Heritage Schools Timeline Content by Dr. Charles Kightly Enquiry questions by Heritage Schools Teachers

The Heritage Schools Timeline is a PowerPoint presentation, which will provide you with a basic framework of events from 100BC 2000AD It can be used as an interactive classroom resource and adapted by teachers and pupils to include their local heritage and events. Here is a demonstration of how it works

In Slide Show each of the 21 top-slides represent 100 years, from 100BC - 2000. You can scroll forwards and backwards using the red buttons on the bottom right-hand of each slide.

Clicking on each event will reveal a drop-down slide. The drop-down slide has more information about the event, an image and an enquiry question.

THE TIMELINE

(100 BC) Tribal Britain (72 BC) Metal Out Wine In (55 BC/54BC) Julius Caesar's Raids (47 BC) Caesar Describes Britain (35 BC) First British Coins (10 BC) The Influence of Rome 1 st Century BC

(AD 10) Cunobelinus (AD 43) Roman Invasion (AD 47) The Roman Army (AD 51) Caratacus Captured (AD 60) Boudica's Revolt (AD 83) Roman Rule Expands (AD 80-100) Development of Roman Roads 1 st Century AD

(AD 100) Roman Forts Rebuilt in Stone (AD 122) Hadrians Wall (AD 155) Verulamium Rebuilt (Roman Towns Develop) (AD 158) Housesteads Fort Fully Re-Occupied (AD 180) Benwell Roman Temple Built (Roman Religion) (AD 180) Uprisings 2 nd Century AD

(AD 208) Emperor Severus in Britain (AD 209) St. Alban Martyred (AD 212) Citizenship Extended (AD 250) Great Witcombe Villa Built (AD 270) Silchester Walled (AD 276) Saxon Shore Forts (AD 296) Britain Regained for Rome 3 rd Century AD

(AD 313) Persecution of Christians Ends (AD 340) Prosperous Britain (AD 367) Barbarian Conspiracy (AD 383) Maximus Takes Troops from Britain (AD 369) Theodosius Restores Order (AD 391) Paganism Outlawed (AD 306) Constantine Proclaimed Emperor 4 th Century AD

(AD 410) Britain Breaks with Rome (AD 429) Vortigern (Hengist and Horsa) (AD 442) Saxons Advance (AD 446) Last Appeal to Rome (AD 460) Ambrosius Fights Back (AD 470) Massacre at Pevensey (AD 495) Battle of Mount Badon 5 th Century AD

6 th Century AD (AD 515) Tintagel and King Arthur (AD 545) Plague (AD 580) The First Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms (AD 560) Saxon Farms and British Rivers (AD 597) Conversion to Christianity (AD 600) Battle of Catraeth (AD 552) Renewed Saxon Conquests

(AD 617) King Edwin Converted (AD 625) Sutton Hoo (AD 635) Lindisfarne Founded (AD 642) Battle of Oswestry (AD 664) The Synod of Whitby (Rome or Ireland?) (AD 680) Caedmon (AD 699) Lindisfarne Gospels Produced 7 th Century AD

(AD 700) The Ruthwell Cross (AD 720) The Tribal Hideage (AD 731) Bede and the Idea of England (AD 757) King Offa of Mercia (AD 780) Beowulf (AD 787) First Viking Raids 8 th Century AD

(AD 800) The Law of the Land (AD 825) Bigger Kingdoms (AD 850) Viking Raiders Become Invaders (AD 865) Viking Great Army Lands (AD 878) Vikings Defeated at Edington (AD 891) Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (AD 899) Alfred the Great Dies 9 th Century AD

(AD 900) Burhs (AD 924) Reconquest (AD 937) The First King of all England (AD 954) The Danelaw (AD 970) English Art Revived (AD 978) Aethelred the Unready (AD 991) The Battle of Maldon 10 th Century AD

11 th Century AD (AD 1016) King Cnut (AD 1042) Edward the Confessor (AD 1066) Battle of Hastings (AD 1069) The Harrying of the North (AD 1071) The First Castles (AD 1087) Domesday Book (AD 1066) Harold Godwinson

(1100) Death of William Rufus (1127) Stone Castles (Rochester Castle Keep Begun) (1132) Rievaulx Abbey Founded (1135) Stephen and Matilda (1154) Henry II (1170) Thomas Becket (1189) Richard I and the Crusades 12 th Century

(1208) King John and the Church (1215) Magna Carta (1216) The Last Invasion (1224) Friars Arrive (1265) Parliament Develops (1282) Edward I Conquers Wales (1296) Edward I Attacks Scotland 13 th Century

14 th Century (1314) Bannockburn (1327) Edward II Murdered (1337) Hundred Years War Begins (1348) Black Death (1381) The Peasants Revolt (1384) John Wycliffe Dies (1390) Chaucers Canterbury Tales (1399) Richard II Deposed

15 th Century (1403) Henry IVs Troubles (1415) Agincourt and the Conquest of France (1455) Wars of the Roses Begin (1470) Guilds and Mystery Plays (1476) Printing Begins in England (1483) Richard III and the Princes in the Tower (1485) Battle of Bosworth (1497) The New World (Cabot Discovers Newfoundland

16 th Century (1500) Tudor Monarchs (a New Kind of Government) (1509) Henry VIII (Renaissance Hero to Savage Tyrant) (1533) Royal Supremacy and the Dissolution of the Monasteries (1547) Reformation (1558) Elizabeth I Becomes Queen (1580) Drake Sails Round the World (1588) Spanish Armada (1596) Feather Bed and Flushing Toilets (Elizabethan Everyday Life) (1599) Globe Theatre Opens

17 th Century (1605) James I and the Gunpowder Plot (1607) America and India (The Beginnings of Empire) (1611) Authorised Bible Published (1625) Charles I (Kind by Divine Right?) (1642) The Civil Wars Begin (1649) Charles I Executed (The English Republic) (1653) Cromwell Becomes Lord Protector (1660) Charles II Restored (1660) Pepyss Diary (1688) The Glorious Revolution

18 th Century (1707) Act of Union with Scotland (1714) The First Hanoverian Kings (1739) Dick Turpin and John Wesley (1745) Bonnie Prince Charlie and the Jacobite Rising (1756) The Seven Years War Begins (1760) The Industrial Revolution 1: Steam Engines and Canals (1766) Captain Cook Explores the Pacific (1775) American War of Independence Begins (1779) The Industrial Revolution 2: Iron and Factories (1796) Jenner Discovers Smallpox Vaccine

19 th Century (1800) Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1807) Abolition of the Slave Trade (1811) Regency Period Begins (1825) First Passenger Train Runs (1832) Reform Act Passed (1837) Queen Victoria Begins her Reign (1851) Great Exhibition (1859) Origin of Species Published (1870) First Board Schools Founded (1897) Queen Victorias Diamond Jubilee

20 th Century (1901) Edwardian Period Begins (1914-8) First World War (1918) Votes for Women (1922) Radio and Television (1930) Uneasy Decades (1939-45) Second World War (1947) Indian Independence and the end of Empire (1947-89) Cold War (1948) Welfare State and the National Health Service (1957) Consumer Boom (1962) Pop Revolution (1977) Computers and Mobile Phones

(100 BC) Tribal Britain In the period before the Roman Conquest, the people of Britain were divided into over 30 tribes with different names. For example, the Catuvellauni (meaning 'battle experts') lived in modern Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire; the Ordovices ('hammer-fighters') occupied Mid-Wales; and the Brigantes (either 'hill-dwellers' or 'mighty ones') dominated northern England. The meanings of their tribal names sometimes give hints about how they saw themselves, or how others saw them. Archaeology shows that their ways of life differed widely. Some southern and eastern tribes, including quite recent arrivals from mainland Europe, built town-like trading centres. Further west and north, tribal power centred on strongly defended 'hill forts'. None were primitive 'cavemen'. Excavated examples of their homes show that they could be well-built huts, equal in ground area to a modern bungalow. Reconstruction of a British Iron Age hut at Maiden Castle hill fort. [ Paul Birkbeck. English Heritage Photo Library] Were the people living at this time clever?

(72 BC) Metal Out Wine In Archaeology, including evidence from the cargoes of wrecked prehistoric ships found by divers, proves that Britain was trading with foreign lands long before the Romans came. Among its most valued exports was tin from Cornwall and Devon, a metal rare in Europe but vital for making bronze. One of the most important British trading posts was Hengistbury Head in Dorset, where locally-produced iron, copper and silver were exchanged for luxury goods (including figs, glass, tools and weapons, and especially wine) from Italy, Gaul (France) and even further away. Wine came in distinctively shaped pointed jars called 'amphorae. More of these have been found at Hengistbury than in all the other prehistoric sites in southern England put together. Roman pottery jar (amphora), which once contained imported wine, found at Richborough Castle Roman Fort. [ English Heritage Photo Library] What does this particular object tell us about the way people lived at this time?

(55 BC/54BC) Julius Caesar's Raids The first Roman attacks on Britain were led by Julius Caesar, an ambitious general and politician who claimed that the Britons were helping his enemies in Gaul (France). His first raid in 55 BC was disastrous: British shoreline resistance and storm damage to his ships soon made him turn back. However, in 54 BC Caesar landed again in Kent with about 25,000 soldiers and, despite resistance led by Cassivellaunus, a British chieftain, and attacks by British chariots, he penetrated as far as Hertfordshire. Some British tribal chieftains surrendered and became allies of Rome, allowing Caesar to claim a victory. But it was clear that Britain was not easily conquered, and after two months he withdrew. Britain would remain outside the Roman Empire for nearly another century. British two-horse chariot with driver and warrior, from a Roman silver 'denarius' coin, c.48 BC. [ The Trustees of the British Museum] Were the Romans only interested in power?

(47 BC) Caesar Describes Britain The oldest written descriptions of Britain, by Ancient Greek authors, describe a land of magical wonders beyond the known world. Although he had visited only south-east England, Julius Caesar gives a slightly more realistic account. Writing in about 47 BC, perhaps to impress Roman readers, he described the Britons as fierce barbarian warriors who shaved their bodies and dyed them blue with woad, but wore long hair and moustaches. He also wrote that they would not eat hares, cockerels or geese but kept them as pets. Caesar thought the south-eastern tribes, some of whom had only recently come from France, were the most civilised Britons. He declared that those living further inland grew no crops, ate only meat and dairy products and wore animal skins. Archaeology proves he was wrong! Celtic warrior, with characteristic 'spiky hair', from a Roman silver 'denarius' coin, c.48 BC. [ The Trustees of the British Museum] Can Julius Caesars description of Britain be trusted?

(35 BC) First British Coins Caesar says that the Britons used bronze or iron rings as currency (money). However, gold and silver coins had already existed for hundreds of years in Asia, Greece and Rome, and by about 150 BC they had reached Britain. The first coins were imports from France. Not long after Caesar's raids, tribal rulers in southern and eastern Britain began producing ('minting') coins of their own. These were made by hammering an iron punch (or dye) engraved with a pattern onto discs of precious metal. Soon some British coins included the name of the ruler who ordered them. Among the earliest of these were made for Commios, at first an ally and then an enemy of the Romans, who ruled in the Hampshire- West Sussex region. British silver coin of Commios, King of the Atrebates tribe, c.50 BC. [ The Trustees of the British Museum] Are coins important sources of evidence of life in past times?

(10 BC) The Influence of Rome Though Britain was still independent, the influence of the Roman Empire, which now extended to the coast of France, was very strong. Feuding British rulers turned to Rome for support in their quarrels, or fled there as refugees if defeated. Some adopted the Roman title 'rex' (meaning 'king') and imitated Roman styles for their coins. Trade with the Roman Empire also increased and Roman luxury goods, like those found in Lexden Tumulus (the burial mound of a powerful British ruler at Colchester), were valued as 'status symbols' by wealthy Britons. It is even possible that some Britons took to wearing fashionable Roman clothing. Roman 'galley' ship, from a coin of Mark Antony, c.30 BC. [ The Trustees of the British Museum] Did all the people of Britain want to be like the Romans?

(AD 10) Cunobelinus Cunobelinus, whose name means 'the Hound of Belinus' ('the Shining One', a British god) was the most powerful British ruler in the decades before the Roman Conquest. He was the leader of the Catuvellauni tribe, which had headed the resistance to Julius Caesar, from about AD 10. He extended his rule over all south-eastern Britain, from Kent to the Wash, and the Romans thought him 'King of (all) the Britons'. His 'capital' was Camulodunum (now Colchester). Cunobelinus remained friendly with Rome throughout his long reign. British corn, cattle, gold, silver, iron, pearls, slaves and hunting dogs were traded for Roman luxuries like ivory and amber jewellery, glass and wine. However, after his death in about AD 42, his sons adopted policies which helped encourage Roman invasion. British coin of Cunobelinus depicting an ear of barley perhaps suggesting that British barley beer was better than Roman wine? [ The Trustees of the British Museum] Did trading with Rome prevent or encourage invasion?

(AD 43) Roman Invasion In AD 43 the Romans landed at Richborough in Kent with an army of about 40,000 soldiers. They defeated the Britons (led by Caratacus and Togodumnus, sons of Cunobelinus) on the River Medway, and then fought their way over the Thames. The Emperor Claudius joined them for a triumphal entry into Colchester, the British 'capital', accompanied by the first elephants seen in Britain. However, Britain was far from fully conquered. One Roman legion marched northwards from Colchester towards Lincoln, another into the Midlands, and a third fought its way into the south-west, besieging and capturing many British hill forts on the way. By AD 47 all Britain south of a line from Devon to the Humber was under Roman control. Gold Roman coin of the Emperor Claudius, AD 43, showing a triumphal arch proclaiming the conquest of Britain. [ The Trustees of the British Museum] Was the Roman invasion good or bad for Britain?

(AD 47) The Roman Army The Roman army that conquered Britain was a well- equipped, uniformed and highly disciplined force. Its most effective soldiers were 'legionaries', tough armoured foot-soldiers equipped with short swords, throwing spears and big shields. Each of the four legions in Britain had about 5,000 men, divided into 'centuries' of about 80 soldiers, commanded by centurions. Legionaries were also engineers, building Roman forts and roads. Legionaries were recruited from Roman citizens, but their 'auxiliaries' (meaning 'helpers') were 'cohorts (regiments) from many different parts of the Empire. Some were spear-armed infantry, others bowmen, and others made up cavalry regiments of 500 or 1000 men. There were usually more auxiliaries than legionaries in Britain. The Romans also used 'artillery machines for throwing big stones or shooting arrow-headed darts at the enemy. Model of a Roman legionary soldier from Corbridge Roman Town showing his armour, shield, throwing spear (pilum) and camping gear. [ English Heritage] Was Britain conquered because the Romans had better weapons than the Britons?

(AD 51) Caratacus Captured Caratacus, son of Cunobelinus, headed the British resistance to the Roman invasion in AD 43 and, although he was defeated, he refused to give up. He moved west to lead the fierce Silures tribe of South Wales in eight years of successful guerrilla warfare against the invaders. His acceptance by this 'foreign' tribe suggests that Caratacus had a powerful personality: his name means 'the beloved one'. Eventually, in AD 51, he was defeated again somewhere on the Welsh borders and he fled to northern England, to Queen Cartimandua of the Brigantes tribe. She handed him over to the Romans and he was put on show in Rome as a trophy of victory. However, his dignity impressed the Romans so much that Caratacus and his family were pardoned. British coin of Caratacus. [ The Trustees of the British Museum] Was Caratacus well liked?

(AD 60) Boudica's Revolt In AD 60 Queen Boudica (Boadicea) came close to destroying Roman rule in Britain. Her tribe, the Iceni of East Anglia, had been friendly with Rome, but when her husband died the Romans not only seized their land, they also brutally ill-treated Boudica and her daughters. While the Roman governor and his troops were away fighting in North Wales, Boudica united many tribes in a fierce revolt. They destroyed Colchester, Verulamium (St. Albans) and London, massacring all their inhabitants. Tens of thousands of people were tortured and killed. Racing back, the Roman governor defeated Boudica's much larger army, and she took poison rather than fall into enemy hands. After taking savage revenge, the Romans eventually realised that less harsh rule in Britain would prevent further risings. Skulls found in the Wallbrook stream, London, dating from AD 60. They may well be the severed heads of Boudicas Roman victims. [ Museum of London] Would Boudica be as well remembered if she had been a man?

(AD 80-100) Development of Roman Roads Roman Britain could not have operated without the network of Roman roads that linked cities and military bases. Many of their routes are still used as modern roads today. Unlike the dirt tracks that preceded them, Roman roads were built in stone, usually by legionary soldiers. They were paved, drained, well maintained, and they could be used in all weathers. Their routes were carefully planned by engineers, usually in long straight stretches, which sometimes changed direction on hilltops. However, in mountainous areas they took the easiest route along valleys. Villas (country houses) and small towns developed along the road network and the Roman government operated a system of roadside inns and stables. These helped the Roman officials to travel as quickly as possible throughout Britain. Map showing the main Roman roads in Britain. [Roman Roads in Britain by my work is licensed under (Wikipedia Commons) CC BY-SA 3.0 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Roman.Britain.roads.jpg ] Were Roman roads such a big deal?

(AD 83) Roman Rule Expands The spread of Roman rule over Britain, temporarily halted by Boudica's rising, began again with the conquest of northern England (AD 70-1) and Wales (AD 74-8). Then the great Roman governor Agricola invaded Scotland, totally defeating the 'Caledonian' tribes at the Battle of Mons Graupius (probably near Inverness) in AD 83. His Roman fleet sailed right round Britain, proving it was an island. Agricola's victory, completing the conquest of Britain, marked the greatest extent of Roman rule. However, soon afterwards troops were pulled out to deal with trouble elsewhere in Britain. The Romans gradually abandoned Scotland and the northern frontier of Roman Britain was eventually finalised on Hadrian's Wall. Tombstone of Flavinus, standard-bearer of a Roman cavalry regiment. He rides in triumph over a naked 'barbarian'. From Hexham Abbey. [Tombstone of Flavinus, Roman Standard Bearer by Mike Quinn is licensed under (Wikipedia Commons) CC BY-SA 2.0 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tombstone_of_Flavinus,_Roman_Standard_Bearer_- _detail_-_geograph.org.uk_-_732240.jpg] What evidence is there of Roman rule near where you live?

(AD 100) Roman Forts Rebuilt in Stone Roman forts secured the conquest of Britain. Roman armies were said to 'carry a walled town in their packs', and even fortified the temporary 'marching camps' where they halted when in enemy territory. Forts were more permanent army bases, controlling the surrounding area. At first they were defended by ditches and timber stockades, but from about AD 100 they were often rebuilt with stone walls. Nearly always rectangular with rounded corners ('playing-card shaped') forts varied greatly in size. Most were occupied by 'auxiliary' regiments of 500 or 1,000 infantry or cavalry. Among the best- preserved are those on Hadrian's Wall, including Housesteads. Legionary 'fortresses', each housing a whole legion of 5,000 soldiers, were much bigger. Those at Caerleon, Chester and York remained important centres of military power until the end of Roman Britain. Aerial view of Hardknott Roman Fort, showing the remains of the defences, headquarters building (centre), commander's house and corn stores. [ English Heritage Photo Library] Were forts important to Roman rule?

(AD 122) Hadrian's Wall Hadrian's Wall was begun on the orders of the Emperor Hadrian in AD 122. It is among the most famous Roman monuments in the world. It stretches 73 miles from coast to coast, across one of the narrowest parts of Britain. The 4m-high stone wall was set with small forts ('milecastles') a mile apart, with turrets between them. It was part of a wide band of defences including ditches to front and rear, outpost forts, and 15 big 'backup' forts for reinforcements. The wall complex was a barrier against enemies raiding from the north, and a means of stopping them uniting with possibly hostile tribes further south. It may also have been a springboard for future Roman advances into Scotland. However, by AD 158 this policy was abandoned, and the wall became the permanent northern frontier of Roman Britain for nearly 250 years. Remains of a central section of Hadrians Wall. The wall originally stood 4m high. [ English Heritage Photo Library] Did Hadrians Wall serve its purpose?

(AD 155) Verulamium Rebuilt (Roman Towns Develop) The biggest change the Romans made in Britain was to introduce towns and cities. The Romans thought the best way to 'civilise' (which means 'townify') the Britons was to focus their lives on imitations of Rome. The towns built in Britain had Roman-style 'forums' (squares where public events took place) and 'basilicas' (courtrooms and town halls). They also had 'amphitheatres' for gladiators, public baths for exercise and steam baths for gossip. Towns varied in size and origin. Some, like Verulamium (now St. Albans), which was rebuilt in AD 155 after an accidental fire, were the 'capitals' of Romanised British tribes. Others (like Colchester, Lincoln and York) started as settlements for retired soldiers or (like Wroxeter in Shropshire) developed from forts. Country people visiting such towns could see and imitate 'citizens' dressing and behaving in Roman ways. Reconstruction of a busy street in Roman Wroxeter (Viriconium). [ English Heritage Photo Library] What evidence of Roman towns can be found where you live or near where you live?

(AD 158) Housesteads Fort Fully Re-Occupied When Hadrian's Wall became the permanent frontier of Roman Britain in about AD 158, its forts like Birdoswald, Chesters and Housesteads were fully garrisoned. The soldiers at Housesteads came from what is now Belgium, but other garrisons came from warmer parts of the Roman Empire, and may have had trouble coping with the harsh weather of northern England. To make them more bearable, forts contained not only barracks for soldiers and a house for the commander, but also 'comforts' such as bath houses with saunas, which were also soldiers' club-rooms. Some forts even had amphitheatres. Of course they also needed toilets, as in the famous example at Housesteads. At many forts, like Housesteads, a village for traders, pub-keepers, retired soldiers and their families, grew up outside the walls. The Roman communal toilets at Housesteads Roman Fort. Sponges on sticks, washed in the central running-water channel, were used as 'toilet paper'. [ English Heritage Photo Library] Was life in a Roman fort good?

(AD 180) Benwell Roman Temple Built (Roman Religion) Like almost all the world's peoples at this time, the Romans worshipped many gods. Apart from the gods and goddesses they brought with them (such as Jupiter, King of the Gods, and Minerva, Goddess of Wisdom) the Romans also adopted local gods. For example, they sometimes merged British war gods with their own war god, Mars. The temple at Benwell, built in about AD 180, was dedicated to the purely British god Antenociticus, but its altars were given by Roman officers from the nearby Hadrian's Wall fort. 'Official' Roman religion also included worship of the Emperor, but individual regiments and even families, often also had their own private gods. As long as their worship did not conflict with loyalty to Rome, nobody minded. However, those following supposedly anti-Roman religions, like Druidism and later Christianity, were persecuted. A trio of mother goddesses from a house outside Housesteads Roman Fort. They wear hooded capes, a famous product of Roman Britain. [ English Heritage Photo Library] Did people respect different spiritual beliefs in Roman times?

(AD 180) Uprisings Though Britain had the largest occupying Roman army of any province in the Roman Empire, it was not always able to control the British tribes to the north and south of Hadrian's Wall. In addition, the size of the army sometimes tempted Roman governors to use it to make themselves Emperor with disastrous results. In about AD 180 'Pictish' invaders from Scotland defeated a Roman legion and may have broken through Hadrian's Wall. There was more trouble around AD 197, when governor Clodius Albinus stripped Britain of troops in order to support his unsuccessful bid for imperial power. During his absence hostile tribes in Yorkshire and Wales rebelled, and some Roman forts were destroyed. Perhaps because of these troubles, at about this time, Roman cities defended themselves with earthwork banks and ditches. Aerial view of the Roman fort at Bainbridge, Wensleydale, Yorkshire, one of those attacked during the risings. [ R White/YDNPA] Did everyone accept Roman rule at this time?

(AD 208) Emperor Severus in Britain In the early 200s, rebellions and invasions in northern Britain had got so bad that in AD 208 the Emperor Severus (elderly, but a famous soldier) came with a large army to restore order. For the next three years the whole Roman Empire was ruled from Britain. Severus marched deep into Scotland to punish hostile tribes, but achieved little there before his death at York in 211. However, in his time, many northern Roman forts, including some on Hadrian's Wall, were strengthened or rebuilt. Severus also divided Britain into two provinces: Upper Britain ruled from London and Lower Britain ruled from York. This made individual governors less powerful and less likely to rebel against Rome. For the next 70 years, Roman Britain was relatively peaceful. Statue of the Emperor Severus, who originated from North Africa. [ The Trustees of the British Museum] Was the Roman invasion more beneficial for the Romans or Britons?

(AD 209) St. Alban Martyred By AD 200, a few people in Britain were already Christians, but they had to worship in secret. The government thought their refusal to worship the 'official' Roman gods (which Christians regarded as 'idols') or 'divine emperors made them traitors to Rome. If discovered, they were often killed. History suggests that in AD 209, Alban, a Roman citizen of Verulamium, sheltered a fleeing Christian priest, changing clothes with him to help him escape. Alban was himself beheaded, becoming the first known British Christian 'martyr'. His (probably) true story became surrounded by fantastic legends, and much later a great abbey church was built on the supposed site of his execution. Verulamium then became 'St. Albans'. A 13th-century manuscript painting of the martyrdom of St. Alban. The executioners eyes are shown dropping out. [ The Board of Trinity College Dublin] How reliable is the evidence which surrounds the story of St. Alban?

(AD 212) Citizenship Extended Before AD 212 there was a big distinction between Roman 'citizens', who had many rights and privileges, and other people within the Roman Empire. However, from that year all 'free' men (those who were not slaves) throughout the Empire were made citizens and all free women given the same rights as Roman women. From then on there was less and less distinction between 'Britons' and 'Romans'. Many Romans from other parts of the Empire, merchants and administrators, as well as soldiers, also lived in Britain, which was a really international community. Though they came from places such as North Africa, Syria or the Balkans, these people were also 'Romans'. The different races mixed freely. Regina, a former British slave from the Hertfordshire area, married her master Barathes, a Roman Syrian living in South Shields. Tombstone of Regina, a British-born slave who married her Roman Syrian master. From South Shields (Arbeia) Roman fort. [ Tyne & Wear Archives & Museums/Bridgeman Images] Was life better for Roman citizens?

(AD 250) Great Witcombe Villa Built Wealthy Roman citizens, including some who were British-born, owned country houses called 'villas'. Many of these have been found within reach of Roman towns, and in prosperous farming areas like the Cotswolds. Some villas (such as Great Witcombe Roman Villa built in about AD 250 and Lullingstone Roman Villa) were luxurious mansions, with underfloor 'central heating', one or more 'bath-suites', shrines to local gods, and floors covered with colourful and expensive mosaics. Others were more akin to farmhouses, and most were the centres of large farming estates. These were the homes of communities, including not only the owner's extended family, but also his servants, farm workers and slaves. Villas were at their wealthiest peak during the relatively peaceful 200s and 300s. Along with their comfortable lifestyle, they declined towards the end of Roman Britain. Reconstruction of Great Witcombe Roman villa. [ English Heritage Photo Library] What would you like or dislike about living in a Roman villa?

(AD 270) Silchester Walled Most Roman towns had defences, originally ditches and stockades. However, by around AD 200 larger cities like London were given much stronger stone walls. Later in the century, towns such as Silchester in Hampshire (known as 'Calleva Atrebatum'), originally the tribal capital of the local British Atrebates tribe, also had their defences rebuilt in stone. Unlike most Roman cities, Silchester never developed into a modern town, and its Roman walls remain very complete today. They are about 4.5m high, but originally they were around 7.8m tall, with battlements and seven gateways. About 150,000 cartloads of stone were needed to build them. This included decorative stone, brought from as far away as Bath. So perhaps Silchester's walls were originally as much about showing off as defence. Reconstruction of Roman Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum). The amphitheatre is in the foreground, outside the walls. [ English Heritage Photo Library] Are towns with stone walls better examples of how the Romans influenced urban development than those without walls?

(AD 276) Saxon Shore Forts Though inland Britain remained largely peaceful, its eastern and south-eastern coasts faced a new threat from outside. Seaborne raiders came from north- eastern Europe, including the peoples later called Anglo-Saxons. These 'pirates' often penetrated up rivers and estuaries to launch hit-and-run attacks, escaping before Roman ships could catch them. After serious raids in about AD 276, more and much bigger forts were added to those defending east- coast harbours and estuaries, many with new-style towered walls like medieval castles. Some even mounted stone-throwing 'catapults' to bombard pirate ships. Their garrisons were mainly cavalry, which could move quickly to attack raiders who landed, and forts could support each other in serious trouble. Because the coast they defended was threatened mainly by Saxons, the Romans called it 'the Saxon Shore'. Map of the Saxon Shore forts. [ English Heritage] Was Roman Britain an easy target for sea raiders at this time?

(AD 296) Britain Regained for Rome Carausius, a low-born Belgian sailor who rose to command the Roman North Sea fleet, scored spectacular successes against the pirates. However, the Roman Emperor accused him of keeping their loot for himself, and he ordered his execution. But, in about AD 287 Carausius proclaimed himself independent Emperor of Britain and northern France, with strong local support. He called himself 'Restorer of Britain'. In AD 293, Carausius was murdered by his own finance minister and in AD 296 a Roman army, led by the Emperor Constantius, invaded. They saved London from barbarian mercenaries, and regained Britain for the Roman Empire. Perhaps to avoid further independence bids, Britain was now sub- divided into four smaller provinces, with capitals in London, Cirencester, Lincoln and York. Gold medallion commemorating the re-conquest of Britain. A figure representing London [right] kneels before Constantius. A Roman galley is shown at bottom left. [ The Roman Society] Who were the goodies and baddies at this time?

(AD 306) Constantine Proclaimed Emperor Constantius, who had regained Britain for Rome in AD 296, returned in AD 306 and won a great victory against the Picts north of Hadrian's Wall, which he also strengthened. When he died in York, his army there proclaimed his son, Constantine, as Emperor. Though it took Constantine nearly 20 years to gain full control of the Empire, he became one of the most successful Roman rulers he was known as 'Constantine the Great'. He was also the first Christian Emperor. His mother, Helena, claimed to have discovered in Jerusalem the actual 'True Cross' on which Christ was crucified. Constantinople (now Istanbul), which Constantine founded as a new capital of the Roman Empire, was named after him. Modern statue of Constantine outside York Minster, near the place where he was proclaimed Emperor. [ Charles Kightly] Did Constantine deserve to be called great?

(AD 313) Persecution of Christians Ends Though not actually baptised a Christian until just before his death in AD 337, Constantine was always sympathetic to Christianity. In AD 313, after a vision of the Cross brought him a victory, he decreed that Christians were free to practise their religion without persecution, and that all property seized from them should be restored. There were at least four Christian bishops in Britain by AD 314. At this time, however, Christianity was not the only 'legal' religion. Many people still worshipped the old gods, and some Christians were, at first, cautious about declaring their faith. Wall paintings in a 'house church' within Lullingstone Roman Villa, are the oldest surviving evidence of Christianity in Britain and date from about AD 350. However, some experts believe that a neighbouring room there was still being used as a pagan temple! Wall painting of Roman Christian worshippers shown praying with outstretched arms, c.AD 350. From Lullingstone Roman Villa. [ The Trustees of the British Museum] What were the differences and similarities in different religious beliefs at this time?

(AD 340) Prosperous Britain The earlier 300s were the 'golden age' of Roman Britain. By now, there was really no difference between 'Britons' and 'Romans'. Away from the troubled northern frontier and pirate-threatened east coast, the land was peaceful and prosperous. Indeed, Britain was one of the richest provinces in the whole Roman Empire. Farming especially flourished, so that Britain could export corn to Europe. The waterproof hooded cloaks and saddle- rugs produced by the British woollen industry were famous throughout the Roman world. Especially in the south-west, country villas were built or enlarged, and small towns prospered. In bigger towns, like Wroxeter, the fourth largest town in Britain, richly decorated public baths and other grand public buildings proclaimed the wealth of Roman Britain. Reconstruction of the luxurious Roman public baths at Wroxeter Roman City (Viriconium). [ English Heritage Photo Library] Did prosperity make people more peaceful in Roman Britain at this time?

(AD 367) Barbarian Conspiracy In AD 367 'barbarian' peoples from outside the Roman Empire attacked its borders in many places, all at the same time. Britain was simultaneously invaded by Picts from beyond Hadrian's Wall, raiders from Ireland and Saxons who attacked along the east coast. The Roman commander in Britain and the general in charge of the Saxon Shore were both killed in battles. Some Roman soldiers deserted to the enemy, forts were destroyed, and plunderers roamed about stealing and killing, so 'Britain was reduced to the verge of ruin. Before now, the attackers of Britain had acted independently and in small groups. This pre-planned attack by a conspiracy' of barbarians working together was something new, and also very dangerous. A Pictish warrior carved on a standing stone at Collessie, Fife, Scotland. [ RCAHMS (Tom and Sybil Gray Collection). Licensor www.rcahms.gov.uk] Is it fair to describe those attacking Britain at this time as barbarians?

(AD 369) Theodosius Restores Order Though the raiders who attacked Britain in AD 367 preferred to go home with their plunder rather than stay as permanent conquerors, it took the Romans two years to restore order. This was eventually achieved by the general, Theodosius. He drove out the invaders, rebuilt damaged forts, and strengthened defences in the west against the Irish. He also made alliances with friendly tribes to help defend Britain's frontiers. To give warning against further attacks by Saxon pirates, he also built a series of fortified watch towers along the north-east coast, from Hadrian's Wall down through Yorkshire. Protected by all these defences, Britain regained some of its prosperity, but it was never really secure again. Reconstruction of the Roman signal station on the site of Scarborough Castle. The beacon gave warning of Saxon raiding ships approaching. [ English Heritage Photo Library] Was Theodosius good at his job?

(AD 383) Maximus Takes Troops from Britain Magnus Maximus, the Spanish-born Roman commander in Britain, defeated a new Pictish attack, but could not resist the temptation to declare himself Emperor of Rome. In AD 383 he invaded Europe, taking many troops from Britain with him. He was eventually defeated and killed in 388, and the troops never returned. Many Roman forts were now deserted, but Hadrian's Wall was still held, and after a while Roman imperial rule was re-established. Though his actions weakened Britain, Maximus was clearly popular there, perhaps because he encouraged British frontier tribes to take over from Roman soldiers against raiders from outside. He passed into legend as a hero and was later claimed as an ancestor by Dark Age Welsh princes. Gold coin of Magnus Maximus, showing him as joint-emperor of Rome. [ The Trustees of the British Museum] Was Magnus Maximus a hero?

(AD 391) Paganism Outlawed In AD 391 the Emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official state religion of the whole Roman Empire. The worship of other gods was outlawed and their temples closed. Despite protests against abandoning the traditional gods of Rome, even their worship behind closed doors was soon forbidden. Magistrates and other officials had to be Christians, and from now on Christian churchmen exercised great power in the Roman Empire. The 'new' eastern god Mithras, who was particularly favoured by soldiers, was perhaps a more dangerous rival to Christianity than the traditional gods. At about this time, his temple near Carrawburgh Fort on Hadrian's Wall was attacked and its altars damaged, probably by Christians. The god Mithras shown emerging from an egg, surrounded by Signs of the Zodiac. From Housesteads Roman Fort. [ Tyne & Wear Archives & Museums/Bridgeman Images] Was having just one religion across the Roman Empire a good idea?

(AD 410) Britain Breaks with Rome The Romans did not suddenly leave Britain. In fact, after 350 years of Roman rule, all Britons thought of themselves as Romans. However, by the early 400s most soldiers had been taken to Europe by generals trying to make themselves Emperor and were never replaced. Since the Roman Empire could not protect them, the 'Romano-Britons' declared independence from the Empire. Due to a lack of reliable evidence, experts disagree on exactly when independence came about. In AD 409, the Britons apparently expelled the Empire's officials. Then in AD 410, when barbarians sacked the city of Rome itself, the Emperor Honorius may have written to tell the Britons to look after their own defence. Certainly, at about this time, Britain ceased to be part of the Roman Empire. Gold coin of Honorius, the last Roman Emperor to rule Britain. [ The Trustees of the British Museum] Did Rome abandon Britain or did Britain reject Rome?

(AD 429) Vortigern (Hengist and Horsa) In the 420s, the most dangerous enemies threatening newly independent Britain were the Picts and the Irish. According to one story, a Romano-British ruler called Vortigern (which means 'great lord') asked two Saxon brothers called Hengist (meaning 'stallion') and Horsa ('mare') to bring their followers to help him defend eastern England against these enemies. In return he would pay them and give them land in Kent to live in. About a century later, a writer blamed Vortigern's actions for starting off the Saxon conquest of Britain. However, the Roman army had been employing Saxons and other Germanic soldiers for some time before this date, and archaeology shows that some were already living in eastern England. Anglo-Saxon belt-buckle from Mucking, Essex. [ The Trustees of the British Museum] Is archaeological evidence more reliable than a writer's account of the past?

(AD 442) Saxons Advance According to the legend, Hengist and Horsa kept demanding more money and land from Vortigern. When they did not get them, they decided to conquer England for themselves, bringing allies over from the Saxon homeland to help them. There is historical evidence that in about AD 442 large numbers of Saxons, Jutes and Angles advanced into eastern and south-eastern England. A chronicler, writing in France, even believed that the Saxons conquered the whole country at this time, though this was not yet true. Others reported widespread attacks and massacres by the Saxons. Archaeology shows that Roman-style civilised life in south-east England, ended abruptly about now. Blade of an Anglo-Saxon seax knife from Sittingbourne, Kent. [ The Trustees of the British Museum] Is the object above evidence that the Anglo-Saxons were all brutal killers?

(AD 446) Last Appeal to Rome In about AD 446 the Romano-Britons desperately appealed for help to the Roman general, Aetius, who was fighting in France. They claimed that, 'The barbarians drive us to the sea, but the sea drives us back to the barbarians; between these two kinds of death, we are either killed or drowned'. By 'barbarians' they probably meant the Saxons, but they might have meant the Picts and Irish as well. This plea was called 'the Groans of the Britons. However, the Roman general was too busy fighting Attila the Hun to send help, and the Britons had to manage alone. This was probably the last time they appealed for Roman help Map showing the European origins of the Anglo-Saxon peoples. [Anglo-Saxon Migration in the 5th century by my work is licensed under (Wikipedia Commons) CC BY-SA 3.0 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AAnglo.Saxon.migration.5th.cen.jpg] Can the 'Groans of the Britons' be interpreted in different ways?

(AD 460) Ambrosius Fights Back The Romano-Britons fought hard against the Saxons, and for a long time prevented them from invading central, western and northern England. Among their most successful leaders was Ambrosius Aurelianus, who was called 'the last of the Romans'. This may mean he used Roman-style tactics and armoured cavalry against the Saxons, who fought on foot. Archaeological evidence also shows that other British leaders, whose names we do not know, defended local territories against the invaders. For instance at Birdoswald Roman Fort on Hadrian's Wall, the last Roman commander probably became an independent 'warlord' and built himself a big timber house within the fort's stone walls. Reconstruction of the post-Roman hall built within Birdoswald Roman Fort. [ English Heritage Photo Library] Were old Roman forts of any use to anyone one at this time?

(AD 470) Massacre at Pevensey Because very few written records survive from this period, it is difficult to know exactly what happened to the British population when the Saxons attacked. One record says that they massacred all the Britons who took refuge in Pevensey Roman fort. However, archaeology shows that towns including Verulamium (St. Albans) and Wroxeter continued to be lived in, while others became deserted. Roman civilisation collapsed, and people stopped using coins and even pottery. It used to be thought that the Saxons killed or drove out all the Britons from the areas they conquered. However, 'genetic' research into the ancestry of modern people suggests instead that most ordinary Britons stayed where they were, adopting the lifestyle and language of their new Saxon rulers. The gateway of the Roman fort, Pevensey Castle. [ English Heritage Photo Library] Were the Romans more civilised than the Saxons?

(AD 495) Battle of Mount Badon In about AD 495 the Romano-Britons won a great victory over the Saxon invaders at Mount Badon. Where this battle took place is uncertain, but it was probably in south-west England. Some historians believe that 'Mount Badon' was Liddington Castle hill fort, near Badbury in Wiltshire, others that it was near Bath. It is also uncertain who the British commander was at this time. Some think it was Ambrosius Aurelianus, others that it was 'King Arthur'. Though the legend of King Arthur did not become popular until many centuries later, some believe that he was based on a real British 5th-century hero. Quite certainly, however, the British victory halted the Saxon conquest for over 50 years. A 14th-century manuscript painting of King Arthur, as imagined in medieval times. [ The British Library Board, Royal 20 A. II, f.4r] Are the stories about King Arthur fact or fiction?

(AD 515) Tintagel and 'King Arthur' Independent British kingdoms survived longest in the west and north of England, furthest from the Saxon invaders. They were ruled by Christian princes who still thought of themselves as 'Romans'. Tintagel on the north coast of Cornwall was an important settlement of the Romano-British kingdom of 'Dumnonia' (now Devon and Cornwall). Objects found there by archaeologists, like containers for Italian wine, and fine pottery and glass from Spain, Turkey and North Africa, show that in the 500s its people were still trading with the Roman Empire. Much later on, Tintagel was believed to be the birthplace of 'King Arthur'. Other stories say that Arthur was killed in about AD 515, possibly in battle with rival British rulers. Reconstruction of the Tintagel settlement in about 700. A trading ship is entering the harbour [right]. [ English Heritage (drawing by Liam Wales)] Do the objects found at Tintagel tell us about life in other parts of the world at this time?

(AD 545) Plague A terrible epidemic of bubonic plague swept across Europe during the 540s, and reached Britain in about AD 545. One of the symptoms was swellings or 'buboes' under the armpits and elsewhere. Many people died of it, including some rulers of the northern and western Romano-British kingdoms. The deaths of farmers and craftsmen, people who knew how to grow and make things, made civilised life even harder for the survivors. The Saxons who ruled eastern England were not so badly affected as they did not trade with plague- ridden southern Europe, and the Romano-Britons would have nothing to do with them. Therefore few, apparently, caught the disease. Mosaic depicting the Emperor Justinian who ruled over eastern Europe when the epidemic broke out. It is also know as the Plague of Justinian. [ World History Archive/Alamy] Did everyone suffer from the impact of the plague at this time?

(AD 552) Renewed Saxon Conquests The Romano-British victory at Mount Badon stopped the Saxon advance for 50 years. There may have been a peace treaty dividing the country between Saxons and Britons, and there is evidence that some towns in British-held areas continued to thrive. However, from AD 552 (when they captured Salisbury) the Saxons started attacking from their south-eastern strongholds again. They pushed the Britons westwards and northwards, and in AD 571 they took Bedford. The Britons fought back hard, and sometimes temporarily defeated the Saxons, but more and more of England came under Saxon control. Finely decorated Anglo-Saxon brooch from West Heslerton. [ English Heritage Photo Library] Was it easy for the Anglo-Saxons to conquer Britain?

(AD 560) Saxon Farms and British Rivers As the Saxons conquered England, they gave names in their own language to the places they lived in. This Anglo-Saxon language is related to German and is the ancestor of the English we speak today. However, if we heard a Saxon speaking now, we wouldn't be able to understand him. Many Saxon place names end in 'ham' (meaning a village) or 'ton' (a homestead or farm). Often places were named after the people who lived there: 'Nottingham', originally spelled 'Snotingaham', means the village of the followers of a man called 'Snot', the 'Snotings'. However, many rivers kept, and still keep, the names given to them in the British (Celtic) language spoken by earlier inhabitants. For instance, 'Avon means 'river' in that language. An Anglo-Saxon plough hauled by oxen, from a manuscript of about 1030. [ The British Library Board, Cotton Tiberius BV, Part 1, f.3] Can you find any places in your area with names of Saxon origin?

(AD 580) The First Ango-Saxon Kingdoms The 'Anglo-Saxon' conquerors of England were not yet a united nation. Depending on where they came from in northern Europe, some were Saxons, some Angles and some Jutes. As they conquered England, they divided it into separate and independent kingdoms, large and small. These included: Kent in the south-east; Sussex (the land of the South Saxons); Essex (East Saxons); Wessex (West Saxons); East Anglia (East Angles); Mercia in the midlands and Northumbria in the north. Sometimes an especially powerful or respected Anglo-Saxon king (like King Ceawlin of Wessex who reigned in about AD 580) claimed temporary leadership of all the other Anglo-Saxon rulers. These men were called 'Bretwaldas', meaning 'wide-ruler' or perhaps 'sovereign of Britain'. Map of the major Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. [Source: http://www.edmaps.com] Was Britain more Anglo-Saxon or Romano-British at this time?

(AD 597) Conversion to Christianity When the Anglo-Saxons came to England they were pagans, worshipping gods like Tiw, Woden, Thor and Frey, after whom Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday and Friday are still named. The Christian Britons hated the Saxon invaders so much that they didnt want their souls to be 'saved' by Christianity, so they did nothing to convert them. Eventually the southern Saxons were converted by missionaries sent by the Pope from Rome. The earliest and most famous was St. Augustine, who converted the King of Kent in AD 597. In northern England, however, the missionaries came from Christian Ireland. However, it would take a long time before all the Anglo-Saxons became Christian. The remains of St. Augustines Abbey, Canterbury, founded by the saint himself in about 597. [ English Heritage Photo Library] Were the missionaries right to convert people to Christianity?

(AD 600) Battle of Catraeth In northernmost England, where the Romano-British kingdoms remained strong, the Anglo-Saxon conquest was slow. The 'Anglian' invaders of this part of the country first landed at Bamburgh in Northumberland, later the site of a famous medieval castle. In about AD 600, they destroyed a British army at the Battle of Catraeth, now Catterick, North Yorkshire. We know about this battle from a famous poem written at the time in the British language, an ancestor of modern Welsh. It is the oldest surviving poem in a language still spoken in Britain. It also includes the earliest known reference to 'King Arthur. Medieval Bamburgh Castle, built on the site of the first Anglo-Saxon stronghold in Northumbria. [ English Heritage Photo Library/Peter Dunn, English Heritage Graphics Team] Is this poem reliable evidence?

(AD 617) King Edwin Converted By AD 604 the Anglo-Saxons had taken York. This old Roman capital of northern England became the capital of their kingdom of Northumbria. One of its most powerful kings was Edwin, who reigned from AD 617. Originally a pagan, he was baptised a Christian in about AD 625, probably at the site where York Minster now stands. A famous story tells how one night a sparrow flew through King Edwin's lit feasting hall, from darkness into darkness. Someone compared it to the life of pagans, going from one unknown and frightening place to another. If Christianity could give people more hope of life after death, Edwin thought he ought to become a Christian. A re-erected pillar from the Roman headquarters building in York, near the place where Edwin was baptised. [ Charles Kightly] Did people want to convert to Christianity at this time?

(AD 625) Sutton Hoo In 1939, archaeologists made an amazing discovery at Sutton Hoo in Suffolk. A buried ship full of treasures was found, which had once surrounded the body of a very rich and important Saxon ruler. The treasures included a helmet and sword; Swedish-style metalwork; coins from all over western Europe, and even silver spoons from Constantinople. Some of the treasures suggest that the person buried was a Christian, but Christians were not usually buried with objects for the after-life. Historians think that this is the tomb of the great King Redwald of East Anglia, who died in about AD 625. It seems Redwald could not decide whether he was a pagan or a Christian. He installed a statue of Christ in his private temple, but also kept statues of pagan gods there. The reconstructed helmet from the Sutton Hoo ship burial: it was probably made in England. [ The Trustees of the British Museum] What does the discovery at Sutton Hoo tell us about religious beliefs, trade and craftwork at this time?

(AD 635) Lindisfarne Founded Many of the first missionaries were monks who were unmarried men living together in communities, devoted to prayer and poverty. They believed that this simple and sometimes hard way of life brought them closer to God. They often set up their 'monasteries' in lonely places, where they would not be distracted. In AD 635 St. Aidan, an Irish monk, founded a monastery on the lonely island of Lindisfarne, off Northumberland, later called 'Holy Island'. From there he journeyed through Northumbria preaching Christianity. The Anglo-Saxon King Oswald of Northumbria was his friend and protector. Afterwards, Lindisfarne became even more famous as the home of St. Cuthbert and the Lindisfarne Gospels. The 9th-century Doomsday memorial stone from Lindisfarne Priory. [ English Heritage Photo Library] Did monasteries only influence religion?

(AD 642) Battle of Oswestry In the 600s many wars were fought in England, as the different independent kingdoms struggled for supremacy. The battles were not always between Saxon and British kingdoms, or between Christians and pagans. Sometimes Britons allied with Saxons, and pagans allied with Christians. In AD 642 the Christian Saxon King Oswald of Northumbria was killed by an alliance between the pagan King Penda of Anglo-Saxon Mercia (in the West Midlands) and Christian Britons from Shropshire and North Wales. Oswald's body was chopped up, and his head stuck on a tree or a wooden cross (Oswalds Tree). This battle site in Shropshire is now called Oswestry. Oswald, the friend of St. Aidan of Lindisfarne, was later himself regarded as a saint. Battle scene from the Franks Casket, dating from about 700. The casket was made in northern England from the bones of a stranded whale. [ The Trustees of the British Museum] Did having many kingdoms create more conflict at this time?

(AD 664) The Synod of Whitby (Rome or Ireland?) Some Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were converted by missionaries from Rome, and some by monks from Ireland. The Churches of Rome and Ireland had different ways of doing things, like the haircuts of their priests. They did not even agree on the date of Easter, the most important Christian festival, and this caused problems. King Oswiu of Northumbria, influenced by Ireland, celebrated Easter at one date, but his Roman-convert wife at another. So King Oswiu summoned a 'synod' (church conference) at the monastery of Whitby to decide whether the Church in England should follow Roman or Irish religious rules. After much argument, Oswiu decided on Rome. This was because he dared not offend St. Peter, a 'Roman' saint, who was thought to hold the keys of heaven. For nearly the next nine centuries, England would be a 'Roman Catholic' nation. A monk receiving a Roman-style haircut [right] and a monk with Celtic- style haircut [left]]. [ The British Library Board, Cotton Cleopatra C. XI, f.27v. The Board of Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland/Bridgeman Images] Did choosing to follow Roman rules of Christianity create peace in Britain?

(AD 680) Caedmon At the time of the Synod of Whitby, the monastery at Whitby was ruled by the powerful Abbess Hilda, a Saxon princess. Among her servants was a poor cowherd called Caedmon. Anglo-Saxons loved poetry and singing, and the Whitby monks used to pass round a harp and sing songs to entertain each other. Caedmon, however, knew no songs, so he crept off sadly to sleep in the cowshed. That night, according to legend, an angel appeared to him, giving him the power to write poetry. He composed a hymn about the Creation of the World and sang it to Abbess Hilda. This was regarded as a miracle, and Caedmon became an honoured monk. He died in about AD 680. 'Caedmon's Hymn' still survives, and it is one of the very earliest poems in the Anglo-Saxon language, the ancestor of modern English. Victorian cross commemorating Caedmon in St. Marys Churchyard, Whitby. [ Charles Kightly] Are the story and poem of Caedmon reliable sources of evidence?

(AD 699) Lindisfarne Gospels Produced The most famous saint of Anglo-Saxon northern England was Cuthbert, a monk and abbot of Lindisfarne. He spent a lot of time meditating alone on the remote Farne islands, and made friends with otters and seabirds. He died in 687, and nine years later his body was dug up. It had not rotted away at all, which convinced the Lindisfarne monks that he was a powerful saint. Probably to celebrate St. Cuthbert's re-burial in a new shrine, a monk called Eadfrith created a beautifully painted version of the Christian New Testament Gospels. The Lindisfarne Gospels still survive. They are the among the finest works of art produced in Anglo-Saxon England. The beginning of St. Matthews Gospel, a carpet page from the Lindisfarne Gospels manuscript. [ The British Library Board, Cotton Nero D. IV, f.27] What do the Lindisfarne Gospels tell us about life at this time compared with life today?

(AD 700) The Ruthwell Cross Before churches were built, Anglo-Saxon Christians often gathered to worship in the open air in places marked by tall crosses, made of timber or stone and often carved and painted. Among the finest survivors is the Ruthwell Cross. Five and a half metres high, this cross probably dates from around AD 700. It is carved all over with figures of Christ, saints, vines and birds. It also has carved inscriptions quoting in Latin from the Bible, and in Anglo-Saxon from a poem called 'The Dream of the Rood ('rood' being the Saxon word for a cross). These words are the oldest surviving examples of written Anglo-Saxon. They are carved in letters called 'runes'. The head of the Ruthwell Cross. Carved runes can be seen near the bottom of the picture. [ Crown Copyright Historic Scotland] What can you find out about runes?

(AD 720) The Tribal Hideage The Tribal Hideage is a document listing 34 of the separate Anglo-Saxon 'tribes' or peoples who lived in southern and midland England in the 700s, and how many 'hides' of land each of them owned. A 'hide' was the amount of farmland necessary to provide food for a 'household'. A household meant not just a family, but also the servants and slaves who worked for them. Some tribes (such as the West Saxons, the Mercians of the Midlands and the East Angles) were very large, including tens of thousands of households. Others, like the 'Spaldas (who lived around Spalding in Lincolnshire) and the 'Peak dwellers' of Derbyshire, were much smaller. Some tribes included only about 300 households. Harvesting with scythes, from an Anglo-Saxon manuscript of about 1030. [ The British Library Board. All Rights Reserved/Bridgeman Images] What does The Tribal Hideage tell us about life in Britain at this time?

(AD 731) Bede and the Idea of 'England' Bede was a monk who lived at Jarrow monastery in Northumbria, a famous centre of learning. He wrote about 60 books in Latin, many of which survive. The most important is the 'History of the English Church and People', completed in AD 731. This was the earliest attempt to write a history of England, especially from the time of the Anglo-Saxon conquest. Bedes book is a very important milestone in the history of England because it treated England as a single united country, rather than a collection of independent kingdoms and separate tribes. England would not really be united for another two centuries, but Bede helped plant the idea that it should be a single nation. A medieval depiction of Bede writing. He holds a quill pen in his right hand and a penknife in his left. [ The British Library Board, Yates Thompson 26 f2r] Why is Bede such a significant person in British history?

(AD 757) King Offa of Mercia In the later 700s, the Midlands kingdom of Mercia dominated all southern England. Its greatest ruler was King Offa (757-96), who was the first to standardise the silver 'penny' as the coin used for trade. His power was also respected in Europe: the Emperor Charlemagne called him 'brother'. 'Mercia' means 'the borderlands', and Offa's greatest achievement was the construction of a massive earthwork ditch and bank still called Offa's Dyke. Stretching over 80 miles from near Chepstow to Prestatyn, it clearly defined from sea to sea the boundary between the Anglo-Saxon 'English' and the Britons of Wales. Many sections of this astonishing feat of engineering still look impressive today. A dramatic section of Offas Dyke on the Shropshire/Wales border. [ English Heritage Photo Library] Are Offas achievements still significant today?

(AD 780) Beowulf Beowulf is the oldest surviving Anglo-Saxon 'epic poem' or adventure story. Some experts think it was composed in the late 700s, though it tells of events supposed to have happened much earlier, before the Anglo-Saxons came to England. Its hero, Beowulf, kills a man-eating monster called Grendel, and then Grendel's even fiercer mother. Later he defeats a dragon, but dies of the wounds he got while fighting it. Poems like this were not meant to be read, but to be sung or recited for entertainment at feasts. So though the poem is over 3,000 lines long, the reciter would be expected to know it 'off by heart'! The first page of the only surviving original manuscript copy of Beowulf. [ The British Library Board, Cotton Vitellius A. XV, f.132] What does the poem Beowulf tell us about life at this time?

(AD 787) First Viking Raids The Vikings were fierce pagan raiders from Norway and later also from Denmark, who began attacking England in the late 700s. The English called them 'pirates', or 'heathen men'. Their first raid was on the Dorset coast in AD 787, but their first serious attack was on the rich monastery of Lindisfarne in AD 793, where they slaughtered the monks and stole the treasures. Soon afterwards they also began raiding other parts of Europe. Viking raids at first menaced only coastal areas, which they plundered before sailing away. But during the later 800s raiders became invaders, and the Vikings almost conquered the whole of England. Battle scene from the 9th-century Viking Stone at Lindisfarne Priory. [ English Heritage Photo Library] Why did the Vikings raid, then invade England?

(AD 800) The Law of the Land Anglo-Saxon laws protected the rights of free men as well as setting out their duties, such as serving in the army in times of war. They also tried to keep the peace and prevent blood-feuds happening if someone was killed. Instead, a 'wergild' or man price in money could be paid by the killer or his family to the dead man's relations, to prevent them taking vengeance. The 'man price' of a killed king was 12 times that of a nobleman, and a slain nobleman was worth 6 times more than a wealthy farmer. Locally, laws were dealt with at 'hundred courts', where representatives of a hundred households met in the open air to make decisions. Medieval manuscript recording the Laws of Aethelbert, first Christian King of Kent. [ Rochester Cathedral] How far have laws changed since Anglo- Saxon times?

(AD 825) Bigger Kingdoms In AD 825 the King of the West Saxons defeated the Mercians at the Battle of Ellendun (near Swindon) and 'Wessex' became the leading power in southern England. Smaller kingdoms like Kent, Sussex and East Anglia still survived, but they were now dominated by the three big Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Wessex, Mercia and Northumbria. Although the Anglo- Saxons now called themselves 'English', England was not yet a single united country. In Cornwall and parts of north-west England as well as in Wales, British kingdoms still survived. The English called their people 'Welsh' (from a Saxon word meaning 'foreigners') but they called themselves 'Cymry, meaning 'fellow countrymen in their own language. This name is the origin of 'Cymru' (still the Welsh-language name for Wales) and 'Cumbria'. Ring of King Aethelwulf of Wessex (839-58), father of King Alfred. [ The Trustees of the British Museum] How have the names of places in England changed?

(AD 850) Viking Raiders Become Invaders In AD 850, for the first time, a Viking army stayed in England throughout the winter instead of sailing home with their plunder, so they were ready to start raiding again when spring came. This was a very dangerous development, turning raiders into invaders. Earlier Viking raiders had come from Norway, but from this time on, most Vikings who attacked England came from Denmark. Sometimes independent English rulers united together to fight the Vikings, and occasionally they defeated them. More often the Vikings won. Some people began to think that it was better to pay the Vikings to go away, or even to let them take over their land, than to fight them. An original Viking boat. [ Rick Strange/Alamy] How did different people react to the Viking raids at this time?

(AD 865) Viking Great Army Lands In AD 865 a huge Viking army invaded England, led by two notorious pirate brothers, Ivar the Boneless and Halfdan the Black. Each following year they moved on to plunder another part of the country, taking York in AD 866 and then invading Mercia. In 869 they killed Edmund, King of East Anglia, shooting him full of arrows and then cutting off his head when he refused to renounce Christianity. Only in Wessex did the English keep on resisting the Vikings. In AD 870 they actually managed to defeat them at Ashdown (Berkshire), but they lost more battles than they won. In AD 871 Alfred became King of Wessex and kept up the fight. A Viking army preparing to land, from a 10th-century Norwegian manuscript. [ Bymuseum, Oslo, Norway/Index/Bridgeman Images] Was it easy for the Vikings to invade England?

(AD 878) Vikings Defeated at Edington Early in AD 878 the Vikings suddenly attacked Wessex in midwinter. King Alfred was forced to hide in the marshes of Athelney, and many of his subjects surrendered and paid 'tribute money' to the Vikings. But Alfred refused to despair. He gathered a new army and completely defeated the enemy at the Battle of Edington (Wiltshire). This was the first time the Vikings had ever been so badly beaten in England. Their leader, Guthrum, agreed to become a Christian, with Alfred acting as his 'godfather'. He also swore to take his army out of Wessex. Wessex was saved, but many other parts of England were now being permanently settled by Vikings. Victorian statue of King Alfred at Winchester, the old capital of Wessex. [ English Heritage Photo Library] What reasons might Guthrum have had for agreeing to become a Christian?

(AD 891) Anglo-Saxon Chronicle The Viking invasions did tremendous damage to art, culture and learning in England. Monasteries had been centres of knowledge, but many were destroyed along with their precious books and their monks. By Alfred's time hardly anyone was left who understood Latin, the language previously used for recording information. So when Alfred wanted to rebuild learning, he had to write books in the English language, something nobody had done before. To help him, he gathered scholars from all over Britain. One of these, the Welshman Asser, wrote the story of Alfred's life. Alfred also ordered the making of a history of England, called the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. He sent copies to all the main surviving monasteries, with orders to keep it up to date. Manuscript of the version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle written at Abingdon Abbey. [ The British Library Board, Cotton Tiberius B. I, f.144v] Did the Viking invasion help or hinder literacy in England?

(AD 899) Alfred the Great Dies Alfred is the only English King called 'the Great'. His resistance had saved England from total conquest by the Vikings, and as the ruler of the only surviving Anglo-Saxon kingdom, he was honoured throughout the whole land. Some even thought of him as the first King of all England. He was also respected for trying to revive English learning, and had begun to build ships to fight the Vikings at sea. However, at the time of Alfred's death, England was still not yet a single united country, and much of it was still occupied by Vikings, who were beginning to settle down there permanently. Even Wessex itself was not safe from a renewed Viking attack. The gold and rock-crystal Alfred Jewel, part of a pointer sent to a monastery with copies of Alfreds books. The figure symbolises sight. [ Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford] Was King Alfred great?

(AD 900) Burhs One reason why the Vikings conquered much of England so easily was that people had nowhere to take refuge when attacks came. Castles had not been invented, and most old Roman fortifications were ruinous. So King Alfred and his successors created fortresses where people could shelter. Local people had to help dig ditches and banks to protect them, and then provide part-time soldiers to defend them. These places of refuge were called 'burhs', and by 900 no village in Wessex nor its neighbouring areas was more than 20 miles away from one. Many of these 'burhs' later became prosperous market towns, today known as 'boroughs. Map of burhs in southern England. [Anglo-Saxon burhs by Hel-hama is licensed under (Wikipedia Commons) CC BY-SA 3.0 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AAnglo-Saxon_burhs.svg ] How have people defended their territory throughout history?

(AD 924) Reconquest In AD 914 Alfred's son, King Edward of Wessex, and his sister, Aethelflaed, who ruled in the Midlands and was called 'the Lady of the Mercians', began reconquering the lands taken by the Vikings. As they recaptured territory year after year, they protected it with new fortresses called burhs. The warrior princess Aethelflaed, planning her own campaigns and leading them herself, marched north- westwards towards Chester, while Edward fought his way north-eastwards. The Vikings surrendered or fled, and by the time Edward died in AD 924, all the country south of the Humber was again under English rule. Thirteenth-century manuscript painting of Queen Aethelfleda. [ The British Library Board, Cotton Claudius B VI f.14r] Why were Edward and Aethelflaed so successful in reconquering land from the Vikings?

(AD 937) The First King of all England The mighty Aethelstan, Edward's son (Alfred's grandson), completed the reconquest of southern England, and pushed on to capture York. He became the first recognised king of a single united 'England', whose power was also respected in Wales. After destroying an attacking coalition of Vikings, Scots and Britons at the Battle of Brunanburh in AD 937, Aethelstan was also hailed as 'Ruler of All Britain'. He was the overlord not only of England, but also of an 'English Empire' that dominated the whole island of Britain. Perhaps the greatest of all Anglo-Saxon kings, Aethelstan was famous for his just laws and for founding monasteries. His power made him respected throughout western Europe, whose rulers sought alliances with him and sent their sons to be educated at his court. Manuscript painting of King Aethelstan, shown presenting a book to St. Cuthbert. Painted c.930 during Aethelstan's lifetime, it is the earliest known 'portrait' of an English king. [ By kind permission of the Master and Fellows of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge] What does the image above tell us about King Aethlestan?

(AD 954) The Danelaw Though the English kings reconquered the lands taken by the Vikings, they did not drive out the Vikings who had settled down there as peaceful farmers. The parts of eastern England where these retired Vikings lived were called the Danelaw, because the people there kept their Danish language and Danish laws. These included the judgement of law cases by a 'jury' of 12 men, a system the English took over. The most important Viking-settled town was York. This kept its Scandinavian rulers until the last of them, the violent Erik Bloodaxe, was killed in AD 954. Map showing the Danelaw and English-held lands. [England 878 by Hel-hama is licensed under (Wikipedia Commons) CC-BY-SA-3.0 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AEngland_878.svg] What can the map above tell you about the area you live in at this time?

(AD 970) English Art Revived English art and craftsmanship, which had suffered during the Viking wars, had a great revival in the more peaceful 900s. Encouraged by the Church and its famous Archbishop Dunstan (AD 909-88) monks produced beautiful painted manuscripts such as the 'Benedictional of Aethelwold' (about AD 970). This was made at Winchester, the royal 'capital' of southern England. English craftspeople were also famous for their fine metalwork, but most of all for their beautiful embroidery using silk and gold thread. This fabulously expensive 'English work' was valued all over Europe for fine royal robes and church decoration. Page from the Anglo-Saxon Benedictional of Aethelwold, a manuscript painted at Winchester c.970. [ The British Library Board, Add. MS 49598, f. 45v] Is there a link between times of peace and great art and creativity?

(AD 978) Aethelred the Unready After a long period of peace, things began to go wrong for England under King Aethelred (AD 978- 1016). Suspected of murdering his brother to get the throne, Aethelred proved a weak and foolish ruler who could not beat off a new outbreak of Viking attacks. So instead he began bribing the raiders to go away, making his people pay heavy taxes called 'Danegeld' to provide the money. People soon nicknamed him 'the Unready'. This doesn't mean he was not prepared, but comes from an old word 'unrede', meaning 'bad advice'. So the Aethelred the Unready meant 'Aethelred the Ill- Advised or just 'the Stupid'. Thirteenth-century manuscript painting of King Aethelred. [ The British Library Board, Cotton Claudius B. VI, f.87v] Did Aethelred the Unready deserve his nickname?

(AD 991) The Battle of Maldon During Aethelred the Unready's reign, a large force of Vikings landed on an island near Maldon. Byrhtnoth, the English ealdorman (governor) of Essex, defended the narrow causeway connecting the island to the land. Even though they outnumbered him, he eventually allowed the Vikings to cross it, so they could fight on fairer terms. The Vikings won, Byrhtnoth was killed, and all his companions chose to die with him rather than retreat or surrender. We know about this because a famous poem praised the heroism of the companions, whose honour bound them to die with their master rather than saving themselves. Modern statue of Byrhtnoth at Maldon. [Byrthnoth statue Maldon by Oxyman (Wikipedia Commons) CC-BY-SA-3.0. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brythnoth_statue_Maldon.jpg ] Can poems tell us about the past?

(AD 1016) King Cnut When Aethelred the Unready died after a troubled reign, people wanted a strong ruler to restore peace and order. Many chose Cnut, the commander of an invading Danish army, who became undisputed King of England when Aethelred's son died in 1016. Soon afterwards he inherited the kingship of Denmark, and later also ruled Norway and parts of Sweden. Thus during his reign (1016-35) England was part of a 'North Sea Scandinavian Empire'. Though a harsh king, Cnut (also spelt 'Canute) ruled England wisely, and was a great supporter of the Church. He protected England from Vikings, united Danes and Englishmen, and upheld English law. King Cnut [bottom right] presents a golden cross to Hyde Abbey, Winchester, from a manuscript compiled there in 1031. [ The British Library Board, Stowe 944, f6] Why did the people of England choose a Danish king?

(AD 1042) Edward the Confessor Following the short reigns of Cnut's two sons, the English chose a king of the old royal line, Edward, a son of Aethelred the Unready. Known as 'Edward the Confessor' (which in this case means someone who lives a holy life) he was regarded as a saint by many of his poor subjects. He had been brought up in exile in Normandy, and his English and Danish nobles disliked his preference for Norman ways and Norman advisers, especially churchmen. His most famous achievement was founding a great abbey just west of the old city of London called 'the West Minster'. Westminster Abbey is still used for coronations and royal burials today. The shrine of the sainted King Edward the Confessor in Westminster Abbey. [ Angelo Hornak/Alamy] What did it take to be regarded as a saint?

(AD 1066) Harold Godwinson Old King Edward died childless on 5 th January 1066. He had always wanted his successor to be his cousin William, Duke of Normandy. At this time, however, England was threatened by foreign invaders, so on his deathbed, he accepted Harold Godwinson instead. Though not of royal blood, Harold was the greatest warrior in England, and nobles immediately chose him as king. As the last Saxon King of England, Harold prepared for invasion. In September a big Viking army landed in Yorkshire, commanded by King Harald Hardrada ('Hard Ruler') of Norway, who claimed to be the heir of King Cnut. Harold Godwinson rapidly marched up from London, destroying the Vikings at the Battle of Stamford Bridge on 25 th September. Three days later, the Normans landed on the Sussex coast. Harold Godwinson, from the Bayeux Tapestry. [ De Agostini/The British Library Board] Was choosing a king or queen a fair process in this period of history?

(AD 1066) Battle of Hastings Duke William of Normandy landed near Pevensey in Sussex on 28 th September 1066, with an army including cavalry. He had come to claim the throne of England, which he believed had been promised to him by Edward the Confessor. Harold Godwinson marched 241 miles (386km) from Yorkshire to oppose him. On 14 th October he took up a defensive position at the place now called Battle, near Hastings. The English fought on foot with axes, spears and swords. The Norman army included bowmen and mounted, armoured knights. Several times they pretended to run away, drawing the English from their position and then cutting them down. After about nine hours of fighting, Harold was killed and the English army routed. William 'the Conqueror' became King of England. The death of King Harold at Hastings, from the Bayeux Tapestry. Some people think Harold is the figure shot with an arrow, others the figure cut down by a knight. [ Lessing Archive/The British Library Board] Is the Bayeux Tapestry reliable evidence of what happened at the Battle of Hastings?

(AD 1069) The Harrying of the North After Hastings, not all the English accepted William as king. In the Fens, Hereward the Wake held out against the Normans for a long time. But the main resistance was in the north, where English rebels were aided by a Viking fleet. So during the winter of 1069-70, King William marched his army from the Humber northwards to the Tees, and then back again via Chester and the north Midlands. To make sure the rebels would starve and never resist again, they not only killed all the rebels they found, but they also destroyed villages, killed farm animals and burnt crops. Large parts of Yorkshire were still 'waste land' over 20 years later. Reconstruction of the early Norman motte and bailey castle at York: now the site of Cliffords Tower. [ English Heritage Photo Library] Was it easy for William to conquer England?

(AD 1071) The First Castles Two developments helped the Normans to conquer and control England: the mounted knight and the castle. Neither had been seen in England before 1066. The first Norman castles were made of earth and timber, and could be built very quickly, probably using forced local labour. They consisted of ditched and banked enclosures (called 'baileys') defended by wooden stockades. They nearly always also had a mound ('motte') strongpoint, with its own ditch and its own stockade, defending the mound top. In addition, sometimes they had a timber tower (called a 'keep') on the mound top. Norman soldiers used these castles to defend themselves, and soldiers living there could ride out and control the surrounding country. Building a motte and bailey castle at Hastings, soon after William the Conquerors landing in 1066. From the Bayeux Tapestry. [ Hemis/Alamy] Did the Normans need castles?

(AD 1087) Domesday Book The Normans controlled England much more tightly than the Saxon kings. William the Conqueror wanted to know exactly who owned what land, what it was worth, and what sort of people and farm animals lived in each place. Thus he would know how much he could make his subjects pay in taxes. So in 1087, William commissioned a detailed survey of the whole country. His surveyors asked so many questions that the English compared them to the questions that Christians expected to answer at the Last Judgement, or Doomsday. So they called the survey 'Domesday Book. For us, Domesday Book provides a unique, valuable and interesting 'snapshot' of early Norman England. Page from Domesday Book, recording part of Yorkshire. [ The National Archives, ref. E31/2/2 (316v)] How far is Domesday Book different from todays census?

(1100) Death of William Rufus On 2 nd August 1100, King William Rufus (1087-1100) was mysteriously killed by an arrow while hunting in the New Forest. The son of William the Conqueror, Rufus ('the red') got his nickname from his red face. He was a vain, violent man who scorned religion. Many people thought Rufuss brother, who succeeded him as Henry I (1100-35), ordered his murder. Others believed it a punishment for the Norman kings' creation of 'royal forests', vast private hunting preserves that eventually covered nearly a third of all England. Nobody (except those given permission by the King) was allowed to hunt there. Brutal 'forest laws' enforced blinding or death on poachers, and even forest-dwellers' dogs had their paws mutilated to stop them chasing deer. Map showing royal forests in England in the 14th century. [Royal.Forests.1327-1336 by my work is licensed under (Wikipedia Commons) CC-BY-SA- 3.0 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ARoyal.Forests.1327.1336.annotated.jpg] Is there a connection between the stories of Robin Hood and forest laws?

(1127) Stone Castles (Rochester Castle Keep Begun) The first Norman castles were made of earth and timber, but in many places their wooden stockades were soon replaced by stronger stone walls. By the early 1100s, the most important new castles were given big stone 'keeps'. These were square or rectangular stone buildings, with two or more storeys of rooms inside, where the owner could live in safety. Often they were surrounded by outer walls for additional security. Some keeps, like the one at Rochester Castle in Kent (begun in about 1127), were very tall, with turrets at each corner. Their entrances were extremely well protected. Attackers trying to get in had to pass through a whole series of defended doors, staircases, 'portcullises' and drawbridges, where they could be trapped and killed by the defenders. The keep of Roche

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