ARCHITECTURALRETAIL

DEVELOPMENT

BERGEN SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE

EVERY TIME YOU LOG ON TO A WEBPAGE, A CORPORATION STARTS MAKING MONEY.

All the way from ancient markets, people have exchanged goods. Today, retail is found everywhere, at any time, and we often take part in it without even knowing it. Through corporating, which means to register a business as a sepa-rate legal entity, companies can grow and develop without having to make the participants personally responsible for the damages done by the company. This has resulted in a conglomerate of world spanning corporations that can risk PRUH��DQG�IROORZLQJ�WKH�ODZ�GHSHQGV�RQ�ZKHWKHU�LW�LV�SURÀWDEOH�

By looking at modern shopping malls in relation to old markets, we can see how retail structures today has evolved from having a social idea to concentrate about making as much money as possible. As production has been separated from retail, the company leaders work in a completely different way than factory workers. Often, a leader for a busi-ness knows nearly nothing of what is going on in their own factories, they only look at the accountings.

With the vertical integration growing exponentially through the 1980s, it has also been easier for a company to control every single link from from commodity productions to retail, as well as hiding all production information from people seeking information about it. They can make their own truths to create excuses for gullible consumers to buy more than they need.

,Q�WKH�ODWH�����V��WKH�H[SUHVVLRQ�´WKH�ZDO�PDUW�HIIHFWµ�ZDV�DGRSWHG��H[SODLQLQJ�WKH�LPSDFW�D�ODUJH�ÀUP�KDV�RQ�WKH�economic life of a town by lowering prices, increasing consumer savings, and eventually driving uncompetitive retai-OHUV�RXW�RI�WKH�DUHD��7KH�HIIHFW�LV�QRW�QHFHVVDULO\�EDG�VHHQ�LQ�D�ZLGHU�FRQWH[W��DV�LW�FDQ�DOVR�FXUE�LQÁDWLRQ�DQG�KHOS�WR�keep employee productivity at an optimum level. The chain of stores can save consumers billions of dollars, but may also reduce wages and competition in an area.

All this information together, as well as many more, helps us understand why retail has shifted from the traditional family-run store or single market stall to the world expanding corporations of chain stores we have today, often located in suburban shoppingcenters based on the use of cars, or big internet-shops where the goods are sent straight from a depot to the customer.

This book will guide you through seven case studies of different retail centers, from the Athenian Agora to The Mall of America.

The development of architecture in retail is in no way simple, as things have developed differently all around the world for thousands of years. In order to make the history more understandable, the study has been divided into four chapters: Retail Structures, Retail Typologies, and Retail Ele-ments. The fourth and last chapter, Case Studies consists of a series of seven examples, which all LV�SXW�WRJHWKHU�RI�HOHPHQWV�H[SODLQHG�LQ�WKH�ÀUVW�WKUHH�FKDSWHUV��$V�DOO�HOHPHQWV�DQG�FDVH�VWXGLHV�are shown on the timeline, one can understand how the architecture of a retail typology is an result of technological inventions as well as continuously change of habits and lifestyle.

Times Square, New York

1000THE SINGLE SHOP

NEOLITHIC PERIOD EARLY TRADE MEDIEVAL

110 BCTRAJANS MARKET

600 BCGREEK AGORA, ATHEN

300 BCROMAN FORUM

500 BCFIRST BAZAAR

1000MARKET PLACEAS CIVIC CENTRE

1100-1300RISE OF TRADECAUSE GROWTH OF SHOPS

1300FLOATING MARKET THAILAND

1460GRAND BAZAAR, ISTANBUL

1000 BC - THE SOUQ

0 10001000 BC

1916SUPERMARKET /HYPERMARKET

FROM 1908THE FIRST AFFORDABLECARS, FOR MOST PEOPLE

1830 - STEEL AND GLASS

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION MODERN RETAIL

EARLY 1700GROWTH OF MARKETS IN EUROPE

1786GALERIE DE BOIS- FIRST ARCADE

1820GAS LIGHTING

1840DISPLAY WINDOW

1851CRYSTAL PALACE, LONDON

1851REFRIGERATOR

1800PASSAGE DES PANORAMAS, PARIS

1852BON MARCHÈ, PARIS- FIRST DEPARTMENT STORE

1857ELEVATOR

1901ESCALATOR

1902AIR CONDITIONER

1912GALERIS LAFAYETTES

1916PIGGLY WIGGLY- FIRST SELF SERVICE SUPERMARKET

1950NORTHGATE MALL- FIRST MALL

1980NEW LES HALLES

1956SOUTHDALE CENTRE- FIRST FULLY ENCLOSED MALL

1992MALL OF AMERICA

1800MASS PRODUCTION OFSTEEL AND GLASS

1853LES HALLES, PARIS

1956SOUTHDALE MALL

1792THE CHAIN STORE

1785GOSTING DROR, ST. PETERSBURG- FIRST SHOPPING CENTRE

1800 1900 2000

ARTIFICIAL WORLDIn many ways one can read the modern development of commercial centers as a will for an DUWLÀFLDO�HQYLURQPHQW�IRU�UHWDLO��'XULQJ�WKH�,QGXVWULDO�5HYROXWLRQ��HOHFWULFLW\�DQG�DLU�FRQGLWLRQLQJ�PDGH�LW�SRVVLEOH�IRU�shopping malls to grown into introverted forms that had minimal to do with the unpredictable surroundings such as climate and nature.

,QWHULRU�DQG�GHFRUDWLRQ�LQ�VKRSSLQJ�FHQWHUV�KDV�GHYHORSHG�LQWR�DUWLÀFLDO�HOHPHQWV��,Q�PRGHUQ�shopping centers, plants and trees are used to create a green indoor, and give a feeling of freshness and naturalness. But how does the plants and trees survive in closed rooms without natural daylight, hardly any soil, air moisture, and with a large amount of people passing through every day?

The plants and trees emerge real – and are they not?Palm trees, has become popular in many shopping centers. Although they look – and feel – real, they are usually a hybrid between fake and real: the trees are grown in controlled environments, and are “harvested” once they reach the desired height. The bark is peeled off, and dried. 2QFH�GULHG��WKH\�DUH�JOXHG�RQ�WR�D�39&�SLSH��OD\HU�E\�OD\HU��7KH�OHDYHV�DUH�GLSSHG�LQ�D�EDOVDPLF�ÁXLG�WR�SUHYHQW�GH-FD\LQJ��:KHQ�ÀQLVKHG��WKH\�DUH�PRXQWHG�RQ�VWHHO�DUPV�ZKLFK�DJDLQ�DUH�attached to the top of the PVC pipe. The entire structure is bolted to the ground, and can last for many years.

(Source, page 144, Mutations, Rem Koolhaas)

PICTURE: Costanera Center, South America built 2012 SI-1

THE PRIVATE VS. PUBLIC SPACE FOR RETAIL

Some retail areas are more public than others, such as outdoor markets. A traditional market can appear indoor and outdoor, and is usually situated in halls, outdoor squares and streets. Some minor public retail areas are shops, stores, malls, etc. They are available to the public, but privately owned.

The main difference between a marketplace and a shop is the form of ownership, as well as the physical structure: PDUNHW�VTXDUHV�DUH�WUDGLWLRQDOO\�EXLOW�ZLWK�QR�FOHDU�SK\VLFDO�ERXQGDULHV���QR�À[HG�ZDOOV�DURXQG��DQG�RIWHQ�XQGHU�WKH�open sky. Stores are constructed with walls and roofs, and are in modern time usually independent of the surrounding climate.

(Source, page 24, now the Norwegian development: The buying and selling at home and abroad, author: Randi Larvik, 1996)

0DQ\�RI�WKH�ODUJH�FLWLHV�LQ�WKH������FHQWXU\�KDG�ODUJH�SXEOLF�VSDFHV��7KHVH�ZHUH�RIWHQ�ÀOOHG�ZLWK�DFUREDWV��WKHDWHU�DQG�street trading (Sennet 1974). After the 15th century, many of the open spaces were replaced with a density of buildings with many small passages. A new architectonical landscape was created, which did not have space for the VDPH�DFWLYLWLHV�DV�EHIRUH��'HYHORSPHQWV�LQ�WUDGH�DW�WKLV�WLPH�OHG�WR�PDQ\�PRUH�GLVWULEXWLRQ�SRLQWV��DQG�ELJJHU�UHWDLO�malls saw the light. An example of this is the famous halls in Paris (1856).

$V�GHYHORSPHQW�SURJUHVVHG��YDULRXV�IHDWXUHV�ZHUH�GLVWLQJXLVKHG��UHVLGHQFH�KHUH��ZRUN�WKHUH��SHRSOH�KHUH��DQG�WUDIÀF�WKHUH��:KHQ�WKH�FDU�ZDV�LQWURGXFHG��KLJKZD\V�DQG�WUDIÀF�PDFKLQHV�ZHUH�FRQVWUXFWHG��0DQ\�SHRSOH�ZHUH�SRVLWLYH�WR�WKH�IDFLOLWDWLRQ�RI�WKH�FDU��EXW�WKH�WUDIÀF�PDFKLQHV�DQG�KLJKZD\V�ZHUH�FDOOHG�PDFKLQHV�WKDW�SURGXFHG�WUDIÀF��6WLOO��LQ�relation to retail shopping, the car was very practical: It made it possible to drive close to the retail area and buy big DPRXQWV�RI�JRRGV��ZLWKRXW�KDYLQJ�WR�FDUU\�LW�RYHU�D�ORQJ�GLVWDQFH��:KHQ�UHIULJHUDWLRQ�FDPH�LQ�WKH�����·V��WKH�VKRSSLQJ�centers food department could take in – and sell – a larger amount of food. This, in relation to the industrial revolution and the car, was one of the main reasons for the high consuming of goods beginning in the 1900th century.

Before the car was introduced, there were other products that revolutionized the retail sector. Technical inventions, such as gas light (1820) made it possible to light up streets and indoor environment at night. The retail shops could now expand their opening hours. Electricity made it possible to build elevators, and as a result one could build ware-KRXVHV�LQ�VHYHUDO�ÁRRUV�DQG�WKHUHE\�LQFUHDVH�VDOHV�DUHD��7KLV�ZDV�WKH�JUHDW�SHULRG�RI�WKH�GHSDUWPHQW�VWRUH���������and it developed its own structure of architecture (Schulerud 1947). The exterior was the pompous, with rich décor and ODUJH�ZLQGRZV��,QVLGH�WKHUH�ZHUH�ODUJH�RSHQ�DUHDV�IRU�RULHQWDWLRQ�DQG�FLUFXODWLRQ��DQG�VHFRQG�ÁRRU�JDOOHULHV�VR�WKDW�customers had the opportunity to view all the departments.

(Source: Varehandelens utvikling – kjøp ute og hjemme, page 68)

PICTURE: Interior, Le Bon Marche, 1838 SI-2

)URP������XQWLO�������WKH�IXQFWLRQDOLVP�LGHD�DSSOLHG�WR�XUEDQ�SODQQLQJ�DQG�KRXVLQJ�LQ�PDQ\�FRXQWULHV�(Gehl 1980). Functionalism was a distinctly physical and material oriented planning ideology. Both the street and the city square had in earlier times formed the public space for gatherings, but these were now replaced by paths and lawns.

In the time period 1950-1960, functionalism built ideas taken to the extreme: complexes as the highest, largest, lon-JHVW��HWF��&DU�WUDIÀF�JUHZ��DQG�WKH�VWUHHW�DV�D�SXEOLF�DUHD�IRU�SHGHVWULDQV��GHFUHDVHG��7KH�GHQVLW\�RI�DUHDV�IRU�SULYDWH�housing increased, which again resulted in less public space. As the public space reduced in many cities, the newly built shopping malls were strengthened. Most families went big shopping during the week, and the malls became a natural space for social life.

Perhaps today we can see signs of public outdoor spaces returning. Space which invite to social activity, for everyone, at any time [ ...] (Gehl, 1980).

After World War II, regional shopping stores in the suburbs and rural towns in the U.S. emerged along the highways. After a while the trend came to Europe (and Norway).�*LSVUXG�������'DZVRQ�������/DUYLN�DQG�6WHDG\������. Convenience stores and corner shops (where locals used to go) was outdone by the larger supermarkets, although these were further away. The public arena changed in the different typologies: the more intimate venue in the convenience store was an arena where people met and knew each other. This was in contrast to the big shopping malls, where the built and social environment was in large scale: people meet, but are less likely to already know each other from before.The Urbanization level increased: an increasing proportion of the population lived in concentrated residential areas. The access to shopping centers was great, and the social customs in the cities became different compared to those in rural areas.

PICTURE: The site of Grossmont Center in 1960 SI-3

SHOPPING - EVERYWHERE, AT ANY TIME'XULQJ�WKH�SDVW�WZR�FHQWXULHV��VKRSSLQJ�DQG�UHWDLO�KDV�ODUJHO\�EHHQ�FKDUDFWHUL]HG�E\�D�WHQGHQF\�WR�H[SDQG�LQWR�QHZ�territories: airports, schools, museums and hospitals, to mention some. Most public city spaces are today dominated by markets, shopping malls and centers, as well as small shops. Public activity is usually - in some way or another - in relation to institutions or areas with a connection to retail. When UHWDLO�H[SDQGV�LQWR�QHZ�LQVWLWXWLRQV��LWV�PDLQ�SXUSRVH�LV�WR�JDLQ�HFRQRPLFDO�SURÀW��7KH�FRUSRUDWHUV�EHKLQG�WKH�GLIIHUHQW�malls and centers sets the limits and structure of how so-called public space is to be made. When the goal is to make money, it goes without saying that the architectural design will largely be dominated by this.

So who takes responsibility for - good - public space?The corporaters and architects behind the shopping malls, takes a huge responsibility when designing the malls and VXUURXQGLQJV��WKH�URRPV�FUHDWHG�DUH�RIWHQ�WKH�ODUJHVW�VR�FDOOHG�SXEOLF�PHHWLQJ�SODFHV�IRU�VRFLDOL]LQJ�LQ�WRGD\·V�VRFLHW\��%XW�WKH�VSDFH�LV�EXLOW�XS�WR�JHQHUDWH�D�VSHFLÀF�FLUFXODWLRQ�RI�PRYHPHQW��EXLOW�XS�E\�D�IDYRUDEOH�HFRQRPLF�SROLF\��ZKHUH�the customers are exposed to commodities in a strategic order. Today we may see a tendency that it becomes an DZDUHQHVV�RI�WKLV�VXEMHFW��$OWKRXJK�WKH�PDLQ�SXUSRVH�LV�VWLOO�WR�JHQHUDWH�D�FHUWDLQ�ÁRZ�WKURXJK�WKH�PDOOV��WKHUH�VHHP�to be an awareness of the social rooms created.Studies show that people use more money when there are opportunity to take a break, eat or be part of another activity then mainstream shopping. An example of this is the Mall of America – a shopping mall with a big amusement park in the center.

PICTURE: Mall of America, 1992 SI-4

RETAIL STRUCTURES

RETAIL STRUCTURES

RETAIL ELEMENTS

SQUARE FORUM STREET BOULEVARD GALLERY ARCADE GALLERY

MARKET SOUQ BAZAAR MARKET STALL THE SINGLE SHOP CHAIN STORE DEPA

GAS LIGHTING DISPLAY WINDOW STEEL AND GLASS REFRIGIATION ELEVATOR ESCALATOR AIR CONDITION

CASE STUDIES

2 GRAND BAZAARISTANBUL, TURKEY 3 PASSAGE DES PANORAMAS

PARIS, FRANCE 4 FORUM DES HALLESPARIS, FRANCE1 ATHENIAN AGORA

ATHENS, GREECE

ARTICLES

SOURCES

GALLERY

PARTMENT STORE SUPERMARKET/HYPERMARKET

SHOPPING CENTRE MALL

AIR CONDITION

5 FLOATING MARKETRATCHABURI, THAILAND

ORUM DES HALLESARIS, FRANCE 6 SOUTHDALE MALL

MINNESOTA, USA 7 MALL OF AMERICAMINNESOTA, USA

RETAIL STRUCTURES

SQUARE

A market square is an open outside area traditionally structured as an geometrical square, lo-cated close to the centre of a town. The square is planned for public activity and markets, and is often surrounded by important buildings, such as for example a church, a town hall, post of-ÀFH�DQG�GLIIHUHQW�VKRSV�DQG�FDIqHV��ɑ7KH�PDUNHW�LV�EXLOW�XS�ZLWK�FROODERUDWLRQ�EHWZHHQ�GLIIHUHQW�managers. It consists of both permanent and more temporary retailers that sell their gods from small market stalls, usually once a week. In many towns, the retailers pay a monthly fee to be DOORZHG�WR�VHUYH�WKH�VTXDUH�ZLWK�FRPPRGLWLHV��ɑ,Q�D�ELJ�FLW\��WKHUH�DUH�RIWHQ�VHYHUDO�VTXDUHV��serving different parts of the city with markets or important public activities, such as national day or other cultural happenings.

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Main Market Square, Krakow, Poland RS-1

FORUM

Oldest known existing forum is the Roman Forum and the Trajan Forum in Ancient Rome, built IURP�WKH��VW�WR�WKH��WK�FHQWXU\��7KH�IRUXP�FRQVLVWV�RI�EXLOGLQJV�FHQWHUHG�RQ�D�VSDFH�RI����[���meters. This form of centre started in a valley between two settlements, as a meeting place for the two people.Primarily, this was an outdoor market with a few covered shops, as well as retail without any other architectonical frames than the surface beneath. As well as being a centre for retails, the forum served as an venue for politics and economical issues. Eventually much economic and judicial business would transfer away from the Forum Romanum to the larger and more extravagant structures, and forum changed function many times the next 200 years.

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Forum Romanum, Rome, Italy RS-2

STREET

$�VWUHHW�LV�D�VWUDLJKW�RU�FXUYHG�D[LV�ZLWK�VRPH�VRUW�RI�WUDIÀF��ERWK�SHGHVWULDQV�DQG�F\FOLVWV��DQG�RIWHQ�DOVR�PRWRUL]HG�YHKLFOHV��,W�KDV�JRW�EXLOGLQJV�RQ�HDFK�VLGH��FORVH�WR�WKH�WUDIÀF��*URXQG�ÁRRUV�RI�WKH�EXLOGLQJV�DUH�RFFXSLHG�E\�VKRSV�DQG�ERXWLTXHV�WKDW�LQ�VRPH�RI�WKH�EXLOGLQJV�DOVR�H[WHQG�WR�WKH�VHFRQG�ÁRRU��$ERYH�WKH�VKRSV��LW�LV�FRPPRQ�IRU�HLWKHU�WKH�IDPLOLHV�ZKR�UXQ�WKH�shop to live, or they rent it as residential apartments for others.

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Street market, Dublin, Ireland RS-3

BOULEVARD

In the context of trade, Boulevard is a broad parade- or shopping street where the pedestrians DUH�SULRULWL]HG��ZLWK�DQ\�YHKLFXODU�WUDIÀF�RQ�WKH�VLGHV��VXUURXQGHG�E\�D�JUHHQ�PHGLDQ�ZLWK�WUHHV��7KH�ERXOHYDUG�LV�RIWHQ�GLUHFWO\�OLQNHG�WR�D�PDMRU�WUDIÀF�DUWHU\�LQ�DQG�RXW�RI�WKH�FLW\��0DQ\�VKRSV��more exclusive boutiques and famous design houses often surround the boulevards.

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Champs-Élysées, Paris, France RS-4

GALLERY

5HIHUULQJ�WR�WKH�WHUP�JDOOHU\�DV�REVHUYDWLRQ�GHFN��XVXDOO\�RQ�WKH�XSSHU�ÁRRUV�RI�D�EXLOGLQJ��used to afford visitors a long-distance view. A gallery is a hallway built around an open atrium. A gallery is placed on the second level or higher from the atrium, so one can walk around the open space, while looking down on it or further up. Galleries often appears in association with other architectonical elements, and is often carried by pillars. Some galleries is also placed beneath or between a series of arches.

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Galleries des Lafayettes, Paris, France RS-5

ARCADE

An arcade is a succession of arches, each counter thrusting the next, supported by columns or piers, or a covered walk enclosed by a line of such arches on one or both sides. In warmer or wet climates, exterior arcades provide shelter for pedestrians. It can also be “a covered walk with stores along one or both sides”

The word comes from the Latin arcus, meaning a series of arches placed on free-standing columns. This set the foundation for the shape of arcades, such as the Burlington Arcade of ������7KLV�ZDV�RQH�RI�WKH�ÀUVW�FRYHUHG��SULYDWL]HG�VKRSSLQJ�DUHDV�ZLWK�JXDUGV�RQ�ERWK�VLGHV��Skylights and larger display windows of glass were new and expensive. The Arcade is easily FRPSDUHG�WR�D�VPDOO�¶ERXOHYDUG·�RU�VKRSSLQJ�VWUHHW��EXW�FRYHUHG�ZLWK�D�JODVV�URRI��,Q�WKLV�ZD\��one could show the goods to everyone, as well as they were well protected.

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Galerie Viviene, Paris, France RS-6

ATRIUM

Historically, an Atrium was a central room in roman private homes that was open-air, and had a small tap or basin in the middle where one could collect rainwater. Columns surround the DWULXP��ZLWK�D�ORJJLD�LQVLGH��7KH�JURXQG�ÁRRU�ORJJLD�VXUURXQGLQJ�DQ�DWULXP�KDV�WKH�VDPH�VWUXFWXUH�DV�D�JDOOHU\�GRHV�RQ�D�VHFRQG�ÁRRU��7RGD\��ZH�DOVR�XVH�WKH�ZRUG�WR�GHVFULEH�D�garden or courtyard surrounded by several lower buildings, as well as larger open rooms inside FRPPHUFLDO�DUHDV�RU�RIÀFHV��

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Atrium Woodfield Mall, Illinois, USA RS-7

RETAIL ELEMENTS

GAS LIGHTNING

7KH�JDV�OLJKW�FKDQJHG�XUEDQ�OLIHVW\OHV�E\�SURYLGLQJ�SXEOLF�VSDFH�ZLWK�DUWLÀFLDO�OLJKW�IRU�WKH�YHU\�ÀUVW�WLPH��*DV�OLJKW�ZDV�PDGH�E\�EXUQLQJ�YDULRXV�OLTXLG�IXHOV�LQ�JODV�ODQWHUQV��7KH�UHVXOW�ZDV�D�GLP�OLJKW��ZLWK�DQ�RSHQ�ÁDPH��/DWHU�LQ�WKH���WK�FHQWXU\��WKH�JDV�ZDV�KDUQHVVHG�DV�D�SRZHU�VRXUFH�DQG�PDGH�OLJKWLQJ�VDIHU�DQG�VWURQJHU�ɑ�$V�D�FRQVHTXHQFH��WKH�UHWDLO�LQGXVWU\�ZDV�OLJKW�XS�ERWK�LQVLGH�DQG�RXWVLGH�DW�QLJKW�WLPH��ɑ$QG�ZDV�QRZ�SRVVLEOH�WR�EXLOG�IXOO\�FORVHG�URRPV�ZLWK�RXW�ZLQGRZV��DQG�SURYLGH�WKHP�ZLWK�DUWLÀFLDO�OLJKWLQJ��ɑ6WUHHW�ODPSV�PDGH�SUHYLRXVO\�GDUN�DUHDV�DQG�roads safe, and the retail shops expanded their opening hours.

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1820

1800 1820

Queens Park, London, UK RE-1

DISPLAY WINDOW

7KH�ÀUVW�GLVSOD\�ZLQGRZV�ZHUH�PDGH�DQG�XVHG�LQ�/RQGRQ�LQ�WKH�ODWH���WK�FHQWXU\��7KH�ZLQGRZV�WHQGHG�WR�EH�VPDOO��ZLWK�D�FURZGHG�PDVV�RI�JRRGV�SLOHG�KLJK�ɑ�,Q������WKH�JODVV�production advanced, and large panes of glass were produced. These types of glass were FDOOHG�SODWH�JODVV�DQG�ÁDW�JODVV��7KH�GLVSOD\�ZLQGRZV�QRZ�WUDQVIRUPHG�LQWR�ELJ�VKRZFDVHV��turning the shopping street into a battleground where the retailers fought to get the costumers DWWHQWLRQ�ɑ

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1840

Display window from a mall, USA RE-2

STEEL AND GLASS

With the method of melting and casting steel, it was easier to mass produce similar items, and then putt hem together as structures. The steel was strong, lasted long and could be formed in any shape. Combined with the recent invention of the cast plate glass method in 1848, it allowed for large sheets of cheap but strong glass to be put together with the steel as a structure. The Crystal Palace in London was at the time the largest amount of glass ever seen in a building and astonished visitors with its clear walls and ceilings that did not require interior lights, thus a “Crystal Palace”. It was used to house the Great Exhibition in 1851, and used as a model for later structures.

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1851

Crystal Palace, London, 1851 RE-3

REFRIGERATION

$UWLÀFLDO�UHIULJHUDWLRQ�PDGH�LW�SRVVLEOH�IRU�SURGXFHUV�WR�SDFN�DQG�SURFHVV�IUHVK�IRRG��,W�EH-came possible to transport the goods over a longer distance, reaching countries all over the world. The supply chain was radically changed, and supermarkets expanded the volume of JRRGV�WKH\�VROG��LQVWDOOLQJ�IUR]HQ�IRRG�FDELQHWV��ɑ)ULGJHV�DQG�IUHH]HUV�UHYROXWLRQL]HG�WKH�IDPLO\�homes, and changed the traditional shopping habit. Instead of shopping every day, families FRXOG�QRZ�VKRS�D�ELJ�YROXPH�RQFH�D�ZHHN�DQG�SUHVHUYH�WKH�IRRG�DW�KRPH�ɑɑ�6WLOO��UHIULJHUDWLRQ�LV�not something new: early civilizations harvested snow and ice seasonally, and used it to keep goods cold. The Indians and Egyptians made pots to keep water in to chill overnight.

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1851

Mall of America, USA RE-4

ELEVATOR

)RU�WKH�ÀUVW�WLPH�LQ�UHWDLO�KLVWRU\��LW�ZDV�QRZ�SRVVLEOH�WR�HIÀFLHQWO\�DQG�HIIRUWOHVV�WUDYHO�YHUWLFDOO\�WKURXJK�VHYHUDO�ÁRRUV��7KH�YHU\�ÀUVW�FRPPHUFLDO�HOHYDWRU�ZDV�GHPRQVWUDWHG�LQ�D�ÀYH�VWRU\�department store in New York in 1857. However, pull- and lift systems were invented already in ancient times, often used to vertically transport building materials. Passenger elevators have since the 19th century been a huge success in department stores, shopping centers and RXWOHWV��7KH�HOHYDWRUV�LQFUHDVHG�WKH�GLVWULEXWLRQ�RI�VWRFN��E\�SURYLGLQJ�VWRUHV�RQ�GLIIHUHQW�ÁRRUV�ZLWK�D�VPRRWK�ÁRZ�RI�FRVWXPHUV�ɑɑ

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1857

Astor Hotel, China RE-5

ESCALATOR

The escalator contributed to a vertical shopping experience - providing the department stores ZLWK�D�FRQVWDQW�ÁRZ�RI�SHRSOH��7UDGLWLRQDOO\�WKH�ÀUVW�ÁRRU�RI�D�EXLOGLQJ�ZDV�XVHG�IRU�UHWDLO�ZKLOH�WKH�UHPDLQLQJ�ÁRRUV�W\SLFDOO\�VHUYHG�DV�D�UHQW�RXW�KRPH�DQG�VWRUDJH��:LWK�WKH�HVFDODWRU��WKH�whole building could be used for retail. People could now effortless move through several ÁRRUV��SURYLGLQJ�WKH�VWRUHV�ZLWK�D�FRQVWDQW�ÁRZ�RI�FRVWXPHUV��ZKLFK�DJDLQ�UHVXOWHG�LQ�PRUH�VDOHV�ɑ�7KH�HVFDODWRUV�DOVR�PDGH�LW�SRVVLEOH�WR�SURYLGH�FXVWRPHUV�ZLWK�DQ�RYHUYLHZ�RI�PHUFKDQGLVH��JLYLQJ�WKH�UHWDLOHUV�RSSRUWXQLW\�WR�VKRZ�WKHLU�JRGV�IURP�GLIIHUHQW�DQJOHV��ɑ

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1901

Limbecher Platz, Essen, Germany RE-6

AIR CONDITIONER

The modern air condition as we know it today, was invented in the late 19th century. ɑ7KH�LQYHQWLRQ�PDGH�LW�SRVVLEOH�WR�HOHFWULFDOO\�FRRO�KRW�DLU��DQG�ZDV�LQVWDOOHG�LQGRRUV�WR�FUHDWH�D�stabile and cooled environment. People could now shop in a stabile and comfortable temperature that helped encourage sales. Later the air condition was installed in vans, keeping UHWDLO�JRGV�IUHVK�DORQJ�WKH�VXSSO\�FKDLQ�ɑɑ�7RJHWKHU�ZLWK�WKH�HOHFWULFDO�OLJKW��LW�ZDV�QRZ�SRVVLEOH�WR�EXLOG�LQWURYHUWHG�EXLOGLQJV��LQGHSHQGHQW�RI�WKH�VXUURXQGLQJ�QDWXUH�DQG�FOLPDWH�ɑ7KH�EDVLF�RI�air condition was already in use in the ancient Egypt. Wet clothes was hung from the window IUDPH�DQG�FRROHG�WKH�LQVLGH�URRP�ZKHQ�WKH�ZLQG�FDPH�WURXJK�ɑ7KH�URPDQV�FRROHG�YDULRXV�URRPV�E\�XVLQJ�ZDWHU�IURP�DTXHGXFWV�WR�FLUFXODWH�WKURXJK�ZDOOV�ɑ

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1903

Ventilation system from a mall, UK RE-7

RETAIL TYPOLOGIES

MARKET

A market is often characterized by a certain temporality, as a venue for buying and selling goods that commonly occurs in a square or adjacent to a larger public area. Goods are sold and bought here during weekends and in connection with annual feasts, exhibitions and holidays.

7KHUH�DUH�DOVR�YHJHWDEOH��PHDW��DQG�ÀVK�PDUNHWV�WKDW�DUH�DYDLODEOH�RQ�D�SHUPDQHQW�EDVLV��EXW�the reasons why these markets sort under the same typologies as the temporary markets is due to the architectonical structure of it, protected from the weather and at the same time has a clear open structure in the open air. In addition, one can use the term market for the world as a result of the globalization trend.

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1000BC

Mercado do Bolhao, Porto, Portugal. 1910 RT-1

SOUQ

The Souq was originally an outdoor market situated with a certain distance from the city or village, in locations where temporary or incoming traders in wagons with goods could stop and VKRZ�RII�WKHLU�JRRGV�IRU�WUDGH��7KH�´6RXTµ�KDG�QR�EXLOGLQJV�DW�ÀUVW��EXW�RFFXUUHG�ZKHQ�traders settled a few days. The Souq was unplanned, random, and would often include more than retail of goods, as an example it could be a festival with dance and various cultural events. Eventually The Souq has developed into being built up as a street, like the Bazaar. It has also moved from the outskirts towards more urban settings, into more permanent buildings both due to urban growth, evolution of transport and the importance of the commercial

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1000BC

Main souq in Aswan, Egypt RT-2

BAZAAR

Compared to a market, a Bazaar has got a slightly more permanent feature and buildings. A bazaar can be structured as an open-air market, but it may also be a partially or completely closed building. It follows the form of a street, with a main pedestrian axis, with shops on each side in a grid system. The word bazaar is conditioned by the geographical and cultural surroundings, mainly situated in the Muslim Countries. Bazaar has got an high density of SHRSOH�DQG�VKRSV��DQG�D�ZLGH�YDULHW\�RI�SURGXFW�UDQJH�ZLWKLQ�D�FOHDUO\�GHÀQHG�DUHD��

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500BC

Grand Bazaar, Tehran. ca. 1700. RT-3

MARKET STALL

A Market stall describes the often simple architecture of the stalls on a market. This can vary from a single table to more advanced and adorned constructions with walls and roof. &RPPRQO\��LW�FRQVLVWV�RI�VXSSRUWLQJ�SLOODUV�LQ�HDFK�FRUQHU�RI�WKH�VWDOO��DQG�D�URRÀQJ�WR�SURWHFW�the goods from the weather. They are also mostly open on at least three sides, depending on the public pattern surrounding it.

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1000BC

Market stall in Istanbul, Turkey RT-4

THE SINGLE SHOP

A speciality shop

$�VSHFLDOLW\�VKRS�ZRXOG�EH�DQ\�NLQG�RI�VWRUH�WKDW�RIIHUV�D�VSHFLÀF�UDQJH�RI�SURGXFWV�ZLWKLQ�D�category, as an example a shoe-store, a bookshop, or a tool shop. Historically, it was com-PRQ�IRU�WKH�UHWDLOHU�DQG�WKH�IDPLO\�ZKR�UDQ�WKHVH�VWRUHV�WR�OLYH�RQ�WKH�VHFRQG�ÁRRU��DQG�WKDW�the entire family was engaged in either the production or the sale of the goods. Some of these shops could be boutiques or even chain-stores, and would stand in danger of being ousted by super- and hypermarkets.

Boutique:

A boutique is a small shopping outlet, especially one that specializes in elite and fashion-able items such as clothing and jewelry. Boutique is a beautiful version of a shop, and also a relaxed version of shop.

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1000

Speciality store from London, UK RT-5

Shops in Hendon Road, Sunderland, UK RT-6

THE CHAIN STORE

Chain stores are retail outlets that share a brand and central management, and usually have standardized business methods and practices. In retail, dining, and many service categories, chain businesses have come to dominate the market in many parts of the world. A franchise retail establishment is one form of chain store.

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1792

Standardized LIDL-store, UK, 2005 RT-7

DEPARTMENT STORE

A department store is a retail establishment with a building open to the public which offers a wide range of consumer goods such as clothing, housewares, furniture and appliances. It typically offers a choice of multiple merchandise lines, at variable price points, in different SURGXFW�FDWHJRULHV��'HSDUWPHQW�VWRUHV�KDYH�D�VXSHUPDUNHW�W\SH�FHQWUDO�FXVWRPHU�FKHFNRXW�area near the front of the store, or alternatively, sales counters within each department.

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1852

Selfridges, London, England, 1909 RT-8

SUPERMARKET/HYPERMARKET

Supermarket

A supermarket, a large form of the traditional grocery store, is a self-service shop offering a wide variety of food and household products, organized into aisles. It is larger in size and has a wider selection than a traditional grocery store, but is smaller and more limited in the range RI�PHUFKDQGLVH�WKDQ�D�K\SHUPDUNHW�RU�ELJ�ER[�PDUNHW��7KH�ÀUVW�VXSHUPDUNHW�LQ�WKH�86��3LJJO\�Wiggly, opened in 1916. the supermarket is divided into different sections, consisting of isles and shelves. it is self-serviced, but the customer pay for all goods when they leave.

Hypermarket

The hypermarket is a superstore combining a supermarket and a department store. The result is an expansive retail facility carrying a wide range of products under one roof, including full groceries lines and general merchandise. In theory, hypermarkets allow customers to satisfy all their routine shopping needs in one trip.

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1915

HYPERMARKET

SUPERMARKET

Piggly Wiggly Grocery store, USA, 1916 RT-9

Tesco Hypermarket, Malaysia, 1980 RT-10

SHOPPING CENTER

The shopping center is a composition of stores arranged in a row, or an area of shops located on the same property. It does not have a centralized internal access for the public, and you would have to exit the building in order to go into the next store. It neither has an enclosed DUHD�IRU�WKH�SXEOLF�WKDW�GRHVQ·W�EHORQJ�WR�DQ\�RI�WKH�VWRUHV��

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1785

Shop City Plaza, Syracause, USA, 2005 RT-11

MALL

A mall is a large covered complex, with planned parking and a well thought trough indoor movement pattern for the public. It has got centralized cooling and heating, and up to several entrances to an enclosed public area where one can reach the different stores from the inside of the center. It covers a broad range of merchandisers in many different categories.

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1950

Mall of America, 1992 USA RT-12

CASE STUDIES

CASE

STU

DIES

400 BC

ATHENIAN AGORA

The Athenian agora was the center of the ancient city. It was built up as a large outdoor square, located below the Acropolis – the highest part of the city. The agora served as a public arena for a wide variety of purposes, including politics and retail markets. The Athenian agora was built in year 600 B.C., and was an important part of the ancient Greek.

7KH�DJRUD�LV�NQRZQ�WR�EH�WKH�SODFH�ZKHUH�WKH�*UHHN�GHPRFUDF\�ÀUVW�FDPH�to life. It was structured as a square, surrounded on all four sides by build-ings. Long stoas (colonnades) provided shaded areas for those who wanted to discuss politics, philosophy or business. Earlier triumphs were made as monu-PHQWV�DQG�VWDWXHV��UHPLQGLQJ�WKH�FLWL]HQV�RI�WKHLU�DQFHVWRU·V�KHURLFQHVV�

7KH�DJRUD�GHYHORSHG�WKURXJK�WKH�DQFLHQW�WLPH��7KH�ÀUVW�EXLOGLQJ�FRQQHFWHG�WR�the open square, was a temple for the Olympic gods as well as small private houses. As the agora became a popular arena for public activity, it expanded in the 5th century B.C. and resulted in new important buildings on all sides: temples for Hephaestus, Zeus and Apollo. Trees and smaller green areas con-QHFWHG�WR�WKH�3DQDWKHQDLF�ZD\��ZKLFK�OHG�IURP�WKH�'LS\ORQ�JDWH�WR�WKH�$FURSROLV�via the agora. This street was of great importance, as it connected a variety of public areas which were valuable for the citizens.

1

The Agora at the height of its developement in ca. 150 AD. - - - - - - - - - The Panathenaic way

Dipylon Gate

Acropolis

CASE

STU

DIES

1460

GRAND BAZAAR

The Grand Bazaar in Istanbul is situated in the middle of the old walled city, and can easily be rached both by feet and trams. The construction started in 1455, between the ancient Forum of Constantine and Theodosius. It was also ORFDWHG�QHDU�WKH�ÀUVW�6XOWDLQ·V�3DODFH���,W�GHYHORSHG�IXUWKHU�WURXJK�WKH�\HDUV��EXW�DFKLHYHG�LW�ÀQDO�VKDSH�DW�WKH���WK�FHQWXU\��,QWR�WKH���WK�FHQWXU\��WKH�*UDQG�Bazaar was still unrivaled in Europe regarding to the variety and quality on the goods on sale.

The Grand Bazaar had a square form around 1600, with two perpendicular main roads crossing in the middle and a third road running along the outer perimeter. In the Bazaar there were 67 roads (each bearing the name of the sellers of a particular good), several squares used for the daily prayers, 5 mosques, 7 foun-tains, 18 gates which were opened each day in the morning and closed in the evening (from these comes the modern name of the Market, “Closed Market”

'XULQJ�KLVWRU\��WKH�PDUNHW�KDV�EXUQHG�RU�EHHQ�GDPDJHG�E\�HDUWKTXDNHV�DURXQG�every 50 years, and in 1696 many parts of the markets were covered by vaults DV�D�UHVXOW�RI�D�QHZ�ODZ�DJDLQVW�ÀUHV��$VLGH�WKH�%HGHVWHQ��RULJLQDOO\�WKH�*UDQG�%D]DDU�VWUXFWXUHV�ZHUH�EXLOW�ZLWK�ZRRG��DQG�RQO\�DIWHU�WKH������ÀUH��WKH\�ZHUH�rebuilt in stone and brickwork, and covered.

The main reason of concentrating the trade in one place was to provide the KLJKHVW�VHFXULW\�DJDLQVW�WKHIW��ÀUH�DQG�XSULVLQJ�>��@�7KH�JRRGV�LQ�WKH�%HGHVWHQ�were guaranteed against everything except turmoils.[27] Gates were always FORVHG�DW�QLJKW��DQG�WKH�ED]DDU�ZDV�SDWUROOHG�E\�JXDUGV�SDLG�E\�WKH�PHUFKDQWV·�guilds. Today, it has got between 250,000 and 400,000 visitors every day.

2

Grand Bazaar, Istanbul CS-1

CASE

STU

DIES

PASSAGE DES PANORAMAS

In 1800, there were very few, if not none sidewalks or sewers, and hard not to get you legs dirty when strolling around in the city of Paris. In the 1780s, The American engineer Robert Fulton sold the idea of a Pan-orama, a tower with painted landscape panoramas inside, a to another Ameri-can, James Thayer. He teamed up with Pierre Prévost, a painter of panoramas. Thayer acquired the garden on the north side of the Hôtel de Montmorency-Lux-embourg, which fronted on the boulevard. It was located in the IIe arrondisse-ment of Paris between the Montmartre boulevard to the North and Saint-Marc street to the south.

The Passage des Panoramas was constructed as a roofed commercial pas-sageway connected to the panorama towers. Build in stone, with elements of VWHHO�DQG�JODVV�����PHWHUV�ORQJ��LW�RSHQHG�LQ������RQ�WKH�*UDQG�%RXOHYDUGV��,W�ZDV�RQH�RI�WKH�YHU\�ÀUVW�FRYHUHG��FRPPHUFLDO�SDVVDJHZD\V�LQ�WKH�(XURSH��and it is one of the earliest venues of the Parisian philatelic trade. Bazaars and souks in the Orient had roofed commercial passageways centuries earlier but WKH�3DVVDJH�GH�3DQRUDPDV�LQQRYDWHG�LQ�KDYLQJ�JOD]HG�URRÀQJ�DQG��ODWHU�RQ��JDV�OLJKWV�IRU�LOOXPLQDWLRQ��7KH�WRZHUV�ZHUH�WDNHQ�GRZQ�LQ�������EXW�WKH�SDVVDJH�NHSW�JURZLQJ�WKURXJK�������

The Passage is thus the precursor to all the city gallerias of the 19th century and the covered suburban and city shopping malls of the 20th century. The pas-sage itself has had its ups and downs, as most of the boutiques are not large, so there is a limit to what sort of retail business they can house. The Passage was guarded on each side, so both goods and pedestrians were protected from thefts as well as bad weather.

1800

3

Passage Des Panoramas, Paris CS-2

CASE

STU

DIES

1853

LE FORUM DES HALLES

,Q�����V��7KH�3UHVLGHQW�RI�)UDQFH��1DSROqRQ�%RQDSDUWH�,,,��ZDQWHG�WR�UHVWUXF-WXUH�WKH�PHGLHYDO�VSDFH�EHWZHHQ�µOD�KDOOH�DX[�%OqVµDQG�WKH�PDUNHW�DURXQG�WKH�Saint Innocents Square in the centre of Paris, as a part of his urban renewal plan of Paris.

In 1848, only a few years before Haussmann started the drastic renewal of Paris, Victor Baltard and Felix Callet won the architectual contest with the ”co-PLVVLRQ�GHV�+DOOHVµ�VHW�E\�1DSROHRQ��7KH�ÀUVW�3DYLOOLRQ�GHV�+DOOHV�ZDV�RSHQHG�LQ������

1DSROHRQ�DQG�KLV�ZLIH�ZHUH�QRW�VDWLVÀHG�ZLWK�WKH�VWRQH�FRQVWUXFWLRQ��DV�WKH\�KDG�MXVW�VHHQ�D�QHZ�W\SH�RI�JODVV�DQG�VWHHO�FRQVWUXFWLRQ�LQ�(QJODQG��7KH�ÀUVW�pavilion was tared down and replaced by a steel and glass construction. Nine QHZ�VWHHO�SDYLOOLRQV�IROORZHG��DQG�WKH�FRPSOH[�ZKDV�ÀQLVKHG�LQ�������FRQVLVWLQJ�of total ten pavillions. Six in the eastern part, four in the western part.

Every pavillion was dedicated to a certain cathegory of products. For over 100 years Les Halles were the major marketplace for agricultural prod-ucts. 20% of the entire french food production was sold via the Halles de Paris.

,Q�������WKH�3ULPH�0LQLVWHU�0LFKHO�'HEUq�VLJQHG�WKH�FRQWUDFW�WKDW�GHFLGHG�WKDW�WKH�PDUNHW�VKRXOG�EH�PRYHG�IURP�/HV�+DOOHV��DV�LW�JHQHUDWHG�WRR�PXFK�WUDIÀF�LQ�the streets, and the halls were outdated. The marked was decided to be moved to Rungis Market in Semmaris, 15 kilometres south of Les Halles in the city centre. 20 000 people engaged in the work to move the market, and three days after the market had closed down in Les halles, it re-opened in Rungis. 7KH�ÁRZLQJ�\HDUV�WKURXJK�WKH�����·V��WKH�SDYLOOLRQV�KRVWV�PDQ\�RWKHU�FXOWXUDO�events such as theatres, exhibitions, concerts and antique markets.

An important public movement builds up to maintain the Pavillions Baltard as a cultural heritage site, but on august 2nd in 1971, while the Parisians are still on vacation, les pavilions Baltard gets demolished by the municipality.

4

Halles centrales, Paris CS-3

Les Halles 1980

3UHVLGHQW�3RPSLGRX�DQG�WKH�3UHIHW�'LHEROG�ZDQWV�WR�ORFDWH�D�QHZ�shopping centre here, connected to the new RER metro intersection that is built at WKH�VDPH�WLPH��7KH�FRQVWUXFWLRQ�WDNHV�PDQ\�\HDUV��DQG�WKH�QHZ�)RUXP�'HV�+DOOHV�LV�ÀQLVKHG�LQ�������,W�LV�D�EUDQG�QHZ�VKRSSLQJFHQWUH�DOO�ORFDWHG�XQGHUJURXQG��EXW�ZLWK�DQ�RSHQ�DWULXP�LQ�WKH�PLGGOH�WKDW�JRHV�IRXU�ÁRRUV�GRZQ�EHORZ�JURXQG�OHYHO��

The facades of the surrounding galleries to the atrium is covered in glass, to make it SRVVLEOH�WR�ÀOO�WKH�XQGHUJURXQG�FHQWUH�ZLWK�GD\OLJKW��DV�ZHOO�DV�HQDEOH�IRU�FDIqHV�WR�XVH�the ground in the bottom of the atrium. This complex underground structure left a big open space on ground level to be developed as a park for the public. Les Halles func-tions as a meeting place for all kind of people, and is one of the busiest spots in Paris. The shopping centre and metro intersection is now going through a major renovation together with the park, and is scheduled to open in 2016.

Place Carrèe, Metrostation at Forum Des Halles CS-4

Le Forum Des Halles, Paris -After renovation 1971 CS-5

CASE

STU

DIES

1800

FLOATING MARKET

7KH�'DPRQHQ�6DGXDN�ÁRDWLQJ�PDUNHW�LV�ORFDWHG�LQ�5DWFKDEXUL��7KDLODQG��)ORDW-ing markets are found in Thailand, Vietnam and Indonesia, and some of them KDV�H[LVWHG�IRU�RYHU�VHYHQ�KXQGUHG�\HDUV��,Q�WKH�HDUO\������WKHUH�ZHUH�YHU\�IHZ�roads, which again made transportation a struggle. Rivers were used for trans-portation, and became the main travelig vain for retail goods. Concerned for the FRXQWU\·V�HFRQRPLF�JURZWK��.LQJ�5DPD�,9������·V��GHPDQGHG�D�FDQDO�WR�EH�GXJ�RXW�LQ�D�DUHD�ZKHUH�WKHUH�ZHUH�QRQH���7KH�FDQDO�ZDV�QDPHG�'DPQRHQVVDGXDN��and connected the Taachin River in Samutsakorn Province and the Meklong River in Samutsongkram Province. Together, the three rivers made a new infra-structure - connecting different towns.

Local farmers dug out over 200 small canals to connect their land with the new big canal, and many new houses were located close to the new infrastructure. The canal was used to export and import retail goods and played an impor-tant role in the daily life. Floating markets had already exited for a long time in 7KDLODQG��DQG�ZLWK�WKH�QHZ�'DPQRHQVVDGXDN�ULYHU�D�QHZ�PDUNHW�FDPH��,W�ZDV�QDPHG�'DPRQHQ�6DGXDN�PDUNHW�DQG�ZDV���DQG�VWLOO�LV���D�ÁRDWLQJ�PDUNHW�ZKHUH�locals in small boats bring fruit, vegatables and other goods. One main building LV�EXLOW�WR�IXQFWLRQ�WRJHWKHU�ZLWK�WKH�ÁRDWLQJ�PDUNHW��7KH�URRI�SURYLGHV�VKDGRZ�IRU�UHWDLO�JRRGV�VXFK�DV�ÀVK�DQG�PHDW��7RGD\�WKH�PDUNHW�VHUYHV�ERWK�WKH�ORFDOV�and the tourists.

5

Floating Market, Thailand CS-6

Floating Market, Thailand CS-7

Damonen Saduak Floating Market , Thailand CS-8

CASE

STU

DIES

1956

SOUTHDALE MALL

Southdale Center is a shopping Mall in Edina, Minnesota, and opened in 1956. 7KLV�PDOO�ZDV�WKH�ÀUVW�IXOO\�HQFORVHG��FOLPDWH�FRQWUROOHG�PDOO�LQ�$PHULFD��7RGD\��it still stand as its original structure, together with newer additions.

The centre was formed to function as an communal gatheringplace, where people would shop, drink coffee, and socialize. The Austrian Architect Victor Gruen modeled the mall on the arcades of European cities. The Mall was meant not just to function as a suburban alternative to downtown Minneapolis, but something more complete, better thought out. In one way, this was built as a lo-cal town center for the new suburb built in the area at the same time, but at the same time the entrepreneurs envisioned it to become a hub for the residents in the city of Edina, as well as the greater Twin Cities area.

7KH�&HQWUH�LV�WZR�VWRULHV�KLJK��ZLWK�����GLIIHUHQW�VKRSV��0RGHOHG�DIWHU�(XURSH-an Arcades, the two stories structures around an open atrium with natural light-LQJ�WKURXJK�JODVV�VWULSHV�LQ�WKH�FHLOLQJ��7KH�DWULXP�ZDV�ÀOOHG�ZLWK�SDOPV��ÁRZLQJ�ZDWHU�DQG�GHFRUDWLYH�DULÀFLDO�OLJKWLQJ�WR�FUHDWH�D�FHUWDLQ�UHOD[HG�DWPRVSKHUH��7KH�PDOO�KDG�D�HIÀFLHQW�DLU�FRQGLWLRQ�V\VWHP�WKDW�ÀOOHG�WKH�VKRSV�DQG�DWULXP�ZLWK�fresh air to the delight for the costumers delight.

The construction of Mall of America in 1992 was to an extent an impetus for the expansion of Southdale centre. That because the owners of Southdale feared that it would suffer from Mall of America, and needed to expand.

6

Southdale Center, Minnesota, US CS-9

CASE

STU

DIES

1992

MALL OF AMERICA

Since the invention of Air condition systems, along with easer and cheaper ways to build large steel constructions, making big introvert centres has been made possible. Mall of America is a shopping centre in Bloomington, a suburb to the twin-cities Minneapolis and Saint Paul in the state Minnesota, USA.

The Mall was the biggest shopping centre in America in square metres when it opened in 1992, though the actual area consisting of shop has never been the ELJJHVW��7KH�UHDVRQ�LV�WKDW�RYHU�D�WKLUG����������P���RI�WKH�WRWDO���������P��consists of an enormous amusement park.

It has got 520 shops, and 40 000 000 people visit the mall annually. The two SDUNLQJ�KRXVHV�RQ�HDFK�VLGH�FDQ�WDNH�������FDUV��DQG�WRJHWKHU�ZLWK�WKH�VXU-rounding parking lots, we reach 20 000 in total. Together with the shops, the PDOO�KRXVH����FLQHPDV��D�GLQRVDXU�PXVHXP��DQ�DTXDULXP�ZLWK�RYHU������ÀVK�, and a wedding chapel. And, of course, a 100 000 square metre amusement park with a Ferris wheel and two rollercoasters.

7KH�PDOO�LV�QHDUO\�V\PPHWULF��ZLWK�D�URXJKO\�UHFWDQJXODU�ÁRRU�SODQ��0RUH�WKDQ�����VWRUHV�DUH�DUUDQJHG�DORQJ�WKUHH�OHYHOV�RI�SHGHVWULDQ�ZDONZD\V�RQ�WKH�VLGHV�of the rectangle, with a fourth level on the east side. Four anchor department stores are located at the corners. The Mall is organized into four different zones, each with its own decorative style.

7

Mall Of America, US

SOURCES

Kildeliste for litteratur:

- From Urban Shop to New City, Alex Wall – Actar 2005- Byen, Peter Butenschøn - Aschehoug 2009- The City Assembled, the elements of urban form through history, Thames & Hudson - Spiro Kostof 2004- Varehandelens utvikling kjøp ute og hjemme, Randi Lavik og Ragnhild Brusdal - Cappelen Akademisk forlag, 1996- Kjøpesenteret, Handlemaskin og fornøyelsespark, Olve Krange og Åse Strandbu - Pax forlag, 1996- The Wal-Mart effect, Charles Fishman – Allen Lane, 2006- Project on the city 2, Reem Koolhaus, Chuihua Judy Chung and co. – Taschen, 2001

Kildeliste for internettsider:

- http://www.agathe.gr/- http://www.forumdeshalles.com/W/do/centre/accueil- http://cremeriedeparis.com/history.html- http://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athens_agora- http://www.stoa.org/athens/sites/agora.html- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_market��KWWS���ZZZ�DVLDWUDYHO�FRP�ÁRDWLQJ�KWPO- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shopping_center��KWWS���VQO�QR�NM�&��%�SHVHQWHU- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shopping_mall- http://snl.no/detaljhandel- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketplace- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_market- http://www.grandbazaaristanbul.org/Grand_Bazaar_Istanbul.html- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_square- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Souq- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bazaar- http://www.mallofamerica.com/- http://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mall_of_America- http://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkade- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passage_des_Panoramas- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southdale_Center- http://snl.no/.search?query=arkade&search=%E2%86%92- http://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varemagasin- http://snl.no/Forum_Romanum- http://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forum- http://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forum_Romanum- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Bazaar,_Istanbul

SOURCES

Pictures, Retail Typologies

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RT-5: http://www.classiclightweights.co.uk/builders/lipscombe6.bmp

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RT-9: http://www.blankensteins.com/images/history/PigglyWiggly.jpg

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SOURCES

Pictures, Case Studies

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CS-4: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Paris_Forum_des_Halles_2012_07.jpg

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Pictures, Side information

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SI-2: http://www.grids-blog.com/wordpress/superblocks-of-consumption-past-and-future-le-bon-marche-idiocracy/

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SI-4: http://www.enterinside.nl/urban/

SOURCES

Pictures, Retail Structures

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RS-2: http://www.examiner.com/images/blog/wysiwyg/image/Copy_of_temple_best_x590.JPG

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RS-4: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Avenue_des_Champs-Élysées_July_24,_2009_N1.jpg

RS-5: http://www.luxurystylemagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/gl.jpg

RS-6: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/P1040471_Paris_II_galerie_Vivienne_rwk.JPG

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Pictures, Retail elements

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RE-5: http://cdn.kiwicollection.com/media/property/PR008601/xl/008601-11-otis-historical-elevator.jpg

RE-6: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Copenhagen_Metro_escalators.jpg

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