History of Christian Theology

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History of Christian theology

The doctrine of the Trinity, considered the core ofChristian theologyby Trinitarians, is the result of con-tinuous exploration by the church of the biblical data,thrashed out in debate and treatises, eventually formu-lated at theFirst Council of Nicaeain 325 AD in a waythey believe is consistent with the biblical witness, andfurther refined inlater councilsand writings.[1] The mostwidely recognized Biblical foundations for the doctrinesformulation are in theGospel of John.[1]

Nontrinitarianism is any of several Christian beliefs that

reject the Trinitariandoctrinethat God is three distinctpersons in one being. Modern nontrinitarian groups viewsdiffer widely on thenature of God,Jesus, and theHolySpirit.

1 Biblical canon

Main article:Biblical CanonSee also:Deuterocanonical booksandApocrypha

The Biblical canon is the set of books Christians re-

A folio from P46, an early 3rd-century collection ofPauline epis-

tles.

gard as divinely inspired and thus constituting the Chris-tian Bible. Though the early churchused the Old Tes-tament according to the canon of theSeptuagint(LXX),the apostles did not otherwise leave a defined set of newscriptures; instead theNew Testament developed overtime.

The writings attributed to the apostles circulated amongstthe earliest Christian communities. ThePauline epis-tleswere circulating in collected form by the end of the1st century AD. The Bryennios list is an early Chris-

tian canon found inCodex Hierosolymitanusand datedto around 100.[2] Justin Martyr, in the early 2nd century,mentions the memoirs of the apostles, but his refer-ences are not detailed. Around 160Irenaeusof Lyons ar-gued for only four Gospels (the Tetramorph), and arguedthat it would be illogical to reject Acts of the Apostlesbutaccept the Gospel of Luke, as both were from the sameauthor.[3] By the early 200s,Origenmay have been us-ing the same 27 books as in the modern New Testament,though there were still disputes over the canonicity of He-brews, James, II Peter, II and III John, and Revelation,[4]

seeAntilegomena. Likewise by 200 theMuratorian frag-

mentshows that there existed a set of Christian writingssomewhat similar to what is now the 27-book New Tes-tament.

In his Easter letter of 367,Athanasius, Bishop of Alexan-dria, gave a list exactly the same in number and orderwith what would become the New Testament canon andbe accepted by the Greek church.[5] The African Synod ofHippo, in 393, approved the New Testament, as it standstoday, together with the Septuagint books, a decision thatwas repeated byCouncils of Carthagein 397 and 419.Pope Damasus I'sCouncil of Romein 382, only if theDecretum Gelasianumis correctly associated with it, is-

sued a biblical canon identical to that mentioned above.[5]

In 405,Pope Innocent Isent a list of the sacred books toa Gallic bishop,Exsuperius of Toulouse. Nonetheless, afull dogmatic articulation of the canon was not made untiltheCouncil of Trentin the 16th century.[6]

2 Emergence of Christian theology

See also:Split of early Christianity and Judaism

The emergence of Christian theology has sometimes beenpresented as the triumph of Hellenistic rationalityovertheHebraic faith of Jesus and the early disciples. The

1
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Split_of_early_Christianity_and_Judaismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Trenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exuperiushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Innocent_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decretum_Gelasianumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Romehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Damasus_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Councils_of_Carthagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synod_of_Hippohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synod_of_Hippohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_churchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athanasiushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muratorian_fragmenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muratorian_fragmenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antilegomenahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irenaeushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex_Hierosolymitanushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryennios_manuscripthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauline_epistleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauline_epistleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testamenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scriptureshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septuaginthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauline_epistleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauline_epistleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papyrus_46https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apocryphahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deuterocanonical_bookshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_Canonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Spirithttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Spirithttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_in_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctrinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nontrinitarianismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Johnhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_seven_Ecumenical_Councilshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaeahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity#Biblical_backgroundhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_theologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity


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2 4 PATRISTIC THEOLOGY

early African theologian Tertullian, for instance, com-plained that the 'Athens of philosophy was corrupting the'Jerusalem' of faith.[7] More recent discussions have qual-ified and nuanced this picture.

From the very beginning of the Christian movement,

followers of Jesus tried to make sense of the impactof Jesus of Nazareth, and began arguing about dif-fering ways of making sense. There has never beenan uncontested, unrationalized Christian faith.[8]

These processes of making sense initially drew uponthe ideas and narratives of contemporary Judaism,which was already Hellenized in various degrees. Astime went by, ideas and narratives from other Hel-lenistic context were drawn on, but the Jewish scrip-tures remained a key driver of theological develop-ment, and too sharp a distinction between Hebraicand Hellenistic is unsustainable. Some elements ofearly Christian theologizing previously thought to bethoroughly 'Hellenistic' (e.g., the Prologue of JohnsGospel) are now regularly argued to be thoroughlyJewish.

The ideas and narratives drawn on in this processwere transformed as they were given a new contextin Christian practices of devotion, community - for-mation and evangelism - and the extent to which bor-rowings from Hellenistic culture (for instance) weregiven new meanings in this process should not beunderestimated.[9]

One of the characteristics of those strands ofearlyChristianity (in the 2nd and 3rd centuries) some-times called 'proto-orthodox' (because they are themost direct ancestors of the forms of Christianitythat in the 4th century were defined asOrthodox),invested a great deal of time and energy in commu-nication between widely spread conversations, andin pursuing a deep interest in each others beliefs andpractices. This concern and communication seemsto have been as much a driver of the developmentof theological activity as the desire to communicateChristianity to, or make it acceptable in, a Hellenis-

tic culture.[10]

3 Early Christian theology

3.1 Theologies of the New Testament

TheNew Testament contains evidence of some of theearliest forms of reflection upon the meanings and im-plications of Christian faith, mostly in the form of guid-ance offered to Christian congregations on how to livea life consistent with their convictionsmost notably

in the Sermon on the Mount, the Confession of Peter,the Council of Jerusalem, the Pauline epistles and theJohannine corpus.

4 Patristic theology

Main article:PatristicsSee also:Church FathersSee also:Apostolic Fathers

As Christianity spread, it acquired certain members fromwell-educated circles of the Hellenistic world; they some-times became bishops but not always. They produced twosorts of works: theological and apologetic, the latterbeing works aimed at defending the faith by using reasonto refute arguments against the veracity of Christianity.These authors are known as the church fathers, and studyof them is calledPatristics. Notable early Fathers includeJustin Martyr, Irenaeus,Tertullian,Clement of Alexan-dria,Origen, etc.

A huge quantity of theological reflection emerged in the

early centuries of the Christian churchin a wide va-riety of genres, in a variety of contexts, and in severallanguagesmuch of it the product of attempts to dis-cuss how Christian faith should be lived in cultures verydifferent from the one in which it was born. So, forinstance, a good deal of the Greek language literaturecan be read as an attempt to come to terms with Hel-lenistic culture. The period sees the slow emergenceof orthodoxy(the idea of which seems to emerge fromthe conflicts between catholic Christianity and GnosticChristianity), the establishment of a Biblical canon, de-bates about the doctrine of the Trinity (most notably be-tween the councils of Nicaea in325and Constantinople in381), aboutChristology(most notably between the coun-cils of Constantinople in 381 and Chalcedon in 451),about the purity of the Church (for instance in the de-bates surrounding the Donatists), and aboutgrace, freewill and predestination (for instance in the debate be-tweenAugustine of HippoandPelagius).

4.1 Ante-Nicene Fathers

Main article:Ante-Nicene Fathers

Influential texts and writers in the 2nd century include:

The collection known as the Apostolic Fathers(mostly 2nd century)

Justin Martyr (c. 100/114c. 162/168)

Clement of Alexandria (died c. 215)

Irenaeusof Lyons (c. 130202)

Various 'Gnostic' authors, such asMarcion(c. 85-c.160),Valentinius(c. 100c. 153) andBasilides(c.117138)

Some of the texts commonly referred to as theNewTestament apocrypha.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testament_apocryphahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testament_apocryphahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilideshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentiniushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irenaeushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolic_Fathershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ante-Nicene_Fathershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelagius_(British_monk)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predestinationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_willhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_willhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divine_gracehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donatisthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinoplehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaeahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_canonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnosticismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodoxyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertullianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Martyrhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patristicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolic_Fathershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_Fathershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patristicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authorship_of_the_Johannine_workshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauline_epistleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confession_of_Peterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mounthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testamenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodoxyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-orthodox_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem_in_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertullian


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4.3 Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers 3

Influential texts and writers between c. 200 and 325 (theFirst Council of Nicaea) include:

Tertullian (c. 155230)

Hippolytus(died 235)

Origen (c. 182c. 251)

Cyprian(died c. 258)

Arius(256336)

Other Gnostic texts and texts from the New Testa-ment apocrypha.

4.2 First Council of Nicaea

Main article:First Council of Nicaea

TheFirst Council of Nicaea, held inNicaeainBithynia(in present-dayTurkey), convoked by the Roman Em-peror Constantine I in 325, was the firstecumenical[11]

conference of bishops of the Catholic Church (Catholic asin 'universal', not just Roman) and most significantly re-sulted in the first declaration of a uniform Christian doc-trine, called theNicene Creed. With the creation of thecreed, a precedent was established for subsequent 'gen-eral (ecumenical) councils of Bishops (Synods) to createstatements of belief andcanonsof doctrinal orthodoxythe intent being to define unity of beliefs for the whole ofChristendom.

The purpose of the council was to resolve disagreementsin theChurch of Alexandriaover the nature of Jesus inrelationship to the Father; in particular, whether Jesuswas of the samesubstanceas God the Fatheror merelyof similar substance. St. Alexander of AlexandriaandAthanasiustook the first position; the popularpresbyterArius, from whom the term Arian controversy comes,took the second. The council decided against theAriansoverwhelmingly (of the estimated 250-318 attendees, allbut 2votedagainst Arius). Another result of the councilwas an agreement on the date of the Christian Passover(Pascha in Greek; Easterin modern English), the most

important feast of the ecclesiastical calendar. The coun-cil decided in favour of celebrating the resurrection on thefirst Sunday after the first full moon following thevernalequinox, independently of theBible's Hebrew Calendar(see also Quartodecimanism), and authorized theBishopof Alexandria(presumably using theAlexandrian calen-dar) to announce annually the exact date to his fellowbishops.

The Council of Nicaea was historically significant be-cause it was the first effort to attain consensus inthe church through an assembly representing all ofChristendom.[12] It was the first occasion for the de-

velopment of technical Christology.[12] Further, Con-stantine in convoking and presiding over the council sig-naled a measure of imperial control over the church.[12]

With the creation of the Nicene Creed, a precedent wasestablished for subsequent general councils to create astatement of belief and canons which were intended to be-come guidelines for doctrinal orthodoxy and a source ofunity for the whole of Christendoma momentous eventin the history of the church and subsequent history of Eu-

rope.

4.2.1 Nicene Creed

Main article:Nicene Creed

Each phrase in the Nicene Creed, which was hammeredout at the Council of Nicaea, addresses some aspectthat had been under passionate discussion and closes thebooks on the argument, with the weight of the agreementof the over 300 bishops in attendance. [Constantine had

invited all 1800 bishops of the Christian church (about1000 in the east and 800 in the west). The number of par-ticipating bishops cannot be accurately stated; SocratesScholasticus and Epiphanius of Salamis counted 318; Eu-sebius of Caesarea, only 250.] In spite of the agreementreached at the council of 325 the Arians who had been de-feated dominated most of the church for the greater partof the 4th century, often with the aid of Roman emperorswho favored them.

4.3 Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers

Main article:Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers

Late antique Christianity produced a great manyrenownedchurch fatherswho wrote volumes of theolog-ical texts, including SS.Augustine,Gregory Nazianzus,Cyril of Jerusalem,Ambrose of Milan,Jerome, and oth-ers. What resulted was a golden age of literary and schol-arly activity unmatched since the days of Virgil and Ho-race. Some of these fathers, such asJohn ChrysostomandAthanasius, suffered exile, persecution, or martyr-dom from heretical Byzantine Emperors. Many of theirwritings are translated into English in the compilations of

Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers.

Influential texts and writers between 325 AD and c. 500AD include:

Athanasius (298373)

TheCappadocian Fathers(late 4th century)

Ambrose(c. 340397)

Jerome (c. 347420)

Chrysostom(347407)

Augustine of Hippo(354430)

Cyril of Alexandria(376444)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyril_of_Alexandriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysostomhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrosehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cappadocian_Fathershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicene_and_Post-Nicene_Fathershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Chrysostomhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeromehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrosehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyril_of_Jerusalemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_of_Nazianzushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_fathershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicene_and_Post-Nicene_Fathershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaeahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicene_Creedhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_lawhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creedhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legislaturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consensus_decision-makinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandrian_calendarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandrian_calendarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_of_Alexandriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_of_Alexandriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartodecimanismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_Calendarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernal_equinoxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernal_equinoxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Passoverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Votinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arianismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arian_controversyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athanasiushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Alexander_I_of_Alexandriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_the_Fatherhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ousiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Patriarchs_of_Alexandriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christendomhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_lawhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synodhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecumenicalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicene_Creedhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishophttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecumenical_councilhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_I_(emperor)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Emperorshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Emperorshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkeyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bithyniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicaeahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaeahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippolytus_(writer)


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4 5 EARLY HERESIES

Augustine

Texts from patristic authors after 325 AD are col-lected in the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. Im-portant theological debates also surrounded the variousEcumenical CouncilsNicaea in 325, Constantinople in381,Ephesusin 431 and Chalcedon in 451.

4.4 Papacy and primacy

Main article: Historical development of the doctrine of

Papal Primacy

The theology of theBishop of Romehaving amonarchalpapacy developed over time. As a bishopric, its originis consistent with the development of an episcopal struc-ture in the 1st century. The origins of papal primacy con-cept are historically obscure; theologically, it is based onthree ancient Christian traditions: (1) that theapostle Pe-ter was preeminent among the apostles, (2) thatPeter or-dained his successors as Bishop of Rome, and (3) thatthebishops are the successors of the apostles. As longas the Papal See also happened to be the capital of the

Western Empire, prestige of the Bishop of Rome couldbe taken for granted without the need of sophisticatedtheological argumentation beyond these points; after its

shift to Milan and then Ravenna, however, more detailedarguments were developed based onMatthew 16:18-19etc.[13] Nonetheless, in antiquity the Petrine and Apos-tolic quality, as well as a primacy of respect, concern-ing the Roman See went unchallenged by emperors, east-ern patriarchs, and the Eastern Church alike.[14] The Ecu-

menical Council of Constantinople in 381 affirmed Romeas first among equals.[15] By the close of antiquity, thedoctrinal clarification and theological arguments on theprimacy of Rome were developed. Just what exactly wasentailed in this primacy, and its being exercised, wouldbecome a matter of controversy at certain later times.

5 Early heresies

Main article:Christian heresy

Urgent concerns with the uniformity of belief and prac-tice have characterized Christianity from the outset. TheNew Testamentitself speaks of the importance of main-taining orthodox doctrine and refuting heresies, showingthe antiquity of the concern.[16] The development of doc-trine, the position of orthodoxy, and the relationship be-tween the early Church and early heretical groups is amatter of academic debate. Some scholars, drawing upondistinctions between Jewish Christians, Gentile Chris-tians, and other groups such asGnostics, see Early Chris-tianity as fragmented and with contemporaneous compet-

ing orthodoxies.

The process of establishing orthodox Christianity was setin motion by a succession of different interpretations ofthe teachings of Christ being taught after thecrucifixion.Though Christ himself is noted to have spoken out againstfalse prophetsand false christs within the gospels them-selves Mark 13:22 (some will arise and distort the truth inorder to draw away disciples), Matthew 7:5-20, Matthew24:4, Matthew 24:11 Matthew 24:24 (For false christsand false prophets will arise). On many occasions inPauls epistles, he defends his own apostleship, and urgesChristians in various places to beware of false teachers,

or of anything contrary to what was handed to them byhim. The epistles of John and Jude also warn of falseteachers andprophets, as does the writer of the Book ofRevelationand 1 Jn. 4:1, as did the Apostle Peter warn in2 Pt. 2:1-3:.

One of the roles of bishops, and the purpose of manyChristian writings, was to refute heresies. The earliestof these were generallyChristologicalin nature, that is,they denied either Christs (eternal) divinity or human-ity. For example,Docetism held that Jesus humanity wasmerely an illusion, thus denying the incarnation; whereasArianismheld that Jesus was not eternally divine.[17][18]

Many groups were dualistic, maintaining that reality wascomposed into two radically opposing parts: matter, usu-ally seen as evil, and spirit, seen as good. Orthodox Chris-
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arianismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docetismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_heresyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Revelationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Revelationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prophethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_prophethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucifixionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnosticismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Christianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testamenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_heresyhttp://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/?book=Matthew&verse=16:18-19&src=!https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolic_successionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrine_doctrinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrine_doctrinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primacy_of_Simon_Peterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primacy_of_Simon_Peterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_supremacyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_supremacyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_of_Romehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_development_of_the_doctrine_of_Papal_Primacyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_development_of_the_doctrine_of_Papal_Primacyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Council_of_Ephesushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecumenical_councilhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo


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5

tianity, on the other hand, held that both the material andspiritual worlds were created by God and were thereforeboth good, and that this was represented in the unifieddivine and human natures of Christ.[19]

Irenaeus (c. 130202) was the first to argue that his

proto-orthodox position was the same faith that Jesusgave to the apostles, and that the identity of the apos-tles, their successors, and the teachings of the same wereall well-known public knowledge. This was therefore anearly argument supported byapostolic succession. Ire-naeus first established the doctrine of four gospels and nomore, with the synoptic gospels interpreted in the lightofJohn. Irenaeus opponents, however, claimed to havereceived secret teachings from Jesus via other apostleswhich were not publicly known.Gnosticismis predicatedon the existence of such hidden knowledge, but brief ref-erences to private teachings of Jesus have also survivedin the canonic Scripture as did warning by the Christ

that there would be false prophets or false teachers. Ire-naeus opponents also claimed that the wellsprings of di-vine inspiration were not dried up, which is the doctrineofcontinuing revelation.

In the middle of the 2nd century, three groups of Chris-tians adhered to a range of doctrines that divided theChristian communities of Rome: the teacher Marcion,the pentecostal outpourings of ecstatic Christian prophetsof a continuing revelation, in a movement that was called"Montanism" because it had been initiated byMontanusand his female disciples, and the gnostic teachings ofValentinus. Early attacks upon alleged heresies formed

the matter of Tertullian's Prescription Against Heretics(in 44 chapters, written from Rome), and of IrenaeusAgainst Heresies (ca 180, in five volumes), written inLyons after his return from a visit to Rome. The let-ters ofIgnatius of Antioch andPolycarp of Smyrnatovarious churches warned against false teachers, and theEpistle of Barnabas, accepted by many Christians as partof Scripture in the 2nd century, warned aboutmixing Ju-daism with Christianity, as did other writers, leading todecisions reached in thefirst ecumenical council, whichwas convoked by the Emperor Constantine at Nicaea in325, in response to further disruptive polemical contro-

versy within the Christian community, in that caseAriandisputes over the nature of the Trinity.

During those first three centuries, Christianity was ef-fectively outlawed by requirements to venerate the Ro-man emperor and Roman gods. Consequently, when theChurch labelled its enemies as heretics and cast themout of its congregations or severed ties with dissidentchurches, it remained without the power to persecutethem. However, those called heretics were also calleda number of other things (e.g. fools, wild dogs, ser-vants of Satan), so the word heretic had negative asso-ciations from the beginning, and intentionally so.

Before325 AD, the heretical nature of some beliefs wasa matter of much debate within the churches. After 325

AD, some opinion was formulated as dogma through thecanonspromulgated by the councils.

6 Medieval Christian theology

Main article:Medieval history of Christianity

6.1 Byzantine theology

While the Western Roman Empire declined and fell, theEastern Roman Empire, centred on Constantinople, re-mained standing until 1453, and was the home of a widerange of theological activity that was seen as standing instrong continuity with the theology of the Patristic pe-riod; indeed the division between Patristic and Byzantine

theology would not be recognised by many Orthodox the-ologians and historians.

Gregory Palamas

6.2 Mystical theology

Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(working c. 500)

Symeon the New Theologian(9491022)

Gregory Palamas(12961359)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_Palamashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symeon_the_New_Theologianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo-Dionysius_the_Areopagitehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_Palamashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_history_of_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arianismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_ecumenical_councilhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaizinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaizinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistle_of_Barnabashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycarp_of_Smyrnahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antiochhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertullianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentiniushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnosticismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montanushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montanismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentecostalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuing_revelationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnosticismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Johnhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolic_successionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve_apostleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irenaeus


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6 8 WESTERN THEOLOGY

6.3 Council of Chalcedon

The Council of Chalcedon was an ecumenical councilthat took place from October 8 to November 1, 451, atChalcedon(a city ofBithyniainAsia Minor).

It is the fourth of the first seven ecumenical councils inChristianity, and is therefore recognized as infallible in itsdogmatic definitionsby theRoman CatholicandEasternOrthodoxchurches. It repudiated theEutychiandoctrineofmonophysitism, and set forth theChalcedonian Creed,which describes the full humanity and full divinity ofJesus, the second person of theHoly Trinity.

6.4 Christological controversy after Chal-

cedon

Severus of Antioch(c. 465518)

Leontius of Jerusalem(working 538544)

Maximus the Confessor(c. 580682)

John of Damascus

6.5 Iconoclasts and iconophiles

Patriarch Germanus I of Constantinople (patriarch715730)

John of Damascus(676749)

Theodore the Studite(c. 758c. 826)

A thorough understanding of the Iconoclastic Period inByzantium is complicated by the fact that most of the sur-viving sources were written by the ultimate victors in thecontroversy, theiconodules. It is thus difficult to obtain acomplete, objective, balanced, and reliably accurate ac-count of events and various aspects of the controversy.[20]

As with other doctrinal issues in the Byzantine period, thecontroversy was by no means restricted to the clergy, orto arguments from theology. The continuing cultural con-frontation with, and military threat from,Islamprobablyhad a bearing on the attitudes of both sides. Iconoclasmseems to have been supported by many from the East ofthe Empire, and refugees from the provinces taken overby the Muslims. It has been suggested that their strengthin the army at the start of the period, and the growinginfluence of Balkan forces in the army (generally consid-ered to lack strong iconoclast feelings) over the periodmay have been important factors in both beginning and

ending imperial support for iconoclasm.

7 Heresies

Main article:List of heresies in Catholicism

8 Western theology

8.1 Before the Carolingian Empire

When theWestern Roman Empire fragmentedunder theimpact of various 'barbarian' invasions, the Empire-wideintellectual culture that had underpinned late Patristictheology had its interconnections cut. Theology tended tobecome more localised, more diverse, more fragmented.The classically clothed Christianity preserved in Italy bymen like Boethius and Cassiodorus was different from thevigorous FrankishChristianity documented byGregoryof Tourswhich was different again from the Christianitythat flourished inIrelandandNorthumbriain the 7th and8th centuries. Throughout this period, theology tended tobe a moremonasticaffair, flourishing in monastic havenswhere the conditions and resources for theological learn-ing could be maintained.

Important writers include:

Caesarius of Arles(c. 468542)

Boethius (480524)

Cassiodorus (c. 480c. 585)

Pope Gregory I(c. 540604)

Isidore of Seville(c. 560636)

Bede(672736)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidore_of_Sevillehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gregory_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesarius_of_Arleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monasticismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northumbriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irelandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_of_Tourshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_of_Tourshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassiodorushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anicius_Manlius_Severinus_Boethiushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire#The_end_of_the_Western_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_heresies_in_Catholicismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconoduleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_the_Studitehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_of_Damascushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_Germanus_I_of_Constantinoplehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_of_Damascushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximus_the_Confessorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leontius_(writer)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severus_of_Antiochhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcedonian_Creedhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monophysitismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eutycheshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Churchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogmatic_definitionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infalliblehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia_Minorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bithyniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcedonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecumenical_council


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8.4 Scholasticism 7

8.2 Theology in the time of Charlemagne

Both because it made communication between differ-ent Christian centres easier, and because there was aconcerted effort by its rulers to encourage educationaland religious reforms and to develop greater unifor-

mity in Christian thought and practice across their ter-ritories, the establishment of the Carolingian Empiresaw an explosion of theological inquiry, and theologi-cal controversy. Controversy flared, for instance, around'SpanishAdoptionism, around the views on predestina-tion of Gottschalk, or around the eucharistic views ofRatramnus.

Important writers include:

Alcuin(c. 735804)

The Spanish Adoptionists Felix of Urgel and

Elipandusof Toledo (late 8th century)

Rabanus Maurus(c. 780856)

Radbertus(c. 790865)

Ratramnus (died c. 868)

Hincmar(806882)

Gottschalk (c. 808c. 867)

Johannes Scotus Eriugena(c. 815877)

8.3 Before Scholasticism

With the division and decline of the Carolingian Empire,notable theological activity was preserved in some of thecathedral schools that had begun to rise to prominenceunder itfor instance at Auxerrein the 9th century orChartres in the 11th. Intellectual influences from the Ara-bic world (including works of classical authors preservedby Islamic scholars) percolated into the Christian Westvia Spain, influencing such theologians asGerbert of Au-rillac, who went on to become Pope Sylvester II and men-tor toOtto III. (Otto was the fourth ruler of the Germanic

Ottonian Holy Roman Empire, successor to the Carolin-gian Empire). With hindsight, one might say that a newnote was struck when a controversy about the meaningof the eucharist blew up aroundBerengar of Toursin the11th century: hints of a new confidence in the intellectualinvestigation of the faith that perhaps foreshadowed theexplosion of theological argument that was to take placein the 12th century.

Notable authors include:

Heiric of Auxerre(c. 835887)

Remigius of Auxerre(c. 841908)

Gerbert of Aurillac(c. 9501003)

Fulbert of Chartres(died 1028)

Berengar of Tours (c. 9991088)

Lanfranc(died 1089)

8.4 Scholasticism

Main article:Scholasticism

Scholasticism comes from the Latin word scholasti-cus, which means that [which] belongs to the school,and was a method of learning taught by theacademics(or schoolmen) of medieval universities c. 11001500. Scholasticism originally began to reconcile thephilosophyof the ancient classical philosophers with me-dieval Christian theology. It is not a philosophy or the-ology in itself, but a tool and method for learning which

puts emphasis on dialectical reasoning. The primary pur-pose of scholasticism was to find the answer to a questionor resolve a contradiction. It is most well known in its ap-plication in medieval theology, but was eventually appliedto classical philosophy and many other fields of study.

8.4.1 Early scholasticism and its contemporaries

Anselm of Canterburyis sometimes misleadingly calledthe 'Father of Scholasticism' because of the prominentplace that reason has in his theology; instead of estab-lishing his points by appeal to authority, he presents ar-

guments to demonstrate why it is that the things he be-lieves on authority must be so. His particular approach,however, was not very influential in his time, and he kepthis distance from the sathedral schools. We should lookinstead to the production of theglosson Scripture asso-ciated withAnselm of Laon, the rise to prominence ofdialectic(middle subject of the medievaltrivium) in thework of Abelard, and the production byPeter Lombardof a collection ofSentencesor opinions of the ChurchFathers and other authorities. Scholasticism proper canbe thought of as the kind of theology that emerges when,in the sathedral schools and their successors, the tools of

dialectic are pressed into use to comment upon, explain,and develop the gloss and the sentences.


Anselm of Canterbury (1033/10341109)

Anselm of Laon (died 1117)

Hugh of St Victor(10781151)

Peter Abelard(10791142)

Bernard of Clairvaux(10901153)

Hildegard of Bingen(10981179)

Peter Lombard (c. 1100-1160)

Joachim of Fiore(c. 1135-1202)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joachim_of_Fiorehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hildegard_of_Bingenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvauxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Abelardhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_of_St_Victorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentenceshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Lombardhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trivium_(education)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anselm_of_Laonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible_glosshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterburyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholasticismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanfranchttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulbert_of_Chartreshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Sylvester_IIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remigius_of_Auxerrehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heiric_of_Auxerrehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berengar_of_Tourshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottonianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_IIIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerbert_of_Aurillachttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerbert_of_Aurillachttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chartreshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxerrehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Scotus_Eriugenahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hincmarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radbertushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabanus_Maurushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elipandushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felix,_Bishop_of_Urgelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adoptionismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcuinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratramnushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottschalk_(theologian)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adoptionismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian_Empire


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8 8 WESTERN THEOLOGY

Anselm of Canterbury

8.4.2 High Scholasticism and its contemporaries

The 13th century saw the attempted suppression of var-ious groups perceived as heterodox, such as theCatharsandWaldensiansand the associated rise of themendicantorders(notably theFranciscansandDominicans), in partintended as a form of orthodox alternative to the hereti-cal groups. Those two orders quickly became contextsfor some of the most intense scholatsic theologizing, pro-ducing such 'high scholastic' theologians asAlexander ofHales (Franciscan) and Thomas Aquinas (Dominican), orthe rather less obviously scholastic Bonaventure(Fran-ciscan). The century also saw a flourishing ofmysticaltheology, with women such asMechthild of Magdeburgplaying a prominent role. In addition, the century can beseen as period in which the study of natural philosophythat could anachronistically be called 'science' began onceagain to flourish in theological soil, in the hands of suchmen asRobert GrossetesteandRoger Bacon.


Saint Dominic(11701221)

Robert Grosseteste (c. 1175-1253)

Francis of Assisi(11821226)

Alexander of Hales (died 1245)

Mechthild of Magdeburg (12101285)

Roger Bacon (12141294)

Bonaventure (12211274)

Thomas Aquinas (12251274)

Angela of Foligno(12481309)

Aquinas

8.4.3 Late Scholasticism and its contemporaries

Scholastic theology continued to develop as the 13th cen-tury gave way to the fourteenth, becoming ever morecomplex and subtle in its distinctions and arguments.The 14th century saw in particular the rise to domi-nance of thenominalistorvoluntaristtheologies of menlikeWilliam of Ockham. The 14th century was also atime in which movements of widely varying characterworked for the reform of the institutional church, such asconciliarism,Lollardyand theHussites. Spiritual move-ments such as theDevotio Modernaalso flourished.


Meister Eckhart(12601328)

Duns Scotus(12661308)

Marsilius of Padua(12701342)

William of Ockham (c. 12851349)

John Wycliffe(c. 13201384)

Julian of Norwich(13421413)

Geert Groote(13401384)

Catherine of Siena(13471380)

Jean Gerson(13631429)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Gersonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_of_Sienahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geert_Grootehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_of_Norwichhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wycliffehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsilius_of_Paduahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duns_Scotushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meister_Eckharthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devotio_Modernahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hussitehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lollardyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conciliarismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_of_Ockhamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voluntarism_(metaphysics)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nominalismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquinashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angela_of_Folignohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_of_Assisihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Dominichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Baconhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Grossetestehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechthild_of_Magdeburghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mysticismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mysticismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonaventurehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Aquinashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_of_Haleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_of_Haleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominican_orderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franciscanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendicant_ordershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendicant_ordershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waldensianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathars


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9.1 Lutheranism 9

Catherine of Siena

Jan Hus(c. 13691415)

Thomas a Kempis(13801471)

9 Renaissance and Reformation

The Renaissanceyielded scholars the ability to read thescriptures in their original languages and this in part stim-ulated theReformation.Martin Luther, a Doctor in Bibleat the University of Wittenburg,[21] began to teach thatsalvationis a gift of Godsgrace, attainable only throughfaithin Jesus, whoin humilitypaid for sin.[22] This oneand firm rock, which we call the doctrine of justification",insisted Martin Luther, is the chief article of the wholeChristian doctrine, which comprehends the understand-ing of all godliness.[23] Along with the doctrine of jus-tification, the Reformation promoted a higher view ofthe Bible. As Martin Luther said, The true rule is this:Gods Word shall establish articles of faith, and no oneelse, not even an angel can do so.[24] These two ideas inturn promoted the concept of the priesthood of all be-lievers. Other important reformers were John Calvin,Huldrych Zwingli, Philipp Melanchthon, Martin Bucer

and the Anabaptists. Their theology was modified by suc-cessors such asTheodore Beza, the EnglishPuritansandFrancis Turretin.

Luthers seal

9.1 Lutheranism

Main article:Lutheranism

Lutheranism is a major branch of Western Christian-itythat identifies with the teachings of the 16th-centuryGermanreformer Martin Luther. Luthers efforts to re-form the theology and practice of the church launchedThe Reformation. As a result of the reactions of his

contemporaries, Christianity was divided.[25] Luthers in-sights were a major foundation of the Protestant move-ment.

9.1.1 The start of the Reformation

Further information:History of ProtestantismIn 1516-17,Johann Tetzel, a Dominican friarand papal

The sale of indulgences shown in A Question to a Mintmaker,woodcut byJrg Breu the Elderof Augsburg, c. 1530.

commissioner forindulgences, was sent to Germany bythe Roman Catholic Church to sell indulgences to raise
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indulgenceshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B6rg_Breu_the_Elderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominican_friarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Tetzelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Protestantismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestantismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestantismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Reformationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutheranismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutheranismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Turretinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puritanshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Bezahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anabaptisthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Bucerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philipp_Melanchthonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huldrych_Zwinglihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Calvinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priesthood_of_all_believershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priesthood_of_all_believershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justification_(theology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theology_of_the_Crosshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sola_fidehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sola_gratiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Lutherhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_a_Kempishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Hushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_of_Siena


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10 9 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

Door of the Schlosskirche (castle church) in Wittenberg towhich Luther is said to have nailed his95 Theses, sparking the

Reformation.

money to rebuildSt Peters Basilicain Rome.[26] RomanCatholic theology stated that faith alone, whether fidu-

ciary or dogmatic, cannot justify man;[27] and that onlysuch faith as is active in charity and good works (fidescaritate formata) can justify man.[28] These good workscould be obtained by donating money to the church.

On 31 October 1517, Luther wrote to Albrecht, Arch-bishop of Mainz and Magdeburg, protesting the sale ofindulgences. He enclosed in his letter a copy of hisDisputation of Martin Luther on the Power and Effi-cacy of Indulgences, which came to be known as The95 Theses. Hans Hillerbrand writes that Luther had nointention of confronting the church, but saw his disputa-tion as a scholarly objection to church practices, and the

tone of the writing is accordingly searching, rather thandoctrinaire.[29] Hillerbrand writes that there is neverthe-less an undercurrent of challenge in several of the the-ses, particularly in Thesis 86, which asks: Why does thepope, whose wealth today is greater than the wealth ofthe richest Crassus, build the basilica of St. Peter withthe money of poor believers rather than with his ownmoney?"[29]

Luther objected to a saying attributed to Johann Tetzelthat As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soulfrom purgatory springs,[30] insisting that, since forgive-ness was Gods alone to grant, those who claimed that

indulgences absolved buyers from all punishments andgranted them salvation were in error. Christians, he said,must not slacken in following Christ on account of such

false assurances.

According to Philipp Melanchthon, writing in 1546,Luther nailed a copy of the 95 Theses to the door oftheCastle ChurchinWittenbergthat same daychurchdoors acting as the bulletin boards of his timean event

now seen as sparking the Protestant Reformation,

[31]

and celebrated each year on 31 October as ReformationDay. Some scholars have questioned the accuracy ofMelanchthons account, noting that no contemporaneousevidence exists for it.[32] Others have countered that nosuch evidence is necessary, because this was the custom-ary way of advertising an event on a university campus inLuthers day.[33]

The 95 Theseswere quickly translated from Latin intoGerman, printed, and widely copied, making the con-troversy one of the first in history to be aided by theprinting press.[34] Within two weeks, the theses had

spread throughout Germany; within two months through-out Europe.

Justification by faith Main article: Sola fide

From 1510 to 1520, Luther lectured on the Psalms, thebooks of Hebrews, Romans, and Galatians. As he stud-ied these portions of the Bible, he came to view the useof terms suchas penance and righteousness by the RomanCatholic Church in new ways. He became convinced thatthe church was corrupt in their ways and had lost sightof what he saw as several of the central truths of Chris-

tianity, the most important of which, for Luther, was thedoctrine of justificationGods act of declaring a sin-ner righteousby faith alone through Gods grace. Hebegan to teach that salvation or redemption is a gift ofGodsgrace, attainable only through faith in Jesus as themessiah.[22]

This one and firm rock, which we call thedoctrine of justification, he wrote, is thechief article of the whole Christian doctrine,which comprehends the understanding of allgodliness.[35]

Luther came to understand justification as entirely thework of God. Against the teaching of his day that therighteous acts of believers are performed in coopera-tionwith God, Luther wrote that Christians receive suchrighteousness entirely from outside themselves; that righ-teousness not only comes from Christ but actually istherighteousness of Christ, imputed to Christians (ratherthan infused into them) through faith.[36] That is whyfaith alone makes someone just and fulfills the law, hewrote. Faith is that which brings the Holy Spirit through

the merits of Christ.[37] Faith, for Luther, was a gift fromGod. He explained his concept of justification in theSmalcald Articles:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messiahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divine_gracehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Righteousnesshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sola_fidehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing_presshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/95_Theseshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformation_Dayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformation_Dayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wittenberghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Saints%2527_Church,_Wittenberghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/95_Theseshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_95_Theseshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_95_Theseshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_of_Mainzhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_of_Mainzhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Peter%2527s_Basilicahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/95_Theses


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9.1 Lutheranism 11

The first and chief article is this: JesusChrist, our God and Lord, died for our sins andwas raised again for our justification (Romans3:24-25). He alone is the Lamb of God whotakes away the sins of the world (John1:29),and God has laid on Him the iniquity of us all

(Isaiah53:6). All have sinned and are justifiedfreely, without their own works and merits, byHis grace, through the redemption that is inChrist Jesus, in His blood (Romans 3:23-25).This is necessary to believe. This cannot beotherwise acquired or grasped by any work,law or merit. Therefore, it is clear and certainthat this faith alone justifies us ... Nothing ofthis article can be yielded or surrendered, eventhough heaven and earth and everything elsefalls (Mark13:31).[38]

Cardinal Albrecht of Hohenzollern, Archbishop of Mainz and

Magdeburg, was using part of the indulgence income to pay

bribery debts;[39] portrait byAlbrecht Drer, 1519

Response of the papacy In contrast to the speed withwhich the theses were distributed, the response of the pa-pacy was painstakingly slow.

Cardinal Albrecht of Hohenzollern, Archbishop of Mainz

and Magdeburg, with the consent of Pope Leo X, wasusing part of the indulgence income to pay his briberydebts,[39] and did not reply to Luthers letter; instead,

Pope Leo XbyRaphael.

he had the theses checked for heresy and forwarded toRome.[40]

Leo responded over the next three years, "with great careas is proper",[41] by deploying a series of papal theolo-gians and envoys against Luther. Perhaps he hoped the

matter would die down of its own accord, because in 1518he dismissed Luther as "a drunken German" who "whensober will change his mind".[42]

Widening breach Luthers writings circulated widely,reaching France, England, and Italy as early as 1519, andstudents thronged to Wittenberg to hear him speak. Hepublished a short commentary onGalatiansand hisWorkon the Psalms. At the same time, he received deputationsfrom Italy and from the Utraquistsof Bohemia; Ulrichvon Hutten and Franz von Sickingen offered to place

Luther under their protection.

[43]

This early portion of Luthers career was one of hismost creative and productive.[44] Three of his best knownworks were published in 1520: To the Christian Nobilityof the German Nation,On the Babylonian Captivity of theChurch, andOn the Freedom of a Christian.

Finally on 30 May 1519, when the Pope demanded anexplanation, Luther wrote a summary and explanation ofhis theses to the Pope. While the Pope may have con-ceded some of the points, he did not like the challenge tohis authority so he summoned Luther to Rome to answerthese. At that pointFrederick the Wise, the Saxon Elec-

tor, intervened. He did not want one of his subjects to besent to Rome to be judged by the Catholic clergyso heprevailed on the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, who
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priesthood_(Catholic_Church)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_the_Wisehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Freedom_of_a_Christianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Babylonian_Captivity_of_the_Churchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Babylonian_Captivity_of_the_Churchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To_the_Christian_Nobility_of_the_German_Nationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To_the_Christian_Nobility_of_the_German_Nationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_von_Sickingenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulrich_von_Huttenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulrich_von_Huttenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utraquisthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Galatianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raphaelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Leo_Xhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Leo_Xhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_of_Mainzhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_D%C3%BCrerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_of_Mainzhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Markhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Isaiahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_John


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12 9 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

needed Fredericks support, to arrange a compromise.

An arrangement was effected, however, whereby thatsummons was cancelled, and Luther went to Augsburg inOctober 1518 to meet the papal legate, CardinalThomasCajetan. The argument was long but nothing was re-

solved.

First edition ofExsurge Domine.

Excommunication On 15 June 1520, the Pope warnedLuther with thepapal bull(edict)Exsurge Dominethat heriskedexcommunicationunless he recanted 41 sentencesdrawn from his writings, including the95 Theses, within60 days.

That autumn,Johann Eckproclaimed the bull in Meis-sen and other towns. Karl von Miltitz, a papalnuncio,

attempted to broker a solution, but Luther, who had sentthe Pope a copy of On the Freedom of a Christian in Oc-tober, publicly set fire to the bull anddecretalsat Witten-berg on 10 December 1520,[45] an act he defended in Whythe Pope and his Recent Book are Burnedand AssertionsConcerning All Articles.

As a consequence, Luther was excommunicated by LeoXon 3 January 1521, in the bullDecet Romanum Pontif-icem.

9.2 Political maneuvering

What had started as a strictly theological and academicdebate had now turned into something of a social and

political conflict as well, pitting Luther, his German al-lies and Northern European supporters against CharlesV, France, the Italian Pope, their territories and other al-lies. The conflict would erupt into a religious war afterLuthers death, fueled by the political climate of theHolyRoman Empireand strong personalities on both sides.

In 1526, at theFirst Diet of Speyer, it was decided that,until a General Council could meet and settle the theolog-ical issues raised by Martin Luther, theEdict of Wormswould not be enforced and each Prince could decide ifLutheran teachings and worship would be allowed in histerritories. In 1529, at theSecond Diet of Speyer, the de-cision the previous Diet of Speyer was reverseddespitethe strong protests of the Lutheran princes, free citiesand someZwinglianterritories. These states quickly be-came known asProtestants. At first, this term Protestantwas used politically for the states that resisted the Edictof Worms. Over time, however, this term came to be

used for the religious movements that opposed the Ro-man Catholic tradition in the 16th century.

Lutheranism would become known as a separate move-ment after the 1530Diet of Augsburg, which was con-vened by Charles V to try to stop the growingProtestantmovement. At the Diet, Philipp Melanchthon presented awritten summary of Lutheran beliefs called theAugsburgConfession. Several of the German princes (and later,kings and princes of other countries) signed the documentto define Lutheran territories. These princes wouldally to create the Schmalkaldic Leaguein 1531, whichlead to theSchmalkald War, 1547, a year after Luthers

death, that pitted the Lutheran princes of the Schmalka-ldic League against the Catholic forces of Charles V.

After the conclusion of the Schmalkald War, Charles Vattempted to impose Catholic religious doctrine on theterritories that he had defeated. However, the Lutheranmovement was far from defeated. In 1577, the next gen-eration of Lutheran theologians gathered the work of theprevious generation to define the doctrine of the persist-ing Lutheran church. This document is known as theFormula of Concord. In 1580, it was published withthe Augsburg Confession, theApology of the AugsburgConfession, theLargeand Small Catechismsof Martin

Luther, the Smalcald Articles and the Treatise on thePower and Primacy of the Pope. Together they were dis-tributed in a volume entitled The Book of Concord. Thisbook is still used today.

9.3 Results of the Lutheran reformation

Luthers followers and the Roman Catholic Church brokefellowship during the Protestant Reformation. In theyears and decades following Luthers posting of the 95theses on the door of the Wittenberg church, large num-

bers of Europeans abandoned observance of papal au-thority, including the majority ofGerman speakers. Fol-lowing the Counter-Reformation, Catholic Austria and
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Book_of_Concordhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_the_Power_and_Primacy_of_the_Popehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_the_Power_and_Primacy_of_the_Popehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luther%2527s_Small_Catechismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luther%2527s_Large_Catechismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apology_of_the_Augsburg_Confessionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apology_of_the_Augsburg_Confessionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formula_of_Concordhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schmalkald_Warhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schmalkaldic_Leaguehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augsburg_Confessionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augsburg_Confessionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestanthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diet_of_Augsburghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestantshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zwinglianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Diet_of_Speyerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edict_of_Wormshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_council_(Christianity)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Diet_of_Speyerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decet_Romanum_Pontificemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decet_Romanum_Pontificemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Leo_Xhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Leo_Xhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decretalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nunciohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_von_Miltitzhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Eckhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/95_Theseshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excommunicationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exsurge_Dominehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_bullhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Cajetanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Cajetan


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9.6 Anglicanism 13

Bavaria, together with the electoral archbishops of Mainz,Cologne, and Trier consolidated the Catholic position onthe German-speaking section of the European continent.Because Luther sparked thismass movement, he is knownas the father of the Protestant Reformation, and the fatherof Protestantism in general.

9.4 Calvinism

Main article:Calvinism

Calvinismis a system of Christian theology and an ap-proach to Christian life and thought within theProtestanttradition articulated by John Calvin, a Protestant Re-formerin the 16th century, and subsequently by succes-sors, associates, followers and admirers of Calvin, his in-terpretation of scripture, and perspective on Christian life

and theology. Calvins system of theology and Christianlife forms the basis of the reformed tradition, a termroughly equivalent toCalvinism.

The reformed tradition was originally advanced by stal-warts such as Martin Bucer,Heinrich BullingerandPeterMartyr Vermigli, and also influenced English reformerssuch asThomas CranmerandJohn Jewel. However, be-cause of Calvins great influence and role in the confes-sional and ecclesiastical debates throughout the 17th cen-tury, this reformed movement generally became known asCalvinism. Today, this term also refers to the doctrinesand practices of theReformed churches, of which Calvin

was an early leader, and the system is perhaps best knownfor its doctrines ofpredestinationandelection.

9.5 Arminianism

Main article: Arminianism

Arminianism is a school of soteriological thought inProtestant Christian theology founded by theDutchthe-ologian Jacobus Arminius. Its acceptance stretchesthrough much of mainstreamProtestantism. Due to the

influence ofJohn Wesley, Arminianism is perhaps mostprominent in theMethodist movement.

Arminianism holds to the following tenets:

Humans are naturallyunableto make any effort to-wards salvation

Salvation is possible bygrace alone

Works of human effort cannot cause or contribute tosalvation

Godselection is conditionalon faith in Jesus

Jesusatonementwas potentially forall people

God allows hisgraceto be resisted by those unwill-ing to believe

Salvation can be lost, as continued salvation isconditional upon continued faith

Arminianism is most accurately used to define those whoaffirm the original beliefs of Jacobus Arminius himself,but the term can also be understood as an umbrella for alarger grouping of ideas including those ofHugo Grotius,John Wesley, Clark Pinnock, and others. There aretwo primary perspectives on how the system is appliedin detail: Classical Arminianism, which sees Arminiusas its figurehead, and Wesleyan Arminianism, which (asthe name suggests) sees John Wesley as its figurehead.Wesleyan Arminianism is sometimes synonymous withMethodism.

Within the broad scope of church history, Arminianism isclosely related to Calvinism (or Reformed theology), andthe two systems share both history and many doctrines incommon. Nonetheless, they are often viewed as archri-vals within Evangelicalism because of their disagreementover the doctrines ofpredestinationand salvation.

9.6 Anglicanism

Anglican doctrine emerged from the interweaving of twomain strands of Christian doctrine during the English ref-ormationin the 16th and 17th centuries. The first strand

is theCatholicdoctrine taught by the established churchin England in the early 16th century. The second strand isa range of Protestant reformed teachings brought to Eng-land from neighbouring countries in the same period, no-tably Calvinism and Lutheranism.

The Church of England was the national branch of theCatholic Church. The formal doctrines had been docu-mented incanon lawover the centuries, and the Churchof England still follows an unbroken tradition of canonlaw today. The English Reformation did not dispenseof all previous doctrines. The church not only retainedthe core Catholic beliefs common to reformed doctrine

in general, such as the Trinity, the Virgin Birthof Je-sus, the nature of Jesus as fully human and fully God,theresurrection of Jesus, original sin, and excommuni-cation (as affirmed by theThirty-Nine Articles), but alsoretained some Catholic teachings which were rejected bytrue Protestants, such as thethree orders of ministryandtheapostolic successionof bishops.

9.7 Orthodox Reformation

The fall of Constantinople in the East, 1453, led to a

significant shift of gravity to the rising state ofRussia,the Third Rome. The Renaissance would also stimu-late a program of reforms by patriarchs of prayer books.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinoplehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolic_successionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican_ministryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty-Nine_Articleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_sinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reath_and_resurrection_of_Jesushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgin_birth_of_Jesushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_lawhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Churchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_reformationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_reformationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predestinationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clark_Pinnockhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Grotiushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conditional_preservation_of_the_saintshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prevenient_gracehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unlimited_atonementhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atonement_in_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conditional_electionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sola_gratiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_depravityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wesleyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestantismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobus_Arminiushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlandshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soteriologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arminianismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arminianismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconditional_electionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predestination_(Calvinism)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformed_churcheshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformedhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Jewelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Cranmerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Martyr_Vermiglihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Martyr_Vermiglihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Bullingerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Biblehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvinismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvinism


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14 11 REVIVALISM (17201906)

A movement called the "Old believers" consequently re-sulted and influencedRussian Orthodox Theologyin thedirection ofconservatismandErastianism.

10 Counter-Reformation

Main article: Counter-Reformation

The Counter-Reformation, or Catholic Reformation, wasthe response of the Catholic Church to the ProtestantReformation. The essence of the Counter-Reformationwas a renewed conviction in traditional practices and theupholding of Catholic doctrine as the source of eccle-siastic and moral reform, and the answer to halting thespread of Protestantism. Thus it experienced the found-ing of new religious orders, such as theJesuits, the estab-lishment ofseminariesfor the proper training of priests,renewed worldwide missionary activity, and the devel-opment of new yet orthodox forms of spirituality, suchas that of theSpanish mysticsand theFrench school ofspirituality. The entire process was spearheaded by theCouncil of Trent, which clarified and reasserted doctrine,issued dogmatic definitions, and produced the RomanCatechism.

The Roman Catholic counter-reformation spearheadedby theJesuitsunderIgnatius Loyolatook their theologyfrom the decisions of the Council of Trent, and developedSecond Scholasticism, which they pitted against LutheranScholasticism. The overall result of the Reformation wastherefore to highlight distinctions of belief that had pre-viously co-existed uneasily.

Though Ireland, Spain, France, and elsewhere featuredsignificantly in the Counter-Reformation, its heart wasItaly and the various popes of the time, who establishedtheIndex Librorum Prohibitorum, or simply the Index,a list of prohibited books, and theRoman Inquisition, asystem of juridical tribunals that prosecuted heresy andrelated offences. The Papacy ofSt. Pius V(15661572)was known not only for its focus on halting heresy andworldly abuses within the Church, but also for its focuson improving popular piety in a determined effort to stemthe appeal of Protestantism. Pius began his pontificate bygiving large alms to the poor, charity, and hospitals, andthe pontiff was known for consoling the poor and sick,and supporting missionaries. The activities of these pon-tiffs coincided with a rediscovery of the ancient Christiancatacombs in Rome. AsDiarmaid MacCulloch stated,Just as these ancient martyrs were revealed once more,Catholics were beginning to be martyred afresh, both in

mission fields overseas and in the struggle to win backProtestant northern Europe: the catacombs proved to bean inspiration for many to action and to heroism.[46]

10.1 The Council of Trent

Main article:Council of TrentThe Council of Trent (15451563), initiated by Pope

The Council in Santa Maria Maggiore church; Museo Diocesiano

Tridentino, Trento

Paul III (15341549) addressed issues of certain ec-clesiastical corruptions such as simony, absenteeism,nepotism, and other abuses, as well as the reassertionof traditional practices and the dogmatic articulation ofthe traditional doctrines of the Church, such as the epis-copal structure, clerical celibacy, the seven sacraments,transubstantiation(the belief that during mass the conse-crated bread and wine truly become the body and blood

of Christ), the veneration of relics, icons, and saints (es-pecially theBlessed Virgin Mary), the necessity of bothfaith and good works for salvation, the existence of pur-gatory and the issuance (but not the sale) of indulgences,etc. The Council also fostered an interest in educationfor parish priests to increase pastoral care.Milan's Arch-bishopSt. Carlo Borromeo(15381584) set an exampleby visiting the remotest parishes and instilling high stan-dards.

11 Revivalism (17201906)

Main article:RevivalismSee also:Charles Grandison Finney

Holiness movement in the U.S. and Higher Lifemovementin Britain

The Calvinist and Wesleyan revival, called theGreat Awakening, established the Congregationalist,Presbyterian, Baptist, and new Methodist churches oncompetitive footing for social influence in North Amer-

ica. However, as that great revival of religion beganto wane, a new era of secularism began to overwhelmthe social gains that had been experienced by evangelical
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodisthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptisthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregational_churchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Awakeninghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvinismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_Life_movementhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_Life_movementhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holiness_movementhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Grandison_Finneyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revivalismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Charles_Borromeohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blessed_Virgin_Maryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transubstantiationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacraments_(Catholic_Church)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepotismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absenteeismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simonyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Paul_IIIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Paul_IIIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Trenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarmaid_MacCullochhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Pius_Vhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Inquisitionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_Librorum_Prohibitorumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutheran_scholasticismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutheran_scholasticismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_scholasticismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignatius_Loyolahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesuitshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-reformationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catechismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catechismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Trenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_school_of_spiritualityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_school_of_spiritualityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_mysticshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seminarieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Jesushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-Reformationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erastianismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Theologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_believers


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11.2 Second Great Awakening 15

churches. Furthermore, that revival had popularized thestrong opinion that evangelical religions were weakenedand divided, primarily due to unreasonable loyalty tocreeds and doctrines which made salvation, and Christianunity, seem unattainable. This sentiment gave rise torestorationism.

[47]

11.1 First Great Awakening

Main article:First Great Awakening

TheFirst Great Awakeningwas a wave of religious en-thusiasm among Protestants that swept the Americancolonies in the 1730s and 1740s, leaving a permanent im-pact on American religion. An overrriding theme of re-

ligion in Colonial America was the hatred of everythingCatholic. The religious tension in Great Britain was car-ried into the colonies. A large number of colonists whocame to America did so in order to be able to practicetheir religion freely, without interference from a higherauthority. The desire for religious independence was en-couraged. Series of revivals were led by evangelists whopreached personal faith rather than conforming to doc-trine. These revivals were emotional and took on a lifeof their own. They fueled the people into thinking theycould do anything and achieve everything that God de-sired for them. It created a sense of community and lib-erty in Christ. They preached a reliance of experienceinstead of authority. Powerful preaching deeply affectedlisteners (already church members) with a deep sense ofpersonal guilt and salvation by Christ. Pulling away fromritual and ceremony, the Great Awakening made reli-gion intensely personal to the average person by creat-ing a deep sense of spiritual guilt and redemption. His-torian Sydney E. Ahlstrom sees it as part of a great in-ternational Protestant upheaval that also createdpietismin Germany, the evangelical revival and MethodisminEngland.[48] It brought Christianity to the slaves and wasan apocalyptic event inNew Englandthat challenged es-tablished authority. It incited rancor and division be-

tween the old traditionalists who insisted on ritual anddoctrine and the new revivalists. It had a major im-pact in reshaping the Congregational, Presbyterian, DutchReformed, and German Reformed denominations, andstrengthened the small Baptist andMethodistdenomina-tions. It had little impact onAnglicansandQuakers. Un-like theSecond Great Awakeningthat began about 1800and which reached out to the unchurched, the First GreatAwakening focused on people who were already churchmembers. It changed their rituals, their piety, and theirself-awareness.

The new style of sermons and the way people practiced

their faith breathed new life into religion in America.People became passionately and emotionally involved intheir religion, rather than passively listening to intellec-

tual discourse in a detached manner. The First GreatAwakening was a religious upheaval that prepared a gen-eration of consist to not only support a polcial revolu-tion, but to participate in one. It launched the life ofthe churches and the nation in a momentus leap forward.It was a psychological earthquake that reshaped the re-

ligious, moral and social landscape of Colonial Americafor the next two centuries. Christians enjoying spiritualliberties started to crave political liberties as well. Reli-gion and politics were so interwoven that the Christiansstarted craving political freedom as well, thus leading thecolonies into a revolution that shaped the foundation wewould come to call The United States of America, onenation under God.

Kidd, Thomas S (2007). The Great Awakening: A BriefHistory w/ Documents. Bedford.ISBN 0-312-45225-X.

11.2 Second Great Awakening

Main article:Second Great Awakening

The Second Great Awakening (18001830s) was thesecond great religious revival in United States historyand consisted of renewed personal salvation experiencedin revival meetings. Major leaders included CharlesGrandison Finney,Lyman Beecher,Barton Stone. PeterCartwrightandJames B. Finley.

In New England, the renewed interest in religion inspireda wave of social activism. In western New York, the spiritof revival encouraged the emergence of the RestorationMovement,Latter Day Saint movement,Adventismandthe Holiness movement. In the west especiallyatCaneRidge, Kentuckyand inTennesseethe revival strength-ened theMethodistsand theBaptistsand introduced intoAmerica a new form of religious expressionthe Scot-tishcamp meeting.

11.3 Resurgence

The third awakening or resurgence, from 1830, was

largely influential in America and many countries world-wide including India and Ceylon. The Plymouth Brethrenstarted withJohn Nelson Darbyat this time, a result ofdisillusionment with denominationalism and clerical hi-erarchy.

11.4 Third Great Awakening

Main article:Third Great Awakening

The next great awakening (sometimes called the Third

Great Awakening) began from 1857 onwards in Canadaand spread throughout the world including America andAustralia. Significant names includeDwight L. Moody,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwight_L._Moodyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Great_Awakeninghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Great_Awakeninghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Great_Awakeninghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Nelson_Darbyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plymouth_Brethrenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceylonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_meetinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptistshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennesseehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cane_Ridge,_Kentuckyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cane_Ridge,_Kentuckyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adventismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movementhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restoration_Movementhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restoration_Movementhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Yorkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Finley_(minister)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Cartwright_(revivalist)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Cartwright_(revivalist)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barton_Stonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyman_Beecherhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Grandison_Finneyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Grandison_Finneyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Great_Awakeninghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-45225-Xhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_Stateshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Great_Awakeninghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_Society_of_Friendshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglicanismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Reformed_Churchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Reformed_Churchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterianismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregational_churchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Englandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelicalismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Great_Awakeninghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Great_Awakeninghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restorationism


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16 13 RESTORATIONISM

Ira D. Sankey, William Booth and Catherine Booth(founders of theSalvation Army),Charles SpurgeonandJames Caughey. Hudson Taylorbegan the China In-land MissionandThomas John Barnardofounded his fa-mous orphanages. TheKeswick Conventionmovementbegan out of theBritish Holiness movement, encourag-

ing a lifestyle ofholiness, unity and prayer.

11.5 Further resurgence

The next awakening (18801903) has been described asa period of unusual evangelistic effort and success, andagain sometimes more of a resurgence of the previouswave. Moody, Sankey and Spurgeon are again notablenames. Others included Sam Jones, J. Wilber ChapmanandBilly Sundayin North America,Andrew MurrayinSouth Africa, and John McNeil in Australia. TheFaith

Missionbegan in 1886.

11.6 Welsh and Pentecostal revivals

The final great awakening (1904 onwards) had its roots inthe Holiness movement which had developed in the late19C. ThePentecostalrevival movement began, out of apassion for more power and a greater outpouring of theSpirit. In 1902, the American evangelistsReuben ArcherTorreyandCharles M. Alexanderconducted meetings inMelbourne, Australia, resulting in more than 8,000 con-verts. News of this revival travelled fast, igniting a pas-

sion for prayer and an expectation that God would workin similar ways elsewhere.

Torrey and Alexander were involved in the beginningsof the greatWelsh revival(1904) which ledJessie Penn-Lewisto witness the working of Satan during times of re-vival, andwriteher book War on the Saints. In 1906 themodern Pentecostal movement was born inAzusa Street,in Los Angeles.

12 Restoration Movement

Main article:Restoration movement

The Restoration Movement (also known as the Stone-Campbell Movement) generally refers to the Ameri-can Restoration Movement, which began on the Ameri-can frontier during theSecond Great Awakeningof theearly 19th century. The movement sought to reformthe church and unite Christians. Barton W. StoneandAlexander Campbelleach independently developed sim-ilar approaches to the Christian faith, seeking to restorethe whole Christian church, on the pattern set forth in the

New Testament. Both groups believed that creeds keptChristianity divided. They joined in fellowship in 1832with a handshake. They were united, among other things,

in the belief that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, thatchurches celebrate theLords Supperon thefirst day ofeach week, and that baptism of adult believers, by immer-sion in water, is a necessary condition forSalvation.

The Restoration Movement began as two separate

threads, each of which initially developed without theknowledge of the other, during the Second Great Awak-ening in the early 19th century. The first, led by BartonW. Stone began at Cane Ridge, Bourbon County, Ken-tucky. The group called themselves simply Christians.The second, began in western Pennsylvania and Virginia(now West Virginia), led byThomas Campbelland hisson,Alexander Campbell. Because the founders wantedto abandon all denominational labels, they used the bib-lical names for the followers of Jesus that they found inthe Bible.[49]:27 Both groups promoted a return to the pur-poses of the 1st-century churches as described in the NewTestament. One historian of the movement has argued

that it was primarily a unity movement, with the restora-tion motif playing a subordinate role.[50]:8

The Restoration Movement has seen several divisions,resulting in multiple separate groups. Three mod-ern groups claim the Stone Campbell movement astheir roots: Churches of Christ,Christian churches andchurches of Christ, and theChristian Church (Disciplesof Christ). Some see divisions in the movement as theresult of the tension between the goals of restorationand ecumenism, with the Churches of Christ and Chris-tian churches and churches of Christ resolving the ten-sion by stressing restoration while the Christian Church

(Disciples of Christ) resolved the tension by stressingecumenism.[50]:383

13 Restorationism

Main article:Restorationism (Christian primitivism)

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

Jehovahs Witnesses

Although restorationists have some basic similarities,their doctrine and practices vary significantly. Restora-tionists do not usually describe themselves as reforminga Christian church continuously existing from the time ofJesus, but as restoring the Church that they believe waslost a