company trade centres, it wasfelt, should combine political, administrative andcommercial roles. As the Company traders moved toBombay, Calcutta (present-day Kolkata) and Madras(present-day Chennai), Masulipatnam lost both itsmerchants and prosperity and declined in the courseof the eighteenth century, being today nothing morethan a dilapidated little town.

New Towns and TradersNew Towns and TradersNew Towns and TradersNew Towns and TradersNew Towns and Traders

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Europeancountries were searching for spices and textiles, whichhad become popular both in Europe and West Asia.The English, Dutch and French formed East IndiaCompanies in order to expand their commercialactivities in the east. Initially great Indian traders likeMulla Abdul Ghafur and Virji Vora who owned a largenumber of ships competed with them. However, theEuropean Companies used their naval power to gaincontrol of the sea trade and forced Indian traders towork as their agents. Ultimately, the English emergedas the most successful commercial and political powerin the subcontinent.

The spurt in demand for goods like textiles led to agreat expansion of the crafts of spinning, weaving,bleaching, dyeing, etc. with more and more people

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taking them up. Indian textile designs becameincreasingly refined. However, this period also saw thedecline of the independence of craftspersons. They nowbegan to work on a system of advances which meantthat they had to weave cloth which was alreadypromised to European agents. Weavers no longer hadthe liberty of selling their own cloth or weaving theirown patterns. They had to reproduce the designssupplied to them by the Company agents.

The eighteenth century saw the rise of Bombay,Calcutta and Madras, which are nodal cities today.Crafts and commerce underwent major changes asmerchants and artisans (such as weavers) were movedinto the Black Towns established by the Europeancompanies within these new cities. The “blacks” ornative traders and craftspersons were confined herewhile the “white” rulers occupied the superiorresidencies of Fort St George in Madras or Fort StWilliam in Calcutta. The story of crafts and commercein the eighteenth century will be taken up next year.

Fig. 8A Bombay street,early nineteenth

century.TOWNS, TRADERS ANDCRAFTSPERSONS

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Vasco da Gama and Christopher Columbus

In the fifteenth century European sailors undertook unprecedentedexplorations of sea routes. They were driven by the desire to findways of reaching the Indian subcontinent and obtaining spices.

Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese sailor, was one of those who sailedacross the Atlantic to the African coast, went round it, crossingover to the Indian Ocean. His first journey took more than a year;he reached Calicut in 1498, and returned to Lisbon, the capital ofPortugal, the following year. He lost two ofhis four ships, and of the 170 men at thestart of the journey, only 54 survived. Inspite of the obvious hazards, the routesthat were opened up proved to beextremely profitable – and he wasfollowed by English, Dutch andFrench sailors.

The search for sea routes toIndia had another, unexpectedfallout. On the assumption thatthe earth was round, ChristopherColumbus, an Italian, decided to sailwestwards across the Atlantic Oceanto find a route to India. He landedin the West Indies (which got theirname because of this confusion)in 1492. He was followed bysailors and conquerors from Spainand Portugal, who occupied largeparts of Central and SouthAmerica, often destroying earliersettlements in the area.

Fig. 9Vasco da Gama.

Imagine

You are planning a journey from Suratto West Asia in the seventeenthcentury. What are the arrangementsyou will make?

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KEYWORDS

temple towns

urbanisation

Vishwakarma

emporium

Black Town


Let’s recall

1. Fill in the blanks:

(a) The Rajarajeshvara temple was built in ———.

(b) Ajmer is associated with the Sufi saint ————.

(c) Hampi was the capital of the ———— Empire.

(d) The Dutch established a settlement at ————in Andhra Pradesh.

2. State whether true or false:

(a) We know the name of the architect of theRajarajeshvara temple from an inscription.

(b) Merchants preferred to travel individuallyrather than in caravans.

(c) Kabul was a major centre for trade inelephants.

(d) Surat was an important trading port on theBay of Bengal.

3. How was water supplied to the city of Thanjavur?

4. Who lived in the “Black Towns” in cities suchas Madras?

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Let’s understand

5. Why do you think towns grew around temples?

6. How important were craftspersons for the buildingand maintenance of temples?

7. Why did people from distant lands visit Surat?

8. In what ways was craft production in cities likeCalcutta different from that in cities like Thanjavur?

Let’s discuss

9. Compare any one of the cities described in this chapterwith a town or a village with which you are familiar.Do you notice any similarities or differences?

10. What were the problems encountered by merchants?Do you think some of these problems persist today?

Let’s do

11. Find out more about the architecture of eitherThanjavur or Hampi, and prepare a scrap bookillustrating temples and other buildings fromthese cities.

12. Find out about any present-day pilgrimage centre.Why do you think people go there? What do they dothere? Are there any shops in the area? If so, what isbought and sold there?

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You saw in Chapters 2, 3 and 4 how kingdomsrose and fell. Even as this was happening, new

arts, crafts and production activities flourished intowns and villages. Over the centuries importantpolitical, social and economic developments hadtaken place. But social change was notthe same everywhere, because differentkinds of societies evolved differently. It isimportant to understand how, and why,this happened.

In large parts of the subcontinent, societywas already divided according to the rulesof varna. These rules, as prescribed by theBrahmanas, were accepted by the rulers oflarge kingdoms. The difference between thehigh and low, and between the rich and poor,increased. Under the Delhi Sultans and theMughals, this hierarchy between socialclasses grew further.

Beyond Big Cities: TribalBeyond Big Cities: TribalBeyond Big Cities: TribalBeyond Big Cities: TribalBeyond Big Cities: TribalSocietiesSocietiesSocietiesSocietiesSocieties

There were, however, other kinds ofsocieties as well. Many societies in thesubcontinent did not follow the social rulesand rituals prescribed by the Brahmanas.Nor were they divided into numerousunequal classes. Such societies are oftencalled tribes.

7 TRIBES, NOMADS ANDTRIBES, NOMADS ANDTRIBES, NOMADS ANDTRIBES, NOMADS ANDTRIBES, NOMADS ANDSETTLED COMMUNITIESSETTLED COMMUNITIESSETTLED COMMUNITIESSETTLED COMMUNITIESSETTLED COMMUNITIES

Fig. 1Tribal dance,Santal painted scroll.

TRIBES, NOMADS ANDSETTLED COMMUNITIES

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Members of each tribe were united by kinship bonds.Many tribes obtained their livelihood from agriculture.Others were hunter-gatherers or herders. Most oftenthey combined these activities to make full use of thenatural resources of the area in which they lived. Sometribes were nomadic and moved from one place toanother. A tribal group controlled land and pasturesjointly, and divided these amongst householdsaccording to its own rules.

Many large tribes thrived in different parts of thesubcontinent. They usually lived in forests, hills,deserts and places difficult to reach. Sometimes theyclashed with the more powerful caste-based societies.In various ways, the tribes retained their freedom andpreserved their separate culture.

But the caste-based and tribal societies alsodepended on each other for their diverse needs. Thisrelationship, of conflict and dependence, graduallycaused both societies to change.

Who were Tribal People?Who were Tribal People?Who were Tribal People?Who were Tribal People?Who were Tribal People?

Contemporary historians and travellers give veryscanty information about tribes. A few exceptionsapart, tribal people did not keep written records. Butthey preserved rich customs and oral traditions. Thesewere passed down to each new generation. Present-day historians have started using such oral traditionsto write tribal histories.

Tribal people were found in almost every region ofthe subcontinent. The area and influence of a tribevaried at different points of time. Some powerful tribescontrolled large territories. In Punjab, the Khokhartribe was very influential during the thirteenth andfourteenth centuries. Later, the Gakkhars became moreimportant. Their chief, Kamal Khan Gakkhar, wasmade a noble (mansabdar) by Emperor Akbar. InMultan and Sind, the Langahs and Arghuns dominatedextensive regions before they were subdued by theMughals. The Balochis were another large and powerful

On a physicalmap of thesubcontinent,identify the areasin which tribalpeople may havelived.

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tribe in the north-west. They were divided into manysmaller clans under different chiefs. In the westernHimalaya lived the shepherd tribe of Gaddis. Thedistant north-eastern part of the subcontinent too wasentirely dominated by tribes – the Nagas, Ahoms andmany others.

In many areas of present-day Bihar andJharkhand, Chero chiefdoms had emerged by thetwelfth century. Raja Man Singh, Akbar’s famousgeneral, attacked and defeated the Cheros in 1591.A large amount of booty was taken from them, butthey were not entirely subdued. Under Aurangzeb,Mughal forces captured many Chero fortresses andsubjugated the tribe. The Mundas and Santals wereamong the other important tribes that lived in thisregion and also in Orissa and Bengal.

ClanA clan is a groupof families orhouseholdsclaiming descentfrom a commonancestor. Tribalorganisation isoften based onkinship or clanloyalties.

Map 1Location of someof the major Indiantribes.


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The Maharashtra highlands andKarnataka were home to Kolis,Berads and numerous others. Kolisalso lived in many areas of Gujarat.Further south there were largetribal populations of Koragas,Vetars, Maravars and many others.

The large tribe of Bhils wasspread across western and centralIndia. By the late sixteenth century,many of them had become settledagriculturists and some evenzamindars. Many Bhil clans,nevertheless, remained hunter-gatherers. The Gonds were foundin great numbers across thepresent-day states of Chhattisgarh,Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra andAndhra Pradesh.

How Nomads and MobileHow Nomads and MobileHow Nomads and MobileHow Nomads and MobileHow Nomads and MobilePeople LivedPeople LivedPeople LivedPeople LivedPeople Lived

Nomadic pastoralists moved overlong distances with their animals.They lived on milk and otherpastoral products. They alsoexchanged wool, ghee, etc., withsettled agriculturists for grain,cloth, utensils and other products.

Fig. 2Bhils hunting deer by night.

Fig.3A chain of mobile traders connectedIndia to the outside world. Here yousee nuts being gathered and loaded onthe backs of camels. Central Asiantraders brought such goods to Indiaand the Banjaras and other traderscarried these to local markets.

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They bought and sold these goods as they movedfrom one place to another, transporting them on theiranimals.

The Banjaras were the most important trader-nomads. Their caravan was called tanda. SultanAlauddin Khalji (Chapter 3) used the Banjaras totransport grain to the city markets. Emperor Jahangirwrote in his memoirs that the Banjaras carried grainon their bullocks from different areas and sold it intowns. They transported food grain for the Mughalarmy during military campaigns. With a large armythere could be 100,000 bullocks carrying grain.

The BanjarasThe BanjarasThe BanjarasThe BanjarasThe Banjaras

Peter Mundy, an English trader who came to Indiaduring the early seventeenth century, has describedthe Banjaras:

In the morning we met a tanda of Banjaras with14,000 oxen.They were all laden with grains such as wheat and rice ...These Banjaras carry their household – wives and children –along with them. One tanda consists of many families. Theirway of life is similar to that of carriers who continuouslytravel from place to place. They own their oxen. They aresometimes hired by merchants, but most commonly they arethemselves merchants. They buy grain where it is cheaplyavailable and carry it to places where it is dearer. From there,they again reload their oxen with anything that can beprofitably sold in other places … In a tanda there may be asmany as 6 or 7 hundred persons … They do not travel morethan 6 or 7 miles a day – that, too, in the cool weather. Afterunloading their oxen, they turn them free to graze as there isenough land here, and no one there to forbid them.

Find out how grain is transported from villages tocities at present. In what ways is this similar to or

different from the ways in which the Banjaras functioned?

?

Nomads anditinerant groupsNomads arewandering people.Many of them arepastoralists whoroam from onepasture to anotherwith their flocksand herds.Similarly, itinerantgroups, such ascraftspersons,pedlars andentertainers travelfrom place to placepractising theirdifferentoccupations.Both nomads anditinerant groupsoften visit thesame places everyyear.


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Many pastoral tribes reared and sold animals, suchas cattle and horses, to the prosperous people.

Different castes of petty pedlarsalso travelled from village to

village. They made andsold wares such as ropes,reeds, straw matting andcoarse sacks. Sometimesmendicants acted as

wandering merchants. There were castes ofentertainers who performed in different towns andvillages for their livelihood.

Changing Society: New Castes andChanging Society: New Castes andChanging Society: New Castes andChanging Society: New Castes andChanging Society: New Castes andHierarchiesHierarchiesHierarchiesHierarchiesHierarchies

As the economy and the needs of society grew, peoplewith new skills were required. Smaller castes, or jatis,emerged within varnas. For example, new castesappeared amongst the Brahmanas. On the otherhand, many tribes and social groups were taken intocaste-based society and given the status of jatis.Specialised artisans – smiths, carpenters and masons– were also recognised as separate jatis by theBrahmanas. Jatis, rather than varna, became thebasis for organising society.

Deliberations on Deliberations on Deliberations on Deliberations on Deliberations on jatijatijatijatijati

A twelfth-century inscription from Uyyakondan Udaiyar,in Tiruchirapalli taluka (in present-day Tamil Nadu),describes the deliberations in a sabha (Chapter 2) ofBrahmanas.

They deliberated on the status of a group known asrathakaras (literally, chariot makers). They laid downtheir occupations, which were to include architecture,building coaches and chariots, erecting gateways fortemples with images in them, preparing woodenequipment used to perform sacrifices, buildingmandapas, making jewels for the king.

Fig. 4Bronze crocodile,Kutiya Kond tribe,Orissa.

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Among the Kshatriyas, new Rajput clans becamepowerful by the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Theybelonged to different lineages, such as Hunas,Chandelas, Chalukyas and others. Some of these, too,had been tribes earlier. Many of these clans came tobe regarded as Rajputs. They gradually replaced theolder rulers, especially in agricultural areas. Here adeveloped society was emerging, and rulers used theirwealth to create powerful states.

The rise of Rajput clans to the position of rulers setan example for the tribal people to follow. Gradually,with the support of the Brahmanas, many tribesbecame part of the caste system. But only the leadingtribal families could join the ruling class. A largemajority joined the lower jatis of caste society. On theother hand, many dominant tribes of Punjab, Sind andthe North-West Frontier had adopted Islam quite early.They continued to reject the caste system. The unequalsocial order, prescribed by orthodox Hinduism, wasnot widely accepted in these areas.

The emergence of states is closely related to socialchange amongst tribal people. Two examples of thisimportant part of our history are described below.

A Closer LookA Closer LookA Closer LookA Closer LookA Closer Look

The Gonds

The Gonds lived in a vast forested region calledGondwana – or “country inhabited by Gonds”. Theypractised shifting cultivation. The large Gond tribewas further divided into many smaller clans. Each clanhad its own raja or rai. About the time that the powerof the Delhi Sultans was declining, a few large Gondkingdoms were beginning to dominate the smallerGond chiefs. The Akbar Nama, a history of Akbar’sreign, mentions the Gond kingdom of Garha Katangathat had 70,000 villages.

The administrative system of these kingdoms wasbecoming centralised. The kingdom was divided into

ShiftingcultivationTrees and bushesin a forest areaare first cut andburnt. The crop issown in theashes. When thisland loses itsfertility, anotherplot of land iscleared andplanted in thesame way.

Fig. 5A Gond woman.


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garhs. Each garh was controlledby a particular Gond clan. Thiswas further divided into units of84 villages called chaurasi. Thechaurasi was subdivided intobarhots which were made up of12 villages each.

The emergence of large stateschanged the nature of Gondsociety. Their basically equalsociety gradually got dividedinto unequal social classes.Brahmanas received land grantsfrom the Gond rajas and becamemore influential. The Gond chiefsnow wished to be recognised asRajputs. So, Aman Das, the Gondraja of Garha Katanga, assumedthe title of Sangram Shah. Hisson, Dalpat, married princess

Durgawati, the daughter ofSalbahan, the ChandelRajput raja of Mahoba.

Dalpat, however, diedearly. Rani Durgawatiwas very capable, andstarted ruling on behalfof her five-year-old son,Bir Narain. Under her, thekingdom became evenmore extensive. In 1565,the Mughal forces underAsaf Khan attackedGarha Katanga. A strongresistance was put up byRani Durgawati. She wasdefeated and preferredto die rather thansurrender. Her son, too,died fighting soon after.

Map 2Gondwana.

Fig. 6A carved door.Gond tribe, Bastararea, Madhya Pradesh.

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Garha Katanga was a rich state. It earned muchwealth by trapping and exporting wild elephants to otherkingdoms. When the Mughals defeated the Gonds, theycaptured a huge booty of precious coins and elephants.They annexed part of the kingdom and granted the restto Chandra Shah, an uncle of Bir Narain. Despite thefall of Garha Katanga, the Gond kingdoms survived forsome time. However, they became much weaker andlater struggled unsuccessfully against the strongerBundelas and Marathas.

The Ahoms

The Ahoms migrated to the Brahmaputra valley frompresent-day Myanmar in the thirteenth century. Theycreated a new state by suppressing the older politicalsystem of the bhuiyans (landlords). During thesixteenth century, they annexed the kingdoms of theChhutiyas (1523) and of Koch-Hajo (1581) andsubjugated many other tribes. The Ahoms built a largestate, and for this they used firearms as early as the1530s. By the 1660s they could even make high-quality gunpowder and cannons.

However, the Ahoms faced many invasions from thesouth-west. In 1662, theMughals under Mir Jumlaattacked the Ahom kingdom.Despite their brave defence, theAhoms were defeated. Butdirect Mughal control over theregion could not last long.

The Ahom state dependedupon forced labour. Thoseforced to work for the state werecalled paiks. A census of thepopulation was taken. Eachvillage had to send a numberof paiks by rotation. Peoplefrom heavily populated areaswere shifted to less populated

Map 3Tribes of easternIndia.

Discuss why theMughals wereinterested in theland of the Gonds.

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places. Ahom clans were thus broken up. By the firsthalf of the seventeenth century the administrationbecame quite centralised.

Almost all adult males served in the army duringwar. At other times, they were engaged in buildingdams, irrigation systems and other public works. TheAhoms also introduced new methods of rice cultivation.

Ahom society was divided into clans or khels. Therewere very few castes of artisans, so artisans in theAhom areas came from the adjoining kingdoms. A kheloften controlled several villages. The peasant was givenland by his village community. Even the king couldnot take it away without the community’s consent.

Originally, the Ahoms worshipped their own tribalgods. During the first half of the seventeenth century,however, the influence of Brahmanas increased.Temples and Brahmanas were granted land by theking. In the reign of Sib Singh (1714-1744), Hinduismbecame the predominant religion. But the Ahomkings did not completely give up their traditionalbeliefs after adopting Hinduism.

Ahom society was very sophisticated. Poets andscholars were given land grants. Theatre wasencouraged. Important works of Sanskrit weretranslated into the local language. Historical works,known as buranjis, were also written – first in the Ahomlanguage and then in Assamese.

ConclusionConclusionConclusionConclusionConclusion

Considerable social change took place in thesubcontinent during the period we have been examining.Varna-based society and tribal people constantlyinteracted with each other. This interaction caused bothkinds of societies to adapt and change. There were manydifferent tribes and they took up diverse livelihoods.Over a period of time, many of them merged with caste-based society. Others, however, rejected both the castesystem and orthodox Hinduism. Some tribes established

Why do you thinkthe Mughals triedto conquer theland of theAhoms?

Fig. 7Ear ornaments, KoboiNaga tribe, Manipur.

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extensive states with well-organised systems ofadministration. They thus became politically powerful.This brought them into conflict with larger and morecomplex kingdoms and empires.

The Mongols

Find Mongolia in your atlas. The best-known pastoral and hunter-gatherer tribe in history were the Mongols. They inhabited thegrasslands (steppes) of Central Asia and the forested areas furthernorth. By 1206 Genghis Khan had united the Mongol and Turkishtribes into a powerful military force. At the time of his death (1227)he was the ruler of extensive territories. His successors created avast empire. At different points of time, it included parts of Russia,Eastern Europe and also China and much of West Asia. The Mongolshad well-organised military and administrative systems. These werebased on the support of different ethnic and religious groups.

Let’s recall

1. Match the following:

garh khel

tanda chaurasi

labourer caravan

clan Garha Katanga

Sib Singh Ahom state

Durgawati paik

Imagine

You are a member of a nomadiccommunity that shifts residence everythree months. How would this changeyour life?


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(a) The new castes emerging within varnas werecalled ____________.

(b) _____________ were historical works written by theAhoms.

(c) The ____________ mentions that Garha Katangahad 70,000 villages.

(d) As tribal states became bigger and stronger, theygave land grants to _________ and ________.


(a) Tribal societies had rich oral traditions.

(b) There were no tribal communities in the north-western part of the subcontinent.

(c) The chaurasi in Gond states contained severalcities.

(d) The Bhils lived in the north-eastern part of thesubcontinent.

4. What kinds of exchanges took place between nomadicpastoralists and settled agriculturists?

Let’s understand

5. How was the administration of the Ahom stateorganised?

6. What changes took place in varna-based society?

KEYWORDS

varna

jati

tanda

garh

chaurasi

barhot

bhuiyans

paik

khel

buranji

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7. How did tribal societies change after being organisedinto a state?

Let’s discuss

8. Were the Banjaras important for the economy?

9. In what ways was the history of the Gonds differentfrom that of the Ahoms? Were there any similarities?

Let’s do

10. Plot the location of the tribes mentioned in this chapteron a map. For any two, discuss whether their modeof livelihood was suited to the geography and theenvironment of the area where they lived.

11. Find out about present-day government policiestowards tribal populations and organise a discussionabout these.

12. Find out more about present-day nomadic pastoralgroups in the subcontinent. What animals do theykeep? Which are the areas frequented by thesegroups?


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You may have seen people perform rituals ofworship, or singing bhajans, kirtans or qawwalis,

or even repeating the name of God in silence, andnoticed that some of them are moved to tears. Suchintense devotion or love of God is the legacy of variouskinds of bhakti and Sufi movements that have evolvedsince the eighth century.

The Idea of a Supreme GodThe Idea of a Supreme GodThe Idea of a Supreme GodThe Idea of a Supreme GodThe Idea of a Supreme God

Before large kingdoms emerged, different groupsof people worshipped their own gods and goddesses.As people were brought together through the growthof towns, trade and empires, new ideas began todevelop. The idea that all living things pass throughcountless cycles of birth and rebirth performing gooddeeds and bad came to be widely accepted. Similarly,the idea that all human beings are not equal even atbirth gained ground during this period. The belief thatsocial privileges came from birth in a “noble” family ora “high” caste was the subject of many learned texts.

Many people were uneasy with such ideas andturned to the teachings of the Buddha or the Jainasaccording to which it was possible to overcome socialdifferences and break the cycle of rebirth throughpersonal effort. Others felt attracted to the idea of aSupreme God who could deliver humans from suchbondage if approached with devotion (or bhakti). Thisidea, advocated in the Bhagavadgita, grew in popularityin the early centuries of the Common Era.

8 DEVOTIONAL PATHSDEVOTIONAL PATHSDEVOTIONAL PATHSDEVOTIONAL PATHSDEVOTIONAL PATHSTO THE DIVINETO THE DIVINETO THE DIVINETO THE DIVINETO THE DIVINE

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Shiva, Vishnu andDurga as supremedeities came tobe worshippedthrough elaboraterituals. At thesame time, godsand goddessesworshipped indifferent areascame to beidentified withShiva, Vishnu orDurga. In theprocess, local myths and legends became a part of thePuranic stories, and methods of worship recommendedin the Puranas were introduced into the local cults.Eventually the Puranas also laid down that it waspossible for devotees to receive the grace of Godregardless of their caste status. The idea of bhaktibecame so popular that even Buddhists and Jainasadopted these beliefs.

A New Kind of Bhakti in South India –A New Kind of Bhakti in South India –A New Kind of Bhakti in South India –A New Kind of Bhakti in South India –A New Kind of Bhakti in South India –Nayanars and AlvarsNayanars and AlvarsNayanars and AlvarsNayanars and AlvarsNayanars and Alvars

The seventh to ninth centuries saw the emergence ofnew religious movements, led by the Nayanars (saintsdevoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu)who came from all castes including those considered“untouchable” like the Pulaiyar and the Panars. Theywere sharply critical of the Buddhists and Jainas andpreached ardent love of Shiva or Vishnu as the pathto salvation. They drew upon the ideals of love andheroism as found in the Sangam literature (the earliestexample of Tamil literature, composed during the earlycenturies of the Common Era) and blended them withthe values of bhakti. The Nayanars and Alvars wentfrom place to place composing exquisite poems inpraise of the deities enshrined in the villages theyvisited, and set them to music.

You can observethis process oflocal myths andlegends receivingwider acceptanceeven today. Canyou find someexamplesaround you?

DEVOTIONAL PATHSTO THE DIVINE

Fig. 1A page from a southIndian manuscript ofthe Bhagavadgita.

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Nayanars and AlvarsNayanars and AlvarsNayanars and AlvarsNayanars and AlvarsNayanars and Alvars

There were 63 Nayanars, who belonged to differentcaste backgrounds such as potters, “untouchable”workers, peasants, hunters, soldiers, Brahmanas andchiefs. The best known among them were Appar,Sambandar, Sundarar and Manikkavasagar. There aretwo sets of compilations of their songs – Tevaram andTiruvacakam.

There were 12 Alvars, who came from equallydivergent backgrounds, the best known beingPeriyalvar, his daughter Andal, Tondaradippodi Alvarand Nammalvar. Their songs were compiled in the DivyaPrabandham.

Between the tenth and twelfth centuries the Cholaand Pandya kings built elaborate temples around manyof the shrines visited by the saint-poets, strengtheningthe links between the bhakti tradition and templeworship. This was also the time when their poems werecompiled. Besides, hagiographies or religiousbiographies of the Alvars and Nayanars were alsocomposed. Today we use these texts as sources forwriting histories of the bhakti tradition.

The devotee and the LordThe devotee and the LordThe devotee and the LordThe devotee and the LordThe devotee and the Lord

This is a composition of Manikkavasagar:

Into my vile body of fleshYou came, as though it were a temple of gold,And soothed me wholly and saved me,O Lord of Grace, O Gem most Pure,Sorrow and birth and death and illusionYou took from me, and set me free.O Bliss! O Light! I have taken refuge in You,And never can I be parted from You.

How does the poet describe his relationshipwith the deity?

HagiographyWriting of saints’lives.

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Fig. 2A bronze image ofManikkavasagar.

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Philosophy and BhaktiPhilosophy and BhaktiPhilosophy and BhaktiPhilosophy and BhaktiPhilosophy and Bhakti

Shankara, one of the most influential philosophersof India, was born in Kerala in the eighth century.He was an advocate of Advaita or the doctrine of theoneness of the individual soul and the Supreme Godwhich is the Ultimate Reality. He taught thatBrahman, the only or Ultimate Reality, was formlessand without any attributes. He considered the worldaround us to be an illusion or maya, and preachedrenunciation of the world and adoption of the pathof knowledge to understand the true nature ofBrahman and attain salvation.

Ramanuja, born in Tamil Nadu in the eleventhcentury, was deeply influenced by the Alvars.According to him the best means of attainingsalvation was through intense devotion to Vishnu.Vishnu in His grace helps the devotee to attain thebliss of union with Him. He propounded the doctrineof Vishishtadvaita or qualified oneness in that thesoul even when united with the Supreme Godremained distinct. Ramanuja’s doctrine greatlyinspired the new strand of bhakti which developedin north India subsequently.

Basavanna’s VirashaivismBasavanna’s VirashaivismBasavanna’s VirashaivismBasavanna’s VirashaivismBasavanna’s Virashaivism

We noted earlier the connection between the Tamilbhakti movement and temple worship. This in turnled to a reaction that is best represented in theVirashaiva movement initiated by Basavanna andhis companions like Allama Prabhu andAkkamahadevi. This movement began in Karnatakain the mid-twelfth century. The Virashaivas arguedstrongly for the equality of all human beings andagainst Brahmanical ideas about caste and thetreatment of women. They were also against all formsof ritual and idol worship.

Try and find outmore about theideas of Shankaraor Ramanuja.


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Virashaiva Virashaiva Virashaiva Virashaiva Virashaiva vachanasvachanasvachanasvachanasvachanas

These are vachanas or sayings attributed to Basavanna:

The rich,Will make temples for Shiva.What shall I,A poor man,Do?

My legs are pillars,The body the shrine,The head a cupolaOf gold.

Listen, O Lord of the meeting rivers,Things standing shall fall,But the moving ever shall stay.

What is the temple that Basavanna is offering to God?

The Saints of MaharashtraThe Saints of MaharashtraThe Saints of MaharashtraThe Saints of MaharashtraThe Saints of Maharashtra

From the thirteenth to the seventeenth centuriesMaharashtra saw a great number of saint-poets, whosesongs in simple Marathi continue to inspire people.The most important among them were Janeshwar,Namdev, Eknath and Tukaram as well as women likeSakkubai and the family of Chokhamela, who belongedto the “untouchable” Mahar caste. This regionaltradition of bhakti focused on the Vitthala (a form ofVishnu) temple in Pandharpur, as well as on the notionof a personal god residing in the hearts of all people.

These saint-poets rejected all forms of ritualism,outward display of piety and social differences basedon birth. In fact they even rejected the idea ofrenunciation and preferred to live with their families,earning their livelihood like any other person, whilehumbly serving fellow human beings in need. A newhumanist idea emerged as they insisted that bhakti

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lay in sharing others’ pain. As the famous Gujaratisaint Narsi Mehta said, “They are Vaishnavas whounderstand the pain of others.”

Questioning the social orderQuestioning the social orderQuestioning the social orderQuestioning the social orderQuestioning the social order

This is an abhang (Marathi devotional hymn) of SantTukaram:

He who identifieswith the battered and the beatenMark him as a saintFor God is with him

He holdsEvery forsaken manClose to his heartHe treatsA slaveAs his own son

Says TukaI won’t be tiredto repeat againSuch a manIs GodIn person. Here is an abhang composed by Chokhamela’s son:

You made us low caste,Why don’t you face that fact, Great Lord?Our whole life – left-over food to eat.You should be ashamed of this.

You have eaten in our home.How can you deny it?Chokha’s (son) Karmamela asksWhy did you give me life?

Discuss the ideas about the social order expressedin these compositions.?


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Nathpanthis, Siddhas and YogisNathpanthis, Siddhas and YogisNathpanthis, Siddhas and YogisNathpanthis, Siddhas and YogisNathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis

A number of religious groups thatemerged during this period criticisedthe ritual and other aspectsof conventional religion and thesocial order, using simple, logicalarguments. Among them were theNathpanthis, Siddhacharas andYogis. They advocated renunciationof the world. To them the path tosalvation lay in meditation on theformless Ultimate Reality and therealisation of oneness with it. Toachieve this they advocated intensetraining of the mind and bodythrough practices like yogasanas,breathing exercises and meditation.These groups became particularlypopular among “low” castes. Theircriticism of conventional religioncreated the ground for devotionalreligion to become a popular forcein northern India.

Islam and SufismIslam and SufismIslam and SufismIslam and SufismIslam and Sufism

The sants had much in common with the Sufis, somuch so that it is believed that they adopted manyideas of each other. Sufis were Muslim mystics. Theyrejected outward religiosity and emphasised love anddevotion to God and compassion towards all fellowhuman beings.

Islam propagated strict monotheism or submissionto one God. It also rejected idol worship andconsiderably simplified rituals of worship intocollective prayers. At the same time Muslim scholarsdeveloped a holy law called Shariat. The Sufis oftenrejected the elaborate rituals and codes of behaviourdemanded by Muslim religious scholars. They soughtunion with God much as a lover seeks his beloved

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with a disregard for the world. Like the saint-poets,the Sufis too composed poems expressing theirfeelings, and a rich literature in prose, includinganecdotes and fables, developed around them. Amongthe great Sufis of Central Asia were Ghazzali, Rumiand Sadi. Like the Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis,the Sufis too believed that the heart can be trained tolook at the world in a different way. They developedelaborate methods of training using zikr (chanting ofa name or sacred formula), contemplation, sama(singing), raqs (dancing), discussion of parables,breath control, etc. under the guidance of a masteror pir. Thus emerged the silsilas, a genealogy of Sufiteachers, each following a slightly different method(tariqa) of instruction and ritual practice.

Fig. 4Mystics in ecstasy.


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A large number of Sufisfrom Central Asia settled inHindustan from the eleventhcentury onwards. This processwas strengthened with theestablishment of the DelhiSultanate (Chapter 3), whenseveral major Sufi centresdeveloped all over thesubcontinent. The Chishtisilsila was among the mostinfluential orders. It had a

long line of teachers like Khwaja MuinuddinChishti of Ajmer, Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki of Delhi,Baba Farid of Punjab, Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliyaof Delhi and Bandanawaz Gisudaraz of Gulbarga.

The Sufi masters held theirassemblies in their khanqahs orhospices. Devotees of al ldescriptions including membersof the royalty and nobility, andordinary people flocked to thesekhanqahs. They discussedspiritual matters, sought theblessings of the saints in solvingtheir worldly problems, orsimply attended the music anddance sessions.

Often people attributed Sufimasters with miraculouspowers that could relieve othersof their illnesses and troubles.The tomb or dargah of a Sufisaint became a place ofpilgrimage to which thousandsof people of all faiths thronged.

HospiceHouse of restfor travellers,especially onekept by a religiousorder.

Fig. 6Devotees of all backgrounds visitSufi shrines.

Fig. 5A page from amanuscript of theQuran, Deccan, latefifteenth century.

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Finding the Lord Finding the Lord Finding the Lord Finding the Lord Finding the Lord

Jalaluddin Rumi was a great thirteenth-century Sufi poetfrom Iran who wrote in Persian. Here is an excerpt fromhis work:

He was not on the Cross of the Christians. I went to theHindu temples. In none of them was there any sign. He wasnot on the heights or in the lowlands … I went to the Kaabaof Mecca. He was not there. I asked about him from Avicennathe philosopher. He was beyond the range of Avicenna … Ilooked into my heart. In that, his place, I saw him. He wasin no other place.

New Religious Developments in NorthNew Religious Developments in NorthNew Religious Developments in NorthNew Religious Developments in NorthNew Religious Developments in NorthIndiaIndiaIndiaIndiaIndia

The period after the thirteenth century saw a new waveof the bhakti movement in north India. This was anage when Islam, Brahmanical Hinduism, Sufism,various strands of bhakti, and the Nathpanths,Siddhas and Yogis influenced one another. We saw thatnew towns (Chapter 6) and kingdoms (Chapters 2, 3and 4) were emerging, and people were taking up newprofessions and finding new roles for themselves. Suchpeople, especially craftspersons, peasants, traders andlabourers, thronged to listen to thesenew saints and spread their ideas.

Some of them like Kabir and BabaGuru Nanak rejected all orthodoxreligions. Others like Tulsidas andSurdas accepted existing beliefsand practices but wanted to makethese accessible to all. Tulsidasconceived of God in the form ofRama. Tulsidas’s composition, theRamcharitmanas, written in Awadhi(a language used in eastern UttarPradesh), is important both as an

Fig. 7Chaitanyadeva, asixteenth-centurybhakti saint fromBengal, preachedselfless devotion toKrishna-Radha. Inthe picture you see agroup of his followersengaged in ecstaticdancing and singing.


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expression of his devotion and as a literary work.Surdas was an ardent devotee of Krishna. Hiscompositions, compiled in the Sursagara, Surasaravaliand Sahitya Lahari, express his devotion. Alsocontemporary was Shankaradeva of Assam (latefifteenth century) who emphasised devotion to Vishnu,and composed poems and plays in Assamese. He beganthe practice of setting up namghars or houses ofrecitation and prayer, a practice that continues to date.

This tradition also included saints like Dadu Dayal,Ravidas and Mirabai. Mirabai was a Rajput princessmarried into the royal family of Mewar in the sixteenthcentury. Mirabai became a disciple of Ravidas, a saintfrom a caste considered “untouchable”. She was

Map 1Major bhakti saintsand the regionsassociated with them. ©NCERT

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devoted to Krishna and composed innumerablebhajans expressing her intense devotion. Her songsalso openly challenged the norms of the “upper” castesand became popular with the masses in Rajasthanand Gujarat.

A unique feature of most of the saints is that theirworks were composed in regional languages and couldbe sung. They became immensely popular and werehanded down orally from generation to generation.Usually the poorest, most deprived communities andwomen transmitted these songs, often adding theirown experiences. Thus the songs as we have themtoday are as much a creation of the saints as ofgenerations of people who sang them. They havebecome a part of our living popular culture.


Fig. 8Mirabai.

Beyond the Rana’s palaceBeyond the Rana’s palaceBeyond the Rana’s palaceBeyond the Rana’s palaceBeyond the Rana’s palace

This is a song composed by Mirabai:

Ranaji, I have left your norms of shame,and false decorum of the princely life.I have left your town.And yet Rana why have you kept upenmity against me?

Rana you gave me a cup of poison.I drank it laughing.Rana I will not be destroyed by you.And yet Rana why have you kept upenmity against me?

Why do you think Mirabai left theRana’s palace??

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A Closer Look: KabirA Closer Look: KabirA Closer Look: KabirA Closer Look: KabirA Closer Look: Kabir

Kabir, who probably lived in the fifteenth-sixteenthcenturies, was one of the most influential saints. Hewas brought up in a family of Muslim julahas orweavers settled in or near the city of Benares (Varanasi).We have little reliable information about his life. Weget to know of his ideas from a vast collection of versescalled sakhis and pads said to have been composedby him and sung by wandering bhajan singers. Someof these were later collected and preserved in the GuruGranth Sahib, Panch Vani and Bijak.

In search of the True LordIn search of the True LordIn search of the True LordIn search of the True LordIn search of the True Lord

Here is a composition of Kabir:

O Allah-Ram present in all living beingsHave mercy on your servants, O Lord!

Why bump your head on the ground,Why bathe your body in water?You kill and you call yourself “humble”But your vices you conceal.

Twenty-four times the Brahmana keepsthe ekadasi fastWhile the Qazi observes the RamzanTell me why does he set aside the elevenmonthsTo seek spiritual fruit in the twelfth?

Hari dwells in the East, they sayAnd Allah resides in the West,Search for him in your heart, in the heartof your heart;There he dwells, Rahim-Ram.

In what ways are the ideas in this poem similar to ordifferent from those of Basavanna and Jalaluddin Rumi?

Fig. 9Kabir working ona loom. ?

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Kabir’s teachings were based on a complete, indeedvehement, rejection of the major religious traditions.His teachings openly ridiculed all forms of externalworship of both Brahmanical Hinduism and Islam,the pre-eminence of the priestly classes and the castesystem. The language of his poetry was a form ofspoken Hindi widely understood by ordinary people.He also sometimes used cryptic language, which isdifficult to follow.

Kabir believed in a formless Supreme God andpreached that the only path to salvation was throughbhakti or devotion. Kabir drew his followers fromamong both Hindus and Muslims.

A Closer Look: Baba Guru NanakA Closer Look: Baba Guru NanakA Closer Look: Baba Guru NanakA Closer Look: Baba Guru NanakA Closer Look: Baba Guru Nanak

We know more about Guru Nanak (1469-1539) thanabout Kabir. Born at Talwandi (Nankana Sahib inPakistan), he travelled widely before establishing a centreat Kartarpur (Dera Baba Nanak on the river Ravi). Aregular worship that consisted of the singing of his ownhymns was established therefor his followers. Irrespective oftheir former creed, caste orgender, his followers atetogether in the common kitchen(langar). The sacred space thuscreated by Guru Nanak wasknown as dharmsal. It is nowknown as Gurdwara.

Before his death in 1539,Guru Nanak appointed one ofhis followers as his successor.His name was Lehna but hecame to be known as GuruAngad, signifying that he wasa part of Guru Nanak himself.Guru Angad compiled thecompositions of Guru Nanak,to which he added his own in


Fig. 10Baba Guru Nanakas a young man, indiscussion withholy men.

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a new script known as Gurmukhi. Thethree successors of Guru Angad alsowrote under the name of “Nanak” andall of their compositions were compiledby Guru Arjan in 1604. To thiscompilation were added the writings ofother figures like Shaikh Farid, SantKabir, Bhagat Namdev and Guru TeghBahadur. In 1706 this compilation wasauthenticated by his son and successor,Guru Gobind Singh. It is now known asGuru Granth Sahib, the holy scriptureof the Sikhs.

The number of Guru Nanak’sfollowers increased through the sixteenth centuryunder his successors. They belonged to a numberof castes but traders, agriculturists, artisans andcraftsmen predominated. This may have somethingto do with Guru Nanak’s insistence that hisfollowers must be householders and should adoptproductive and useful occupations. They were alsoexpected to contribute to the general funds of thecommunity of followers.

By the beginning of the seventeenth century the townof Ramdaspur (Amritsar) had developed around thecentral Gurdwara called Harmandar Sahib (GoldenTemple). It was virtually self-governing and modernhistorians refer to the early seventeenth century Sikhcommunity as ‘a state within the state’. The Mughalemperor Jahangir looked upon them as a potentialthreat and he ordered the execution of Guru Arjan in1606. The Sikh movement began to get politicized inthe seventeenth century, a development whichculminated in the institution of the Khalsa by GuruGobind Singh in 1699. The community of the Sikhs,called the Khalsa Panth, became a political entity.

The changing historical situation during thesixteenth and seventeenth centuries influenced thedevelopment of the Sikh movement. The ideas of Guru

Fig. 11An early manuscriptof the Guru GranthSahib.

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ELSEWHERE

ELSEWHERE

ELSEWHERE

ELSEWHERE

ELSEWHERE

Nanak had a huge impact on this development fromthe very beginning. He emphasized the importance ofthe worship of one God. He insisted that caste, creedor gender was irrelevant for attaining liberation. Hisidea of liberation was not that of a state of inert blissbut rather the pursuit of active life with a strong senseof social commitment. He himself used the terms nam,dan and isnan for the essence of his teaching, whichactually meant right worship, welfare of others andpurity of conduct. His teachings are now rememberedas nam-japna, kirt-karna and vand-chhakna, whichalso underline the importance of right belief andworship, honest living, and helping others. Thus, GuruNanak’s idea of equality had social and politicalimplications. This might partly explain the differencebetween the history of the followers of Guru Nanakand the history of the followers of the other religiousfigures of the medieval centuries, like Kabir, Ravidasand Dadu whose ideas were very similar to those ofGuru Nanak.


Martin Luther and the Reformation

The sixteenth century was a time of religious ferment in Europeas well. One of the most important leaders of the changes thattook place within Christianity was Martin Luther (1483-1546).Luther felt that several practices in the Roman Catholic Church

went against the teachings of theBible. He encouraged the use ofthe language of ordinary peoplerather than Latin, and translatedthe Bible into German. Luther wasstrongly opposed to the practiceof “indulgences” or makingdonations to the Church so as togain forgiveness from sins. Hiswritings were widely disseminatedwith the growing use of theprinting press. Many ProtestantChristian sects trace their originsto the teachings of Luther.

Fig. 12Title page of the German Bible translated by Martin Luther.

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Let’s recall


The Buddha namghar

Shankaradeva worship of Vishnu

Nizamuddin Auliya questioned socialdifferences

Nayanars Sufi saint

Alvars worship of Shiva


(a) Shankara was an advocate of ————-.

(b) Ramanuja was influenced by the —————.

(c) ————, ———— and ———— wereadvocates of Virashaivism.

(d) ———————— was an important centre ofthe Bhakti tradition in Maharashtra.

3. Describe the beliefs and practices of the Nathpanthis,Siddhas and Yogis.

4. What were the major ideas expressed by Kabir? Howdid he express these?

KEYWORDS

Virashaivism

bhakti

Sufi

khanqah

Imagine

You are attending a meeting where asaint is discussing the caste system.

Relate the conversation.

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Let’s understand

5. What were the major beliefs and practices of the Sufis?

6. Why do you think many teachers rejected prevalentreligious beliefs and practices?

7. What were the major teachings of Baba Guru Nanak?

Let’s discuss

8. For either the Virashaivas or the sants ofMaharashtra, discuss their attitude towards caste.

9. Why do you think ordinary people preserved thememory of Mirabai?

Let’s do

10. Find out whether in your neighbourhood there areany dargahs, gurudwaras or temples associatedwith saints of the bhakti tradition in yourneighbourhood. Visit any one of these and describewhat you see and hear.

11. For any of the saint-poets whose compositions havebeen included in this chapter, find out more abouttheir works, noting down other poems. Find outwhether these are sung, how they are sung, and whatthe poets wrote about.

12. There are several saint-poets whose names havebeen mentioned but their works have not beenincluded in the chapter. Find out more about thelanguage in which they composed, whether theircompositions were sung, and what theircompositions were about.


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9

Find out howmany states havebeen created inthe last 10 years.Is each of thesestates a region?

THE MAKING OFTHE MAKING OFTHE MAKING OFTHE MAKING OFTHE MAKING OFREGIONAL CULTURESREGIONAL CULTURESREGIONAL CULTURESREGIONAL CULTURESREGIONAL CULTURES

One of the commonest ways of describing peopleis in terms of the language they speak. When we

refer to a person as a Tamil or an Oriya, this usuallymeans that he or she speaks Tamil or Oriya and livesin Tamil Nadu or Orissa. We also tend to associateeach region with distinctive kinds of food, clothes,poetry, dance, music and painting. Sometimes we takethese identities for granted and assume that they haveexisted from time immemorial. However, the frontiersseparating regions have evolved over time (and in factare still changing). Also, what we understand asregional cultures today are often the product of complexprocesses of intermixing of local traditions with ideasfrom other parts of the subcontinent. As we will see,some traditions appear specific to some regions, othersseem to be similar across regions, and yet others derivefrom older practices in a particular area, but take anew form in other regions.

The Cheras and the DevelopmentThe Cheras and the DevelopmentThe Cheras and the DevelopmentThe Cheras and the DevelopmentThe Cheras and the Developmentof Malayalamof Malayalamof Malayalamof Malayalamof Malayalam

Let us begin by looking at an example of theconnection between language and region. The Cherakingdom of Mahodayapuram was established in theninth century in the south-western part of thepeninsula, part of present-day Kerala. It is likely thatMalayalam was spoken in this area. The rulersintroduced the Malayalam language and script in theirinscriptions. In fact, this is one of the earliestexamples of the use of a regional language in officialrecords in the subcontinent.

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?Find out when thelanguage(s) youspeak at homewere first usedfor writing.

Fig. 1An early Keralainscription, composedin Malayalam.

At the same time, the Cheras also drew uponSanskritic traditions. The temple theatre of Kerala,which is traced to this period, borrowed stories fromthe Sanskrit epics. The first literary works inMalayalam, dated to about the twelfth century, aredirectly indebted to Sanskrit. Interestingly enough, afourteenth-century text, the Lilatilakam, dealing withgrammar and poetics, was composed in Manipravalam– literally, “diamonds and corals” referring to the twolanguages, Sanskrit and the regional language.

Rulers and Religious Traditions:Rulers and Religious Traditions:Rulers and Religious Traditions:Rulers and Religious Traditions:Rulers and Religious Traditions:The Jagannatha CultThe Jagannatha CultThe Jagannatha CultThe Jagannatha CultThe Jagannatha Cult

In other regions, regional cultures grew aroundreligious traditions. The best example of this processis the cult of Jagannatha (literally, lord of the world,a name for Vishnu) at Puri, Orissa. Todate, the local tribal people make thewooden image of the deity, whichsuggests that the deity was originallya local god, who was later identifiedwith Vishnu.

In the twelfth century, one of themost important rulers of the Gangadynasty, Anantavarman, decided toerect a temple for PurushottamaJagannatha at Puri. Subsequently, in1230, king Anangabhima III dedicatedhis kingdom to the deity and proclaimedhimself as the “deputy” of the god.

Fig. 2The icons ofBalabhadra,Subhadra andJagannatha, palm-leaf manuscript,

Orissa.

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As the temple gained in importanceas a centre of pilgrimage, its authorityin social and political matters alsoincreased. All those who conqueredOrissa, such as the Mughals, theMarathas and the English East IndiaCompany, attempted to gain controlover the temple. They felt that thiswould make their rule acceptable tothe local people.

The Rajputs andThe Rajputs andThe Rajputs andThe Rajputs andThe Rajputs andTraditions of HeroismTraditions of HeroismTraditions of HeroismTraditions of HeroismTraditions of Heroism

In the nineteenth century, theregion that constitutes most ofpresent-day Rajasthan, was calledRajputana by the British. While this

may suggest that this was an area that was inhabitedonly or mainly by Rajputs, this is only partly true.There were (and are) several groups who identifythemselves as Rajputs in many areas of northern andcentral India. And of course, there are several peoplesother than Rajputs who live in Rajasthan. However,the Rajputs are often recognised as contributing tothe distinctive culture of Rajasthan.

These cultural traditionswere closely linked withthe ideals and aspirationsof rulers. From about theeighth century, most ofthe present-day state ofRajasthan was ruled byvarious Rajput families.Prithviraj (Chapter 2) wasone such ruler. These rulerscherished the ideal of thehero who fought valiantly,often choosing death on thebattlefield rather than face

Fig. 3Jagannatha temple,Puri.

Fig. 4Prince Raj Singh ofBikaner.

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defeat. Stories about Rajput heroes were recorded inpoems and songs, which were recited by speciallytrained minstrels. These preserved the memories ofheroes and were expected to inspire others to followtheir example. Ordinary people were also attracted bythese stories – which often depicted dramatic situations,and a range of strong emotions – loyalty, friendship,love, valour, anger, etc.

Did women find a place within these stories?Sometimes, they figure as the “cause” for conflicts, asmen fought with one another to either “win” or “protect”women. Women are also depicted as following theirheroic husbands in both life and death – there arestories about the practice of sati or the immolation ofwidows on the funeral pyre of their husbands. So those

Map 1Regions discussed inthis chapter.

THE MAKING OFREGIONAL CULTURES

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who followed the heroic ideal often had to pay for itwith their lives.

Beyond Regional Frontiers:Beyond Regional Frontiers:Beyond Regional Frontiers:Beyond Regional Frontiers:Beyond Regional Frontiers:The Story of The Story of The Story of The Story of The Story of KathakKathakKathakKathakKathak

If heroic traditions can be found in different regions indifferent forms, the same is true of dance. Let us lookat the history of one dance form, Kathak, nowassociated with several parts of north India. The termkathak is derived from katha, a word used in Sanskritand other languages for story. The kathaks wereoriginally a caste of story-tellers in temples of northIndia, who embellished their performances withgestures and songs. Kathak began evolving into adistinct mode of dance in the fifteenth and sixteenthcenturies with the spread of the bhakti movement. Thelegends of Radha-Krishna were enacted in folk playscalled rasa lila, which combined folk dance with thebasic gestures of the kathak story-tellers.

Under the Mughal emperors and their nobles, Kathakwas performed in the court, where it acquired its presentfeatures and developed into a form of dance with adistinctive style. Subsequently, it developed in twotraditions or gharanas: one in the courts of Rajasthan(Jaipur) and the other in Lucknow. Under the patronageof Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Awadh,it grew into a major art form. By the third quarter

of the nineteenthcentury it was firmlyentrenched as a danceform not only in thesetwo regions, but inthe adjoining areasof present-day Punjab,Haryana, Jammuand Kashmir, Biharand Madhya Pradesh.Emphasis was laidon intricate and

?Find out whetherthere aretraditions ofheroes/heroinesin your town orvillage. What arethe qualitiesassociated withthem? In whatways are thesesimilar to ordifferent from theheroic ideals ofthe Rajputs?

Fig. 5Dance class,Lakshmana temple,Khajuraho.

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rapid footwork, elaborate costumes, as well as on theenactment of stories.

Kathak, like several other cultural practices, wasviewed with disfavour by most British administratorsin the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. However, itsurvived and continued to be performed by courtesans,and was recognised as one of six “classical” forms ofdance in the country after independence.

“Classical” dances“Classical” dances“Classical” dances“Classical” dances“Classical” dances

The question of defining any art form as “classical” isoften quite complicated. Do we define something asclassical if it deals with a religious theme? Or dowe consider it classical because it appears torequire a great deal of skill acquiredthrough long years of training? Or is itclassical because it is performedaccording to rules that are laid down,and variations are not encouraged?These are questions we needto think about. It is worthremembering that many danceforms that are classified as “folk”also share several of thecharacteristics considered typicalof “classical” forms. So, while theuse of the term “classical” maysuggest that these forms aresuperior, this need not always beliterally true.

Other dance forms that arerecognised as classical at present are:

Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu)

Kathakali (Kerala)

Odissi (Orissa)

Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh)

Manipuri (Manipur)

?THE MAKING OFREGIONAL CULTURES

Find out more about any one of these dance forms.

Fig. 6Kathak dancers, a court painting.

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Painting for Patrons: The TraditionPainting for Patrons: The TraditionPainting for Patrons: The TraditionPainting for Patrons: The TraditionPainting for Patrons: The Traditionof Miniaturesof Miniaturesof Miniaturesof Miniaturesof Miniatures

Another tradition that developed in different ways wasthat of miniature painting. Miniatures (as their veryname suggests) are small-sized paintings, generallydone in water colour on cloth or paper. The earliestminiatures were on palm leaves or wood. Some of themost beautiful of these, found in western India, wereused to illustrate Jaina texts. The Mughal emperorsAkbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan patronised highlyskilled painters who primarily illustrated manuscriptscontaining historical accounts and poetry. These weregenerally painted in brilliant colours and portrayed

court scenes, scenes of battle orhunting, and other aspects of sociallife. They were often exchanged asgifts and were viewed only by anexclusive few – the emperor and hisclose associates.

With the decline of the MughalEmpire, many painters moved outto the courts of the emerging regionalstates (see also Chapter 10). As aresult Mughal artistic tastesinfluenced the regional courts of theDeccan and the Rajput courts ofRajasthan. At the same time, theyretained and developed theirdistinctive characteristics. Portraitsof rulers and court scenes came tobe painted, following the Mughalexample. Besides, themes frommythology and poetry were depictedat centres such as Mewar, Jodhpur,Bundi, Kota and Kishangarh.

Another region that attractedminiature paintings was theHimalayan foothills around themodern-day state of Himachal

Fig. 7Akbar restingduring a hunt,Mughal miniature.

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Pradesh. By the late seventeenth century this regionhad developed a bold and intense style of miniaturepainting called Basohli. The most popular text to bepainted here was Bhanudatta’s Rasamanjari. NadirShah’s invasion and the conquest of Delhi in 1739resulted in the migration of Mughal artists to thehills to escape the uncertainties of the plains. Here

Fig. 8Maharana RamSingh II playing holi.Rajput miniature,Kota.

Fig. 9Krishna, Radha andher companion,Pahari miniature,Kangra.


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they found ready patrons which led to the foundingof the Kangra school of painting. By the mid-eighteenth century the Kangra artists developed astyle which breathed a new spirit into miniaturepainting. The source of inspiration was theVaishnavite traditions. Soft colours including coolblues and greens, and a lyrical treatment of themesdistinguished Kangra painting.

Remember that ordinary women and men paintedas well – on pots, walls, floors, cloth – works of art thathave occasionally survived, unlike the miniaturesthat were carefully preserved in palaces for centuries.

A Closer Look: BengalA Closer Look: BengalA Closer Look: BengalA Closer Look: BengalA Closer Look: Bengal

The Growth of a Regional Language

As we saw at the outset, we often tend to identifyregions in terms of the language spoken by thepeople. So, we assume that people in Bengal alwaysspoke Bengali. However, what is interesting is thatwhile Bengali is now recognised as a languagederived from Sanskrit, early Sanskrit texts (mid-firstmillennium BCE) suggest that the people of Bengaldid not speak Sanskritic languages. How, then, didthe new language emerge?

From the fourth-third centuries BCE, commercialties began to develop between Bengal and Magadha(south Bihar), which may have led to the growing

Fig. 10A page from apalm-leaf manuscriptof the earliest BengaliRamayana.

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influence of Sanskrit. During the fourth century theGupta rulers established political control over northBengal and began to settle Brahmanas in this area.Thus, the linguistic and cultural influence from themid-Ganga valley became stronger. In the seventhcentury the Chinese traveller Xuan Zang observedthat languages related to Sanskrit were in use allover Bengal.

From the eighth century, Bengal became thecentre of a regional kingdom under the Palas(Chapter 2). Between the fourteenth and sixteenthcenturies, Bengal was ruled by Sultans who wereindependent of the rulers in Delhi (Chapter 3). In1586, when Akbar conquered Bengal, it formed thenucleus of the Bengal suba. While Persian was thelanguage of administration, Bengali developed as aregional language.

In fact by the fifteenth century the Bengali groupof dialects came to be united by a common literarylanguage based on the spoken language of thewestern part of the region, now known as WestBengal. Thus, although Bengali is derived fromSanskrit, it passed through several stages ofevolution. Also, a wide range of non-Sanskrit words,derived from a variety of sources including triballanguages, Persian, and European languages, havebecome part of modern Bengali.

Early Bengali literature may be divided into twocategories – one indebted to Sanskrit and the otherindependent of it. The first includes translations ofthe Sanskrit epics, the Mangalakavyas (literallyauspicious poems, dealing with local deities) andbhakti literature such as the biographies ofChaitanyadeva, the leader of the Vaishnava bhaktimovement (Chapter 8).

The second includes Nath literature such as thesongs of Maynamati and Gopichandra, storiesconcerning the worship of Dharma Thakur, and fairytales, folk tales and ballads.


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Maynamati, Gopichandra andMaynamati, Gopichandra andMaynamati, Gopichandra andMaynamati, Gopichandra andMaynamati, Gopichandra andDharma ThakurDharma ThakurDharma ThakurDharma ThakurDharma Thakur

The Naths were ascetics who engaged in a variety ofyogic practices.

This particular song, which was often enacted,described how Maynamati, a queen, encouraged herson Gopichandra to adopt the path of asceticism inthe face of a variety of obstacles.

Dharma Thakur is a popular regional deity, oftenworshipped in the form of a stone or a piece of wood.

The texts belonging to the first category are easierto date, as several manuscripts have been foundindicating that they were composed between the latefifteenth and mid-eighteenth centuries. Thosebelonging to the second category circulated orally andcannot be precisely dated. They were particularlypopular in eastern Bengal, where the influence ofBrahmanas was relatively weak.

Pirs Pirs Pirs Pirs Pirs and Templesand Templesand Templesand Templesand Temples

From the sixteenth century, people began to migratein large numbers from the less fertile western Bengalto the forested and marshy areas of south-easternBengal. As they moved eastwards, they cleared forestsand brought the land under rice cultivation.Gradually, local communities of fisherfolk and shiftingcultivators, often tribals, merged with the newcommunities of peasants.

This coincided with the establishment of Mughalcontrol over Bengal with their capital in the heart ofthe eastern delta at Dhaka. Officials and functionariesreceived land and often set up mosques that served ascentres for religious transformation in these areas.

The early settlers sought some order and assurancein the unstable conditions of the new settlements.

PirA Persian wordmeaning aspiritual guide.

?Why do you thinkthe secondcategory of textswas not writtendown?

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These were provided by community leaders, who alsofunctioned as teachers and adjudicators and weresometimes ascribed with supernatural powers. Peoplereferred to them with affection and respect as pirs.

This term included saints or Sufis and otherreligious personalities, daring colonisers and deifiedsoldiers, various Hindu and Buddhist deities and evenanimistic spirits. The cult of pirs became very popularand their shrines can be found everywhere in Bengal.

Bengal also witnessed a temple-building spree fromthe late fifteenth century, which culminated in thenineteenth century. We have seen (Chapters 2 and 5)that temples and other religious structures were oftenbuilt by individuals or groups who were becomingpowerful – to both demonstrate their power andproclaim their piety. Many of the modest brick andterracotta temples in Bengal were built with thesupport of several “low” social groups, such as theKolu (oil pressers) and the Kansari (bell metalworkers). The coming of the European tradingcompanies created new economic opportunities; manyfamilies belonging to these social groups availed ofthese. As their social and economic position improved,

Compare thetemple shownhere with that inChapter 2.

?

Fig. 11 (left)A double-roofedthatched hut.

Fig. 12 (right)A four-roofed templewith a tower.


AnimismAttribution ofliving soul toplants, inanimateobjects, andnaturalphenomena.

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they proclaimed their status through the constructionof temples. When local deities, once worshipped inthatched huts in villages, gained the recognition ofthe Brahmanas, their images began to be housed intemples. The temples began to copy the double-roofed(dochala) or four-roofed (chauchala) structure of thethatched huts. (Remember the “Bangla dome” inChapter 5?) This led to the evolution of the typicalBengali style in temple architecture.

In the comparatively more complex four-roofedstructure, four triangular roofs placed on the four wallsmove up to converge on a curved line or a point.Temples were usually built on a square platform. Theinterior was relatively plain, but the outer walls of manytemples were decorated with paintings, ornamentaltiles or terracotta tablets. In some temples, particularlyin Vishnupur in the Bankura district of West Bengal,such decorations reached a high degree of excellence.

Fig. 13Krishna with gopis,terracotta plaquefrom the Shyamarayatemple, Vishnupur.

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Fish as FoodFish as FoodFish as FoodFish as FoodFish as Food

Traditional food habits are generally basedon locally available items of food. Bengal isa riverine plain which produces plenty ofrice and fish. Understandably, these twoitems figure prominently in the menu ofeven poor Bengalis. Fishing has alwaysbeen an important occupation and Bengaliliterature contains several references tofish. What is more, terracotta plaques onthe walls of temples and viharas (Buddhistmonasteries) depict scenes of fish beingdressed and taken to the market in baskets.

Brahmanas were not allowed to eat non-vegetarian food, but the popularity of fishin the local diet made the Brahmanicalauthorities relax this prohibition for theBengal Brahmanas. The BrihaddharmaPurana, a thirteenth-century Sanskrit textfrom Bengal, permitted the local Brahmanas to eatcertain varieties of fish.

Fig. 14Fish beingdressed for domesticconsumption,terracotta plaque fromthe Vishalakshitemple, Arambagh.


Emergence of nation-states in Europe

Till the eighteenth century, people in Europe saw themselves assubjects of an empire, such as the Austro-Hungarian empire, ormembers of a church, such as the Greek Orthodox church. But,from the late eighteenth century, people also began to identifythemselves as members of a community that spoke a commonlanguage, such as French or German. By the early nineteenthcentury, in Rumania school textbooks began to be written inRumanian rather than in Greek, and in Hungary Hugarian wasadopted as the official language instead of Latin. These and othersimilar developments created the consciousness among the peoplethat each linguistic community was a separate nation. This feelingwas strengthened by the movements for Italian and Germanunification in the late nineteenth century.

ELSEWHERE

ELSEWHERE

ELSEWHERE

ELSEWHERE

ELSEWHERE

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KEYWORDS

classical

miniature

pir

dialect

Let’s recall


Anantavarman Kerala

Jagannatha Bengal

Mahodayapuram Orissa

Lilatilakam Kangra

Mangalakavya Puri

Miniature Kerala

2. What is Manipravalam? Name a book written in thatlanguage.

3. Who were the major patrons of Kathak?

4. What are the important architectural features of thetemples of Bengal ?

Imagine

You are a Rajput prince. Howwould you like your story to betold?

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Let’s discuss

5. Why did minstrels proclaim the achievements ofheroes?

6. Why do we know much more about the culturalpractices of rulers than about those of ordinarypeople?

7. Why did conquerors try to control the temple ofJagannatha at Puri?

8. Why were temples built in Bengal?

Let’s do

9. Describe the most important features of the cultureof your region, focusing on buildings, performingarts and painting.

10. Do you use different languages for (a) speaking,(b) reading, (c) writing? Find out about one majorcomposition in language that you use and discusswhy you find it interesting.

11. Choose one state each from north, west, south, eastand central India. For each of these, prepare a list offoods that are commonly consumed, highlighting anydifferences and similarities that you notice.

12. Choose another set of five states from each of theseregions and prepare a list of clothes that are generallyworn by women and men in each. Discuss yourfindings.

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10 EIGHTEENTH-CENTURYEIGHTEENTH-CENTURYEIGHTEENTH-CENTURYEIGHTEENTH-CENTURYEIGHTEENTH-CENTURYPOLITICAL FORMATIONSPOLITICAL FORMATIONSPOLITICAL FORMATIONSPOLITICAL FORMATIONSPOLITICAL FORMATIONS

If you look at Maps 1 and 2 closely, you will seesomething significant happening in the subcontinent

during the first half of the eighteenth century. Noticehow the boundaries of the Mughal Empire werereshaped by the emergence of a number of independent

Map 1State formations inthe eighteenthcentury.

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kingdoms. By 1765,notice how anotherpower, the British, hadsuccessfully grabbedmajor chunks ofterritory in easternIndia. What these mapstell us is that politicalconditions in eighteenth-century India changedquite dramatically andwithin a relatively shortspan of time.

In this chapter wewill read about theemergence of newpolitical groups in thesubcontinent duringthe first half of theeighteenth century –roughly from 1707,when Aurangzeb died,till the third battle ofPanipat in 1761.

The Crisis of the Empire andThe Crisis of the Empire andThe Crisis of the Empire andThe Crisis of the Empire andThe Crisis of the Empire andthe Later Mughalsthe Later Mughalsthe Later Mughalsthe Later Mughalsthe Later Mughals

In Chapter 4 you saw how the Mughal Empire reachedthe height of its success and started facing a variety ofcrises towards the closing years of the seventeenthcentury. These were caused by a number of factors.Emperor Aurangzeb had depleted the military andfinancial resources of his empire by fighting a longwar in the Deccan.

Under his successors, the efficiency of the imperialadministration broke down. It became increasinglydifficult for the later Mughal emperors to keep a checkon their powerful mansabdars. Nobles appointed as

?See Chapter 4,Table 1. Whichgroup of peoplechallenged Mughalauthority for thelongest time inAurangzeb’s reign?

EIGHTEENTH-CENTURYPOLITICAL FORMATIONS

Map 2British territories inthe mid-eighteenthcentury.

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governors (subadars) often controlled the offices ofrevenue and military administration (diwani andfaujdari) as well. This gave them extraordinarypolitical, economic and military powers over vastregions of the Mughal Empire. As the governorsconsolidated their control over the provinces, theperiodic remission of revenue to the capital declined.

Peasant and zamindari rebellions in many parts ofnorthern and western India added to these problems.These revolts were sometimes caused by the pressuresof mounting taxes. At other times they were attemptsby powerful chieftains to consolidate their ownpositions. Mughal authority had been challenged byrebellious groups in the past as well. But these groupswere now able to seize the economic resources of theregion to consolidate their positions. The Mughalemperors after Aurangzeb were unable to arrest thegradual shifting of political and economic authorityinto the hands of provincial governors, local chieftainsand other groups.

Rich harvests and empty coffersRich harvests and empty coffersRich harvests and empty coffersRich harvests and empty coffersRich harvests and empty coffers

The following is a contemporary writer’s account ofthe financial bankruptcy of the empire:

The great lords are helpless and impoverished. Their peasantsraise two crops a year, but their lords see nothing of either,and their agents on the spot are virtual prisoners in thepeasants’ hands, like a peasant kept in his creditor’s houseuntil he can pay his debt. So complete is the collapse of allorder and administration that though the peasant reaps aharvest of gold, his lord does not see so much as a wisp ofstraw. How then can the lord keep the armed force he should?How can he pay the soldiers who should go before him whenhe goes out, or the horsemen who should ride behind him?

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In the midst of this economic and political crisis,the ruler of Iran, Nadir Shah, sacked and plunderedthe city of Delhi in 1739 and took away immenseamounts of wealth. This invasion was followed by aseries of plundering raids by the Afghan ruler AhmadShah Abdali, who invaded north India five timesbetween 1748 and 1761.

Nadir Shah attacks DelhiNadir Shah attacks DelhiNadir Shah attacks DelhiNadir Shah attacks DelhiNadir Shah attacks Delhi

The devastation of Delhi after Nadir Shah’s invasionwas described by contemporary observers. Onedescribed the wealth looted from the Mughal treasuryas follows:

sixty lakhs of rupees and some thousand gold coins, nearlyone crore worth of gold-ware, nearly fifty crores worth ofjewels, most of them unrivalled in the world, and the aboveincluded the Peacock throne. Another account described the invasion’s impact

upon Delhi:

(those) … who had been masters were now in dire straits;and those who had been revered couldn’t even (get water to)quench their thirst. The recluses were pulled out of theircorners. The wealthy were turned into beggars. Those whoonce set the style in clothes now went naked; and those whoowned property were now homeless … The New City(Shahjahanabad) was turned into rubble. (Nadir Shah) thenattacked the Old quarters of the city and destroyed a wholeworld that existed there …

Already under severe pressure from all sides, theempire was further weakened by competition amongstdifferent groups of nobles. They were divided into twomajor groups or factions, the Iranis and Turanis (noblesof Turkish descent). For a long time, the later Mughalemperors were puppets in the hands of either one orthe other of these two powerful groups. The worst

Fig. 1A 1779 portrait of NadirShah.


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possible humiliation came when two Mughalemperors, Farrukh Siyar (1713-1719) andAlamgir II (1754-1759) were assassinated,and two others Ahmad Shah (1748-1754) andShah Alam II (1759-1816) were blinded bytheir nobles.

Emergence of New StatesEmergence of New StatesEmergence of New StatesEmergence of New StatesEmergence of New States

With the decline in the authority of the Mughalemperors, the governors of large provinces,subadars, and the great zamindarsconsolidated their authority in different partsof the subcontinent. Through the eighteenthcentury, the Mughal Empire graduallyfragmented into a number of independent,regional states. Broadly speaking the states

of the eighteenth century can be divided into threeoverlapping groups: (1) States that were old Mughalprovinces like Awadh, Bengal and Hyderabad.Although extremely powerful and quite independent,the rulers of these states did not break their formalties with the Mughal emperor. (2) States that hadenjoyed considerable independence under the Mughalsas watan jagirs. These included several Rajputprincipalities. (3) The last group included states underthe control of Marathas, Sikhs and others like the Jats.These were of differing sizes and had seized theirindependence from the Mughals after a long-drawnarmed struggle.

The Old Mughal ProvincesThe Old Mughal ProvincesThe Old Mughal ProvincesThe Old Mughal ProvincesThe Old Mughal Provinces

Amongst the states that were carved out of the oldMughal provinces in the eighteenth century, threestand out very prominently. These were Awadh, Bengaland Hyderabad. All three states were founded bymembers of the high Mughal nobility who had beengovernors of large provinces – Sa‘adat Khan (Awadh),Murshid Quli Khan (Bengal) and Asaf Jah (Hyderabad).All three had occupied high mansabdari positions andenjoyed the trust and confidence of the emperors. Both

Fig. 2Farrukh Siyarreceiving a noblein court.

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Asaf Jah and Murshid Quli Khan held a zat rank of7,000 each, while Sa’adat Khan’s zat was 6,000.

Hyderabad

Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah, the founder of Hyderabadstate, was one of the most powerful members at thecourt of the Mughal Emperor Farrukh Siyar. He wasentrusted first with the governorship of Awadh, andlater given charge of the Deccan. As the Mughalgovernor of the Deccan provinces, Asaf Jah alreadyhad full control over its political and financialadministration. Taking advantage of the turmoil in theDeccan and the competition amongst the court nobility,he gathered power in his hands and became the actualruler of that region.

Asaf Jah brought skilled soldiers and administratorsfrom northern India who welcomed the newopportunities in the south. He appointed mansabdarsand granted jagirs. Although he was still a servant ofthe Mughal emperor, he ruled quite independentlywithout seeking any direction from Delhi or facing anyinterference. The Mughal emperor merely confirmedthe decisions already taken by the Nizam.

The state of Hyderabad was constantly engaged in astruggle against the Marathas to the west and withindependent Telugu warrior chiefs (nayakas) of theplateau. The ambitions of the Nizam to control the richtextile-producing areas of the Coromandel coast in theeast were checked by the British who were becomingincreasingly powerful in that region (see Map 2).

The Nizam’s armyThe Nizam’s armyThe Nizam’s armyThe Nizam’s armyThe Nizam’s army

A description of the Nizam of Hyderabad’s personaltroopers in 1790:

…The Nizam has a swaree (sawari) of 400 elephants, severalthousand of horsemen near his person who receive upwards100 R(upees)s nominal pay (and) are extremely well mountedand richly caparisoned …

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?

Awadh

Burhan-ul-Mulk Sa‘adat Khanwas appointed subadar ofAwadh in 1722 and foundeda state which was one of themost important to emergeout of the break-up of theMughal Empire. Awadh was aprosperous region, controllingthe rich alluvial Ganga plainand the main trade routebetween north India andBengal. Burhan-ul-Mulk alsoheld the combined offices ofsubadari, diwani and faujdari.In other words, he wasresponsible for managing thepolitical, financial and militaryaffairs of the province of Awadh.

Burhan-ul-Mulk tried todecrease Mughal influence in the Awadh region byreducing the number of office holders (jagirdars)appointed by the Mughals. He also reduced the sizeof jagirs, and appointed his own loyal servants tovacant positions. The accounts of jagirdars werechecked to prevent cheating and the revenues of alldistricts were reassessed by officials appointed by theNawab’s court. He seized a number of Rajputzamindaris and the agriculturally fertile lands of theAfghans of Rohilkhand.

The state depended on local bankers and mahajansfor loans. It sold the right to collect tax to the highestbidders. These “revenue farmers” (ijaradars) agreed topay the state a fixed sum of money. Local bankersguaranteed the payment of this contracted amount tothe state. In turn, the revenue-farmers were givenconsiderable freedom in the assessment and collectionof taxes. These developments allowed new socialgroups, like moneylenders and bankers, to influence

In trying toconsolidate theirrule, why didMughal subadarsalso want tocontrol the officeof diwan?

Fig. 3Burhan-ul-MulkSa‘adat Khan.

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the management of the state’s revenue system,something which had not occurred in the past.

Bengal

Bengal gradually broke away from Mughal controlunder Murshid Quli Khan who was appointed as thenaib, deputy to the governor of the province. Althoughnever a formal subadar, Murshid Quli Khan veryquickly seized all the power that went with that office.Like the rulers of Hyderabad and Awadh he alsocommanded the revenue administration of the state.In an effort to reduce Mughal influence in Bengal hetransferred all Mughal jagirdars to Orissa and ordereda major reassessment of the revenues of Bengal.Revenue was collected in cash with great strictnessfrom all zamindars. As a result, many zamindars hadto borrow money from bankers and moneylenders.Those unable to pay were forced to sell their lands tolarger zamindars.

The formation of a regional state in eighteenth-century Bengal therefore led to considerable changeamongst the zamindars. The close connectionbetween the state and bankers – noticeable in

Fig. 4Alivardi Khan holdingcourt.


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Hyderabad and Awadh as well – was evident inBengal under the rule of Alivardi Khan (r. 1740-1756). During his reign the banking house of JagatSeth became extremely prosperous.

If we take a bird’s eye view, we can detect threecommon features amongst these states. First, thoughmany of the larger states were established by erstwhileMughal nobles they were highly suspicious of some ofthe administrative systems that they had inherited, inparticular the jagirdari system. Second, their methodof tax collection differed. Rather than relying upon theofficers of the state, all three regimes contracted withrevenue-farmers for the collection of revenue. Thepractice of ijaradari, thoroughly disapproved of bythe Mughals, spread all over India in the eighteenthcentury. Their impact on the countryside differedconsiderably. The third common feature in all theseregional states was their emerging relationship withrich bankers and merchants. These people lent moneyto revenue farmers, received land as security andcollected taxes from these lands through their ownagents. Throughout India the richest merchants andbankers were gaining a stake in the new political order.

TheTheTheTheThe Watan Jagirs Watan Jagirs Watan Jagirs Watan Jagirs Watan Jagirs of the Rajputsof the Rajputsof the Rajputsof the Rajputsof the Rajputs

Many Rajput kings, particularly those belonging toAmber and Jodhpur, had served under the Mughalswith distinction. In exchange, they were permitted toenjoy considerable autonomy in their watan jagirs. Inthe eighteenth century, these rulers now attempted toextend their control over adjacent regions. Ajit Singh,the ruler of Jodhpur, was also involved in the factionalpolitics at the Mughal court.

These influential Rajput families claimed thesubadari of the rich provinces of Gujarat and Malwa.Raja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur held the governorship ofGujarat and Sawai Raja Jai Singh of Amber wasgovernor of Malwa. These offices were renewed byEmperor Jahandar Shah in 1713. They also tried to

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extend their territories by seizing portions of imperialterritories neighbouring their watans. Nagaur wasconquered and annexed to the house of Jodhpur,while Amber seized large portions of Bundi. SawaiRaja Jai Singh founded his new capital at Jaipur andwas given the subadari of Agra in 1722. Marathacampaigns into Rajasthan from the 1740s put severepressure on these principalities and checked theirfurther expansion.

Raja Jai Singh of JaipurRaja Jai Singh of JaipurRaja Jai Singh of JaipurRaja Jai Singh of JaipurRaja Jai Singh of Jaipur

A description of Raja Jai Singh in a Persian account of1732:

Raja Jai Singh was at the height of his power. He was thegovernor of Agra for 12 years and of Malwa for 5 or 6 years.He possessed a large army, artillery and great wealth. Hissway extended from Delhi to the banks of the Narmada.

Fig. 5Mehrangarh Fort,Jodhpur.


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Seizing IndependenceSeizing IndependenceSeizing IndependenceSeizing IndependenceSeizing Independence

The Sikhs

The organisation of the Sikhs into a political communityduring the seventeenth century (see Chapter 8) helpedin regional state-building in the Punjab. Several battleswere fought by Guru Gobind Singh against the Rajputand Mughal rulers, both before and after the institutionof the Khalsa in 1699. After his death in 1708, theKhalsa rose in revolt against the Mughal authorityunder Banda Bahadur’s leadership, declared theirsovereign rule by striking coins in the name of GuruNanak and Guru Gobind Singh, and established theirown administration between the Sutlej and theJamuna. Banda Bahadur was captured in 1715 andexecuted in 1716.

Fig. 6Guru Gobind Singh,the tenth guru.

?What is the Khalsa?Do you recallreading aboutit in Chapter 8?

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Under a number of able leaders in the eighteenthcentury, the Sikhs organized themselves into a numberof bands called jathas, and later on misls. Theircombined forces were known as the grand army (dalkhalsa). The entire body used to meet at Amritsar atthe time of Baisakhi and Diwali to take collectivedecisions known as “resolutions of the Guru(gurmatas)”. A system called rakhi was introduced,offering protection to cultivators on the payment of atax of 20 per cent of the produce.

Guru Gobind Singh had inspired the Khalsa withthe belief that their destiny was to rule (raj karegakhalsa). Their well-knit organization enabled them toput up a successful resistance to the Mughal governorsfirst and then to Ahmad Shah Abdali who had seizedthe rich province of the Punjab and the Sarkar ofSirhind from the Mughals. The Khalsa declared theirsovereign rule by striking their own coin again in 1765.Significantly, this coin bore the same inscription asthe one on the orders issued by the Khalsa in the timeof Banda Bahadur.

The Sikh territories in the late eighteenth centuryextended from the Indus to the Jamuna but they weredivided under different rulers. One of them, MaharajaRanjit Singh, reunited these groups and establishedhis capital at Lahore in 1799.

The Marathas

The Maratha kingdom was another powerful regionalkingdom to arise out of a sustained opposition toMughal rule. Shivaji (1627-1680) carved out a stablekingdom with the support of powerful warrior families(deshmukhs). Groups of highly mobile, peasant-pastoralists (kunbis) provided the backbone of theMaratha army. Shivaji used these forces to challengethe Mughals in the peninsula. After Shivaji’s death,effective power in the Maratha state was wielded by afamily of Chitpavan Brahmanas who served Shivaji’ssuccessors as Peshwa (or principal minister). Poonabecame the capital of the Maratha kingdom.

Fig. 7Sword of MaharajaRanjit Singh.


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Under the Peshwas, the Marathas developed a verysuccessful military organisation. Their success layin bypassing the fortified areas of the Mughals, byraiding cities and by engaging Mughal armies in areaswhere their supply lines and reinforcements couldbe easily disturbed.

Between 1720 and 1761, the Maratha empireexpanded. It gradually chipped away at the authorityof the Mughal Empire. Malwa and Gujarat were seizedfrom the Mughals by the 1720s. By the 1730s, theMaratha king was recognised as the overlord of theentire Deccan peninsula. He possessed the right tolevy chauth and sardeshmukhi in the entire region.

After raiding Delhi in 1737 the frontiers of Marathadomination expanded rapidly: into Rajasthan and thePunjab in the north; into Bengal and Orissa in theeast; and into Karnataka and the Tamil and Telugucountries in the south (see Map 1). These were notformally included in the Maratha empire, but weremade to pay tribute as a way of accepting Marathasovereignty. Expansion brought enormous resources,but it came at a price. These military campaigns alsomade other rulers hostile towards the Marathas. As aresult, they were not inclined to support the Marathasduring the third battle of Panipat in 1761.

Alongside endless military campaigns, the Marathasdeveloped an effective administrative system as well.Once conquest had been completed and Maratha rulewas secure, revenue demands were graduallyintroduced taking local conditions into account.Agriculture was encouraged and trade revived. Thisallowed Maratha chiefs (sardars) like Sindhia ofGwalior, Gaekwad of Baroda and Bhonsle of Nagpurthe resources to raise powerful armies. Marathacampaigns into Malwa in the 1720s did not challengethe growth and prosperity of the cities in the region.Ujjain expanded under Sindhia’s patronage and Indoreunder Holkar’s. By all accounts these cities were largeand prosperous and functioned as important

Chauth25 per cent of theland revenueclaimed byzamindars. In theDeccan this wascollected by theMarathas.

Sardeshmukhi9-10 per cent ofthe land revenuepaid to the headrevenue collectorin the Deccan.

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commercial and cultural centres. New trade routesemerged within the areas controlled by the Marathas.The silk produced in the Chanderi region now found anew outlet in Poona, the Maratha capital. Burhanpurwhich had earlier participated in the trade betweenAgra and Surat now expanded its hinterland to includePoona and Nagpur in the south and Lucknow andAllahabad in the east.

The Jats

Like the other states the Jats consolidated their powerduring the late seventeenth and eighteenth-centuries.Under their leader, Churaman, they acquired controlover territories situated to the west of the city of Delhi,and by the 1680s they had begun dominating theregion between the two imperial cities of Delhi andAgra. For a while they became the virtual custodiansof the city of Agra.

The Jats were prosperous agriculturists, and townslike Panipat and Ballabhgarh became importanttrading centres in the areas dominated by them. UnderSuraj Mal the kingdom of Bharatpur emerged as astrong state. When Nadir Shah sacked Delhi in 1739,many of the city’s notables took refuge there. His sonJawahir Shah had 30,000 troops of his own and hired

Fig. 8Eighteenth-centurypalace complex atDig.Note the “Bangladome” on theassembly hall on theroof of the building.


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another 20,000 Maratha and 15,000 Sikh troops tofight the Mughals.

While the Bharatpur fort was built in a fairlytraditional style, at Dig the Jats built an elaborate gardenpalace combining styles seen at Amber and Agra. Itsbuildings were modelled on architectural forms firstassociated with royalty under Shah Jahan (see Figure12 in Chapter 5 and Figure 12 in Chapter 9).

The French Revolution (1789-1794)

In the various state systems of eighteenth-century India, the commonpeople did not enjoy the right to participate in the affairs of theirgovernments. In the Western world, this was the situation until thelate eighteenth century. The American (1776-1781) and FrenchRevolutions challenged the social and political privileges enjoyedby the aristocrats.

During the French Revolution, the middle classes, peasants andartisans fought against the special rights enjoyed by the clergy andthe nobility. They believed that no group in society should haveprivileges based on birth. Rather, people’s social position mustdepend on merit. The philosophers of the French Revolutionsuggested that there be equal laws and opportunities for all. Theyalso held that the authority of the government should come fromthe people who must possess the right to participate in its affairs.Movements such as the French and American Revolutions graduallytransformed subjects into citizens.

The ideas of citizenship, nation-state and democratic rights tookroot in India from the late nineteenth century.

Imagine

You are a ruler of an eighteenth-century kingdom. Tell us about thesteps you would take to make yourposition strong in your province, and

what opposition or problems you mightface while doing so.

ELSEWHERE

ELSEWHERE

ELSEWHERE

ELSEWHERE

ELSEWHERE

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KEYWORDS

subadari

dal khalsa

misl

faujdari

ijaradari

chauth

sardeshmukhi

Let’s recall


subadar a revenue farmer

faujdar a high noble

ijaradar provincial governor

misl Maratha peasant warriors

chauth a Mughal military commander

kunbis a band of Sikh warriors

umara tax levied by the Marathas


(a) Aurangzeb fought a protracted war in the____________________.

(b) Umara and jagirdars constituted powerfulsections of the Mughal __________________.

(c) Asaf Jah was given charge of the Deccansubadari in _____________________.

(d) The founder of the Awadh nawabi was______________________.


(a) Nadir Shah invaded Bengal.

(b) Sawai Raja Jai Singh was the ruler of Indore.

(c) Guru Gobind Singh was the tenth Guru ofthe Sikhs.

(d) Poona became the capital of the Marathas inthe eighteenth century.

4. What were the offices held by Sa‘adat Khan?


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Let’s discuss

5. Why did the Nawabs of Awadh and Bengal try to doaway with the jagirdari system?

6. How were the Sikhs organised in the eighteenthcentury?

7. Why did the Marathas want to expand beyond theDeccan?

8. What were the policies adopted by Asaf Jah tostrengthen his position?

9. Do you think merchants and bankers today have thekind of influence they had in the eighteenth century?

10. Did any of the kingdoms mentioned in this chapterdevelop in your state? If so, in what ways do youthink life in the state would have been different inthe eighteenth century from what it is in the twenty-first century?

Let’s do

11. Find out more about the architecture and cultureassociated with the new courts of any of the followingAwadh, Bengal or Hyderabad.

12. Collect popular tales about-rulers from any one of thefollowing groups of people: the Rajputs, Jats, Sikhsor Marathas.

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