History of Psychology

Chapter 12 :Gestalt Psychology

1. The Whole is Different From the Sum of Its Parts

A. The Gestalt revolution 1. in Germany 2. a protest against Wundtian psychology

B. Criticisms of Wundt’s approach 1. against elementism 2. against the notion that perception of objects

is a summation of elements

The Whole is Different From the Sum of Its Parts

3. However, the whole is different from the sum of its parts

C. Unlike behaviorism, Gestalt accepts the value of consciousness

II. Antecedent Influences onGestalt Psychology A. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

The elements are organized meaningfully not through the mechanical process of association

B. Franz Brentano (1838-1917) Psychology should study the act of experiencing. He considered Wundt’s introspection is artificial

Antecedent Influences onGestalt Psychology

C. Ernst Mach (1838-1917) 1. a physicist 2. discussed spatial and temporal patterns

a. considered them to be sensations b. independent of their elements

Antecedent Influences onGestalt Psychology

D. von Ehrenfels (1859-1932) 1. Qualities of experience can not be explained

as combination of elementary sensations

2. Perceptions based on something greater than a merging of individual sensations

3. Wertheimer considered von Ehrenfels' work the crucial antecedent

Antecedent Influences onGestalt Psychology E. William James

1. regarded elements of consciousness as artificial abstractions

F. Phenomenology 1.an unbiased description of immediate

experience as it occurs, not analyzed or reduced to elements

2. involves naïve experience

Antecedent Influences onGestalt Psychology

G. G. E. Müller’s lab at U. of Göttingen 1. 1909-1915: a group of phenomenological

psychologists worked at U. of Göttingen.

2. anticipated to form the Gestalt school

III. The Changing Zeitgeist in Physics A. Physicists beginning to think in terms of

fields and organic wholes

B. Gestalt psychology 1. Köhler: background in physics and

studies with Max Planck 2. an application of field physics to

psychology

IV. Max Wertheimer (1880-1943) A. Background

1. studied Law U. of Prague, then philosophy

2. attended lectures by von Ehrenfels

3. studied philosophy & psychology U. of Berlin

4. 1904: Ph.D. U. of Würzburg with Külpe

Max Wertheimer (1880-1943) B. 1921: co-founded the journal Psychological

Research (official publications of the Gestalt psychology school of thoughts)

C. 1933: fled Germany to the New School of Social Research in New York

D. Maslow’s concept of self-actualization based on Wertheimer

V. Kurt Koffka (1886-1941) A. Background

1. interest in science and philosophy

2. 1909: Ph.D. from U. of Berlin with Stumpf

3. 1910: began association with Wertheimer and Köhler

Kurt Koffka (left)Wolfgang Kohler (right)

Kurt Koffka (1886-1941)

B. 1921: The Growth of the Mind

C. 1922: "Perception: An Introduction to Gestalt-Theorie" 1. described the basic concepts and results of

considerable research 2. term "perception" misunderstood as the most

narrow focus on a single process

Kurt Koffka (1886-1941) 3. has a broad concern

a. problems of thinking and learning b. ultimately: all aspects of conscious

experience

D. 1927: to Smith College

E. 1935: Principles of Gestalt Psychology

VI. Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967)

A. Background 1. trained in physics with Max

Planck 2. convinced that

a. Gestalten occur in psychology as in physics

b. psychology must become allied with physics

3. 1909: Ph.D. from U. of Berlin with Stumpf

Kurt Koffka (left)Wolfgang Kohler (right)

Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967) B. Career

1. 1917: The Mentality of Apes Study the behavior of chimpanzees

2. 1922: succeeded Stumpf as professor of psychology at Berlin

3. 1929: Gestalt Psychology

Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967) 4. 1935: left Germany to US and taught at

Swarthmore College in Penn state

5. was the spokesman for Gestalt movement

VII.The Nature of the Gestalt Revolution A. In Germany: heretical and a rebellion

directly against Wundt

B. Research 1. perceptual constancies

Definition: A quality of wholeness or completeness in perceptual experience that does not vary even when the sensory elements changes.

VII.The Nature of the Gestalt Revolution

2. there exists a wholeness not found in any of the parts

3. the character of the actual perception differs from the character of the sensory stimulation

4. attempts at analysis destroy the perception

The Nature of the Gestalt Revolution

C. Köhler: Two meanings of "Gestalt" 1. shape or form as a property of objects

2. a whole or concrete entity that has as one attributes a specific shape or form

3. The term is not restricted to visual or sensory fields

VIII.Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization

A. principles 1. Proximity: a 2. Continuity: a 3. Similarity: b 4. Closure: c 5. Simplicity: c 6. figure/ground: d

B. Organizing principles don’t depend on higher mental processes or past experiences

IX. Gestalt Studies of Learning:

Insight and the Mentality of Apes

A. Intelligence of chimpanzees---- demonstrated in ability to solve problems

IX. Gestalt Studies of Learning: Insight and the Mentality of Apes

B. Köhler’s interpretation of results 1. in terms of perceive the situation as a whole

2. in terms of understanding relationships among the various stimuli

3. Called “insight” Immediate apprehension or understanding of

relationships

Gestalt Studies of Learning: Insight and the Mentality of Apes

C. Solutions require 1. restructuring of the perceptual field

2. perception of a new relationship between the stimuli

X. The Spread of Gestalt Psychology A. 1920s

1. a coherent and dominant school in Germany 2. American students such as Tolman and Allport 3. Koffka and Köhler: many lectures in the U.S.

B. 1933 Nazi government: shift of Gestalt psychology to U.S.

The Spread of Gestalt Psychology C. Slow acceptance in the U.S.

1. behaviorism was at its peak

2. a language barrier

3. belief that Gestalt psychology dealt solely with perception

4. Wertheimer, Köhler, and Koffka at small colleges without graduate programs

5. Gestalt focus of protest (Wundt) no longer of concern in U.S.

XI. Field Theory: Kurt Lewin(1890-1947)

A. Lewin’s life 1. studied mathematics

and physics at German universities

2. 1914: Ph.D. at U. of Berlin with Stumpf

Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) B. Field theory

1. Definition: using the concept of fields of force to explain behavior in terms of one’s field of social influence

2. the trend in late 19th-century science

3. extended beyond the Gestalt framework

Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) C. The life space

the psychological field of the individual a. encompasses all past, present, and future

events that may affect one

b. each event may determine behavior in a given situation

c. degree of development is a function of

amount and type of experience accumulated

Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) D. Motivation

1. equilibrium a. State of balance between the person and the

environment b. Any disturbance of this equilibrium produces

tension c. It leads to some action to relieve the tension

and restore the balance d. thus, motivation is a consequence of dis-

equilibrium

Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) 2. the Zeigarnik effect

The tendency to recall uncompleted tasks more easily than completed tasks

Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) E. Social psychology

1. group dynamics The outstanding feature of Lewin’s social

psychology is group dynamic 2. authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire

leadership styles among boys Authoritarian---boys were more aggressive Democratic---boys were more friendly Spurred the growth of social psychology

Kurt Lewin (1890-1947)

3. emphasis on social action research Racial problems, equal employment

opportunities, or prevention of prejudice in childhood

4. sensitivity training Was forerunners of the encounter groups

popular in the 1960s and 1970s.

XII. Criticisms of Gestalt Psychology 1. Gestalt position is vague

2. basic concepts and terms not defined with sufficient rigor

3. too preoccupied with theory at the expense of research and empirical support

a. lacks adequate controls

Criticisms of Gestalt Psychology

4. the Gestalt experimental work is inferior to the behaviorist

5. insight learning: not replicable

6. poorly defined physiological assumptions

XIII. Contributions of Gestalt Psychology A. Retained its separate identity, not absorbed

by the mainstream

B. Centered on phenomenology

C. influence the Americans humanistic psychology movement and contemporary cognitive psychology